An Illustrated Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology Explaining terms frequently used in works on architecture, arms, bronzes, Christian art, colour, costume, decoration, devices, emblems, heraldry, lace, personal ornaments, pottery, painting, sculpture, &c., with their derivations. (part 3 of 4)

An Illustrated Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology Explaining terms frequently used in works on architecture, arms, bronzes, Christian art, colour, costume, decoration, devices, emblems, heraldry, lace, personal ornaments, pottery, painting, sculpture, &c., with their derivations. (part 3 of 4)

=Galows=, O. E. An iron bar fastened inside an open chimney, from which the reeking-hook was hung, for suspending pots and vessels over the fire.

=Galvanography.= (See ELECTROGRAPHY, ELECTROTYPE.)

=Gamashes.= “High boots, buskins, or startups.” (Holme, 1688.)

=Gambeson= (Saxon wambe, the belly). A quilted tunic, stuffed with wool. It answered the purpose of defensive armour, and was subsequently called a pourpoint.

=Gamboge.= A gum-resin of a forest tree called Garcinia Cambogia, generally imported in cylindrical rolls. It forms a beautiful yellow pigment, used for water-colour; it is used to stain wood in imitation of box, and the tincture enters into the composition of the gold-coloured varnish for lacquering brass; it also gives a beautiful and durable stain to marble. (E. B.)

=Gamelion.= The seventh month of the ancient Athenian year, corresponding to our January. It was so called because it was a favourite season for marriages (γάμη).

=Gammut.= (See GAMUT.)

=Gamut.= The musical scale; so called from the first tone, UT (our DO), of the model scale of Guido, which was represented by the Greek gamma.

=Ganoid= (γάνος, brightness). A name applied to an order of fishes, having angular scales, composed of bony plates, covered with a strong shining enamel.

=Gantlet.= (See GAUNTLET.)

=Garb=, Her. A sheaf of wheat, or of any other grain to be specified.

=Garde de Bras.= An additional protection for the left arm, to the elbow-piece of which it was fastened by straps and a screw. It was used only for jousting, and first appears at the end of the 15th cent. The example shown is of the 16th cent., from the Meyrick collection. (Fig. 345.)

=Gargoulette.= An Arab vase, or water-cooler, with one handle, furnished with a spout adapted for drinking through. The piece in the illustration is from the Arabian potteries of Maghreb in Africa. This pottery is described by M. Jacquemart as “covered with a pinkish grey enamel of rose colour, and heightened by a polychrome decoration in zones, generally consisting of bands of scrolls, flowers, denticulations, rosettes, &c.; where citron, yellow, manganese brown, green, and blue form the most charming harmony.”

=Gargoyle=, Mod. The projecting extremity of a gutter. In antiquity terra-cotta masks were used for the purpose. (Fig. 347.) During the Gothic period any kind of representation was employed. Fig. 348 shows an upright gargoyle from the church of St. Remy at Dieppe.

=Garland=, Arch. A term employed by some authors as synonymous with foliage; but it denotes rather heavy festoons tied with fillets, and consisting of leaves, fruits, and flowers, as shown in Figs. 287 and 309, taken from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. (See ENCARPA, FESTOONS.)

=Garnet.= This gem, on account of its brilliant colour and hardness, is much used in jewellery, and although an abundant supply renders it of little value, the gem nevertheless possesses every quality necessary for ornamental purposes. It occurs in many colours—red, brown, yellow, white, green, black; the streak is white; the diaphaneity varies from transparent to sub-translucent, or nearly opaque, and it has a subconchoidal or uneven fracture. The varieties used in jewellery are called carbuncle, cinnamon-stone (or essonite), almandine, and pyrope or Bohemian garnet. Garnets are not much used for engraving, being of splintery, bad grain under the tool. (A. Billing, Science of Gems, &c.; H. Emanuel, Diamonds and Precious Stones.)

=Garnished=, Her. Adorned in a becoming manner.

=Garter, Order of the=, instituted by Edward III. in 1350, consists of the Sovereign and twenty-five knights companions, of whom the Prince of Wales always is one. Knights of the Garter place K.G. after their names; and these letters take precedence of all other titles, those of royalty alone excepted. The stalls of the knights are in the choir of St. George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle, where their garter-plates are fixed and their banners are displayed. The insignia are the garter itself, the badge of the order; the collar, and the Lesser George or jewel. (Fig. 349.) It was this jewel that Charles I., immediately before he suffered, delivered to Archbishop Juxon, with the word “Remember!” The ribbon of the order is dark blue; it passes over the left shoulder, and the Lesser George hangs from it under the right arm.

=Garter King of Arms=, Her. The chief of the official heralds of England, and officer of arms of the Order of the Garter.

=Gastrum=, R. An earthenware vessel with a round belly; whence its name.

=Gaulus=, R. A vessel used for drinking and other purposes. The same term was also applied to a broad-built ship employed by the Phœnicians and by pirates.

=Gauntlet.= The knight’s gauntlet was made of leather covered with plates of steel. It was not originally divided into fingers. (Fig. 350.)

=Gausapa=, =Gausape=, =Gausapum=, R. (γαυσάπης). (1) A garment introduced from Egypt into Rome, in the time of Augustus; it was made of a woollen cloth with a long nap on one side, and was worn on leaving the bath; it was white or dyed purple. Gausapa was used not only for articles of dress, but for table linen, napkins, dusters, and mattings. (2) A wig made of human hair, worn at Rome during the Empire.

=Gauze.= A light, transparent silk texture, supposed to have been invented at Gaza in Palestine; whence the name.

=Gavotte= (It. gavotta). A lively dance-tune in two-fourth time, consisting of two sections, each containing eight measures.

=Gehenna= (Heb. Ge-hin-nom, i. e. the valley of Hinnom). In this place, on the north of Jerusalem below Mount Zion, is a place called Tophet, where children were sacrificed to Moloch. King Josiah made it the common receptacle for rubbish and carcases, and a fire was kept constantly burning there; hence the Jews used this term to signify “hell.” (Compare HADES.)

=Gemellar=, R. (gemellus, twin). A case for holding oil; it was called gemellar from the fact of its being divided into two compartments.

=Gemelled=, Arch. Double; thus a gemelled bay is one divided into two parts; gemelled arches, those which are joined two and two.

=Gemelles=, Her. In pairs. (See BARS-GEMELLES.)

=Gemmæ=, Lat. (1) Precious stones, esp. cut or engraved. (2) Drinking-vessels or objects made of precious stones. (3) Pearls. (4) The eyes of a peacock’s tail. The original meaning of the word is a bud, eye, or gem on a plant; anything swelling and bright.

=Gemoniæ=, or =Gemoniæ Scales=, R. (i. e. steps of sighs). Steps leading to the prison in the forum, on the stairs of which the corpses of criminals were exposed for several days.

=Gems.= Precious stones, especially when carved. (See CAMEOS.)

=Genet=, Her. A spotted animal, something like a marten.

=Genethliaci=, Gr. and R. (γενέθλη, birth). Astrologers who cast “nativities.”

=Genius=, R. (geno, to beget). The Romans believed the existence of a good genius, or guardian angel, born with every mortal, and which died at the same time with him. Genius loci was the name given to the guardian spirit of a place. [See JUNONES, LARES, PENATES, &c. The superstition has many forms in Christian as well as in pagan art.]

=Genoa Lace.= Mention is made of Genoa Lace as early as the 15th century. Genoa was as celebrated for its pillow lace as Venice for its needle-made. The characteristic of this lace was its design, a kind of barleycorn-shaped pattern, radiating into rosettes from a centre. It was particularly adapted for the large turnover collar of Louis XIII., and was produced by plaiting, and made entirely on the pillow.

=Genouillières=, Fr. (1) Steel coverings for the knees. From the 13th century. They were often richly ornamented. (2) In Fortification, the sill of the embrasure.

=Genre Pictures.= Those representing scenes of every-day life and manners.

=Geodes.= In Mineralogy, hollow lumps of chalcedony found deposited in the cavities of flints, formed by the chemical action of water.

=George.= A gold noble of the time of Henry VIII. (Fig. 352.)

=George, Saint=, Her. The patron saint of England. His red cross on a silver field first appears in English heraldry in the 14th century. (See Fig. 349.)

=George, The=, Her. A figure of St. George on horseback, worn as a pendant to the collar of the Order of the Garter. (See GARTER.)

=Georgic= (γεωργικὸς, rustic; from γῆ, earth, and ἔργον, work). Poems on the subject of husbandry.

=German Silver.= An alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper. The proportions recommended are nickel 25, zinc 25, copper 50.

=Gerrhæ.= Persian shields made of wicker-work.

=Ghebres=, Pers. Fire-worshippers.

=Ghibellines.= An Italian faction, 13th century, who supported the German Emperors against the Guelphs, who stood by the Pope. The war-cry of the Guelphs was taken from the name of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, of the house of Wolf; that of the Ghibellines from Weiblingen, a town of Würtemberg, the seat of the Hohenstauffen family, to which Conrad, Duke of Franconia, belonged. These two dukes were rivals for the imperial throne of Germany.

=Ghoul=, =Ghole=, Pers. A demon who fed on dead bodies of men.

=Giallo=, =Giallolino=, =Gialdolino=, It. Pale yellow. (See MASSICOT.)

=Giaour=, Turkish. An unbeliever in Mohammed.

=Gigantomachia=, Gr. A favourite subject of Greek art, representing the War of the Giants, sons of Cœlus and Terra, against Jupiter. They “heaped Ossa on Pelion” to scale heaven, and were defeated by Hercules. They are represented as of vast stature and strength, having their feet covered with scales. A beautiful cameo in the Naples Museum represents Jove in his chariot subduing the giants. In 1875 the German expedition found among the ruins of a temple at Pergamus a series of sculptures of almost colossal proportions, representing, as Pliny describes them, the Wars of the Giants. These sculptures are now in the Berlin Museum.

=Gillo=, R. A wine-cooler, of earthenware.

=Gimmel Ring=, Her. Two, sometimes three annulets interlaced. (Fig. 353.)

=Gingham= (Javanese ginggan). Cotton cloth, woven from dyed yarns; distinguished from cloth printed or dyed after weaving.

=Ginglymus=, R. (γίγγλυμος). A hinge moving in a socket.

=Gingrinus=, R. (γίγγρας). A flute used at funerals.

=Gipcières.= Richly ornamented leather purses of the 14th and 15th centuries. They were often engraved with religious mottoes. (Fig. 354.)

=Gipon.= Probably the same as gambeson.

=Girandole.= A large kind of branched candlestick.

=Girdled=, =Girt=, Her. Encircled or bound round.

=Girdles.= These were the most beautiful and costly articles of dress during the Middle Ages. They were frequently made entirely of gold or silver, decorated with cameos, precious stones, &c. Besides the knightly sword; the purse, dagger, rosary, or penner and ink-horn and other objects were suspended from the girdle. From this word the waist was called the girdlestead, or place (sted) of the girdle. The girdles of ladies were equally splendid, and frequently depended nearly to the ground, as in Fig. 355. The girdle is an attribute of St. Thomas, from a legend that the Virgin, pitying his weakness of faith, threw down to him her girdle, after her assumption into heaven.

=Girgillus=, R. A roller turned by a windlass, for drawing up the bucket of a well. (See JACK.)

=Girouette.= (See EPI.)

=Girt=, Her. (See GIRDLED.)

=Gisarme.= A scythe-shaped weapon with a pike, fixed on a long staff.

=Gittern=, O. E. A small guitar, strung with catgut.

=Givre.= (See WYVERN.)

=Glabrous= (Lat. glaber). Smooth, bald.

=Glade= (Norman glette, a clear spot among clouds). An opening or passage in a wood through which the light may shine.

=Gladiators= were first exhibited at Rome, B.C. 264, at a funeral. The practice had its origin in that very ancient one of slaughtering slaves and captives on such occasions. Subsequently it became more general. The different classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms and other circumstances, were: Andabatæ, who wore helmets without any opening for the eyes, and therefore fought blindfold; Essedarii, who fought from chariots (ESSEDÆ); Hoplomachai, who wore heavy defensive armour; Laqueatores, who carried a sort of lasso or noose; Meridiani, who fought in the middle of the day, and were very slightly armed; Mirmillones, so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr) on their helmets; Retiarii, armed with a trident and a net. Others, as Samnites, Thraces, &c., were named from the nation whose fashion of armour they adopted. The fights of gladiators were favourite subjects of Roman art, and it is assumed that in cases where no actual combats took place at a funeral, they were represented on the walls of tombs in sculpture or paint. The most celebrated statues of the kind are the so called “Dying Gladiator” in the museum of the capitol at Rome, and the Gladiator of the Borghese collection.

=Gladiolus.= Diminutive of GLADIUS, and synonym of LIGULA. (See both words.)

=Gladius=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of swords or glaives, but denoting more particularly the two-edged swords used by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. Fig. 357 represents two Gaulish swords, the form of which may easily be guessed, even though they are in the scabbard; Fig. 356 is a Roman gladius.

=Glaive.= A blade on a pole having its edge on the outside curve, used by foot-soldiers in the 15th century.

=Glans=, Gr. and R. (lit. an acorn). A large leaden slug, of long oval form, which was hurled by a sling in place of stones.

=Glass.= The discovery is lost in remote antiquity. Pliny gives a legend which ascribes it to chance. Glass bottles in Egypt are represented upon monuments of the 4th dynasty (at least 2000 years B.C.). A vase of greenish glass found at Nineveh dates from B.C. 700. Glass is found in the windows at Pompeii; and the Romans stained it, blew it, worked it on lathes, and engraved it. Pliny mentions, as made by the Romans in his time, glass coloured opaque, red, white, black (like obsidian), or imitating jacinths, sapphires, and other gems; also murrhine glass. This last was either an imitation of fluor-spar, or a kind of agate, or fluor spar. The Romans also made mosaic or millefiori, in which the threads of colour are melted into a rod, so that at every section the whole pattern appears; and cameo glasses, in which a paste of one colour is laid over another, and the whole then carved into the required design; gold leaf was also worked into the substance or fixed on the surface. A gate at Constantinople took its name from the glass works near it, but little is known of the Byzantine art, nor of earlier European art than the 13th century. In mediæval times stained glass windows, in leaden frames, were constructed with great success in England, France, and Flanders. In the 13th century they appear in Italy. The Venetian art took its impulse from the capture of Constantinople in 1204. Its peculiar beauty is derived from the curved forms and tenuity of substance obtained in blowing. (Fig. 358.) There are six kinds of Venetian glass. (1) Vessels of colourless or transparent glass, or of single colours, generally blue or purple. (2) Gilt or enamelled glass. (3) Crackled glass, having a surface rough and divided irregularly into ridges. (4) Variegated or marbled opaque glass, called schmeltz; the most common variety is a mixture of green and purple, sometimes resembling jasper, sometimes chalcedony; other varieties are imitations of lapis lazuli and tortoise-shell; and avanturine, which is obtained by mingling metallic filings or fragments of gold leaf with melted glass. (5) Millefiori, or mosaic glass, in imitation of the old Roman process. (6) Reticulated, filigree, or lace glass. The varieties contain fine threads of glass, generally coloured, but sometimes milk-white, included in their substance. The lightness and strength of the Venetian glass are due to its not containing lead like our modern flint glass. Venetian mirrors were for a long period widely celebrated. The oldest example of the German drinking-cups, ornamented with paintings in enamel, is of the date of 1553. The designs are commonly armorial bearings. From the beginning of the 17th century the Bohemian manufactories supplied vases enriched with ornamental subjects, particularly with portraits engraved upon the glass. The art of wheel engraving upon glass flourished in France under Louis XVI. In modern times this kind of ornamentation is produced by the agency of hydrofluoric acid. “Coarse glass-making in England was, in Sussex, of great antiquity.” (Fuller.) “The first making of Venice glasses in England began in London, about the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by one Jacob Vessaline, an Italian.” (Stow.)

=Glass-glazed Wares.= (See GLAZED WARES.)

=Glaucous= (γλαυκός). Of a sea-green colour, or a greyish blue.

=Glazed Wares.= Almost immediately after the invention of Ceramic manufacture, the application of glaze or coloured enamel must have improved it. What we term glaçure is a light varnish which enlivens and harmonizes the porous surface of terra-cotta. In its simple state it is a mixture of silex and lead, and in this state it is transparent, as we find it on antique vases; when vitrifiable, and mixed with tin, as in the case of majolicas, it is called enamel; and when of vitrifiable and earthen substance, such as can only be melted at the temperature required for the baking of the paste itself, it is known as GLAZE, or couverte, and can be identified in the Persian faiences and Flemish stone-ware. (Figs. 359, 360.) (See Burty, Chefs-d’œuvre of the Industrial Arts.)

=Glazing.= In oil painting, the application of thin layer of colour to finally modify the tone. In pottery, a vitreous covering over the surface. (See GLAZED WARES.)

=Globe=, held in the hand, is the emblem of power.

=Globus=, R. A military manœuvre employed by a body of Roman soldiers when surrounded by superior forces; it consisted in forming a circle facing in every direction.

=Glory=, =Nimbus= or =Aureole=, the Christian attribute of sanctity, is of pagan origin, common to images of the gods, and Roman, even Christian, emperors. Satan in miniatures of the 9th to 13th century wears a glory. The earliest known Christian example is a gem of St. Martin of the early part of the 6th century. The glory round the head is properly the nimbus or aureole. The oblong glory surrounding the whole person, called in Latin “vesica piscis” (Fig. 361), and in Italian the “mandorla” (almond) from its form, is confined to figures of Christ and the Virgin, or saints who are in the act of ascending into heaven. When used to distinguish one of the three divine Persons of the Trinity, the glory is often cruciform or triangular: the square nimbus designates a person living at the time the work was executed. In other instances it is circular. Coloured glories are variously symbolical. (Mrs. Jameson, “The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art.”)

=Gloves.= In the 14th century already gloves were worn, jewelled on the back, as a badge of rank. “They were worn in the hat,” says Steevens, “as the favour of a mistress, or the memorial of a friend, and as a mark to be challenged by an enemy.” A glove of the 17th century is described “of a light buff leather, beautifully ornamented with spangles and needlework in gold and silver threads, with a gold lace border, and silk opening at the wrist.” Gloves were called “cheirothecæ,” hand-coverers, by the Greeks and Romans; they were made without separate fingers, the thumb only being free. A legend current at Grenoble affirms that St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was a knitter of gloves.

=Gluten.= In wax painting, the compound with which the pigments are mixed.

=Glyphs=, Arch. The flutings of an ornament or grooving forming the segment of a circle. (See DIGLYPH, TRIGLYPH.)

=Glyptics.= The art of engraving on precious stones.

=Glyptotheca=, Gr. and R. (1) A gallery for sculpture. (2) A collection of engraved stones.

=Gnomon=, Gr. and R. The iron pin or index, which, by the projection of its shadow, marks the hour upon a sun-dial.

=Goal.= (See META.)

=Goat.= The emblem of lasciviousness.

=Gobelins.= Celebrated Royal French manufactory of tapestry, named from the successors of Jean Gobelin, who brought the art to Paris in the 15th century from Rheims. [See Burty, Chefs-d’œuvre of Industrial Art.]

=Godenda=, O. E. A pole-axe, having a spike at its end; 13th century.

=Goderonné=, =Gouderonné= (Needlework). A fluted pattern of embroidery in vogue in the 16th century.

=Gold.= It is probable that the earliest recorded mark upon units of value was the image of a sheep or an ox; hence money in Latin is called pecunia, from pecus, cattle, the original form of barbaric wealth, for which gold was the substitute. The wealth of Abraham in silver and gold, as well as in cattle, is mentioned in Genesis. No coins of gold or silver have been found in EGYPT or NINEVEH, although beautiful specimens of the goldsmith’s art have been recovered from the tombs of both countries. The HEBREWS, taught by the Egyptians, made their ark, mercy-seat, altar of incense, seven-branched candlestick, and other golden ornaments, even in the desert of Sinai. The seven-branched candlestick is represented in sculpture on the arch of Titus at Rome. At BABYLON and NINEVEH gold is said to have been lavishly applied in gilding sculpture, and even walls; but it is suggested that an alloy of copper, the aurichalcum of the Greeks, was the metal in reality used for this purpose. The heroes of the Greek epic had golden shields and helmets; breastplates and other large pieces of golden armour are among the recent discoveries at Mycenæ; at Kourioum in the island of Cyprus also great stores of golden ornaments of a very early age have been discovered. In SCYTHIAN tombs in Russia also, about Kertch, beautiful relics of Grecian work in gold have been found, showing that in the very earliest ages the skill and taste applied to this art were not less than those of later times. The gold jewellery of ancient India also excelled that of modern date, but none, before or since, ever equalled the great age of GREEK art. Pausanias describes a statue of Athene, made by Pheidias, and kept in the Parthenon at Athens, of ivory and gold—chryselephantine—delicately worked all over; and a still larger statue of Jupiter, of the same materials. Native gold alloyed with one-fifth silver was greatly prized by the Greek artists, who gave it the name of electrum. Examples of this electrum are rare; there is a vase at St. Petersburg. The ROMANS used to pay enormous prices for their household plate; for an example, the bowl of Pytheas, on which were represented Ulysses and Diomed with the palladium, fetched 10,000 denarii, or about 330_l._ per ounce. Few specimens of Roman art have escaped destruction. (Fig. 7.) Of the age of BYZANTINE splendour we are told that the Emperor Acadius, early in the 5th century, sat on a throne of massive gold, his chariot being also of gold, &c. In the 9th century the throne of Theophilus was overshadowed by a tree of gold, with birds in the branches, and at the foot two lions all gold. The lions roared and the birds piped in the branches. A remarkable wealth of ancient goldsmith’s work has been found in IRELAND, consisting principally of personal ornaments. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Irish workmanship was unsurpassed in Europe. It consisted principally of objects for religious use, and is characterized by a filagree of extraordinary richness, akin to the intricate traceries of the Irish illuminated work on MS. of the same date and derivation. In the 10th and 11th centuries there was a great revival of art throughout Europe. In GERMANY, the abbey of Hildesheim, under Bishop Bernward, became the centre of a school of goldsmiths, and some beautiful specimens of hammered gold, by the bishop’s hand, are preserved.

=Gold=, in Christian art. (See YELLOW.)

=Gold, Cloth of=, is mentioned in the Pentateuch, and was common throughout the East in all ages. It was originally wrought, not in rounded wire but flat, as the Chinese, the Indians, and the Italians (their lama d’oro) weave it now. The early Roman kings wore tunics of gold, and the Romans used it as a shroud for burial. King Childeric, A. D. 482, was buried at Tournai in a mantle of golden stuff. It was much favoured in England for church vestments, and by royalty, especially by Edward IV. and Henry VIII. and the nobility of their time. (The different varieties are described in their order. See ACCA, ARESTE, BATUZ, CHRYSO-CLAVUS, CICLATOUN, DORNECK, SAMIT.)

=Goldbeater’s Skin=, prepared from a membrane found in the stomach of the ox, is used to separate leaf-gold in the process of gold-beating.

=Golden Fleece.= An Order of Knighthood instituted on the 10th of January, 1429, by Philip, Duke of Burgundy. The COLLAR is composed of double steels, interwoven with flint-stones, emitting sparks of fire, at the end whereof hangs on the breast a Golden Fleece. The fusils are joined two and two together, as if they were double BB’s (the cyphers of Burgundy). The flint-stones are the ancient arms of the Sovereigns of Burgundy, with the motto “Ante ferit quam flamma micet.” (See Fig. 342.) The motto of the Order is “Pretium non vile laborum.” There are four great officers, viz. the Chancellor, Treasurer, Register, and a King of Arms, called Toison d’Or. The BADGE consists of a Golden Fleece, suspended from a flint-stone, which is surrounded with flames of gold.

=Golden Spur.= An Order of Knighthood said to have been instituted by Pius IV., at Rome, in 1559. They are sometimes spoken of as the CHEVALIERS PIES or PIORUM, and must be distinguished from those who are created knights on the coronation or marriage days of Emperors and Kings, and who receive at the same time the Spurs of Honour. These alone are entitled to the appellation of EQUITES AURATI. [Cf. Peter de Bellet, Favin, &c.]

=Golden Stole= of Venice. (See STOLA D’ORO.)

=Golione=, O. E. A kind of gown.

=Gondola=, It. A Venetian pleasure-boat or barge.

=Gonfalon= or =Gonfanon=, Fr. (1) A richly-worked pointed banner carried upon a lance; 13th century. (2) An ecclesiastical banner.

=Gonfalonier=. The bearer of a gonfalon.

=Goniometer= (γωνία, an angle, &c.). An instrument for measuring the angles of crystals.

=Gonjo=, O. E. (14th century). Said to be the gorget.

=Gopouras=, Hind. The pyramid-shaped door of the Hindoo temples. Dwararab’ha, or door of splendour, was the name given to a door with one or two tiers; dwarasala, or door of the dwelling, a door with two or four tiers; dwaraprasada, or propitious door, a door with three to five tiers; dwaraharmya, or door of the palace, a door with five to seven tiers; lastly, dwaragopouras, or door-tower with seven to sixteen tiers.

=Gorged=, Her. Wearing a collar.

=Gorget=, Fr. A defence or covering for the neck.

=Gorgoneia.= Masks of the Gorgon’s head, which were fixed as bosses upon walls or shields.

=Gossamer=, O. E. (properly God’s summer). The name is attributed to an old legend that the fine filaments so called are the fragments of the winding-sheet of the Virgin Mary, which fell away from her as she was taken up to heaven.

=Gothamites=, O. E. The inhabitants of the village of Gotham in Northumberland, renowned for their stupidity. A reprint of the tale called “The Wise Men of Gotham” appeared in 1840.

=Gouache=, Fr. This term is applied to the use in water-colour painting of opaque colours more or less mixed and modified with white. The process is extremely ancient, known to the Chinese and Indians of the earliest times, and to the Greeks and Romans. It was the method used by mediæval illuminators. Its result is a velvety reflection of the light.

=Gourd of Noah.= A piece of ancient blue faience from Asia Minor. According to the tradition current in the country, these vessels, which are in great veneration, would go back to such remote antiquity that it was by one of them that Noah was betrayed into the first act of inebriety recorded in history. (Jacquemart.)

=Gouttée=, =Guttée=, Her. Sprinkled over with drops of gold, silver, blue (tears), red (blood), or black (poix).

=Gown= (British gwn, Norman gunna). The men wore gowns in the Middle Ages, the women at all times.

=Grabatus=, R. (κράβατος). A sort of low framework, consisting of a network of cords, used to support a mattress; it was the least comfortable kind of bed; whence the French word grabat to denote a sorry kind of bed.

=Gradient=, Her. Walking.

=Gradus=, R. A flight of steps leading to a temple; the tiers of seats in a theatre or amphitheatre, &c.

=Græcostasis.= A part of the Roman forum, where the Greek ambassadors stood to hear the debates.

=Graffiti=, It. Lines drawn with a graver upon clay or plaster. (See SGRAFFITI.)

=Grafted=, Her. Inserted and fixed.

=Grand-garde=, Plate armour to cover the breast and left shoulder, worn outside the usual armour in jousting at tournaments.

=Grand Quarters=, Her. The four primary divisions of a shield when it is divided per cross or quarterly.

=Graphite.= Plumbago.

=Graphometer.= A mathematical instrument, called also a semicircle.

=Graphotype.= A method of producing book illustrations for printing along with type, without the art of an engraver.

=Grass-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.)

=Graver= or =Burin=. An engraving-tool. (See CHALCOGRAPHY.)

=Grazioso=, It. In Music, an intimation to perform the music smoothly and gracefully.

=Greaves.= Plate armour for the legs.

=Grece=, O. E. A step, or flight of stairs. (See GRYSE.)

=Greeces=, Her. Steps.

=Greek Lace.= A kind of cutwork, described under LACE (q.v.).

=Green=, in Christian art, or the emerald, is the colour of spring; emblem of hope, particularly hope in immortality; and of victory, as the colour of the palm and the laurel.

=Green.= (See CARBONATES OF COPPER, OXIDES OF COPPER, SCHEELE’S GREEN, SAP GREEN, CHROME GREEN, &c.)

=Green Bice.= Green cinnabar. (See CHROME GREEN.)

=Green Earth= (burnt terra verde) is a brown pigment, very useful for landscape painting in oil colours; it is not affected by exposure to strong light or impure air.

=Green Lakes.= (See PURPLE LAKES.)

=Green Verditer.= (See VERDITER.)

=Gregorian Calendar.= The calendar as reformed by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582.

=Gregorian Music.= A collection of chants, originally compiled by Gregory I. (the Great), A. D. 600. “It was observed by St. Gregory, a great musician of his time, that the Ambrosian Chants, handed down traditionally to a great extent, had become corrupted; he therefore subjected them to revision, and added other modes and scales to those four which Ambrose had retained. This was done by taking away the upper tetrachord from the Ambrosian scales, and placing it below the lower tetrachord.” (See Music, by the Rev. J. R. Lunn, B.D., in Dictionary of Christian Antiquities.)

=Grey=, in Christian art, the colour of ashes, signified mourning, humility, and innocence accused.

=Greybeards=, O. E. Stone-ware drinking-jugs, with a bearded face on the spout.

=Gridiron= (It. la graticola). The attribute of St. Lawrence.

=Griffin.= (See GRYPHUS.)

=Grinding.= Pigments are generally ground in poppy or nut oil, which dry best and do not deaden the colours. It is essential that these oils be in the purest state, bright and clear. A good oil ought to be so dry in five or six days that the picture can be repainted.

=Griphus=, Gr. and R. (γρῖφος). Literally, a fishing-net, and thence a riddle propounded by guests at a banquet.

=Grisaille=, Fr. A style of painting in grey, by which solid bodies are represented as if in relief; adapted for architectural subjects.

=Groat.= An old English silver coin, equal to 4_d._ In England, in the Saxon times, no silver coin larger in value than a penny was struck, nor after the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who about 1351 coined grosses or great pieces, which went for 4_d._ each; and so the matter stood till the reign of Henry VII., who in 1504 first coined shillings.

=Grogram= (Fr. gros-grains). A coarse woollen cloth with large woof and a rough pile. Grogram gowns were worn by countrywomen, 15th to 17th centuries. Fairholt says that the mixed liquor called grog obtained its name from the admiral who ordered it to be given to the sailors; who from wearing a grogram coat was called “Old Grog.”

=Groin=, Arch. The angular curve formed at the intersection of a vaulted roof; the line made by the intersection of arched vaults crossing each other at any angle. (See Fig. 173.)

=Grolier Scroll.= A beautiful and elaborate style of decoration for bookbinding, introduced by Grolier, a celebrated patron of bookbinding, in the 15th century.

=Groma= and =Gruma=, R. A quadrant; an instrument used by land-surveyors. In the plural, grumæ denotes the intersection of two roads cutting each other at right angles.

=Grotesques=, Arch. (It. grottesco, the style in which grottoes were ornamented). Figures of a monstrous, comic, or obscene character, which were spread in profusion over the façades of churches by mediæval artists (ymaigiers); in stone and in wood; on choir-stalls and the wood-work and wainscoting of interiors. Figs. 367, 368 represent figures upon the stalls and columns in Rouen Cathedral.

=Grounds= or =Priming=. In painting, the first coat of colour laid all over the canvas, upon which the picture is to be painted.

=Grus=, Lat. (a crane). A constellation of the southern hemisphere.

=Gry.= A measure containing ⅒ of a line. A line is ⅒ of a digit, a digit is ⅒ of a foot, and a (philosophical) foot is ⅓ of a pendulum whose vibrations, in the latitude of 45°, are each equal to one second of time, or ¹⁄₆₀ of a minute.

=Gryphus=, =Griffin=, Gen. (γρύψ). A fabulous animal, represented with the body of a lion, and the head and wings of an eagle. In ancient art it was applied in the decoration of friezes, one of the finest specimens being that at the temple of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome. It was a heraldic symbol among the Scythians, and is the ancient crest of the city of London. As an emblem this monster symbolizes the destroying power of the gods.

=Gryse=, =Grece=, =Tredyl=, or =Steyre=, O. E. A step, a flight of stairs.

=Guacos= or =Huacos=, Peruv. The consecrated burial-places of the ancient Peruvians.

=Guardant=, Her. Looking out from the field, as the lions in Fig. 370.

=Guazzo=, It. A hard and durable kind of distemper painting, used by the ancients, calculated to resist damp and to preserve the colours.

=Gubbio=. A celebrated Italian botega of ceramic art, founded in 1498 by Giorgio Andreoli, the reputed inventor of the secret of metallic lustres. Fig. 371 is a cup bearing upon a fillet the inscription “Ex o Giorg.,” “of the fabric of Giorgio.”

=Gubernaculum=, R. (guberno, to direct). A rudder; originally an oar with a broad blade, which was fixed, not at the extremity, but at each side of the stern. A ship had commonly two rudders joined together by a pole.

=Guelfs= or =Guelphs=. (See GHIBELLINES.)

=Gueux, Badge of the.= The celebrated Netherlandish confraternity of the Gueux (or Beggars), which had its origin in a jest spoken at a banquet, assumed not only the dress, but the staff, wooden bowl, and wallet of the professional beggar, and even went so far as to clothe their retainers and servants in mendicant garb. The badge represents two hands clasped across and through a double wallet.

=Guidon=, Fr. (1) The silk standard of a regiment; (2) its bearer.

=Guige=, Her. A shield-belt worn over the right shoulder.

=Guild=, O. E. (Saxon guildan, to pay). A fraternity or company, every member of which was gildare, i. e. had to pay something towards the charges. Merchant guilds first became general in Europe in the 11th century. (See Anderson’s History of Commerce, vol. i. p. 70.)

=Guilloche.= A series of interlaced ornaments on stone, resembling network.

=Guilloched.= Waved or engine-turned.

=Guimet’s Ultramarine.= A valuable substitute for the more costly preparation. It is transparent and durable.

=Guimet’s Yellow= is the deutoxide of lead and antimony, useful in enamel or porcelain painting.

=Guinea.= An English coin first struck temp. Car. II., and so called because the gold was brought from the coast of Guinea (the Portuguese Genahoa). It originally bore the impress of an elephant. The sovereign superseded it in 1817.

=Guisarme.= An ancient weapon of the nature of a pike or bill. (See Meyrick.)

=Guitar= (Spanish guitarra). A stringed musical instrument, played as a harp with the fingers.

=Gules=, Her. (Fr. gueules). Red, represented in engraving by perpendicular lines.

=Gum-arabic= dissolved in water constitutes the well-known vehicle for water-colour painting—gum-water.

=Gunter’s Line.= A line of logarithms graduated on a ruler, for practical use in the application of logarithms to the ordinary calculations of an architect, builder, &c. Other similar instruments invented by the great mathematician (+ 1626) are Gunter’s Quadrant and Gunter’s Scale, used by seamen and for astronomical calculations.

=Gurgustium=, R. A cave, hovel, or any dark and wretched abode.

=Gussets= were small pieces of chain mail at the openings of the joints beneath the arms.

=Guttæ=, Arch. (drops). Small conical-shaped ornaments, used in the Doric entablature immediately under the mutule beneath the triglyph. (See Fig. 265.)

=Guttée=, Her. (See GOUTTÉE.) Sprinkled over.

=Gutturnium=, R. (guttur, the throat). A water-jug or ewer; it was a vessel of very elegant form, and was used chiefly by slaves for pouring water over the hands of the guests before and after a meal. (See ABLUTIONS.)

=Guttus=, R. (gutta, a drop). A vessel with a very narrow neck and mouth, by means of which liquids could be poured out drop by drop; whence its name. It was especially used in sacrifices, and is a common object upon coins of a religious character.

=Gutty=, Her. Charged or sprinkled with drops.

=Gwerre=, O. E. The choir of a church.

=Gymmers=, O. E. Hinges. (The word is still used.)

=Gymnasium=, Gr. (γυμνάσιον; γυμνὸς, stripped). A large building used by the Greeks, answering to the Roman palæstra, in which gymnastics were taught and practised. There were also attached to it assembly rooms for rhetoricians and philosophers.

=Gynæceum=, Gr. (from γυνὴ, a woman). That part of the Greek house which was set apart for the women. (See DOMUS.)

=Gypsum= (Gr. γύψος). The property of rapid consolidation renders gypsum very available for taking casts of works of art, &c. It is much employed in architectural ornaments. The gypsum of Paris is called Montmartrite, and forms the best Plaster of Paris, as it resists the weather better than purer sorts. It contains 17 per cent. of carbonate of lime. (See also ALABASTER.)

=Gyron=, Her. A triangular figure, one of the subordinaries.

=Gyronny=, Her. A field divided into gyrons.

H.

=H=, as an old Latin numeral, denotes 200, and with a dash above it (H̅) 200,000.

=Habena=, R. (habeo, to hold). A term with numerous meanings, all of which were connected more or less with the idea of a thong or strap. In the singular, it signifies a halter; in the plural, habenæ, reins.

=Habergeon=. A coat of mail, or breastplate.

=Habited=, Her. Clothed.

=Hackbut= or =Hagbut=. Arquebus with a hooked stock.

=Hackney Coach= (from the French coche-à-haguenée). The haguenée was a strong kind of horse formerly let out on hire for short journeys.

=Hadrianea=, R. Small buildings in which Christians were allowed to meet, in virtue of an edict granted in their favour by the Emperor Hadrian.

=Hæmatinon=, R. (αἱμάτινον, of blood). A kind of glassy substance of a beautiful red, and susceptible of taking a fine polish. It was used to make small cubes for mosaic or small works of art.

=Hagiographa= (sacred writings). A name applied to those books of Scripture which, according to the Jewish classification, held the lowest rank in regard to inspiration. These are the books of Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles.

=Hair.= The Assyrian monarchs are represented with beard elaborately plaited, and hair falling in ringlets on the shoulder, which may have been partly artificial, like that of the Persian monarchs, who, according to Xenophon, wore a wig. Both the hair and beard were dyed, and the eyes blackened with kohl, &c. (Layard.) The Egyptians kept the head shaved, and wore wigs and beard-boxes. The Hebrews generally wore the hair short, but the horse-guards of King Solomon “daily strewed their heads with gold dust, which glittered in the sun.” (Josephus.) The ancient Greeks wore their hair long. The Athenians wore it long in childhood, had it cut short at a solemn ceremony when they became eighteen years of age, and afterwards allowed it to grow, and wore it rolled up in a knot on the crown of the head, fastened with golden clasps (crobylus, corymbus). Women wore bands or coifs (sphendone, kekryphalus, saccus, mitra). Youths and athletes are represented with short hair. The favourite colour was blonde (xanthus); black was the most common. The ancient Romans also wore long hair; about 300 B.C. the practice of wearing it short came in (cincinnus, cirrus). The Roman women anciently dressed their hair very plainly, but in the Augustan period adopted some extravagant fashions. Each of the gods is distinguished by his peculiar form of hair: that of Jupiter is long and flowing; Mercury has close curling hair, &c. The Danes, Gauls, and Anglo-Saxons wore long flowing hair, and the shearing of it was a punishment: when Julius Cæsar conquered the Gauls, he cut off their long hair. Among the early Frankish kings long hair was the privilege of the blood royal. From the time of Clovis the French nobility wore short hair, but as they grew less martial the hair became longer. François I. introduced short hair, which prevailed until the reign of Louis XIII., which was followed by the period of periwigs and perukes of Louis XIV. The variations from the Conquest to the last generation in England are so striking and frequent that each reign may be distinguished by its appropriate head-dress. (Consult Fairholt’s Costume in England, Planché’s Cyclopædia of Costume, &c.)

=Hair-cloth.= (See CILICIUM.)

=Hair Pencils= or =Brushes= are made of the finer hairs of the marten, badger, polecat, camel, &c., mounted in quills or white iron tubes. The round brushes should swell all round from the base, and diminish upwards to a fine point, terminating with the uncut ends of the hair. (See FITCH.)

=Halbert.= A footman’s weapon in the form of a battle-axe and pike at the end of a long staff.

=Halcyon.= The ancient name of the Alcedo or king-fisher; hence—

=Halcyon Days=, i. e. the calm and peaceful season when the king-fisher lays its eggs in nests close by the brink of the sea; i. e. seven days before and as many after the winter solstice.

“Seven winter dayes with peacefull calme possest Alcyon sits upon her floating nest.” (Sandy’s Ovid, Met. b. xi.)

=Hall-marks.= The Goldsmiths of London formed their company in 1327, and were incorporated by charter in 1392. The hall-marks, in the order of their introduction, are as follows:—1. The leopard’s head, called the king’s mark. 2. The maker’s mark, originally a rose, crown, or other emblem with or without initials. 3. The annual letter, in the order of the alphabet from A to V, omitting J and U. This mark is changed every twenty years. 4. The lion passant, added in 1597. 5. Instead of the leopard’s head (1) for the king’s mark, the lion’s head erased, introduced in 1697 when the standard was changed, and, 6, a figure of Britannia substituted for the lion passant (4) at the same time. Plate with this mark is called Britannia plate. The old standard (of 11 oz. 2 dwt. pure gold in the lb.) was restored in 1719. 7. The head of the reigning sovereign in profile, ordered in 1784, when a fresh duty was laid upon plate.

=Halling=, O. E. Tapestry.

=Hallowmas=, Chr. The feast of All Souls, or the time about All Souls’ and All Saints’ Days, viz. the 1st and 2nd of November; and thence to CANDLEMAS, or the 2nd of February.

=Halmos=, Gr. and R. A vessel of round form, supported on a raised stand entirely distinct from the vessel itself; it was used as a drinking-cup.

=Halmote= or =Halimote=. The Saxon name for a meeting of tenants, now called a court baron.

=Halteres= (Gr. ἁλτῆρες), in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, were masses of lead, iron, or stone held in the hands to give impetus in leaping, or used as dumb-bells.

=Ham= (Scotch hame). A Saxon word for a place of dwelling, a home; hence “HAMLET.” “This word,” says Stow, “originally meant the seat of a freeholder, comprehending the mansion-house and adjacent buildings.”

=Hama=, Gr. and R. (ἄμη or ἅμη). A bucket used for various purposes.

=Hamburg White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.)

=Hames= or =Heames=, Her. Parts of horses’ harness.

=Hammer= or =Martel=, Her. Represented much like an ordinary hammer.

=Hamus= or =Hamulus=. A fish-hook.

=Hanaper=, O. E. (Mod. hamper). A wicker basket. (Fig. 376.) Writs in the Court of Chancery were thrown into such a basket (in hanaperio), and the office was called from that circumstance the Haniper Office. It was abolished in 1842.

=Handkerchiefs= embroidered in gold were presented and worn as favours in the reign of Elizabeth. Paisley handkerchiefs were introduced in 1743.

=Handle=, Gen. In antiquity the leaves of a door were fitted with handles like those of our own day. Fig. 377 represents a bronze handle consisting of a double ring. Of these, the inner one could be raised so as to allow a person’s hand to take hold of it, and draw the door his own way. This work of art is at the present time in the Museum of Perugia.

=Handruffs=, O. E. Ruffles.

=Handseax=. The Anglo-Saxon dagger.

=Hanger=, O. E. A small sword worn by gentlemen with morning dress in the 17th century.

=Hangers= or =Carriages=, O. E. Appendages to the sword-belt from which the sword hung, often richly embroidered or jewelled.

=Hanselines= (15th century). Loose breeches. (See SLOP.)

=Haphe=, Gr. and R. (ἁφὴ i.e. a grip). The yellow sand with which wrestlers sprinkled themselves over after having been rubbed with oil. The object of this sprinkling was to enable the wrestlers to take a firmer grasp one of the other.

=Hara=, Gr. and R. A pig-sty, especially for a breeding sow. The term also denoted a pen for geese.

=Hare=, Chr. In Christian iconography the hare symbolizes the rapid course of life. Representations of this animal are met with on lamps, engraved stones, sepulchral stones, &c.

=Harlequin= (It. Harlequino, or little Harlay). The name is derived from that of a famous Italian comedian, who appeared in Paris in the time of Henri III., and from frequenting the house of M. de Harlay was so called by his companions. (Ménage.)

=Harmamaxa=, Gr. and R. (ἁρμ-άμαξα). A four-wheeled carriage or litter covered overhead, and enclosed with curtains. It was generally large, and drawn by four horses, and richly ornamented. It was principally used for women and children.

=Harmonica.= A musical instrument consisting of a number of glass cups fixed upon a revolving spindle, and made to vibrate by friction applied to their edges. These “musical glasses” are described in a work published in 1677. A harpsichord-harmonica is a similar instrument, in which finger-keys like those of a pianoforte are used. (See the article in Encyl. Brit., 8th edition.)

=Harmonium.= A musical instrument having a key-board like a pianoforte, and the sounds (which resemble those of organ pipes) produced by the vibration of thin tongues of metal.

=Harp.= The EGYPTIANS had various kinds of harps, some of which were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The name of the harp was buni. Its frame had no front pillar. The harps represented on the monuments varied in size from 6½ feet high downwards, and had from 4 to 28 strings. A beautiful Egyptian harp, in the Louvre collection, is of triangular shape with 21 strings, but, like all the harps represented on the monuments, it has no fore-pillar. The strings were of catgut. ASSYRIAN sculptures also represent harps. These also had no front pillar, and were about 4 feet high, with ornamental appendages on the lower frame. The upper frame contained the sound-holes and the tuning-pegs in regular order. The strings are supposed to have been of silk. The GREEK harp, called kinyra, resembled the Assyrian, and is represented with 13 strings: it is an attribute of Polyhymnia. The ANGLO-SAXONS called the harp the gleo-beam, or “glee-wood;” and it was their most popular instrument. King David playing a harp is represented on an A.S. monument of the 11th century. It was the favourite instrument of the GERMAN and CELTIC bards, and of the SCANDINAVIAN skalds. It is represented with 12 strings and 2 sound-holes, and having a fore-pillar. A curious IRISH harp of the 8th century, or earlier, is represented in Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland,” having no fore-pillar. The FINNS had a harp (harpu, kantele) with a similar frame, devoid of a front pillar. In CHRISTIAN ART a harp is the attribute of King David and of St. Cecilia. St. Dunstan is also occasionally represented with it. In Heraldry the harp is the device and badge of Ireland. The Irish harp of gold with silver strings on a blue field forms the third quarter of the royal arms.

=Harpaga=, =Harpago=, Gr. and R. A general term, including any kind of hook for grappling; more particularly a military engine invented by Pericles, and introduced into the Roman navy by Duillius. It consisted of a joist about two yards and a half long, each face of which was coated with iron, and having at one end a harpoon of iron or bronze; the other end was fitted with an iron ring, to which a rope was attached, so as to enable it to be drawn back when it had once grappled a ship or its rigging. Harpago or wolf was the term applied to a beam armed with a harpoon, which was employed to break down the tops of walls, or widen a breach already made. [A flesh-hook used in cookery to take boiled meat out of the caldron.]

=Harpastum=, R. A small ball employed for a game in which the players formed two sides. They stationed themselves at some distance from a line traced on the ground or sand where the harpastum was placed. At a given signal each player threw himself upon the ball, in order to try and send it beyond the bounds of the opposite party.

=Harpies=, Gen. (Ἅρπυιαι, i. e. the Snatchers). Winged monsters, daughters of Neptune and Terra, three in number, viz. Aëllo (the tempest), Ocypetê (swift-flying), and Cêlêno; representing the storm-winds. They had the faces of old women, a vulture’s body, and huge claws; they were the representatives of the Evil Fates, and the rulers of storms and tempests. In Christian iconography the Harpies symbolize the devil and repentance. [In the so called “Harpy tomb” in the British Museum they are represented carrying off Camiro and Clytia, the daughters of Pandarus of Crete, as a punishment for his complicity with Tantalus in stealing ambrosia and nectar from the table of the gods.]

=Harpsichord.= A musical instrument intermediate between the spinet, virginals, &c., and the pianoforte, which supplanted it in the 18th century. It may be described as a horizontal harp enclosed in a sonorous case, the wires being struck with jacks armed with crow-quills, and moved with finger-keys.

=Harquebus.= An improvement of the hand-gun introduced in the 15th century, applying the invention of the trigger.

=Hart.= A stag in its sixth year.

=Hart= or =Hind=, in Christian art, originally typified solitude and purity of life. It was the attribute of St. Hubert, St. Julian, and St. Eustace.

=Hart=, Her. A stag with attires; the female is a hind.

=Hasta= (Gr. ἔγχος). A spear used as a pike for thrusting, or as a missile for hurling from the hand, or as a bolt from an engine. Homer defines the spear as “a pole heavy with bronze.” The hasta amentata, for hurling, had a leathern thong for a handle (amentum) in the middle; hasta pura was a spear without a head, and was a much-valued decoration given to a Roman soldier who had saved a citizen’s life; hasta celibarium was a spear which, having been thrust into the body of a gladiator as he lay dead in the arena, was afterwards used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was set up before a place where sales by auction were going on, and an auction-room was hence called HASTARIUM. Different kinds of spear were the lancea of the Greeks; the pilum, peculiar to the Romans; the veru, verutum, or “spit,” of the Roman light infantry; the gæsum, a Celtic weapon adopted by the Romans; the sparrus, our English spar or spear, the rudest missile of the whole class; and many others mentioned under their respective headings in this work.

=Hasta Pura.= In Numismatics, a headless spear or long sceptre, an attribute of all the heathen deities; a symbol of the goodness of the gods and the conduct of providence, equally mild and forcible.

=Hastarium=, R. A room in which sales were made sub hasta publica, that is, by public auction, under the public authority indicated by the spear. The term also denoted a list or catalogue of sale.

=Hastile=, R. (hasta). The shaft of a spear, and thence the spear itself, a goad, &c.

=Hat= (A.S. haet, a covering for the head). Froissart describes hats and plumes worn at Edward’s court in 1340, when the Garter order was instituted. Hats were originally of a scarlet-red colour, and made of “a fine kinde of haire matted thegither.” A remarkable series of changes in the fashion of hats is given in Planché’s Encyclopædia of Costume. Our illustration represents a young Venetian noble of the Middle Ages. (See also the illustrations to POURPOINT, BIRETTA, BOMBARDS, CALASH, CAPUCHON, CHAPEAU, CORONETS, &c.)

=Hatchment=, Her. (for atchievement). An achievement of arms in a lozenge-shaped frame, placed upon the front of the residence of a person lately deceased, made to distinguish his rank and position in life.

=Hauberk= (Germ. Hals-berg, a throat-guard). A military tunic of ringed mail, of German origin, introduced in the 12th century.

=Haumudeys=, O. E. A purse.

=Hauriant=, Her. Said of fishes upright, “sucking the air.” (Fig. 381.)

=Hautboy.= A wind instrument of the reed kind.

=Haversack= (Fr. havre-sac). A soldier’s knapsack.

=Hawk=, Egyp. This bird symbolizes the successive new births of the rising sun. The hawk is the bird of Horus. It stood, at certain periods, for the word God, and, with a human head, for the word soul. The sun (Ra) is likewise represented with a hawk’s head, ornamented with the disk.

=Head-piece.= An ornamental engraving at the commencement of a new chapter in a book.

=Head-rail.= The head-dress worn by Saxon and Norman ladies.

=Healfang=, A.S. The pillory, or a fine in commutation. “Qui falsum testimonium dedit, reddat regi vel terræ domino HEALFANG.”

=Heang-loo=, Chinese. An incense-burner.

=Heart.= On numerous Christian tombs hearts maybe seen sculptured. Many archæologists have attempted to explain their meaning as symbols, but without entering on an unprofitable discussion of that question, it may be noticed that, in many cases, what archæologists have supposed to be hearts were nothing but ivy-leaves, which served as marks of separation between different words or sentences. Fig. 382 represents an inscription at Alise in which ivy-leaves figure, together with an ornament which some would insist were flames, if they were to take the leaves for hearts. When inscriptions, however, are defaced, the shape of the leaves is not nearly so distinguishable as in the figure. [One of the most frequent methods in which this emblem is introduced in Christian art is that the Saviour, or the Virgin Mary, is represented opening the breast to display the living heart—the natural symbol of Love, Devotion, or Sorrow. The Heart is an attribute of St. Theresa, St. Augustine, and other saints. The flaming heart is the emblem of charity. The heart pierced by seven daggers symbolizes the “seven sorrows” of Mary.]

=Hecatesia=, Gr. (Ἑκατήσια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of Hecatê.

=Hecatomb=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατόμβη). A sacrifice offered in Greece and Rome under special circumstances, and at which a hundred head of cattle (ἑκατὸν) were slain; whence the name of the festival. [The term was generally applied to all great sacrifices, of much less extent than that implied by its etymological meaning.]

=Hecatompylæ=, Gr. (ἑκατόμ-πυλαι). The city with a hundred gates; a name given to the Egyptian Thebes.

=Hecatonstylon=, =Hecatonstyle=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατὸν and στῦλος). A portico or colonnade with a hundred columns.

=Hecte= or =Hectæus=, Gr. = a sixth (R. modius). In dry measure, the sixth part of the medimnus, or nearly two gallons English. Coins of uncertain value bore the same name; they were sixths of other units of value.

=Hegira= (Arabic hajara, to desert). The flight from Mecca, 16th July, A. D. 622, from which Mohammedan chronology is calculated.

=Helciarius=, R. One who tows a boat. He was so called because he passed a rope round his body in the way of a belt, the rope thus forming a noose (helcium).

=Helepolis=, Gr. and R. (ἑλέ-πολις, the taker of cities). A lofty square tower, on wheels, used in besieging fortified places. It was ninety cubits high and forty wide; inside were nine stories, the lower containing machines for throwing great stones; the middle, large catapults for throwing spears; and the highest other machines. It was manned with 200 soldiers. The name was afterwards applied to other siege engines of similar construction.

=Helical=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, a wreath). A spiral line distinguished from spiral. A staircase is helical when the steps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas the spiral winds round a cone, and is constantly narrowing its axis. The term is applied to the volutes of a Corinthian capital. (See HELIX.)

=Heliochromy= (Gr. ἥλιος, the sun, and χρῶμα, colour). Process of taking coloured photographs.

=Heliopolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt, capital An, the sacred name for Heliopolis near Cairo.

=Heliotrope.= The Hæmatite or blood-stone; a siliceous mineral of a dark green colour, commonly variegated with bright red spots.

=Heliotropion=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)

=Helix=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, anything spiral). A small volute like the tendril of a vine placed under the Corinthian abacus. They are arranged in couples springing from one base, and unite at the summit.

=Hellebore.= A famous purgative medicine among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Philosophers prepared for work by drinking an infusion of the black hellebore, like tea. The best grew in the island of Anticyra in the Ægean Sea, and the gathering of it was accompanied by superstitious rites.

=Helm=, =Helmet=, Her. Now placed as an accessory above a shield of arms. Modern usage distinguishes helms according to the rank of the wearer. The term helm was applied by both Saxons and Normans, in the 11th century, to the conical steel cap with a nose-guard, which was the common head-piece of the day, and is depicted in contemporary illuminations, sculptures, and tapestries. Afterwards it was restricted to the casque, which covered the whole head, and had an aventaile or vizor for the face. The use of the helm finally ceased in the reign of Henry VIII.

=Helmet.= The diminutive of HELM, first applied to the smaller head-piece which superseded it in the 15th century. (See GALEA, ARMET, BASCINET, BURGONET, CASQUE, CHAPELLE LE FER, &c.)

=Hemi-= (Gr. ἡμι-). Half; used in composition of words like the Latin semi or demi.

=Hemichorion= (ἡμιχόριον). (See DICHOREA.)

=Hemicyclium=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-κύκλιον). A semicircular alcove, to which persons resorted for mutual conversation. The term was also used to denote a sun-dial.

=Hemina=, Gr. and R. (ἡμίνα, i. e. half). A measure of capacity containing half a sextarius (equal to the Greek cotyle = half a pint English).

=Hemiolia=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-ολία, i. e. one and a half). A vessel of peculiar construction employed especially by Greek pirates.

=Hemisphærium=, R. A sun-dial in the form of a hemisphere; whence its name. (Fig. 385.)

=Hemlock=, the Conium maculatum of botanists, was the poison used by the ancient Greeks for the despatch of state prisoners. Its effects are accurately described in Plato’s description of the death of Socrates.

=Heptagon= (Gr. ἑπτὰ, seven, and γώνη, an angle). A seven-sided figure.

=Hepteris=, Gr. and R. (ἑπτ-ήρης). A ship of war with seven ranks of oars.

=Heræa.= Important Greek festivals, celebrated in honour of Hera in all the towns of Greece. At Argos, every fifth year, an immense body of young men in armour formed a procession, preceded by a HECATOMB of oxen, to the great temple of Hera, between Argos and Mycenæ, where the oxen were slaughtered, and their flesh distributed to the citizens.

=Herald= (Germ. Herold). An officer of arms. The heralds of England were incorporated by Richard III. The college now consists of three kings of arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants. The office of Earl Marshal, the supreme head of the English heralds, is hereditary in the family of the Duke of Norfolk. There is another herald king styled “Bath,” who is specially attached to that order; he is not a member of the college. The chief herald of Scotland is styled Lord Lyon King of Arms; that of Ireland, Ulster King of Arms. Chester herald is mentioned in the reign of Richard II., Lancaster king of arms under Henry IV. (See MARSHAL, KINGS OF ARMS, &c.)

=Heralds’ College.= A college of heralds was instituted in Rome by Numa Pompilius, and the office was held sacred among the most ancient Oriental nations. The institution was imported into England in the Middle Ages from Germany, a corporation of heralds, similar to the collegium fetialium of Rome, having been established in England in 1483 by Richard III. (See Pitiscus, tom. i., and Hofmann, tom. ii.)

=Hermæ=, Gr. and R. (Ἑρμαῖ). Hermæ, a kind of pedestals surmounted only by the head, or, in some cases, the bust of Hermes. Great reverence was felt for these statues. Houses at Athens had one before the doors; they were also placed in front of temples, near tombs, at street corners, or as mile-stones on the high roads. Hermuli, or small Hermæ, were a common ornament of furniture, as pilasters and supports. The same name is applied to similar statues having a man’s head. This statue was probably one of the first attempts of art at plastic representation. The phallus and a pointed beard originally were essential parts of the symbol. In place of arms there were projections to hang garlands on. Then a mantle was introduced from the shoulders. Afterwards the whole torso was placed above the pillar; and finally the pillar itself was shaped into a perfect statue. All these gradations of the sculptor’s art are traceable in existing monuments.

=Hermæa.= Festivals of Hermes, celebrated by the boys in the gymnasia, of which Hermes was the tutelary deity.

=Hermeneutæ=, Chr. (ἑρμηνευταί). Literally, interpreters. In the earliest ages of the Church, these were officials whose duty it was to translate sacred discourses or portions of Holy Scripture.

=Herne-pan=, O. E. (for iron-pan). Skull-cap worn under the helmet.

=Heroum=, Gr. (ἡρῷον, i. e. place of a hero). A kind of ÆDICULA (q.v.), or small temple, which served as a funeral monument. Several representations of Roman HEROA may be seen in the British Museum, representing funeral feasts in a temple, carved on the face of a sarcophagus (in the Towneley collection).

=Herring-bone Masonry.= Common in late Roman or early Saxon walls, where the ornamental lines take a sloping, parallel, zigzag direction.

=Herygoud=, O. E. A cloak with hanging sleeves.

=Heuk= or =Huque=, O. E. (1) Originally a cloak or mantle worn in the Middle Ages; then (2) a tight-fitting dress worn by both sexes. (Fairholt; see also Planché, Encyclopædia.) There appears to be great uncertainty as to the character of this garment.

=Hexaclinon=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-κλινος). A dining or banqueting couch capable of holding six persons.

=Hexaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-φορον). A litter carried by six porters.

=Hexapterygon=, Chr. (ἑξα-πτέρυγον). A fan used by Greek Catholics, and so named because it has on it figures of seraphim with six wings. (See FAN and FLABELLUM.)

=Hexastyle=, Arch. (ἑξά-στυλος). A façade of which the roof is supported by six columns.

=Hexeris=, Gr. (ἑξ-ήρης). A vessel with six ranks of oars.

=Hiberna= or =Hyberna=, R. A winter apartment. The halls in a Roman country house were built to face different ways according to the seasons; verna and autumnalis looked to the east; hyberna, to the west; æstiva, to the north.

=Hidage=, =Hidegild=, A.S. A tax payable to the Saxon kings of England for every hide of land. The word is indifferently used to signify exemption from such a tax.

=Hidalgo= (Span. hijo d’algo, son of somebody). An obsolete title of nobility in Spain.

=Hieroglyphics=, Egyp. (ἱερὸς, sacred, and γλύφω, to carve). Characters of Egyptian writing, the letters of which are figurative or symbolic. There are three kinds of Egyptian writing, the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, and the demotic. Clement of Alexandria says that in the education of the Egyptians three styles of writing are taught: the first is called the epistolary (enchorial or demotic); the second the sacerdotal (hieratic), which the sacred Scribes employ; and the third the hieroglyphic. Other nations, as for instance the ancient Mexicans, have likewise employed hieroglyphics.

=Hieromancy=, Gr. and R. Divination from sacrifices.

=Hieron=, Gr. (ἱερὸν, i. e. holy place). The whole of the sacred enclosure of a temple, which enclosed the woods, the building, and the priests’ dwelling-place.

=High-warp Tapestry.= Made on a loom, in which the warp is arranged on a vertical plane,, as the Gobelins. Low-warp tapestry is made on a flat loom, as at Aubusson, Beauvais, and other places. It is made more rapidly, and is inferior in beauty to the former.

=Hilaria.= A great Roman festival in honour of Cybele, celebrated at the vernal equinox. It consisted chiefly of extravagant merry-making to celebrate the advent of spring.

=Hippocampus=, Gr. and R. A fabulous animal, which had the fore-quarters of a horse ending in the tail of a dolphin. [It is imitated from the little “sea-horse” of the Mediterranean, now common in aquariums; and in mural paintings of Pompeii is represented attached to the chariot of Neptune.]

=Hippocentaur.= A fabulous animal, composed of a human body and head attached to the shoulders of a horse. (See also CENTAUR.)

=Hippocervus=, Chr. A fantastic animal, half horse and half stag; it personifies the pusillanimous man who throws himself without reflection into uncertain paths, and soon falls into despair at having lost himself in them.

=Hippocratia=, Gr. Festivals held in Arcadia in honour of Neptune, who, by striking the earth with his trident, had given birth to the horse.

=Hippodromus=, Gr. and R. The Greek name for an arena for horse and chariot races, in contradistinction to the stadium, which served for foot-racing. Fig. 386 represents the hippodrome at Olympia, taken from Gell’s Itinerary of the Morea. The following is the key to the plan:—1, 2, and 3 are carceres; A, the space included between the stalls or carceres; B, starting-place for the chariots; C, the colonnade; D, the arena; E, the barrier; F, the goal; G, the space occupied by the spectators. [The word was also applied to the races themselves.] (See also CIRCUS.)

=Hippogryph.= A mythical animal represented as a winged horse with the head of a gryphon.

=Hippopera=, Gr. and R. (ἱππο-πήρα). A saddle-bag for travellers on horseback. (See ASCOPERA.)

=Hippotoxotes= (ἱππο-τοξότης). A mounted archer. The Syrians, Persians, Medes, Greeks, and Romans had mounted archers among their light cavalry.

=Histrio.= An actor. The GREEK dramas were originally represented on the stage by one performer, who represented in succession the different characters. Æschylus introduced a second and a third actor. The actors were all amateurs, and it was not until a later period that the histrionic profession became a speciality. Sophocles and Æschylus both probably acted their own plays. The ROMAN name for an actor, histrio, was formed from the Etruscan hister, a dancer. The earliest histriones were dancers, and performed to the music of a flute; then Roman youths imitating them introduced jocular dialogue, and this was the origin of the drama. After the organization of the theatres, the histriones were subjected to certain disabilities; they were a despised class, and excluded from the rights of citizenship. The greatest of histriones in Rome were Roscius and Æsopus, who realized great fortunes by their acting.

=Hobelarii=, Med. Lat. (See HOBLERS.)

=Hoblers=, A.S. Feudal tenants bound to serve as light horsemen in times of invasion.

=Hob-nob=, O. E. (Saxon habban, to have; næbban, not to have). “Hit or miss;” hence a common invitation to reciprocal drinking.

=Hock-day=, =Hoke-day=, or =Hock Tuesday.= A holiday kept to commemorate the expulsion of the Danes. It was held on the second Tuesday after Easter. Hocking consisted in stopping the highway with ropes, and taking toll of passers-by.

=Hocus-pocus.= Probably a profane corruption of the words hoc est corpus used in the Latin mass.

=Holocaust.= A sacrifice entirely consumed by fire.

=Holosericum= (Gr. ὅλον, all; σηρικόν, silk). A textile all silk.

=Holy Bread=, =Holy Loaf=, or =Eulogia= (Lat. panis benedictus). This was not the eucharistic bread (which was used in the wafer form for the Communion), but ordinary leavened bread, blessed by the priest after mass, cut up into small pieces and given to the people.

=Holy-bread-skep=, O. E. A vessel for containing the holy bread.

=Holy Water Pot=, Chr. A metal vessel frequently found at the doors of Roman Catholic churches, to contain the consecrated water, which was dispensed with the aspergillum.

=Holy Water Sprinkler= or =Morning Star=, O. E. A military club or flail set with spikes, which sprinkled the blood about as the aspergillum sprinkles the holy water.

=Holy Water Stone= or =Stoup=, Chr. A stone receptacle placed at the entrance of a church for holding the holy water.

=Honeysuckle Pattern.= A common Greek ornament, fully described by its name. (See FLEURON.)

=Honiton Guipure.= Lace was made in Devonshire, as well as in other parts of England, of silk and coarse thread until 1567, when the fine thread now used was introduced, it is said, by Flemings, who had escaped from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva. (See OLD DEVONSHIRE.) Honiton lace owes its great reputation to the sprigs made separately on a pillow, and afterwards either worked in with the beautiful pillow net or sewn on it. This net was made of the finest thread from Antwerp, the price of which in 1790 was 70_l._ per pound. (See MECHLIN LACE, 18th century.) Heathcoat’s invention, however, dealt a fatal blow to the trade of the net-makers, and since then Honiton lace is usually made by uniting the sprigs on a pillow, or joining them with a needle by various stitches, as shown in the engraving.

=Honour=, Legion of. Instituted 3rd June, 1802, by Napoleon I. as first consul.

=Hoodman-blind.= Old English for BLINDMAN’S BUFF (q.v.).

=Hoods= (A.S. Hod) were probably introduced by the Normans. They are constantly represented, with great variation of fashion, in illustrations of the 11th to 18th century, as a part of the costume of both sexes. They were finally displaced by caps and bonnets in the reign of George II. (See CHAPERON, COWL.)

=Hoops=, in ladies’ dress, were introduced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, displacing the FARTHINGALE; and were finally abandoned in that of George III.

=Hop-harlot=, O. E. A very coarse coverlet for beds.

=Horatia Pila=, R. A pillar erected at the west extremity of the Roman forum to receive the trophy of the spoils of the three Curiatii brought back by Horatius.

=Horns.= A portion of a lady’s head-dress, mentioned in the 13th century. They appear to have been formed by the foldings of the gorget or wimple, and a disposition of the hair on each side of the head into the form of rams’ horns. For the horned head-dress of the 15th century, see the illustration to CORONET.

=Horologium.= (1) Sundials preceded all other instruments for the measurement of time. The gnomon or stocheion of the GREEKS was a perpendicular staff or pillar, the shadow of which fell upon a properly marked ground; the polos or heliotropion consisted of a perpendicular staff, in a basin in which the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines. (2) The clepsydra was a hollow globe, with a short neck, and holes in the bottom; it measured time by the escape of water, and was at first used like an hour-glass to regulate the length of speeches in the Athenian courts. The escape of water was stopped by inserting a stopper in the mouth, when the speaker was interrupted. Smaller clepsydrata made of glass and marked with the hours were used in families. A precisely similar history applies to the horologia of ROME.

=Horreum= (dimin. horreolum), R. (1) Literally, a place in which ripe fruits were kept; a granary, or storehouse for grain; horreum publicum was the public granary. (2) Any storehouse or depôt; horrea subterranea, cellars. (3) It was applied to places in which works of art were kept, and Seneca calls his library a horreum.

=Horse.= In Christian art, the emblem of courage and generosity; attribute of St. Martin, St. Maurice, St. George, and others. The Chinese have a sacred horse, which is affirmed to have appeared from a river to the philosopher Fou-hi, bearing instruction in eight diagrams of the characters proper to express certain abstract ideas.

=Horse-shoe=, Arch. A form of the stilted arch elevated beyond half the diameter of the curve on which it is described. (See ARCH.)

=Hortus= (dimin. hortulus), R. A pleasure-garden, park, and thence a kitchen garden; horti pensiles were hanging gardens. The most striking features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees planted in regular order; alleys or walks (ambulationes) formed by closely clipped hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other ever greens; beds of acanthus, rows of fruit-trees especially of vines, with statues, pyramids, fountains, and summer-houses (diætæ). The Romans were fond of the art of cutting and twisting trees, especially box, into figures of animals, ships, &c. (ars topiaria). The principal garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they had also the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth, and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned by Martial. An ornamental garden was also called viridarium, and the gardener topiarius or viridarius. The common name for a gardener is villicus or cultor hortorum. (Consult Smith’s Dict. of Ant.)

=Hospitium=, R. (hospes, a guest). A general term to denote any place in which a traveller finds shelter, board, and lodging. [The word had a very wide meaning of hospitality, regulated in all its details by the religious and social and politic sentiments of the nations.]

=Hostia=, R. (hostio, to strike). A victim offered in sacrifice.

=Hot Cockles=, O. E. A game common in the Middle Ages.

=Hot-houses=, O. E. The name for Turkish baths; 16th century.

=Houppeland=, O. E. A very full loose upper garment with large hanging sleeves; 14th century. It was probably introduced from Spain, and was something like a cassock.

=House.= (See DOMUS.)

=Houseling Bread=, O. E., Chr. (See SINGING-BREAD, HOWSLING BELL.)

=Housia= or =Housse=, O. E. An outer garment, combining cloak and tunic; a tabard.

=Howsling Bell=, O. E. The bell which was rung before the Holy Eucharist, when taken to the sick.

=Howve= (Saxon, from the old German hoojd). A hood. A common phrase quoted by Chaucer, “to set a man’s howve,” is the same as to “set his cap,” cap him or cheat him.

=Huacos.= (See GUACAS.)

=Huircas= or =Pinchas=, Peruv. Subterranean aqueducts of the ancient Peruvians, distinct from the barecac or open conduits.

=Hullings= or =Hullyng=. Old English name for hangings for a hall, &c.

=Humatio=, R. (humo, to bury). The act of burying, and thence any mode of interment whatever.

=Hume’s Permanent White.= SULPHATE OF BARYTES (q.v.).

=Humerale.= (See ANABOLOGIUM, AMICE.)

=Humettée=, Her. Cut short at the extremities.

=Hunting Flask.= M. Jacquemart thinks that that represented in Fig. 389 may be reasonably attributed to Palissy. It is glazed in green, and diapered with little flames of a deeper shade. Upon the body, in relief, is the escutcheon of the celebrated Anne de Montmorency, round it the collar of St. Michael, and on each side the Constable’s sword supported by a mailed arm and the motto of his house, “A Planos” (unwavering). A mask of Italian style and rayonnated suns complete the decoration of this curious sealed earthenware.

=Hurst=, Her. A clump of trees.

=Hurte=, Her. A blue roundle.

=Hutch=, O. E. (Fr. huche). A locker, which generally stood at the foot of the bed, to contain clothes and objects of value. It was commonly used for a seat.

=Huvette=, Fr. A close steel skull-cap.

=Hyacinth.= (1) A precious stone of a violet colour. (2) The colour formed of red with blue, blue predominating. (3) The flower hyacinth among the ancient Greeks was the emblem of death.

=Hyacinthia=, Gr. A national festival, celebrated annually at Amyclæ by the Amyclæans and Spartans, in honour of the hero Hyacinthus, who was accidentally killed by Apollo with a quoit.

=Hyalotype= (ὕαλος, glass, and τυπεῖν, to print). An invention for printing photographs from the negative on to glass, instead of paper.

=Hycsos=, Egyp. (lit. impure). A people of unknown origin, nomad tribes, but not savages, as has hitherto been believed, who came from Sinai, Arabia, and Syria. They are known as Poimenes (the Shepherds), Mentiou Sati, Asian Shepherds, and even Scourges, from their invasion of some part of Eastern Egypt.

=Hydra=, Gr. (a water-serpent). A hundred-headed monster of Greek mythology, sprung, like the Chimæra, from Typhon and Echidna; he was killed by Hercules. In Heraldry the hydra is represented with only nine heads. The illustration (Fig. 390) is of the device adopted by Curtio Gonzaga, an Italian poet, to symbolize the constancy of his love, with the motto, “If I kill it, more strong it revives.”

=Hydraletês=, Gr. (1) A mill for grinding corn, driven by water. (2) A waterfall or current of water.

=Hydraulis=, Gr. (ὕδρ-αυλις). A water-organ. The hydraulic organ, invented about B.C. 200, was really a pneumatic organ; the water was only used to force the air through the pipes. It is represented on a coin of Nero in the British Museum. Only ten pipes are given to it, and there is no indication of any key-board. It had eight stops, and consequently eight rows of pipes; these were partly of bronze, and partly of reed. It continued in use so late as the 9th century of our era.

=Hydria=, Gr. A large, heavy vessel, used principally for holding a store of water. It is represented urn-shaped, with a broad base and a narrow mouth, sometimes with one and sometimes with two handles at the top, and smaller ones on the belly. The name is applied to other pails of bronze or silver, &c. (Fig. 391.)

=Hydriaphoria=, Gr. (water-bearing). (1) Funereal ceremonies performed at Athens in memory of those who had perished in the deluges of Ogyges, Deucalion, &c. (2) A service exacted from married alien women in Athens by the female citizens, when they walked in the great procession at the Panathenaic feasts, and the former carried vessels of water for them.

=Hydroceramic= (vessels), Gr. Vessels made of a porous clay, in which liquids were put for the purpose of cooling them; they were a kind of alcarazas.

=Hydroscope.= Another name for the clepsydra. (See HOROLOGIUM.)

=Hypæthral=, Gr. and R. (lit. under the sky, or in the open air). The term was applied to any building, especially a temple, the cella of which had no roof. On the roofs of Egyptian temples, hypæthral temples are arranged with regard to astronomical observations, by which the calendar was regulated.

=Hypæthrum=, Gr. and R. A grating or claustra placed over the principal door of a temple for the purpose of admitting light into a part of the cella. Fig. 392 shows one of the bronze doors of the Pantheon at Rome, with its hypæthrum.

=Hyperthyrum=, Gr. and R. (over the door). A frieze and cornice arranged and decorated in various ways for the decoration of the lintel of a door.

=Hypocastanum.= Greek for CHESNUT BROWN (q.v.).

=Hypocaust=, Gr. and R. (ὑπό-καυσις and ὑπό-καυστον). A furnace with flues running underneath the floor of an apartment or bath, for heating the air. Fig. 393 represents the sectional elevation of a bath-room discovered in a Roman villa at Tusculum. Fig. 394 represents a hypocausis discovered at Paris in the old Rue de Constantine, near Notre Dame.

=Hypogeum=, Arch. A building underground; a sepulchral vault. They form a principal part of Egyptian architecture of every period. The Greek term is a synonym of the Latin CONDITORIUM (q.v.)

=Hyporchema=, Gr. A lively dance, accompanied by a mimic performance, at the festivals of Apollo among the Dorians. A chorus of singers danced round the altars, and others acted comic or playful scenes.

=Hypotrachelium= or =Cincture=, Arch. The part of the Doric capital included between the astragal and the lower annulets or fillets.

=Hysteria=, Gr. (from ὗς, a pig). Greek festivals, in which swine were sacrificed in honour of Venus.

I.

=Ich Dien.= I serve. The popular belief that Edward the Black Prince adopted this motto and the “Prince of Wales’s feathers,” at the battle of Cressy, from the blind King of Bohemia, is not sustained by investigation. It was at the battle of Poitiers that he first adopted this crest, joining to the family badge the old English word Ic den (Theyn), “I serve,” in accordance with the words of the Apostle, “The heir, while he is a child, differeth nothing from a servant.” (Mrs. Palliser; Historic Devices.)

=Ichnography.= The art of making maps or plans.

=Iconic= (sc. statues), Gr. and R. (εἰκονικὰ, i. e.) Portrait-statues; especially statues raised in honour of athletes who had been victorious in the contests.

=Iconoclasts=, Chr. Image-breakers. The name originated in the 8th or 9th century in the Eastern Empire, from which finally Theophilus banished all the painters and statuaries in 832. It has been since generally applied to those who, at various outbreaks of fanaticism, have destroyed ecclesiastical objects of art, and is especially applicable to the disciples of Savonarola in 1497, and to the Puritans of Scotland and England during the civil wars.

=Iconography= (i. e. image-description). The science that deals with statues and images, bas-reliefs, busts, medals, &c. Thus we have an Egyptian, Greek, Roman, mediæval iconography, &c. The best work on this science is “Christian Iconography; or the History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages,” by M. Didron. The second volume contains a manual on the subject by a painter of the 12th century.

=Iconostasis=, Chr. The screen of the chancel in ancient churches, so called because it was there that images (εἰκόνες) were displayed for the adoration of the faithful.

=Ideal= and =Real.= “Any work of art which represents, not a material object, but the mental conception of a material object, is in the primary sense of the word ideal; that is to say, it represents an idea, not a thing. Any work of art which represents or realizes a material object is, in the primary sense of the term, un-ideal.” (Modern Painters, vol. ii. chap. 13.) In a practical sense an ideal picture or statue (e. g. the Medici Venus) is not the portrait of an individual model, but the putting together of selected parts from several models. Raphael said, “To paint a beautiful woman I must see several, and I have also recourse to a certain ideal in my mind;” and Guido said, “The beautiful and pure idea must be in the mind, and then it is no matter what the model is.”

=Ides=, =Idus=, R. One of the monthly divisions in the Roman year; it fell on the 15th in months of thirty-one days, excepting January, August, and December; in months with only twenty-nine or thirty days, the ides fell on the 13th. The kalends are the first of every month; the nones are the 7th of March, May, July, and October, and the 5th of all the other months; and the ides always fall eight days later than the nones; and the days are reckoned backwards: thus the 13th of January is the ides of January, and the 14th of January the 19th day ante diem (or before) the February kalends. The morrow of the ides was looked upon as an unlucky day (nefas).

=Illapa=, Peruv. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun (Inti) among the ancient Peruvians, so called because it was dedicated to the thunder (Illapa). (See INTI.)

=Illumination.= This art originated simply in the application of minium (or red lead) as a colour or ink, to decorate a portion of a piece of writing, the general text of which was in black ink. The term was retained long after the original red lead was superseded by the more brilliant cinnabar, or vermilion. Ornaments of all kinds were gradually added, and the term includes the practice of every kind of ornamental or ornamented writing. From the 3rd century Greek and Roman specimens exist of golden lettering upon purple or rose-coloured vellum, and the art prevailed wherever monasteries were founded. Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. of the 6th and 7th centuries exhibit a marvellous perfection, characterized by wonderfully minute interlacements of the patterns. Nearly all the best specimens of illumination were destroyed on the dissolution of monasteries. (Consult “The Art of Illuminating,” by W. R. Timms.)

=Imagines a vestir=, It. Wooden images set up in Italian churches, with the heads and extremities finished, and the bodies covered with real drapery.

=Imagines Majorum=, R. Portraits of ancestors, or family portraits; they usually consisted of waxen masks, which were kept in the cases of an armarium or in an ædicula; or small statues which were carried before the corpse in a funeral procession.

=Imbrex=, R. A ridge-tile of semi-cylindrical form, and thus distinct from the tegula, which was a flat tile. It was called imbrex from its collecting the rain (imber). Imbrex supinus was the name given to a channel or gutter formed of ridge-tiles laid on their backs.

=Imbrications.= Architectural ornaments which take the form of fishes’ scales, or of segmental ridge-tiles (imbrices) which overlap; whence the name given to them.

=Imbricatus=, R. Covered with flat and ridge-tiles (tegulæ and imbrices).

=Imbrothered=, O. E. Embroidered.

=Imbrued=, Her. Stained with blood.

=Immissarium=, R. (immitto, to send into). A stone basin or trough; any receptacle built upon the ground for the purpose of containing water supplied from the castellum.

=Impale=, Her. To conjoin two separate coats of arms on one shield (as a husband’s and wife’s, &c.). The device of Queen Mary (Fig. 395) is the impalement of the double Tudor rose with the arms of Catherine of Aragon.

=Impannata=, It. Oiled paper.

=Impasto=, It. The thickness of the body of pigment laid on to a painting. Rembrandt, Salvator Rosa, and others used a thick impasto; Raphael, Guido, and others, one extremely thin.

=Imperial.= Anything adapted by its excellence for royal uses, or distinguished in size, is generally so called. (1) O. E. A sort of precious silk, wrought partly with gold, used by royalty and for ecclesiastical purposes, brought to England from Greece in the 12th century. (2) The largest kind of slate for roofing. (3) Paper 27 inches by 23. (4) Sp. The roof of a coach; hence, in English, a trunk made to fit the top of a carriage. (5) Russian. A gold coin of 10 silver roubles.

=Impluviata=, R. A cloak of square shape and brown in colour, worn as a protection against rain.

=Impluvium=, R. (1) A cistern on the floor of the atrium in a Roman house, into which the rain was conducted. (2) The aperture in the roof of the atrium. (See DOMUS.)

=Impost=, Arch. The horizontal mouldings on a pillar, from which an arch is projected.

=In antis=, Arch. A name given to those temples, the pronaos or entrance porch of which was formed by two antæ or pilasters, and two columns. (See ANTÆ.)

=Inauguratio=, R. Generally the term applies to the ceremony by which the sanction of the gods was invoked upon any decree of man, such as the admission of a new member into a corporation or college, or the choice of the site of a theatre, city, or temple, &c.

=Inaures=, R. (auris, the ear; Gr. enotion). Ear-rings. Among the Greeks and Romans they were worn only by women. (See EAR-RINGS.)

=Incensed=, =Inflamed=, Her. On fire. (See FOCULUS.)

=Incisura=, R. (incido, to cut). Hatchings made by means of a brush.

=Incitega=, R. A kind of tripod or stand for vessels rounded or pointed at the bottom.

=Incle=, =Inkle=. A sort of tape used as a trimming to a dress.

=Incrustation.= The word has a general signification, “a coat of one material applied to another.” Technically it should be applied to marble alone; thus a thin slab of marble is incrusted upon a body of slate or stone, metals are DAMASCENED, fused pigments are ENAMEL, and woods are VENEERED.

=Incubones=, R. Genii who were supposed to guard treasure hidden under the earth.

=Incunabula.= (1) Swaddling clothes for infants. (2) Ancient specimens of printing are so called.

=Incus=, R. (incudo, to beat on). An anvil.

=Indented=, Her. One of the dividing and border lines. It resembles the teeth of a saw.

=Indian Art.= The study of the forms and principles of Indian Art is indispensable to an appreciation of the true principles of ornamental design in general. The excellence of Indian manufactures is due to the system of Guilds rigidly adhered to for ages, which has resulted in the production of a race of hereditary craftsmen unequalled for their skill and taste in execution and design. Their pottery is distinguished above all others for purity and simplicity of form, obvious fitness to purpose, and individual freedom of design. Its origin antedates the Institutes of Manu, and is lost in antiquity. Indian gold and metal work is supposed by Dr. Birdwood to owe its origin to Greek influence, but has acquired in its development a purely Oriental character. The Hindoos exhibit the greatest skill in the Oriental arts of damascening and enamelling, as well as in lacquer work and wood and ivory carving. All their designs are deeply symbolical, and closely interwoven with the primitive religious impulses of humanity. India was probably the first country in which the art of weaving was brought to perfection, and the fame of its cloudy gauzes and its gold and silver brocades is more ancient than the Code of Manu. The art is repeatedly mentioned in the Vedas. The purity of Indian Art is endangered in modern days by the introduction of machine-made goods and European design. (Consult Dr. Birdwood’s Handbook of Indian Art.)

=Indian Ink= or =Chinese Ink=. A black pigment for water-colour painting, made from oil and lamp-black, thickened with some vegetable gum, and scented with musk or camphor. Many cheap and poor imitations of it are made.

=Indian Ochre.= A red pigment. (See RED OCHRES.)

=Indian Paper.= A delicate yellowish paper used for proof impressions in engraving. A Japanese paper of a similar quality is now frequently used.

=Indian Red= or =Persian Red=. A purple earth commonly sold under this name is the peroxide of iron. It is of a deep hue, opaque and permanent, and useful both in oil and water-colour painting; mixed with white it forms valuable flesh-tints. (Fairholt.) (See OCHRE, AMATITA.)

=Indian Rubber=, =Caoutchouc=. An elastic gum; the sap of the Siphonia elastica, and several of the fig tribe in India and South America. It was brought into use early in the 18th century. In its natural state it is of a pale yellow brown.

=Indian Yellow.= A golden yellow pigment and dye, said to be procured from the urine of the cow, or else from camel’s dung. It is used in water-colour painting, but is not usually permanent. In some parts of the East it is called PURREE.

=Indigetes= (sc. Di), R. Indigenous gods. Heroes who were deified and worshipped as protectors of a place. The term is derived from inde and genitus, meaning born in that place. Æneas, Faunus, Romulus, &c., were indigenous gods.

=Indigo.= A deep blue pigment prepared from the leaves and branches of a small shrub; it is transparent, tolerably permanent, and mixes well with other pigments, forming excellent greens and purples. A deep brown, known as indigo brown and a deep red resin, known as indigo red, may be extracted by purifying the blue colour obtained from this dye. The old blue dye of the aboriginal Britons was produced from woad (isatis tinctoria). (Fairholt.) (See INTENSE BLUE.)

=Inescutcheon=, Her. An heraldic shield borne as a charge.

=Inferiæ=, R. Sacrifices or offerings made at the tombs of the dead.

=Infiammati.= A literary society of Padua in Italy. Device: Hercules upon the funeral pile on Mount Œta. Motto: “Arso il mortal al ciel n’ andrà l’ eterno.”

=Infocati.= One of the Italian literary societies. Device: a bar of hot iron on an anvil, beaten by two hammers. Motto: “In quascunque formas.”

=In Foliage=, Her. Bearing leaves.

=Infrenatus= (sc. eques), R. A horseman who rides without a bridle (frenum), controlling his horse solely by the voice or the pressure of the knees upon its side. (Fig. 282.)

=Infula=, R. A flock of red and white wool worn by priestesses and vestals and other Romans on festive or solemn occasions. In sacrificing also an infula was tied with a white band (vitta) upon the victim. Hence—

=Infulæ=, Chr. Ribands hanging from a bishop’s mitre.

=In Glory=, =In Splendour=, Her. The sun irradiated.

=Inlaying.= Inserting ornaments in wood-work for decorative furniture. (See BOULE, MARQUETRY.)

=In Lure=, Her. Wings conjoined, with their tips drooping.

=Inoa.= Greek festivals in honour of Ino, esp. on the Corinthian Isthmus; they consisted of contests and sacrifices. (See MATRALIA.)

=In Pretence=, Her. Placed upon, and in front of.

=In Pride=, Her. Having the tail displayed, as a peacock’s. The illustration is the device of Joan of Castile: “A peacock, in his pride, upon the terrestrial globe.” (Fig. 398.)

=Insensati of Perugia.= One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was a flock of cranes, arranged in order, flying across the sea, each with a stone in its foot and sand in its mouth. Mottoes, “Vel cum pondere” (even with this weight), or “Iter tutissimum,” in allusion to Pliny’s statement that the cranes used stones and sand for ballast, “wherewith they fly more steadily and endure the wind.”

=Insignia=, R. (in, and signum, a mark). Generally, any object which serves as a mark or ornament for distinguished persons; a ceremonial badge, a badge of office, &c. (See ENSIGNS.)

=Insubulum=, R. A weaver’s beam or roller, round which he rolled the cloth as it was made.

=Insula=, R. A house, or block of houses, having a free space all round them. [Under the emperors the word domus meant any house, detached or otherwise, where a family lived; and insula meant a hired lodging.]

=Intaglio=, It. A stone in which the engraved subject is sunk beneath the surface, and thus distinguished from a cameo, which is engraved in relief.

=Intaglio-relievato= (It.), or cavo-relievo. Sunk-relief, in which the work is recessed within an outline, but still raised in flat relief, not projecting above the surface of the slab; as seen in the ancient Egyptian carvings.

=Intense Blue.= A preparation of indigo, very durable and transparent.

=Intense Madder Purple.= (See MADDER.)

=Intercolumniation=, Arch. The space between two columns. This space varies according to the orders of architecture and the taste of the architect. According as the space is greater or less between the columns of a temple, the latter is called aerostyle, eustyle, systyle, and pycnostyle. Generally speaking, in the monuments of antiquity, whatever be the intercolumniation adopted, the space comprised between the two columns which face the door of the building is wider than the intercolumniation at the sides.

=Intermetium=, R. The long barrier running down the arena of a circus between the two goals (metæ). (See META.)

=Intermodillions=, Arch. The space included between two modillions (projecting brackets in the Corinthian order). This space is regular, and often decorated with various ornaments. In the Romano-Byzantine and Renaissance styles, modillions are often united by arcades.

=Intertignium=, R. The space between the tie-beams (tigna) in the wood-work of a roof.

=Interula=, R. (interior, inner). An undertunic; a kind of flannel chemise worn by both men and women.

=Intestinum= (opus), R. (intus, within). The inner fittings or work of any kind in the inside of a house, and thence wood-work, JOINERY.

=Inti= or =Punchau=, Peruv. The Sun or supreme god, inferior deities being called conopa and canopa. The temple of the Sun was called Inti-huasi (house of the Sun); it comprised seven principal divisions; the inti or sanctuary, situated in the centre of the temple; the second division was called mama-quilla, from the fact of its being dedicated to the moon, which was thus named; the third was dedicated to the stars, called cayllur; the fourth to the thunder, and called illapa; the fifth to the rainbow, and called ckuichi; the sixth division was occupied by the chief priest (huilacuma); the seventh and last division formed the dwelling of the priests.

=Intronati of Siena.= One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was a gourd for containing salt, with the motto, “Meliora latent” (the better part is hidden).

=Iodine Scarlet= (pure scarlet). A pigment more brilliant than vermilion, very susceptible to metallic agency.

=Iodine Yellow.= A very bright yellow pigment, very liable to change.

=Ionic=, Arch. One of the orders of Grecian architecture, distinguished principally by the ornaments of its CAPITAL, which are spiral and are called VOLUTES, four in number. The Ionic SHAFT is about nine diameters high, including the BASE (which is half a diameter) and the CAPITAL, to the bottom of the volute. The PEDESTAL is a little taller and more ornamented than the Doric. The BASES used are very various. The Attic base is very often used, and, with an astragal added above the upper torus, makes a beautiful and appropriate base for the Ionic. The CORNICES are (1) plain Grecian, or (2) the dentil cornice, or (3) the modillon cornice. The Ionic shaft may be fluted in twenty-four semicircular flutes with fillets between them. The best Ionic example was the temple on the Ilissus at Athens. The temple of Fortuna Virilis at Rome is an inferior specimen. (See also Figs. 69, 184.)

=Irish Cloth=, white and red, in the reign of King John was much used in England.

=Iron.= Indian red, Venetian red, Mars red, Mars orange, Mars yellow are all coloured by iron (see MARS), and are valuable for their great durability. (See METALLURGY.)

=Irradiated=, Her. Surrounded by rays of light.

=Iseia=, Gr. and R. (Ἴσεια). Festivals in honour of Isis. Among the Romans they degenerated into mere licentiousness, and were abolished by the senate.

=Iselastici Ludi=, Gr. and R. Athletic contests which gave the victor the right of returning to his native city in a chariot (εἰσελαύνειν); whence the name iselastici. These contests formed part of the four great games of Greece, viz. the Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean games.

=Isodomos= or =Isodomum=, Gr. and R. (ἰσόδομος, i. e. equal course). A structure built in equal courses, that is, in such a way that the surface of each stone is of one uniform size, and that the joints of one layer are adjusted with those of another so as to correspond symmetrically.

=Isokephaleia= (Gr. ἴσος, equal; κεφαλὴ, head). A rule in Greek sculpture by which the heads of all the figures on a bas-relief were of the same height from the ground.

=Isometrical Perspective=, used for representing a bird’s-eye view of a place, combines the advantages of a ground-plan and elevation; only the lines of the base are made to converge, leaving the whole figure cubical, and without the expression of distance from the point of sight.

=Ispahan Tiles=, of the period of Shah-Abbas—16th century—are remarkable for exquisite design.

=Italian Earth.= Burnt Roman ochre; resembles Venetian red in colour; and, mixed with white, yields valuable flesh-tints. (Fairholt.)

=Italian Pink=, or yellow lake. A transparent bright-coloured pigment, liable to change. (See YELLOW LAKE, PINKS.)

=Italian Varnish.= A mixture of white wax and linseed oil, used as a vehicle in painting. It has good consistency, flows freely from the pencil, and is useful for glazing.

=Ivory Black.= A pigment prepared by heating ivory shavings in an iron cylinder; when from bone, it is called bone black (q.v.). The real ivory black is a fine, transparent, deep-toned pigment, extremely valuable in oil and water-colour painting. The bone black (commonly sold as ivory black) is much browner.

=Ivory Carving.= This art, in considerable perfection, was known to prehistoric man at the period of the so called stone age. Egyptian and Assyrian specimens of the art are of a date at least as early as that of Moses. From the year 1000 B.C. down to the Christian era, there was a constant succession of artists in ivory in the western Asiatic countries, in Egypt, in Greece, and in Italy. From the time of Augustus, ivory carving shared in the general decline of art. Increasing in number as they come nearer to the Middle Ages, we can refer to carved ivories of every century, preserved in museums in England and abroad. The most important ivories up to the 7th century are the consular diptychs, originally a favourite form of presents from newly-appointed consuls to eminent persons; subsequently adapted to Christian uses, or as wedding presents, &c. In the Middle Ages, from the 8th to the 16th century, the use of ivory was adopted for general purposes. The favourite subjects of the carvings are those drawn from the romances of the Middle Ages—especially the romance of the Rose—and in the 15th century, scenes of domestic life, illustrating the dress, armour, and manners and customs of the day. Combs of every date, from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon period, and earlier, are found in British graves. In short, from the time when the first prehistoric carvings of antediluvian animals were made to the present, every age of human civilization appears to be more or less fully illustrated in carvings upon ivory and bone. (See also CHESSMEN.) The earliest material was found in the tusks of the mammoth: from Iceland we have beautiful carvings of the 7th century in the teeth of the walrus. Fossil tusks of the mammoth are found in great quantities in Siberia, and are almost the only material of the ivory-turner’s work in Russia. African and Asiatic elephant ivory are the best, and differ, the former, when newly cut, being of a mellow, warm, transparent tint. Asiatic ivory tends to become yellow by exposure. A fine specimen of carving in ivory is given in Fig. 403 from a MIRROR-CASE of the 15th century. (See also Fig. 185, and illustrations to PYX, TRIPTYCH, &c.)

=Ivy=, Chr. The symbol of eternal life.

=Iwbwb=, Celt. The ancient military cry, which has given name to many places; as Cwm Iwbwb, in Wales, the Jujupania of Ptolemy. (Meyrick.)

=Izeds=, Persian. Beneficent genii of the mythology of Zoroaster. Ormuzd, the supreme god, created twenty-eight of them to be the attendants of the amchaspands.

J.

=Jacinth.= A precious stone. (See HYACINTH.)

=Jack-boots= (O. E.) were introduced in the 17th century.

=Jackes=, O. E. (1) Towels. (2) The roller for a well-rope.

=Jacket= or =Jack=, =Jerkin=, &c., O. E.; worn over the doublet; but the names are applied indiscriminately to a great variety of such garments.

=Jacob’s Staff=, O. E. A pilgrim’s staff.

=Jacobus.= An English coin of James I., value 25_s._, weighing 6 dwt. 10 grains. The Carolus, a similar coin, value 23_s._, weighed 5 dwt. 20 grains.

=Jaculatores=, R. Soldiers armed with a javelin (jaculum), who formed part of the light troops of the Roman army.

=Jade.= Spanish piedra de la yjada. A green stone, closely resembling jasper, much used by prehistoric man, and to which supernatural virtues have in all ages been attributed, especially by the ancient Mexicans. Fine specimens of jades are carved in China, where they are of a whitish colour, and are called Yu. The clear white and green specimens are the most prized by collectors. (See NEPHRITE, SAUSSURITE.)

=Jagerant.= (See JAZERINE.)

=Jamb=, Arch. The side of any opening in a wall.

=Jambe=, =Gambe=, Her. The leg of a lion or other beast of prey.

=Jambes.= Armour for the legs; 14th century.

=Janua=, R. (Janus). The front door of a house opening on the street. The inner doors were called ostia, in the singular ostium, while the city gates were called portæ.

=Januales=, =Janualia=, R. Festivals held at Rome, in honour of Janus, on the first or kalends of January in each year; the offerings consisted of incense, fruits, and a cake called janual.

=Japanese Paper= of a creamy tint is frequently used for proof impressions of etchings, &c.

=Japanning.= A species of lac-varnishing, in imitation of the lacquered ware of Japan. (See LAC, LACQUER.)

=Jasper.= A kind of agate, the best known description of which is of a green colour. Many colours and varieties are used for gem-engraving, such as agate-jasper, striped jasper, Egyptian red and brown, and porcelain jasper. In the Christian religion the jasper symbolizes faith; its hardness expresses the firmness of faith; its opaqueness the impenetrability of the mysterious.

=Jasponyx.= An onyx mixed with jasper.

=Javelin.= A light hand-spear. (See HASTA.)

=Jayada.= (See VIMANA.)

=Jazel.= A precious stone of an azure blue colour.

=Jazerine= (It. ghiazerino). A jacket strengthened with overlapping plates of steel, covered with velvet or cloth, and sometimes ornamented with brass; 13th century.

=Jennet.= A Spanish or Barbary horse.

=Jerkin=, O. E. The jerkin was generally worn over the doublet; but occasionally the doublet was worn alone, and in many instances is confounded with the jerkin. Either had sleeves or not, as the wearer pleased.

“My jerkin is a doublet.” (Shakspeare.)

=Jessant=, Her. Shooting forth, as plants growing out of the earth.

=Jessant-de-lys=, Her. A combination of a lion’s face and a fleur-de-lys.

=Jesse=, O. E. A large branched chandelier.

=Jesse, Tree of=, Chr. An ornamental design common in early Christian art, representing the genealogy of our Lord in the persons of his ancestors in the flesh.

=Jesseraunt.= (See JAZERINE.)

=Jesses.= Straps for hawk’s bells. (See Fig. 405.)

=Jet.= A variety of soft bituminous coal, admitting of a fine polish, which is used for ornaments. It is, in its natural state, soft and brittle, of a velvet-black colour, and lustrous. Ornaments of jet are found in ancient tumuli.

=Jet d’Eau=, Fr. A fountain. That at Chatsworth springs 267 feet in the air, and is the highest in existence.

=Jew’s Harp= or =Jew’s Trump= (from the French jeu and trompe). A small musical instrument, known for centuries all over Europe, consisting of a metal frame with two branches, and a vibrating tongue of steel in the middle. It has suggested a number of modern instruments, including the HARMONIUM.

=Jew’s Pitch.= A kind of asphaltum used as a brown pigment. It attracts dust, and never dries perfectly.

=Jewes Light=, O. E. (See Judas Light.)

=Jogues= or =Yugs=. In Hindoo chronology, eras or periods of years. (1) The Suttee Yug, or age of purity, lasted 3,200,000 years; the life of man being then 100,000 years, and his stature 21 cubits. (2) The Tirtar Yug, in which one-third of man was corrupted, lasted 2,400,000 years; the life of man being then 10,000 years. (3) The Dwapaar Yug, in which half the human race became depraved, lasted 1,600,000 years; the life of man being 1000 years. (4) The Collee Yug, in which all mankind are corrupt, is the present era, ordained to subsist 400,000 years (of which about 5000 have elapsed); the life of man being limited to 100 years. There are, however, conflicting accounts of the duration of the different Jogues. (See Halhed’s Preface to the Gentoo Laws.)

=Joinery= (in Latin, intestinum opus) has to deal with the addition in a building of all the fixed wood-work necessary for convenience or ornament. The most celebrated work on the subject is Nicholson’s Carpenter’s Guide, and Carpenters and Joiner’s Assistant, published in 1792. The modern art of joinery properly dates from the introduction of the geometrical staircase, or stair supported by the wall only, the first English example of which is said to have been erected by Sir Christopher Wren in St. Paul’s. [See JOINERY in Ency. Brit. 8th ed.]

=Joseph=, O. E. A lady’s riding-habit, buttoned down the front.

=Jousting-helmets= were made wide and large, resting on the shoulders, and decorated with a crest. It was common to make them of comical, fantastic designs; such as weathercocks with the points of the compass, immense figures of birds and beasts, &c.

=Jousts= or =Justs=. Duels in the tilting-ground; generally with blunted spears, for a friendly trial of skill.

=Jousts à Outrance.= Jousts in which the combatants fought till death ensued.

=Jousts of Peace= (hastiludia pacifica; Fr. joutes à plaisance). These differed from real jousts or tournaments in the strength of the armour worn, and the weapons used. The lance was topped with a coronel instead of a steel point; the sword was pointless and blunted, being often of whalebone covered with leather silvered over.

=Jouy= (wishes of good fortune). Chinese porcelain vases so called, used for birthday and other presents. In the vase represented on Fig. 406, the handles form the word expressive of the greeting above mentioned.

=Jowlopped=, Her. Having wattles and a comb, as a cock.

=Joys of the Virgin=, Chr. The seven joys and seven sorrows are frequently painted together in churches. The joys are, (1) The Annunciation. (2) The Visitation. (3) The Nativity. (4) The Adoration of the Three Kings. (5) The Presentation in the Temple. (6) The finding of Christ, by his mother, in the Temple. (7) The Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin. The seven sorrows are, (1) The prophecy of Simeon. (2) The Flight into Egypt. (3) The loss of the child in the Temple. (4) The Betrayal. (5) The Crucifixion. (6) The Deposition from the Cross. (7) The Ascension.

=Jubé= (Arch. Mod.). A structure of carved stone-work, separating the chancel from the choir in a church. From this position the daily lessons were chanted, preceded by the words “Jube, Domine, benedicere;” hence its name. In English it is called indifferently, the rood-loft, holy-loft, rood-screen, or jubé.

=Jubilee.= (1) Heb. (from jobel, a ram’s horn (trumpet); or from jabal, to recall). A Jewish festival celebrated every fifty years, when slaves were restored to liberty, and exiles recalled. (2) Chr. A commemoration ceremony at Rome, during which the Pope grants plenary indulgences; held at irregular intervals.

=Judas Light=, =Judas Candlestick=, =Jewes Light=, O. E. The wooden imitation of a candlestick which held the Paschal candle.

=Jugalis= (sc. equus). A horse harnessed to a yoke (jugum), instead of traces (funalis).

=Jugerum.= A Roman superficial measure, 240 feet by 120 feet. In the original assignment of landed property, two jugera were allotted to each citizen, as heritable property.

=Jugum= (Gr. ζυγόν). (1) A yoke for draught cattle. (2) Metaphorically, subjugation—“sub jugum mittere” = to pass under the yoke, as nations conquered by the Romans were made to. This ceremonial yoke was constructed of a horizontal supported by two upright spears, at such a height that those passing under it had to stoop the head and shoulders. (3) In a general sense the word signifies that which joins two things together, a cross-beam, &c.

=Jugumentum.= Door-head, transverse beam on the uprights (limen superius).

=Jumps=, O. E. (1) A loose bodice for ladies.

“Now a shape in neat stays, now a slattern in jumps: Now high on French heels, now low in your pumps; Like the cock on the tower that shews you the weather, You are hardly the same for two days together.” (Universal Magazine, 1780.)

(2) A jacket or loose coat reaching to the thighs, buttoned down before, with sleeves to the wrist. A precisely similar lounging-coat, still in vogue at Cape Colony, is called a jumper.

=Junones.= Tutelary genii of women, as the genii were of men. They are represented as females, clothed in drapery, having bats’ wings.

=Jupon=, Fr. Another name for a pourpoint, or close tunic, worn over the armour by knights in the Middle Ages. (See Fig. 463.)

=Juruparis= (Amer. Indian). A mysterious trumpet of the Indians, an object of great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it; if any does so, she is put to death by poison. No youths are allowed to see it until they have passed through an ordeal of initiatory fastings and scourgings. It is usually kept hidden in the bed of a stream, deep in the forest; and no one dares to drink of the water of that stream. It is brought out and blown at feasts. The inside of the instrument is a tube made of slips of the Paxiaba palm, wrapped round with long strips of bark. A specimen is preserved in the museum at Kew Gardens.

=Juvenalia=, R. Scenic games instituted by Nero in commemoration of his shaving his beard for the first time. They consisted of theatrical performances in a private theatre erected in a pleasure-ground (nemus). The name was afterwards given to the JANUALIA.

K.

For Greek words not found under this initial, see C.

=Kalathos=, Gr. (κάλαθος). Literally, made of wicker-work. A drinking-cup, so called because it resembled the wicker-work basket of the Greek women. It was usually furnished with a ring, through which a finger might be put in order to lift it. The word is also written calathos.

=Kaleidoscope= (καλὸς, beautiful; εἶδος, a form; σκοπέω, to see). An optical instrument invented in 1814 by Sir David Brewster, which by means of mirrors inserted in it exhibits repetitions of objects placed within it, in certain symmetrical combinations. There are several different kinds, called polycentral, tetrascopes, hexascopes, polyangular, &c., according to their construction.

=Kang=, Hind. A bracelet or ring; kang-doy, a bracelet for the wrist or arm; kang-cheung, a bracelet or ring worn by the Khmers above the ankle.

=Kaolin.= The name first applied by the Chinese to the fine white porcelain earth derived from the decomposition of the feldspathic granites; used for fine pottery.

=Kayles= (Fr. quilles). Modern ninepins, represented in MSS. of the 14th century.

=Keep= of a castle. The DONJON (q.v.).

=Keeping= in a picture. Harmony and the proper subordination of parts.

=Kendal.= A kind of green woollen cloth or baize, first made at the town of Kendal, in Westmoreland; 16th century.

“Misbegotten knaves in Kendal green.” (Shakspeare.)

=Kerchief of Pleasaunce.= An embroidered cloth worn by a knight for the sake of a lady, in his helmet, or, in later times, round his arm; which is the origin of crape being so worn for mourning.

“Moreore there is ykome into Enlond a knyght out of Spayne wyth a kercheff of plesunse i-wrapped about hys arme, the gwych knyght wyl renne a course wyth a sharpe spere for his sov’eyn lady sake.” (Paston Letters, vol. p. 6.)

=Kerchiefs= or =Coverchiefs= (chief = the head), O. E. Head-cloths of fine linen worn by ladies.

=Kermes= (Arabic = little worm). An insect produced on the Quercus coccifera. The dead bodies of the female insect produce a fine scarlet dye stuff.

=Kern.= The Irish infantry were formerly so called.

=Kersey.= A coarse narrow woollen cloth; hence “Kersey-mere,” so called from the mere (or miry brook) which runs through the village of Kersey in Suffolk, where this cloth was first made.

=Kettle-drum.= A drum with a body of brass.

=Kettle-hat=, O. E. The iron hat of a knight of the Middle Ages; also the leather burgonet of the 15th century.

=Kettle-pins=, O. E. (See KAYLES.)

=Key-note.= In Music, the foundation or lowest note of the scale. Whatever note this is, the intervals between the third and fourth notes, and between the seventh and eighth above it, must be semi-tones.

=Key-stone=, Arch. The central stone of an arch.

=Keys.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Peter, signifying his control over the entrances of Heaven and Hell; hence the insignia of the Papacy. They also denote, in heraldry, office in the State, such as that of chamberlain of the court.

=Khan=, Orient. The name used by Eastern nations to denote a caravanserai.

=Kher=, Egyp. The quarter of tombs; the whole number of burial-places or hypogæa collected together at one spot.

=Khmers=, Hind. The ancient inhabitants of Cambodia, a territory in South-East Asia, who had attained a high stage of civilization, to judge by the artistic remains of the Khmer nation which survive.

=Khopesh=, Egyp. The dagger of the Egyptian kings; its curved blade bore some resemblance to the thigh of an ox, which was called in Egyptian khopesh or khopesk.

=Kin-chung=, Chinese. A golden bell.

=King-fisher.= (See HALCYON.)

=King-post.= The central upright post supporting the gable of a roof.

=King’s Yellow.= (See ORPIMENT.)

=Kings of Arms.= Officers of Heralds’ College. There are three—Garter, Clarenceux, and Norroy.

=Kinnor=, Heb. A stringed instrument of the Hebrews; it had eight, ten, or twenty-four strings, which were played either with the fingers or a plectrum.

=Kinschall.= A small curved Turkish dagger.

=Kiosk=, =Kiosque=. A Turkish pleasure-house.

=Kircher=, =Kirchowe=, O. E. A kerchief.

=Kirtel=, O. E. A loose gown, a tunic or waistcoat; also a monk’s gown.

=Kiste=, O. E. A chest.

=Kistvaen=, Celt. A Celtic monument more commonly known as a DOLMEN (q.v.).

=Kit-cat.= Canvas for portraits—28 or 29 inches by 36—of the size adopted by Sir Godfrey Kneller, in painting the portraits of the Kit-cat Club. The club had taken its name from Christopher Cat, a pastrycook, who supplied them at their meetings with mutton-pies. Addison, Steele, Walpole, Marlborough, and other staunch Whigs were the principal members. It dissolved about 1720.

=Klaft=, Egyp. A royal head-dress of striped cloth forming a kind of hood, and terminating in two flaps which fall over the breast. A great many Egyptian statues are represented with the klaft. It is suggested by M. Soldi that the invention of this ornament was for the purpose of strengthening the figure, by avoiding the thinness of the shape of the neck.

=Knapsack.= A case for a foot-soldier’s stores, carried at the back. Knap means a protuberance.

=Knife=, Chr. (See FLAYING-KNIFE.) This is also the attribute of Sts. Agatha, Albert, and Christina; and a sacrificing-knife of St. Zadkiel the Angel.

=Knighthood.= The principal English orders are of the GARTER, established 1343, and the Bath shortly afterwards; of ST. PATRICK for Ireland, established in 1783; and the Order of the Thistle, at least as ancient as Robert II. of Scotland. There is a French order of the Thistle, founded in 1463; but the most ancient French order is the Gennet, in 706. In France are also the orders of St. Michel and of St. Louis; but these French orders are now all superseded by the Legion of Honour. [See An Accurate Historical Account of all the Orders of Knighthood.]

=Knight-service=, O. E. A tenure of lands formerly held by knights, on condition of performing military service

=Knol=, Hind. A road or high road which frequently passes over very low bridges.

=Knop=, O. E. A button.

=Knop=, =Knob=, Arch. A boss.

=Knop and Flower Pattern.= An ornament of remote antiquity, original basis of a great branch of decorative art in all nations, common on early Indian monuments, and with different variations in the art of Assyria, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The variations are regulated according to the flora of the various countries, the knop (or bud) and flower being always the radical idea.

=Knot=, Her. An intertwined cord, borne as a badge. Cords intertwined about other figures and devices form so called compound badges, which significantly declared the union of two houses; thus the Dacre knot is entwined about the Dacre escallop and the famous “ragged staff” of Beauchamp and Neville. An ORDER OF THE KNOT was established at Naples in 1252. The badge of silk, gold, and pearls was tied in a knot upon the arm, and those who were invested with it made a vow to untie it at Jerusalem. (Fig. 410 and 410 a.)

=Knuckle-bones.= (See TALUS.)

=Koope=, O. E. A cope.

=Koukim=, Heb. Kilns for the cremation of the dead, such as are occasionally found in the ancient tombs of the Valley of Hinnom (Gehenna).

=Kourganes=, Or. Grassy mounds, such as are frequently met with in Russia in Europe, and which bear a strong resemblance to tumuli and barrows. (See TUMULUS.)

=Krems White= or =Vienna White=. A pigment manufactured at Krems in Austria. It is the finest white lead used in oils.

=Krouts=, Hind. An ornament resembling embroidery. The monuments of Khmer art are adorned with krouts of a rich ornamentation, somewhat similar to certain ornaments of the French Renaissance. (See Fig. 408.)

=Krumhorn.= An old musical instrument of the cornet kind.

=Kufic.= (See CUFIC.)

=Kussier.= A Turkish musical instrument, consisting of five strings, stretched over a skin that covers a kind of basin.

=Kymbium.= (See CYMBIUM.)

=Kyphi=, Egyp. A perfume which was burnt before the statues of the gods; it was composed of sixteen different ingredients.

L.

=Labarum=, =Chrism=, R. The standard of the Roman emperors from the time of Constantine; in form it resembled the vexillum of the cavalry. The Labarum is the banner of the Chrism, or sign that appeared to Constantine, viz. the Greek letters XP in a monogram (the two first letters of the Name ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ); sometimes followed by the Roman letters IHSV, or the motto in full, “in hoc signo vinces.” It is, under several variations, a common ecclesiastical emblem.

=Labellum.= Dimin. of LABRUM (q.v.).

=Labels=, in heraldry, are marks of cadency. (1) A band crossing the shield, with three points depending, marks the coat of an eldest son. (2) Broad ribands hanging from a knight’s helmet. (3) In mediæval architecture and church decoration, images of saints and angels bear labels inscribed with texts and mottoes.

=Labis.= (See SPOON.)

=Labrum=, R. (lit. a lip). A general term to denote any kind of vessel the brim of which turned over on the outside like the lip of the human mouth; a wide flat basin which stood in the thermal chamber or CALDARIUM (q.v.) of the Roman baths.

=Labyrinth=, Gen. (λαβύρινθος). A building of considerable size, usually underground, containing streets and cross-roads, like the catacombs, &c. The term is also applied to intricate designs executed on the grass-plots of gardens, and on the mosaic or glazed tiles in pavements. (Fig. 412.) (See MINOTAUR.)

=Lac= or =Gum Lac= (Arabic, lakah). A resin produced on an East Indian tree by the punctures of the Coccus lacca insect. It forms a brittle substance of a dark red colour, and when in grains is called seed lac, and in thin flat plates shell-lac. (See LACQUER.) The chief use of lac in Europe is for making sealing-wax, and as a basis for spirit varnishes and French polish.

=Lace= was originally of a heavy texture, more like embroidery. It was of two kinds, lacis, or “darned netting,” and “cutwork.” Lacis, often worked in coloured silks and gold thread, was also called “opus araneum” or “spider-work.” In “cutwork,” a net of threads was laid on to cloth, and the cloth sewn to it in parts, and the other parts cut away; or, by another method, the threads were arranged on a frame, all radiating from a common centre, and then worked into patterns. This was the old convent lace of Italy, called “Greek lace.” Point laces are lace made with a needle on a parchment pattern. The principal are the ancient laces of Italy, Spain, and Portugal; and the modern point d’Alençon of France. Pillow laces are made by the weaving, twisting, and plaiting of the threads with bobbins on a cushion; such are Mechlin, Lille, Valenciennes, Honiton, Buckingham, and many manufactories in France. Brussels lace is both point and pillow. The thread is scarcely visible for fineness, and costs 240_l._ per pound. This lace is called in France point d’Angleterre, or English point. (Fig. 414.)

=Lace Glass.= (See GLASS.)

=Lacerna=, R. An open cloak worn by the Romans over the toga, and fastened on the right shoulder with a brooch or fibula. It frequently had a cowl attached. (See ABOLLA, PÆNULA, PALLIUM.)

=Lachrymatory.= A tear-bottle; so called from the use attributed to it of holding tears consecrated to the dead. These phials are made of glass or earthenware, with a long neck, and the mouth formed to receive the eye-ball. The figure of one or two eyes has sometimes been found impressed upon them.

=Lacinia=, R. The two excrescences, like a divided dewlap on the throat of a goat, which were represented on the necks of fauns and satyrs.

=Laciniæ=, Gr. and R. The hanging corners of the toga and chlamys, and the metal knobs attached to make them hang straight.

=Lacis.= A kind of embroidery, of subjects in squares, with counted stitches (called also “point conté,” darned netting, &c.). (See LACE.)

=Laconicum=, R. A semicircular termination to a room in a set of baths (caldarium), so called because of Spartan origin. Under the word BALNEÆ will be found the laconicum of Pompeii, restored. (Fig. 56.)

=Lacquer= (Fr. laque) is made of a solution of shell-lac and alcohol, coloured with saffron or other colouring matters. Specimens of ancient Chinese red lacquer deeply carved with figures of birds, flowers, &c., and generally made in the form of trays, boxes, and sometimes vases, are met with in the more northern Chinese towns, and are much prized. What is called the old gold Japan lacquer is also esteemed by Chinese connoisseurs, and the specimens of this are comparatively rare at the present day. (Fortune.)

=Lacs d’amour=, Fr. True lovers’ knots.

=Lacuna=, R. (lacus, a hollow). An ash-pit placed beneath a lime-kiln to receive the ashes from the kiln.

=Lacunar=, Arch. A flat roof or ceiling, in contradistinction to a camera, vaulted roof.

=Lacunaria=, Arch. Panels in a flat ceiling (lacunar), formed by the rafters crossing one another at right angles. The edges of these panels are often decorated with carved and gilt ornaments, and the centres filled in with paintings.

=Lacus=, R. (λάκκος). A lake, and thence a large, shallow, open basin, or artificial reservoir; also, a pit made below the level of a wine-cellar (cella vinaria), or of an oil-cellar (cella olearis), to receive the wine or oil as it comes from the presses.

=Lady.= A word of Saxon origin, generally supposed to signify “loaf-giver,” from klaf, a loaf. As a title it belongs to the daughters of all peers above the rank of a viscount, but is extended by courtesy to the wives of knights.

=Lady Day=, Chr. The 25th of March. Festival of the Annunciation.

=Læna=, R. (1) A cloth with a long nap. (2) A thick woollen cloak worn over the toga for the sake of warmth. In later times the læna was often worn as a substitute for the toga.

=Lagena=, Gr. and R. An earthenware vessel with a swelling body, used for holding wine or vegetables and dried fruits.

=Laid Papers.= Papers with a ribbed surface; as cream-laid, blue-laid, &c.

=Lake, Cloth of=, O. E. Linen for under-garments.

=Lakes.= (See CARMINE.) Pigments of a fine crimson red colour, of which there are several kinds; they are prepared from cochineal, kermes, lac, and the best from madder-root. Common lake is obtained from Brazil wood, which affords a very fugitive colour. (See YELLOW LAKE, PURPLE LAKES, GREEN LAKES, CARMINATED LAKES, DROP LAKE, RED LAKE, MINERAL LAKE, MADDER, &c.)

=Lakes= of Florence, Paris, Vienna, &c. (See CARMINATED LAKES.)

=Lamb.= The peculiar symbol of the Redeemer, generally the emblem of innocence, meekness, modesty. It is properly called the Paschal Lamb, and with a flag, or between two stars and a crescent, was the badge of the Knights Templars. (See AGNUS DEI.)

=Lamboys= (Fr. lambeau). A kind of skirt over the thighs, worn over the armour. (See Fig. 463.)

=Lambrequin.= A covering for the helmet. (See MANTLING.)

=Lamb’s-wool=, O. E. A drink of ale with the pulp of roasted apples in it.

=Lames=, Fr. Flexible plates or blades of steel, worn over the hips.

=Lametta.= Brass, silver, or gold foil or wire.

=Lamiæ=, Gr. and R. Vampires who fed at night on the flesh of human beings. The Lamiæ of Pliny are animals with the face and head of a woman, and the tail of a serpent, inhabiting the deserts of Africa.

=Laminated.= Disposed in layers or plates.

=Lammas=, O. E. The 1st of August.

=Lamp=, =Lantern=, or =Taper=, in Christian art, was an emblem of piety; an attribute of St. Lucia. (See LUCERNA, LYCHNUS, LANTERN.)

=Lampadephoria=, Gr. (torch-bearing). A game common throughout Greece, in which the competitors raced, either on foot or horseback, six stadia (about three-quarters of a mile), carrying lamps prepared for the purpose. (See LAMPAS.)

=Lampas=, Gr. and R. A general term denoting anything which shines or affords light; a torch, a lamp, and especially a link. The word was frequently used for lampadephoria, the torch-race.

=Lamp-black.= A soot used as a pigment. It is very opaque, and dries slowly in oil. It is also the basis of all printing and lithographic inks.

=Lance.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Matthias, in allusion to the method of his martyrdom. (See AMENTUM, LANCEA, HASTA.) A shivered lance with the motto “Lacrymæ hinc, hinc dolor,” was a device adopted by Catherine de’ Medicis after the fatal accident to her husband, Henry II., in a tournament. (Fig. 416.)

=Lance-rest.= A projecting iron fixed to a breastplate to support the end of the lance in a joust or tournament.

=Lancea=, R. A long, light spear, serving both as a pike and a missile.

=Lanceola.= Dimin. of LANCEA (q.v.).

=Lanceolated=, Arch. Having the form of a spear-head. The term is applied to lancet windows, arches, and members of architecture forming a rose.

=Lancet Arch.= A pointed arch, obtuse at the point, resembling a surgeon’s lancet, from which a style of architecture, common in England in the 13th century, is named. (Fig. 417.) (See EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.)

=Lancula=, R. (dimin. of LANX). The scale which was placed, when necessary, at one of the ends of a Roman steelyard (statera). (Fig. 418.)

=Landgrave= (Germ. Land, Graf). A title given to those Counts of Germany who take their rank from a large tract of land. The first Landgraves were those of Thuringia, Hesse, Alsace, and Leuchtenberg.

=Langue-de-bœuf=, Fr. A blade fixed to a pikestaff; named after its shape.

=Langued=, Her. To denote the tincture of an animal’s tongue.

=Laniarium=, =Laniena=, R. (lanius, a butcher). A slaughter-house or butcher’s shop.

=Laniers=, O. E. Leather straps for various uses; as armlets to a shield, or as garters or bands, &c.

=Lanipendia=, R. (lana, wool, and pendere, to weigh). A woman whose duty it was to weigh the wool for spinning, and distribute it among the slaves for their daily tasks.

=Lanista=, R. A man who trained gladiators for the Roman circus. They were frequently his own property, and he let them out for hire; or he received them from their owners into his school (ludus) for training.

=Lansquenet=, Fr. A game at cards.

=Lantern.= In Christian art, the attribute of St. Gudula, in allusion to the legend of her miraculous lantern, which her prayers rekindled as often as Satan extinguished it. In Architecture, a small turret above the roof of a building, having windows all round it.

=Lanterne des Morts= or =Churchyard Beacon=, Arch. A small tower raised upon a base, and generally round, but sometimes square or polygonal; with windows at the top to emit the shining rays from the lamp inside. Fig. 420 represents a “lanterne des morts” at Ciron, France.

=Lanx=, R. This term denotes (1) a circular dish of silver or other metal, often embossed, used especially at banquets. (2) The scale of a balance (libra). (3) A salver for handing fruits or other dainties at dessert.

=Laocoon.= A magnificent sculpture, found in 1506 among the ruins of the palace of Titus, now in the Vatican. It represents Laocoon and his two sons struggling in the folds of two monster serpents. According to Pliny it is the work of three Rhodian sculptors, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, and stood in the palace of Titus. He said that it was made of one stone, but the joining of five pieces has been detected. [See Lessing’s “Laokoon.”]

=Laphria=, Gr. An annual festival, celebrated at Patræ in Achaia, in honour of Artemis, surnamed Laphria.

=Lapidary.= An artist who cuts, grinds, and polishes gems and stones. In the lapidary’s scale of hardness of minerals there are 10 standard degrees, represented as follows:—No. 1, talc, which is very easily cut; No. 2, compact gypsum; No. 3, calc-spar; No. 4, fluor-spar; No. 5, apatite; No. 6, felspar; No. 7, quartz; No. 8, topaz; No. 9, sapphire; No. 10, diamond. Diamonds are for the most part cut at Amsterdam.

=Lapis Lazuli.= A beautiful blue mineral stone of various shades of colour. (See ULTRAMARINE.)

=Laquear=, =Laqueare=. Synonym of LACUNAR (q.v.).

=Laqueatores=, R. An order of gladiators who used a noose to catch their adversaries.

=Laqueatus=, R. A ceiling decorated with panels (lacunar).

=Lararium=, R. A small shrine consecrated to the gods called Lares; a room in which the images of the Lares or tutelary genii of the house were placed. It is said to have been customary for religious Romans, immediately after they rose in the morning, to pray in the Lararium.

=Larentalia=, =Larentinalia=, or =Laurentalia=, R. A Roman festival in honour of Acca Larentia, the nurse of Romulus and Remus; or, according to another tradition, a festival instituted by Ancus in honour of a wealthy courtezan named Larentia, who had bequeathed all her property to the Roman people. It was celebrated on the 10th of December.

=Lares=, R. The Lares Privati, Domestici, or Familiares, were the guardian deities of the house. The spot peculiarly sacred to them was the focus, or hearth, in the Atrium, where the altar for domestic sacrifice stood, and near it was a niche, containing little images of these gods, to whom offerings of flowers, frankincense, and wine were made from time to time, and regularly on the kalends of each month. There were many classes of Lares Publici: (1) The Lares rurales, who presided over the flocks, herds, &c. (2) The Lares compitales, worshipped where two cross-roads met, &c. [Cf. Ovid, Fasti, v. 129.]

=Larghetto=, It. In Music, less slow than largo.

=Largo=, It. In Music, a slow movement, one degree quicker than adagio.

=Latch=, O. E. A cross-bow.

=Lateen Sail.= A triangular mainsail on a tall sloping yard, which reaches down to the deck.

=Later=, R. A brick; the πλίνθος of the Greeks. Among the Romans bricks were of various forms; the largest was called pentadorum; the next size, tetradorum. Later coctus, coctilis was the term applied to a baked brick; later crudus was an unbaked brick, i. e. one dried in the sun. Pliny calls the brick-field LATERARIA.

=Latericium= (opus), R. A structure built of bricks.

=Laterna=, =Lanterna=. A LANTERN (q.v.).

=Laton= or =Latten=, O. E. An alloy of brass, of which candlesticks, sepulchral monuments, crosses, &c., were made in the Middle Ages. White Laton was a mixture of brass and tin.

=Latrunculi=, R. (Gr. πεσσοί). The ancient game of draughts. It is mentioned by Homer. The Romans often had twelve lines of squares (mandræ) on the draught-board. The number of pieces varied from five to twelve, and in later times the game was played with the tesseræ or dice.

=Lattice=, Arch. A trellis or cross-barred work; a network window.

=Laura=, Chr. The origin of the name is obscure. It signifies a collection of separate cells in a wilderness, where a community of monks lived each in his own cell, meeting together only during two days of the week. The most celebrated lauras were in Palestine.

=Laurel=, Gen. The emblem of glory and victory. Sacred also to Apollo. In modern times an emblem of peace.

=Lautumiæ=, R. (λα-τομία). A stone-quarry, and thence a prison hewn out of a quarry, more particularly the public prison of Syracuse, hewn into the solid cliff, but roofless. The Tullianum at Rome was called Lautumiæ also.

=Lava.= The scoria from an active volcano, which is well adapted to ornamental carving.

=Lavabo.= (See LAVATORIUM.)

=Lavacrum=, R. (lavo, to wash). A bath of hot or cold water, in contradistinction to a vapour bath (caldarium).

=Lavatorium=, R. (lavo, to wash). A small building in a monastery, in which the monks washed their hands before and after a repast. The lavatorium was usually placed near the refectory.

=Lawn.= This fine linen fabric was introduced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.

=Lay Figure.= A large wooden jointed doll, used by artists to display drapery.

=Lead-glazed Wares.= (See POTTERY.)

=Leather= was used instead of tapestry for the hangings of rooms in the 16th century, and was beautifully gilded and chased. (Consult “L’Art de travailler les Cuirs dorés ou argentés,” by M. Fougeroux de Bondary, in “Description des Arts et Metiers,” 1762.) (Fig. 421.)

=Leaves=, Her. Their peculiarities are blazoned as laurel leaf, oak leaf, &c.

=Leaves=, =Leafage=. (See FOLIAGE.)

=Lebes=, Gr. (λέβης; λείβη, to pour out). A brass saucepan or caldron (pelvis, ahenum); it was a deep vessel with swelling sides. It was sometimes made with a pointed bottom to fit into a stand, which was called INCITEGA.

=Lebiton=, =Lebitonarium=. (See COLOBIUM.)

=Lecanê=, Gr. A drinking-bowl used by the Etrurians (basin-shaped, with a lid).

=Lectern.= A reading-desk in a Christian church; most frequently of brass in the form of an eagle, but often decorated with more elaborate emblems.

=Lectica=, R. (lectus, a couch). A couch or litter carried by bearers, used both by men and women; it was introduced from the East, and was quickly adopted in Greece and Rome. The Greek litter had a roof made of the skin of an ox, and the sides covered with curtains. Among the Romans it was seldom used excepting for travelling, until the luxurious days of the empire, when the lectica became a very splendid affair. It was sometimes constructed with gold and ivory, and instead of curtains it was closed at the sides, with windows of transparent stone (lapis specularis). When standing, it rested on four feet. It was borne upon poles (asseres) by two or more slaves, and was called hexophron, octophron, &c., according to the number of lecticarii employed to carry it.

=Lecticula.= Dimin. of lectica; it denoted a litter for the conveyance of the sick, or a bier on which a dead body was carried out.

=Lectisternium=, R. (lectus, and sterno, to spread out). A religious ceremony consisting of a banquet offered to the gods, at which the statues of the latter were present stretched out on couches, with tables and viands before them as if they were partaking of the feast.

=Lectorium=, Chr. (lector, a reader). An old term afterwards replaced by that of AMBO (q.v.).

=Lectrin=, Chr. An old term now replaced by jubé or rood-loft and desk.

=Lectrum=, Chr. An old term denoting a praying-desk.

=Lectus=, R. (lego, to put together). A bed or couch complete; lectus cubicularis, a sleeping-couch; lectus genialis, a nuptial bed; lectus adversus, a symbolical marriage-bed; lectus triclinaris, a dining-couch, a couch for three persons, placed in the triclinium or dining-room; lectus funebris, a funeral bier. The diminutive of this term is lectulus. The lectus cubicularis resembled an old-fashioned sofa with a high back; being of considerable height, it was reached by means of a footstool (scamnum), or a set of steps (gradus). The lectus genialis (Gr. εὐνὴ) or marriage-bed was still higher, larger, and handsomely decorated; it is represented with a flight of steps at the foot. The lectus adversus was a symbolical marriage-bed, and stood in the atrium, opposite to the entrance of the house, and was, as it were, the throne or seat of office, from which the housewife superintended the spinning, weaving, and similar duties of the servants. The lectus triclinaris used at meals is described under the article. Lectus funebris is the name of the bier upon which the dead were borne to burial or the pyre.

=Lecythus=, Gr. A cylindrical vase made to contain oil or perfumes. It often figures in the hands of goddesses, or of females at the toilet; and is mostly ornamented with delicate paintings and choice subjects. (Fig. 422.)

=Ledger=, Arch. A stone slab.

=Ledger Lines.= In Music, extra lines above or below the five ruled lines.

=Ledgment=, Arch. A horizontal course of stone or mouldings, particularly the base moulding.

=Leet=, O. E. An ancient Anglo-Saxon court of justice; a manor court.

=Legato=, It. Literally, “bound;” in Music signifies “in a smooth and gliding manner.”

=Legend.= In Numismatics, the words round the edge of a medal or coin.

=Leghorn.= A kind of straw plait, first invented at Leghorn.

=Legio=, R. (lego, to collect). A Roman legion; a division of the army consisting of from three to six thousand heavy-armed soldiers, who were called legionarii. Twelve thousand legionaries were required to make up a consular army. The legion contained troops of all arms; infantry, cavalry, and the ancient substitutes for artillery; and was an army complete in itself. The numbers varied, as well as the organization, at different periods. Livy speaks of legions of 5000 infantry and 300 horse. The subject is one demanding voluminous description. The legion was subdivided into Cohortes, Manipuli, Centuriæ, Signa, Ordines, Contubernia.

=Leice=, Celt. Also called meanal leice. The stone of destiny; a large crystal kept by the Druids for soothsaying.

=Leister= or =Lister=, Scotch. A trident or many-pronged spear for striking fish.

=Leming Star=, O. E. (from A.S. leme, brightness). A comet.

=Lemman= (A.S. leof=loved, and man). A sweetheart, &c.

=Lemnian Reddle.= An ochre of a deep red colour and firm consistence, used as a pigment.

=Lemniscus=, R. (λημνίσκος; λῆνος, wool). A fillet or ribbon awarded, as a mark of honour, to a person who had distinguished himself in any way. The person who wore it was called lemniscatus. It hung down from crowns or diadems at the back of the head. Lemnisci were also worn, without coronæ, by ladies for ornament. Hence, in Geometry, a curve of the form of the figure 8 is called lemniscata.

=Lemon Yellow.= A bright pigment, brighter and clearer than Naples yellow or masticot, and not liable to change.

=Lemures= or =Manes=, R. The souls of the dead, who, according to the religious belief of the Romans, were transformed into beneficent or evil genii, according as the individual had been during his life good or bad, virtuous or worthless. “Lares si meriti boni sint; Lemures sive Larvas si mali; Manes autem cum incertum est,” says St. Augustine.

=Lemuria.= Festivals in honour of the Lemures celebrated at Rome, at night and in silence, on the 9th, 11th, and 13th of May. During them the temples of the gods were closed, and marriage was considered unlucky; hence the proverb, Mense Maio male nubent. Those who celebrated the Lemuria walked barefooted, washed their hands three times, and threw black beans nine times behind their backs. On the second of the three days there were games in the circus in honour of Mars, and on the third day the images of the thirty Argei, made of rushes, were thrown from the Pons Sublicius into the Tiber by the Vestal virgins. On the same day there was a festival of merchants.

=Lenn= or =Linn=, Celt. A woollen wrap with a long nap, or simply the skin of some animal, worn in severe weather as a kind of upper garment by the poorer class of Gauls.

=Lens= (lit. a lentil). A convex or concave glass, which, by changing the direction of rays of light, magnifies or diminishes objects.

=Lent= (A.S. lencten, Spring), Chr. The forty days’ fast preparatory to Easter. Pope Gregory the Great speaks of this fast as of thirty-six days’ duration; i. e. six weeks, not counting the Sundays, which, it is suggested, amounts to one-tenth, or a tithe of the year.

=Lent Rose= or =Lent Lily=, O. E. The daffodil.

=Lentiform.= Shaped like a double convex lens.

=Lentiner=, O. E. A hawk taken in Lent.

=L’Envoy.= “The conclusion of a ballet, or sonnet, in a short stanzo by itselfe, and serving oftentimes as a dedication of the whole.” (Cotgrave.)

=Leonine Verses.= Rhyming Latin compositions, very popular in the Middle Ages. In the 3rd century a piece of 1200 such verses was written by Commodianus. St. Augustine and the venerable Bede also wrote some. The proper leonine consists of a couplet rhyming at the end; but the rhymes may be otherwise distributed: e. g.—

“O miseratrix! O dominatrix! præcipe dictu; Ne devastemur, ne lapidemur, grandinis ictu.”

=Leontarium=, Chr. A fountain of lions spouting water; frequently placed in the courtyard or atrium of basilican churches.

=Leopard=, Her. A lion in any other attitude than “rampant” was blazoned by the early heralds as a “leopard.” Till the 14th century the lions of the Royal Shield of England were designated leopards.

=Leou=, Chinese. (1) A building of many stories, like a pagoda. (2) An upper floor in a Chinese house.

=Lepastê=, R. (λεπὰς, a limpet; Lat. patella). A large vessel, in form like the cylix, but resting on a broad stand; employed from the earliest times for holding pure wine.

=Leporarium=, R. (lepus, a hare). A hare warren; a walled paddock in which four-footed game were preserved.

=Leschê=, Gr. (λέσχη, i. e. a place for talking). A public place of assembly and conversation, or a small exchange for transacting business, &c. The leschê of Delphi (Fig. 423) was celebrated for the painting which it contained by Polygnotus (470 B.C.). At Athens there were 360 leschai, small buildings or porticoes furnished with seats and exposed to the sun, where the poor could rest in warmth and shelter.

=Lesina=, It. An awl. The device of the Lesina Academy, with the motto, “L’assotigliar la più, meglio anche fora.”

=Lettern=, Arch. The Lectern of a church is often so called, when made of Latten or brass. The word is used instead of Latten.

=Letters of the Alphabet= are sometimes used as charges in heraldry. The practice of weaving letters into the ornamentation of textile fabrics is very ancient in the East. Pliny says, “Parthi literas vestibus intexunt.” Fanciful designs imitating or copying oriental letters without meaning were worked in church textiles in early Christian times; and the artists of Italy up to the middle of the 16th century represented such devices on the hems of the garments of great personages in their paintings.

=Leucite= (λευκὸς, white). White spar, or white garnet; a white stony substance found among volcanic productions.

=Leucomb=, O. E. A dormer window.

=Leucopyrite.= A mineral used in the production of artificial orpiment.

=Levacion=, O. E. The elevation of the host in the mass.

=Levant.= The Eastern shores of the Mediterranean.

=Levecel=, O. E. A pent-house or projecting roof over a door or an open shed.

=Levesele=, O. E. A lattice. The original of the chequers on the door-posts of inns.

=Levitonarium.= (See COLOBIUM.)

=Lew=, O. E. (modern lea). Sheltered from the wind; hence =Lewe Water= (modern luke-warm water).

=Lewins=, O. E. A kind of bands put about a hawk.

=Libbard=, O. E. A leopard.

=Libella=, R. (libra, a level or balance). (1) A level, or instrument employed by masons, joiners, and carpenters, in the same way as with us, for testing the evenness of the surface of their work. (2) A small Roman silver coin, afterwards substituted by the As, which it equalled in value.

=Libellus= or =Libellulus=, R. A small book, pamphlet, letter, or notice.

=Liber= (literally, the rind of the papyrus; Gr. βιβλίον, from the Egyptian word byblos, the papyrus plant). A book.—Parchment (membrana) was invented by Eumenes, king of Pergamos; hence its name of pergamentum. The paper (charta) or parchment was only written upon on one side; the other side was stained yellow. Writings were frequently washed off, and the parchment used again was called palimpsestus. The sheets forming a book were joined together and rolled round a staff, and then called a volume (volumen). The stick was usually ornamented with balls or bosses, ornamented or painted, called umbilici. The ends of the roll, carefully cut, polished with pumice-stone, and coloured black, were called geminæ frontes. The reader held the staff in his left hand to unroll the sheet (evolvere librum), as he proceeded, with his right. The roll, if valuable, was kept in a parchment case, which was stained with a purple colour, or yellow. The title of the book (titulus or index) was written on a small strip of papyrus or parchment with a light red colour (coccum or minium); and this practice was the origin of the art of illumination.

=Liber Pontificalis=, seu de gestis Romanorum pontificum. A work of the 15th century, of great value to the student of early Christian art work, and in particular of textiles and embroidery.

=Libra=, R. (1) A balance with two scales (lanx), depending by chains from the ends of the beam (jugum); in the centre of the latter was a handle (ansa). (2) The As or pound; the unit of weight. (See AS.)

=Libretto=, It. The words of an opera, oratorio, &c.

=Librile=, R. (libra). A term denoting the ends of the beam (jugum) in a balance, and thence the balance itself; it is thus synonymous with LIBRA (q.v.).

=Liburna=, =Liburnica=, R. A vessel of war so called from the fact that it was built on a model invented by the Illyrian pirates, or Liburni.

=Lichanos=, Gr. (forefinger string). The note below the MESE of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.)

=Lich-gate.= A shed over the gate of a churchyard to rest the corpse under. (See CORPSE-GATE.) (Fig. 197.)

=Lich-stone=—near a churchyard gate, for resting coffins on—is generally raised about three feet from the ground, shaped like a coffin, and has stone benches round it for the bearers to rest upon.

=Liciæ=, Med. Lat. (Fr. lices), from the Italian lizza, palings. The lists; an enclosed space surrounding a camp or castle.

=Licium=, R. A leash, or thick thread, employed to divide in two a set of threads in a warp, in order to allow the shuttle to pass through them. By analogy, any kind of thread or cord used for fastening.

=Lictor=, R. (See FASCES.)

=Lieberkuhn.= A reflecting mirror on a microscope, named after the inventor.

=Lierne Rib= (in a vault), Arch. (From lier, to bind.) “Any rib that does not arise from the impost, and is not a ridge rib, but crosses from one boss or intersection of the principal ribs to another. Vaults in which such liernes are employed are termed LIERNE VAULTS.” (Parker’s Glossary.)

=Light Red.= A pigment of a russet orange tint, produced from burnt ochre.

=Lights.= The openings between the mullions of a window. (See DAYS.)

=Ligula=, R. (1) A small tongue-shaped sword. (Fig. 424.) The term is derived from lingua, a tongue. (2) A liquid measure, a large spoonful, distinguished from cochlear, which is a small spoonful. (3) The leather tongue of a shoe.

=Lilies=, in Christian art, are the symbols of purity; the special attribute of the Virgin Mary. They are frequent in the catacombs on the tombs of Christian virgins.

=Lily= or =Iris Green= (It. verde giglio). A pigment anciently used in Italy. It was prepared by dipping linen rags into the juice of plants, and then preserving them dry.

=Lima=, R. (1) A file or rasp, applied to the same purposes as at the present day. (See SCOBINA.) (2) In Med. Lat., a tool or weapon worn by archers in the French service, either as a kind of sword or for sharpening arrows with. (Meyrick.)

=Limbeck=, O. F. An alembeck.

=Limbo=, O. E. Hell.

“Beholde now what owre Lord Jhesu dide one the Saturday, as sune as he was dede. He went downe to helle to owre holy fadyrs that ware in lymbo to tyme of his Resureccione.” (MS. Lincoln. A. i. 17, f. 186.)

=Limbus=, R. An ornamental band or border resembling scroll-work or architectural foliage, employed as an ornament on dress, vases (especially on Etruscan vases), &c.; and thence (1) a ribbon worn as an ornament in the hair; (2) the zodiacal circle described on a globe (see Fig. 48); (3) a stout cord forming the main rope in a fishing-net; (4) in Med. Latin, a military tunic—the German Wapenrock; or a wrapper worn by soldiers round the head, temp. John, usually termed cargan. (Meyrick.)

=Lime.= Slaked lime, alone or mixed with pulverized white marble, was a white pigment used in fresco-painting.

=Lime-hound=, O. E. A sporting-dog in a lime or leash.

=Limen=, R. The threshold or step laid down before the entrance of a door; the same term is also applied to the lintel. Limen superius is the lintel, and limen inferius the threshold properly so called.

“Limen superum inferumque, salve!” (Plautus.)

=Limer=, O. E. A bloodhound. “A dogge engendred betweene an hounde and a mastyve, called a lymmer, or a mungrell.”

=Limitour=, O. E. A begging friar.

=Limning=, O. E. Painting, especially portrait painting.

=Limoges Enamel.= A kind of incrusted enamel on the system called champlevé; perfected at Limoges, in France, in the 15th century, and hence called Opus de Limogia. (See ENAMEL.) The enamels and METAL WORK of LIMOGES, in furniture, decoration of armour, and church utensils, are very important. The monument of Aylmer de Valence in Westminster Abbey is Limoges workmanship.

=Limus=, R. A kind of apron bordered with a purple hem, worn by the popa or attendant who killed the animal offered at a sacrifice.

=Lincei.= An academy for natural history, founded in Rome in 1603. They adopted the lynx for their device “because the academicians should have the eyes of a lynx to penetrate the secrets of nature.” (Mrs. Bury Palliser.)

=Line of Beauty.= A curve like an elongated S. (See Hogarth’s Analysis of Beauty.)

=Line of Life.= One of the lines in the hand; a term in palmistry.

=Linea=, R. (linum, a flax-thread). A line or any kind of string; linea alba, a rope whitened with chalk and stretched across the arena in a circus for the purpose of giving a fair start to runners, chariots, or riders.

=Lined=, Her. (1) Having a cord attached. (2) Having a lining.

=Lineleon.= Linseed oil. “Lineleon ex semine lini fiet.”

=Linen.= Painting on linen was largely practised in England during the 14th century; and a drawing sent by Albert Durer to Raphael is described by Vasari as having been painted “in water-colours on a fine linen cloth, which showed the transparent lights on both sides, without white; water-colours only being added, while the cloth was left for the lights; which thing appeared wonderful to Raphael.” (Vasari, Vita di Raffaello.)

=Linen-scroll.= A decorative ornament, common in German wood-carving of the 15th and 16th centuries. It resembles a napkin stood on end, and partly opened into scroll-shaped cylinders.

=Linset=, O. E. The stool on which women sat while spinning.

=Linsey-woolsey= (O. E. Lylse-wulse). Coarse woollen stuff first made at Linsey in Suffolk.

=Linstock=, O. E. (15th century). A pike, with branches on each side to hold a lighted match for firing artillery.

=Lintel.= The stone or beam placed across a door or window overhead (limen superius).

=Linteolum=, R. and Chr. (linteum). Any small piece of linen, such as a napkin or handkerchief.

=Linter=, R. A flat boat, frequently formed of the trunk of a tree, used in shallow waters for the transport of produce; it was also used in the construction of bridges of boats.

=Linum=, R. (λίνον). Flax, and thence anything made of that fibre.

=Lion=, O. E. (from lie on). The main beam of a ceiling.

=Lion.= In Heraldry, the lion couchant represents sovereignty; rampant, magnanimity; passant, resolution; guardant, prudence; saliant, valour; seiant, counsel; and regardant, circumspection. (See LEOPARD, MARZOCCO.)

=Lioncel=, Her. A lion drawn to a small scale, generally rampant.

=Lions=, in Christian art, typify the resurrection of the Redeemer; because, according to an oriental fable, the lion’s cub was born dead, and in three days its sire licked it into life. The lion also typifies solitude, and is therefore the attribute of hermits; and as the type of fortitude and resolution it was placed at the feet of martyrs.

=Lip Moulding=, Arch. So called from its resemblance to an overhanging lip. It is common in the Perpendicular period.

=Liquid Madder Lake= or =Rubiate=. A brilliant rose-coloured pigment, used in oil or water-colour painting.

=Liripipes=, O. E. The long tails of hoods, which hung down the back. Worn also by the Italians. (Fig. 426.)

=List=, Arch. A straight upright ring encircling the lower part of a column, just above the torus, and next to the shaft.

=List=, =Listel=, Arch. A small square moulding, also called a fillet. Fig. 427 represents a base, the ornamentation of which is made up of numerous listels or fillets.

=Litany Stool.= In a church, a small low desk at which the Litany was sung.

“The priest goeth from out of his seat into the body of the church, and (at a low desk before the chancel door, called the faldstool) kneels and says or sings the Litany.” (Eliz. xviii. 1559.)

=Literatus= or =Litteratus=, R. (litera, a letter). In general, anything that is marked with letters; and thence (1) a slave who has been branded on the forehead with a hot iron, also called inscriptus, notatus, stigmatus. (2) A grammarian, learned man, or commentator.

=Litharge.= An ingredient of drying oil (q.v.).

=Lithochrome.= Another name for CHROMOLITHOGRAPHY, or colour-printing.

=Lithography=, or drawing on stone, was invented by Aloys Senefelder of Munich in 1796. Drawings are made on a polished surface of calcareous stone, with ink and chalk of a soapy nature. The lithographic ink is made of tallow-soap, pure white wax, lamp-black, and a small quantity of tallow, all boiled together, and, when cool, dissolved in distilled water; the ingredients for the lithographic chalk are the same, with a small quantity of potash added during the boiling. After the drawing on the stone is perfectly dry, a very weak solution of sulphuric acid is poured over it, which takes up the alkali from the ink or chalk, and leaves an insoluble substance behind it, while it lowers in a slight degree the surface of the stone not drawn upon, and prepares it for the free absorption of water. Weak gum-water is next applied to close the pores of the stone, and to keep it moist. The stone is then washed with water, and the printing-ink applied in the ordinary way. It then passes through the press, the washing with water and daubing with ink being repeated after every impression. As many as 70,000 copies have in this way been taken from one stone, the last being nearly as good as the first. Copper-plate and steel engravings can be transferred to stone. (See the article “Lithography” in the Encyclopædia Britannica, 8th ed.)

=Lithostrotum=, R. (λιθό-στρωτον). The pavement of a Roman road, and thence any ornamental pavement, mosaic, incrusted marble, coloured inlaid-work, &c.

=Litmus= or =Lacmus=. The red, violet, and blue colours known as archil, cudbear, and litmus, are derived from certain lichens; litmus from the roccella tinctoria.

=Liturgy= (λειτουργός). The printed formulary according to which the public services in a church are performed.

=Lituus=, R. (an Etruscan word, signifying crooked). (1) A brass trumpet formed of a long, straight tube, but curved and opening out wide at the end like a tobacco-pipe. The tuba was straight, the cornu spiral. (2) An augur’s staff curved into the form of a crook, with which they divided the expanse of the sky into regions in their divinations.

=Livery= (Fr. livrée). Literally, the distribution; that is to say, of clothes to be worn by the servants of palaces, &c. (See BADGES.)

=Livery Colours.= In the Middle Ages all great houses had their own livery colours. Thus those of the House of York were blue and crimson, those of the House of Lancaster white and blue, of the House of Tudor white and green, of the House of Stuart scarlet and gold.

=Loaves=, in Christian art, are the emblems of charity to the poor; the attribute of St. Philip the Apostle and other saints.

=Lobe= (of an arch), Fr.; Anglicé foil; e. g. a trefoil arch is arc trilobé.

=Local Colour= is the real fundamental colour of an object, considered apart from all accidental variations of light and reflexion.

=Locellus=, R. A box or casket; this term is a diminutive of LOCULUS.

=Lochaber Axe.= A short pole with a sharp axe at one end, an ancient weapon of the Highlanders of Scotland.

=Locker=, Chr. Arch. A cupboard for sacred vessels generally left in the thickness of the wall on the north side of the altar of a church. (See SECRETARIUM.)

=Locking up.= Any process by which a colour, liable to be affected by damp, can be rendered durable.

=Loculamentum=, R. (loculus, a little place). Any box, chest, or case, the interior of which is divided into compartments.

=Loculus=, R. (dimin. of locus, a place). (1) A coffin, generally of stone. (See SARCOPHAGUS.) (2) A compartment in the manger of a stable. (3) A small chest fitted with compartments.

=Locutorium=, Chr. Of a convent, &c., the parlour.

=Lodged=, Her. Said of animals of the chase in repose. The illustration shows the favourite badge of Richard II.: a white hart chained, and in an attitude of rest. “This device is repeated in Westminster Hall 83 times; and all are equally consistent with heraldic truth and accuracy, without any of them being an exact counterpart of any other.” (Boutell, English Heraldry.) (Fig. 428.)

=Loegria=, O. E. England. (Geoffry of Monmouth.)

=Logan Stones= (properly logging stones, from O. E. log, to oscillate). ROCKING STONES (q.v.).

=Logeum=, Gr. (λογεῖον). A Greek term synonymous with PULPITUM (q.v.).

=Loggia=, It. The gallery, or corridor, of a palace.

=Lombard Architecture.= “A style invented by the Lombards (Longobardi) in the 7th century in imitation of the Roman. It continued in use till the 10th century, and gave place to the Norman style. It is rude, heavy, and massive, with small narrow windows.” (Parker.) The above is only one application of the term, which is applied by different writers to a great number of different styles. The Lombardesque style (It. lo stile Lombardesco) applies to the architectural works of the family of Pietro Lombardo (15th century). The Lombard Gothic is still another style (of the 12th century).

=Loops=, =Loups=, Arch. Another name for CRENELS (q.v.), or embrasures.

=Lord.= The word is Saxon; from hlaf or klaf, a loaf of bread; and ford, to give; hence it means originally bread-giver.

=Lorica=, Gr. and R. (lorum, a thong). A cuirass; it was made either for officers, of two γύαλα, the breast and back-pieces; or, for the soldiers, of a number of small metal scales or bands, fastened together with rivets or rings, and flexible. Among the Asiatics the cuirass was frequently made of cotton; and among the Sarmatians, and other nations, of horn.

=Lorimers=, O. E. Bit-makers.

=Lorraine Cross.= A cross with two projecting arms on each side.

=Lorraine Glass= for painted windows; obtained from the Vosges as early as the 13th century, and then called Burgundy glass. “When any one means to paint, let him choose the Lorraine glass, which inclines to the white yellow because that bears the fire best, and receives the colour better than any other.” (Félibien, 1619.)

=Lota.= A sacred utensil in India, used in ceremonial and other ablutions. It is a globular bowl with a low narrow neck, sometimes chased or engraved and incrusted.

=Lotus= (λωτός). The lotus is a frequently recurring cyma in Hindoo architecture. In Egyptian archæology, the lotus, of which two partially opened buds may be seen in Fig. 432, was the symbol of the rising of the sun, of fertilization, life, and resurrection. The lotus appears in the ornamentation of the largest as well as of the smallest monuments of Egyptian art; and is the motive of many of the columns and capitals of the temples and palaces of a certain period, as well as of the decoration of vases and other small objects. Three lotus-stems issuing from a basin symbolized Upper Egypt.

=Louis d’Or=, Fr. A gold coin, value about 20_s._, first struck in 1640.

=Louis Treize Style= (Arch.), a French version of Italian art, prevailed from 1625 to 1650, and produced Jean le Pautre, the ornamentist, and the following styles:—

=Louis Quatorze=, Arch. A style of ornament developed towards the close of the 17th century (1643–1715). It is described as “essentially an ornamental style, its chief aim being effect by a brilliant play of light and shade; colour, or mere beauty of form in detail, having no part in it. This style arose in Italy, and the Chiesa del Gesù at Rome is mentioned as its type or model. The great medium of the Louis Quatorze was gilt stucco-work, which, for a while, seems to have almost wholly superseded decorative painting; and this absence of colour in the principal decorations of the period seems to have led to its more striking characteristic,—infinite play of light and shade.” (Wornum, Analysis of Ornament.) In this style symmetry was first systematically avoided. In the Furniture of the period the characteristic details are the scroll and shell. The classical ornaments and all the elements of the Cinque-cento, from which the Louis Quatorze proceeded, are admitted under peculiar treatment, as accessories; the panels are formed by chains of scrolls, or a combination of the scroll and shell. Versailles is the great repertory of the Louis Quatorze (Fig. 433), and the designs of Watteau its finest exemplification.

=Louis Quinze=, Arch. This style (1715–74) is the exaggeration of the Louis Quatorze, rejecting all symmetry, and introducing the elongation of the foliations of the scroll, mixed up with a species of crimped conventional coquillage or shell-work. The style found its culmination in the bizarre absurdities of the Rococo.

=Louvre=, Arch. The open turret in the roofs of ancient halls, through which the smoke escaped before the introduction of modern chimneys.

=Louvre-boarding= or =Luffer-boarding=, Arch. A series of overlapping boards sloping from the top downwards, and from within outwards, and fixed in a framework of timber. They are placed in the apertures of towers and belfries for the sake of ventilating the timbers, and are sloped to prevent rain and snow from penetrating within, and to direct the sound of the bells downwards. Sometimes the wooden boardings are covered with lead, slate, or zinc, in order to preserve them.

=Louvre-window=, =Belfry-arch=, Arch. The large lights fitted with louvre-boarding in belfries.

=Love-apple.= The tomato is so called.

=Love-feast.= An annual feast celebrated in some parishes in England on the Thursday before Easter. (See Edwards’s Old English Customs.)

=Love-in-Idleness=, O. E. The heart’s-ease.

=Love-knot.= A complicated figure by which an interchange of affection is supposed to be figured.

=Love-lies-bleeding=, O. E. A flower; a kind of amaranth.

=Love-lock.= A long ringlet of hair worn on the left side of the head, and allowed to stream down the shoulder sometimes as far as the elbow. The love-lock is mentioned in Queen Elizabeth’s reign. “Will you be Frenchified, with a love-lock down to your shoulders, wherein you may weave your mistress’s favour?” (Quip for an Upstart Courtier.)

“Why should thy sweete love-locke hang dangling downe, Kissing thy girdle-stud with falling pride? Although thy skin be white, thy haire is browne; Oh, let not then thy haire thy beautie hide.” (The Affectionate Shepheard.)

=Lovel=, O. E. A dog.

“The Ratte, the Catte, and Lovell our dogge. Rule all England under the hogge.” (1484.)

=Low Side-window=, Arch. A peculiar small window found in many churches near the west end of the chancel, and very near the ground. It was never glazed, but closed with wooden or iron gratings. Its object has never been ascertained. Most of the examples are of the 13th or 14th century. (See Archæological Journal, vol. iv. p. 314.)

=Low Sunday=, Chr. The Sunday next after Easter.

=Lozenge.= In Heraldry, the diamond-shaped figure used for a shield to display the arms of spinsters and widows. The lozenge is always placed upright on the shield, and its true proportions are as 5 to 4. (See MASCLE.)

=Lozenge Moulding= or =Lozenge Fret=. An ornament used in Norman architecture, presenting the appearance of diagonal ribs, enclosing diamond-shaped panels.

=Lozenges.= A term in wood-engraving for a class of fine gravers used for outlines and very fine shading.

=Lozengy=, Her. A field divided lozenge-wise. (Fig. 434.)

=Lucariæ=, R. Festivals instituted at Rome to commemorate the refuge which the Roman army had once found in a wood (lucus) between the Via Salaria and the left bank of the Tiber. At the time of the invasion of the Gauls in the year 365 B.C., the Roman army would have been entirely cut to pieces but for this refuge.

=Lucarne=, Fr. Arch. A dormer or garret window.

=Luce=, Her. The fish now called a pike. (Fig. 380.)

=Lucerna=, R. (luceo, to shine). An oil lamp of terra-cotta or bronze. (Fig. 435.) On one side they had a handle, and on the other one or more places for wicks (myxæ). The oil was poured in through an opening in the centre. Lucerna bilychnis, trilychnis, polylychnis, and lucerna bimyxos, trimyxos, or polymyxos, were respectively lamps with two, three, or several nozzles, or with two, three, or several wicks; lucerna pensilis was a hanging lamp. (See Fig. 435.)

=Lucidæ=, Med. Lat. Lustrous varnishes.

=Lucifer= (lux, light; fero, to bring). The morning or evening star.

=Lucta=, =Luctamen=, =Luctatio= (Gr. πάλη, πάλαισμα, παλαισμοσύνη, or καταβλητική). Wrestling. In the Homeric age the wrestlers contended naked, excepting the perizoma round the loins; about B.C. 720 (the 15th Olympiad) this was discarded. The Cretans and Lacedæmonians, and afterwards the Greeks, anointed the body with oil, and then strewed it over with sand or dust. The Lucta or Palé differed from the Pancratium. In the latter, boxing and wrestling were combined, and the contest continued until one party was killed, or unable to continue. In wrestling, on the other hand, the victory was awarded to the man who first threw the other three times. The most famous wrestler of antiquity was Milo of Crotona, who flourished B.C. 509, and was seven times crowned at the Pythian games, and six times at Olympia.

=Lucullite.= A variety of black marble, first brought to Rome from an island at Assouan on the Nile by Lucullus.

=Ludi.= Games at festivals, or a general name for such festivals as consisted entirely of games and contests. Ludi circenses were games held in the circus, gladiatorial and other. (See CIRCUS.) Ludi scenici were theatrical representations. Ludi stati, like the Feriæ statæ, were those held regularly on certain days marked in the calendar. Ludi imperativi, on the other hand, were held by special appointment, and votivi in fulfilment of vows. The games were superintended by the ÆDILES. The principal games will be found described under the headings Apollinares, Augustales, Capitolini, Circenses, Compitalia, Floralia, Funebres, Liberales or Dionysia, Megalesia, Plebeii, Sæculares, &c.

=Ludus=, R. A game or pastime; ludus litterarius, or ludus simply, was a school for the instruction of youth; ludus duodecim scriptorum, a kind of backgammon played by the ancients; ludus fidicium, a music school; ludus gladiatorius, a school for gladiators directed by a lanista.

=Lumachel= (It. lumachella, a little snail). A marble full of fossil shells, and of beautiful iridescent colours, sometimes a deep red or orange; called also fire marble.

=Luna=, R. (lit. moon). An ivory or silver shoe-buckle worn by Roman senators. (Compare LUNULA.)

=Lunated.= Crescent-shaped.

=Lunette.= (1) In Fortification, a work with two faces and two flanks, i. e. a REDAN to which flanks or lateral wings have been added; in form, therefore, it resembles a BASTION. (2) In Architecture, a crescent or semicircular window, or space above a square window beneath a rounded roof. Hence the paintings on such a space are called lunettes; e. g. those of Raffaelle in the Vatican.

=Lunula=, R. (dimin. of luna). (1) An ornament in the form of a crescent worn by women round the neck. (2) The white moon-shaped marks at the roots of the finger-nails. (Cf. MENIS.)

=Lupatum=, R. A jagged bit with teeth like a saw (lupus); whence its name.

=Lupercalia=, R. Festivals held at Rome on the fifteenth of the calends of March (15th of February), in the Lupercal, a sacred enclosure or cave on the Palatine, regarded as the den of the she-wolf who nursed Romulus and Remus. The luperci assembled together and sacrificed goats and young dogs, with the skins of which they ran through the streets half naked. [Lupercus, or Februus, was the god of fertility. The festival was originally a shepherd festival; the ceremony was symbolical of a purification of shepherds, and commemorated the time when Rome was a nation of shepherds.]

=Lupus=, R. (lit. wolf). (1) A hand-saw. (2) Lupus ferreus, a huge iron hook, lowered from the walls of a besieged place to catch the point of the battering-ram. (See HARPAGA.)

=Lura=, R. Literally, the mouth of a large leathern sack for wine and oil, and thence the sack itself.

=Lure.= A falconer’s decoy, made of feathers on a cord, to attract a hawk back to the wrist. The illustration is a heraldic lure. (See Fig. 91. See also IN LURE.)

=Lusiad.= The great epic of the Portuguese poet Camoens.

=Lustratio= (Gr. κάθαρσις). A purification, originally by water, afterwards by solemn ceremonies of sprinkling, or the smoke of sacrifice; made privately after deaths or accidental pollutions, and publicly on the occasion of public disasters, prodigies, or the like; and at certain fixed periods, especially at the close of every lustrum.

=Lustricus= (sc. dies), R. (lustrum, a lustration). The day of purification for a new-born infant, when it received its name.

=Lustrum=, R. (luo, to wash). A solemn purification performed by the censors on laying down their office, that is to say, every five years; whence the term was used to denote that space of time.

=Lute= (Arabic, el oud). A stringed instrument of great antiquity, first mentioned in Persia in 682 A. D. Before the 10th century the lute had only four strings, or four pairs producing four tones, each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About the 10th century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings were made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument was provided with frets of string, regulated according to the system of seventeen intervals to an octave. The Chinese god of music is represented playing on a lute with four strings. The lute was very popular in England in Elizabeth’s time. Originally it had eight catgut strings, arranged in four pairs, each pair being in unison. The number of strings varied from time to time, and in the 17th century they were twenty-four. The size of the lute also varied; the treble lute was the smallest, and the bass lute the largest. There were also the ARCHLUTE, the CHITARRONE, THEORBO, &c. (Consult Thomas Mace’s Musick’s Monument, 1676.)

=Lycæa.= A festival of the Arcadians in honour of Zeus Λυκαῖος.

=Lyceium.= A sacred enclosure at Athens, dedicated to Apollo Lycius, where the polemarch originally held his court. It was decorated with fountains, plantations, and ornamental edifices by Peisistratus, Pericles, and Lycurgus. Here Aristotle delivered his lectures, as he walked about with his followers, hence called “Peripatetics.”

=Lychnus=, =Lychnuchus=, R. (λύχνος, λυχνοῦχος). The former of these terms is of by far the most frequent occurrence. It denotes a kind of lantern or candlestick made to support oil lamps (lucernæ). Fig. 436 represents a lychnus supporting three lucernæ.

=Lydian.= Of music, soft and slow; generally effeminate.

=Lydian Stone= (Lydius lapis or Heraclius lapis) was a kind of flinty slate used by the ancients as a touchstone for the trial of gold and silver.

=Lymphad=, Her. An ancient galley, the feudal ensign of the house of Lorn, and as such quartered by the Dukes of Argyle. It is borne also by the Prince of Wales as “Lord of the Isles.” (Fig. 437.)

=Lynx Sapphire.= A lapidary’s term for dark-grey or greenish-blue varieties of the sapphire.

=Lyon King at Arms.= The Scotch Herald, Lord Lyon. The regalia of this officer are, a crown of gold, with a crimson velvet cap, &c.; a velvet robe reaching to his feet, with the arms of the kingdom embroidered thereon, both before and behind, in the proper tinctures; a triple row of gold chains round his neck, with an oval gold medal pendent thereto, on one side of which is the royal bearing, and on the other St. Andrew with his cross enamelled in proper colours, and a baton of gold enamelled green, powdered with the badges of the kingdom.

=Lyra=, Gr. and R. (λύρα). A lyre; a stringed instrument which assumed various forms. On Assyrian monuments the lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally in playing. Its front bar was generally either oblique or slightly curved. It was played with a plectrum or with the fingers. The HEBREW lyre is represented on coins of Judas Maccabæus. Some have three strings, others five, and others six. The two sides of the frames appear to have been made of horns of animals. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre is probably the PSALTERION, the KINNOR, a lyre of triangular shape, the instrument of King David, is named in the Bible as the oldest stringed instrument, the invention of Jubal. The Rabbis record that King David used to suspend his over his pillow at night. On Egyptian monuments, at Beni Hassan, a Hebrew lyre is represented, probably of the date of Joseph, 1700 B.C. The GREEKS had lyres of many kinds, distinguished by different names; LYRA, a generic term, and also the lyre oval at the base, to be held in the lap; KITHARA, with a square base, to be held against the breast; CHELYS, a small lyre with body made of tortoise-shell; PHORMIX, a large lyre, &c. Some lyres have a bridge, others have none; the largest were probably held on or between the knees, or were tied by a band to the left arm. The strings of catgut or sinew were twanged with a plektron or short stem of ivory or metal, pointed at both ends. The lyre was the most favourite instrument of the ROMANS, under various names. The CORNU had a frame ending at the top in two long horns; the BARBITOS was a lyre with a large body; the PSALTERIUM was of an oblong square shape, &c. The lyre is represented in early CHRISTIAN monuments of the 4th century. In one of them the Saviour is represented as Apollo touching the lyre. ANGLO-SAXON MSS. of the 9th century also represent the lyre. A GERMAN fiddle of the 9th century, with only one string, is called lyra in the MS. In Christian symbolism the lyre represented “the attractive power of the Lord.” (See MESE.)

=Lysis=, Arch. A plinth, or step above the cornice of the podium which surrounds the PEDESTAL.

M.

=M-roof=, Arch. A roof formed by the junction of two common roofs, with a valley between them.

=Macabre.= (See DANCE OF DEATH.)

=Macaronic Verses.= A burlesque of Latin, chequered with Italian, Tuscan, and plebeian words, described by the author:—

“Ars ista poetica nuncupatur Ars Macaronica, a Macaronibus derivata; qui Macarones sunt quoddam pulmentum, farina, caseo, butyro compaginatum, grossum, rude et rusticanum. Ideo Macaronica nil nisi grossedinem, ruditatem, et Vocabulazzos debet in se continere.”

=Macchia=, It. (lit. a spot or stain). “The blocking out of the masses of light and shade.” (See Eastlake’s Materials, &c., ii. 355.)

=Mace= (Fr. masse or massue). A military club or staff, generally of iron with a wooden handle, useful for breaking defensive armour. The mace was generally worn at the saddle-bow; and was subsequently perforated to form a pistol, and finally superseded by the pistol. In the Middle Ages the mace became an emblem of office; and is so still—usually surmounted by a crown. (See CLAVA, CLUB.)

=Macellarius=, R. (macellum, a market). A keeper of a shop for the sale of fruit and cooked provisions. His shop was called taverna macellaria.

=Macellum=, Gr. and R. (μάκελλον). A covered market in which were sold all kinds of provisions, such as fish, poultry, and game; it was distinct from the open market called FORUM (q.v.).

=Maceria=, R. (1) A rough wall formed of materials of every description, and having no facing. (2) An enclosed place unroofed. (Fig. 438.)

=Machæra=, Gr. and R. (μάχαιρα). A sword with only one edge, made rather for cutting than thrusting.

=Machærium=, Gr. and R. (μαχαίριον). Dimin. of machæra, a knife employed chiefly by fishermen.

=Machærophorus=, Gr. and R. (μαχαιρο-φόρος). Literally, armed with the hunting-knife, the machærium; an epithet of the so called barbarous nations, such as the Egyptians, Persians, Medes, Thracians, and Gauls.

=Machicolated=, Arch. Furnished with machicolations.

=Machicolations= (Fr. machicoulis), Arch. Openings or grooves made under the parapet of a fortified place, through which stones, pitch, boiling water, or hot sand were thrown down.

=Macrochera=, Gr. (μακρό-χειρ, long-armed). A tunic with long sleeves, called by the Romans CHIRIDOTA.

=Macrocolum=, =Macrocollum=, R. Paper of the largest size, that is to say, in sheets formed of a number of pieces of parchment or papyrus glued together.

=Macula=, R. The mesh of a net; in the plural maculæ.

=Madder.= The root of “rubia tinctoria” (Fr. garance), from which a number of valuable pigments are made, which are transparent and permanent, working equally well in oil and in water-colours. They vary from the lightest and most delicate rose to the deepest purple, and are known as rose madder, pink madder, madder-carmine, purple madder, brown madder, intense madder purple, and orange madder lake.

=Madonna=, It. The Virgin Mary. (See JOYS.)

=Mæander=, Gr. (Μαίανδρος). An ornamental design so called from the numerous windings it described, like the river Mæander. Its proper name is the GREEK FRET. (Figs. 334 to 336.)

=Mælium.= (See MELIUM.)

=Mæmacteria=, Gr. (μαιμακτήρια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of the boisterous or stormy Zeus (Μαιμάκτης), with the object of obtaining a mild winter.

=Mænad=, Gr. (μαινάς). Literally, a frenzied woman, and thence a bacchante. (See BACCHA.)

=Mænhir.= (See MENHIR.)

=Mænia Columna=, R. A column situated in the Roman forum, near which certain magistrates (triumviri criminales) judged criminals, slaves, and vagrants.

=Mæniana=, =Mænianæ Scholæ=, R. Celebrated schools of Gaul founded by Augustus at Autun (Augustodunum or Bibracte), so called because the buildings were furnished with balconies (mæniana). (See MÆNIANUM.)

=Mænianum=, R. A structure supported on corbels; a balcony projecting from the wall of a house; in a theatre or amphitheatre, one range of seats comprised between two landing-places (præcinctiones). Originally a balcony erected round the Roman forum, B.C. 318, to give accommodation to the spectators of gladiatorial contests. Afterwards balconies in general were so called.

=Maes=, Celt. A Welsh word for a field of battle, common in topographical nomenclature.

=Mafil.= (See MAHFIL.)

=Mafors= or =Mavors= (Gr. μαφώριον) was a short veil covering the head and neck and flowing down on the shoulders, such as nuns wear in imitation of the Virgin Mary.

=Magadis=, Gr. (μάγαδις). A musical instrument invented by the Lydians; it was a kind of harp, which changed its form and was afterwards called SAMBUCA (q.v.). (See LYRA.)

=Maghreb Pottery.= (See GARGOULETTE.)

=Magi.= The adoration of the Magi (commemorated on Christmas Day) is the subject of some of the earliest specimens of Christian art. A fresco in the catacomb of St. Agnes, representing the Magi before Herod, is attributed to the 2nd century, and the mosaics of St. Maria Maggiore at Rome, in which the same subject occurs, are of the 5th century.

=Magnase Black.= A colour which dries rapidly when mixed with oil, and is of intense body.

=Mahfil=, Arab. A raised seat in a mosque, for the imaum mocri who reads the Koran, and for the imaum khatib, who recites prayer, preaches, and acts as the minister of the services generally.

=Mahl-stick.= A stick with a pad at the end, upon which the painter rests the wrist of his right arm while working.

=Mahogany.= Wood of the Swietenia mahogoni of Jamaica and Honduras. Satin-wood, or green mahogany, is the Chloroxyllon; mottled, or African mahogany, is the Khaya; Indian mahogany is the Cedrela toona.

=Mahoitres=, O. E. The name of a singular fashion of the 15th century—“of prankyd gownes, and shoulders up set, moss and flocks sewed within”—of padding up the shoulder to give a broad appearance to the chest. (See Figs. 51, 355, and 469.)

=Mail= (from the Fr. maille, the meshes of a net). Applied to chain or ringed armour. “Rich mayles that ronke (strong) were and round.”

=Mainefaire=, O. E. The covering for a horse’s mane. It was made of overlapping plates, like a lobster’s tail; and was fastened to the testière by buttons, and round the animal’s neck by straps. (Meyrick.)

=Maintenance, Cap of=, Her. (See CHAPEAU.)

=Maiolica= or =Majolica=. The Italian name for the glazed earthenware introduced by Moorish potters from the island of Majorca. Originally these terms were only applied to “lustre wares,” but from the 16th century they were generally applied to the glazed earthenware of Italy. A coarser lead-glazed lustred ware was known as mezza-majolica. The distinguishing characteristics of the Majolica ware are “coarseness of ware, intricacy of pattern, and occasionally prismatic glaze.” It is also named FAIENCE, from the botega at FAENZA, and, when decorated with subjects after designs of Raphael, “Raffaelle-ware.” FAYENCE, terraglia, as distinct from PORCELAIN, is formed of potter’s clay (hence its English name Pottery) mixed with marl and sand, and is soft or hard according to the nature of the composition, and the degree of heat under which it is fired in the kiln. English earthenware is soft, while stone-ware, Queen’s ware, &c., are hard. Soft wares are either unglazed, or lustrous, or glazed, or enamelled. The Italian lustrous ware is properly, and the glazed ware improperly, but generally called MAJOLICA.

=Majesty= (It. Maesta), Chr. A conventional representation of the Saviour in glory, on a throne, encompassed by a nimbus, and surrounded by cherubim, and the four evangelistic symbols, and the letters Α and Ω. “The only existing document relating to Cimabue shows that he was employed in 1301 on a mosaic ‘Majesty’ in the tribune of the Duomo at Pisa.” (Eastlake.)

=Mala Pioba.= Irish (mala, a bag). The bagpipe.

=Malachite.= A native carbonate of copper, forming a beautiful and permanent green pigment, used for oils and water-colours. Incrusted upon other materials it is used for articles of ornament. Blue malachite is pure carbonate of copper; green malachite is green carbonate of copper; emerald or royal malachite is dioptase of copper, a still rarer green and the best of all, which is a mixture of copper and silica; false or pseudo-malachite is phosphate of copper, soft and silky, and of a rich velvet green marred by black spots or lines, and not so rich as the three kinds of true malachite.

=Malchus=, R. An old term for a confessional having only one stool for penitents; it signified that which has only one ear, from the fact that Malchus, Caïaphas’ servant, was deprived of his right ear by Peter.

=Malleability.= The property of extension under the hammer (malleus). Gold is the most malleable of metals. The art of rendering glass malleable was discovered by an architect in the reign of Tiberius. Buried treasures of glass vessels have been found to be malleable when first disinterred, but to harden quickly on exposure to the air.

=Malleus=, R. (1) A hammer. (2) Med. The MAULE (Gothic Miölner), Thor’s hammer; a military weapon.

=Malluvia, Malluvium.= R. A wash-hand basin.

=Malus=, R. (malus, an apple-tree). (1) The mast of a vessel. (2) In theatres and amphitheatres (Fig. 440) mali were the poles over which the velarium was stretched.

=Malveisin=, Med. (Fr. malvoisin, a disagreeable neighbour). A military engine for projecting stones or arrows.

=Mama-quilla=, Peruv. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun, INTI (q.v.); so called because it was dedicated to the moon, Mama-quilla.

=Mamillare=, R. (mamilla, the breast). (1) A broad band made of soft leather, a kind of small stays, used by the Roman ladies to support the breasts. (2) In Mediæval Latin, circular plates on the surcoat with rings from which two chains depended, one of which was attached to the sword and the other to the sheath. The fashion was introduced under Edward I., and continued until Henry V.

=Mancop Oly=, Dutch. Poppy oil, “a very white oil used by the painters in the Netherlands, who execute delicate works requiring lively colours, such as the vases of flowers of De Ghein, &c.” (Eastlake.)

=Mandorla=, Chr. (lit. an almond). (See AUREOLE and VESICA PISCIS.)

=Mandra=, Chr. (lit. a fold). A favourite appellation for monastic establishments in the East.

=Manducus=, R. (mando, to chew). A comic masked character, distinguished by his ugliness and voracity (whence his name). (See PERSONA.)

=Mandyas=, Chr. In the Greek Church, an outer garment worn by monks. It is a long cloak, reaching almost to the feet, and fastened at the throat. It is originally a Persian dress, and is frequently mentioned as worn by emperors and kings.

=Manefaire=, O. E. A covering of armour for a horse’s mane.

=Manes=, R. The shades of the dead. (See LEMURES.)

=Manganese Brown.= A rich semi-opaque brown pigment, permanent and drying well. (See CAPPAGH.)

=Manger=, Chr. The boards of the manger in which the Infant Saviour was laid, are said to be preserved in the crypt of the church of St. Maria Maggiore at Rome. They are called the culla, and are the object of a solemn procession on Christmas Eve.

=Mangonell=, Med. A military machine for hurling stones; the spelling is frequently varied:—

“Vous peussez bugles, mangoniaux Veoir pardessus les carniaux.” (Roman de la Rose.)

=Manica=, R. (manus, a hand). (1) An armlet, or piece of armour which protected the arm of the gladiator. (2) A leather glove worn by barbarous nations. In the plural, manicæ denotes (1) manacles; (2) a grappling-iron called HARPAGA (q.v.).

=Manicora=, =Manicore=, Chr. In Christian iconography, the manicora is a hybrid animal with a human head, and a globular body ending in a serpent. It is a symbol of the World, the Flesh, and the Devil. (Fig. 441.)

=Maniple=, Chr. A short stole held in the left hand, originally used as a napkin by the officiating priest. Afterwards it was worn pendent from the wrist, and richly decorated. (See FANON.) The word is derived from—

=Manipulus=, R. (lit. a handful). (1) A maniple, the earliest ensign of the Roman legion; it consisted of a handful of hay attached to the end of a pole. (2) A body of infantry in a legion, consisting of about 180 to 200 men.

=Mansard Roof=, Arch, (so called from Mansard, the French architect, who introduced it), or =Curb Roof= (from the French courber, to bend). A roof with two sets of rafters, of which the upper part is, as it were, broken off, and not so steep as the lower. According to Mesanges, Mansard took the idea of his roof from a frame composed by Segallo, and Michael Angelo employed it in the construction of the dome of St. Peter’s. The houses in Lower Brittany were covered with these roofs in the end of the 15th century.

=Manse=, O. E. The parsonage-house.

=Mansio=, R. (maneo, to remain). Stations placed at intervals along the high roads, to serve as halting-places for the troops on a march. (See MUTATIO.)

=Mantapa=, Hind. A porch to a temple.

=Mantel-piece=, Arch. (formerly mantil). A cloak or covering; hence the slab which covers a part of the fireplace; the canopy over a shrine (Latin mandualis).

=Mantelet= or =Mantlet=. A shed used for protecting soldiers from missile weapons. (See PLUTEUS.)

=Mantica=, R. (manus, the hand). A double wallet serving as a portmanteau for riders or pedestrians.

=Mantle.= A flowing robe worn over the armour, as shown in the costume of the knights in the ivory mirror-case. (Fig. 463.)

=Mantling= or =Lambrequin=. A small mantle, of some rich materials, attached to the helmet, and worn hanging down, and ending in tassels. (See Fig. 177.) It is usually represented, in Heraldry, with jagged ends, to represent the cuts it would be exposed to in actual battle.

=Manuale=, R. (manus, the hand). A wooden case for a book.

=Manuballista=, R. A hand-ballista. (See ARCUBALLISTA.)

=Manubrium=, R. (i. e. what is borne in the hand). A general term for a handle of any kind. (See Fig. 377.)

=Manus Ferrea=, R. Literally, a hand of iron; an iron hook which served as a grappling-iron, differing from the harpaga, as it was launched at the end of a chain, while the harpaga was fixed on a long beam (asser).

=Marble.= The finest for statuary, from Carrara, is of a pure white; that from Paros is of a waxy cream colour; others coloured with metallic oxides are available for ornamental purposes. Many cements have been produced as “artificial marble.” (See SCAGLIOLA.)

=Marble Silk= had a weft of several colours so woven as to make the whole web look like marble stained with a variety of tints. On the 6th of November, 1551, “the old qwyne of Schottes rod thrught London; then cam the lord tresorer with a C. great horsse and ther cotes of marbull.” Its use prevailed for three centuries.

=Marbling= “is an art which consists in the production of certain patterns and effects by means of colours so prepared as to float on a mucilaginous liquid. While so floating they form into patterns, which are taken off on to a sheet of paper (for book-covers), or to the smoothly cut edges of a book, by dipping.” (Woolnough, The Whole Art of Marbling, 1881.)

=Marcus=, R. A blacksmith’s hammer; a sledge-hammer. (See MALLEUS.)

=Mardelles=, =Margelles=, or =Marges=, Celt. Excavations met with in several parts of Europe, supposed to be Celtic.

=Mark=, O. E. An ancient coin, value 13_s._ 4_d._; formerly the equivalent of 30 silver pennies.

=Marmouset=, Arch. Fr. (monkey). A grotesque figure introduced into architectural decoration in the 13th century.

=Marouflage=, Fr. (maroufler, to line). A method of house-painting in France, upon a lining of prepared canvas fixed upon the surface to be decorated.

=Marquess=, =Marquis=, Her. The second order of the British peerage, in rank next to that of duke, was introduced into England in 1387 by Richard II. The coronet, apparently contemporary in its present form with that of the dukes, has its golden circlet heightened with four strawberry-leaves and as many pearls arranged alternately.

=Marquetry.= Inlaid-work of ornamental woods and stones of various colours put together and mixed with metals. The art has existed from the earliest ages; but no nation has brought it to a higher degree of perfection than the Italians of the 15th century. The Florentines especially have produced work of this kind which is unapproached; the Medici chapel at Florence may be particularly instanced. Figs. 443 and 444 represent specimens of antique work. The Venetian marquetry, derived from Persia and India, is a fine inlay of ivory, metal, and woods, stained to vary the colour. This work is in geometric patterns only. In France, in the early marquetry designs, picturesque landscapes, broken architecture, and figures are represented. Colours are occasionally stained on the wood. Ivory and ebony are the favourite materials. In England, it is an art imported from Holland in the reign of William and Mary. The older designs on Dutch marquetry represent tulips and other flowers, foliage, birds, &c., all in gay colours, generally the self colours of the wood used. Sometimes the eyes and other salient points are in ivory and mother-of-pearl. (Compare BOULE, CERTOSINA WORK, EMBLEMATA, MUSIVUM OPUS, REISNER-WORK, &c.)

=Marra=, R. A kind of hoe with indented teeth, used for tearing up weeds. (Fig. 445.)

=Mars Brown.= A brown pigment.

=Mars= (=Reds=, &c.). Calcined earths of which the brightness of the redness is regulated by the duration of the roasting.

=Marseilles Faience.= This ancient city has at all times been celebrated in the ceramic arts. Fig. 446 gives a representative specimen of modern polychrome work, decorated with flowers easily recognized by the disposition of their long stalks. These flowers are, in other specimens, accompanied by marine landscapes. Other polychrome services are called from their designs “services aux insectes.”

=Marsupium=, R. (μαρσύπιον). A purse for containing money; it was made of leather and shaped like a pear, being confined at the top with a string. (Hence the adjective marsupial applied to the kangaroo, &c.)

=Martel de Fer=, Med. A weapon which had at one end a pick, and at the other a hammer, axe-blade, half-moon, mace-head, or other fanciful termination. (Meyrick.)

=Martlet=, Her. Bird, usually represented without feet. (Figs. 447, 448.)

=Martyrium=, Chr. An altar erected over the tomb of a martyr.

=Marzocco=, It. The Lion of Florence. The heraldic emblem of the city. (Fig. 449.)

=Mascaron=, Arch. Fr. A mask; the face of a man or animal employed as an ornamentation for decorating the key-stones of arches or vaults, or the stones of an arch, &c. (Fig. 450.)

=Mascle=, Her. The central lozenge of a diapered surface; it is drawn with right angles.

=Maser= or =Mazer=, O. E. A bowl of maple-wood. The name is applied to similar bowls or goblets of other woods.

“The mazers four, My noble fathers loved of yore,”

are mentioned by Scott in “The Lord of the Isles.” They were richly ornamented, frequently with legends on the rim, such as

“In the name of the Trinitie Fille the kup and drinke to me,”

and the rim was often covered with silver or gold.

=Massicot.= The name of an ancient pigment of a dull orange colour.

=Mastaba=, =Mastabê=, Egyp. An outer chapel attached to Egyptian burial-places; it was generally a small quadrangular building, the door of which faced the East.

=Master Arch=, O. E. The central or widest arch of a bridge.

=Mastic.= A resin used for varnish. (Dissolve one part of mastic resin in two of oil of turpentine.) (See VARNISH.) In France, the term is applied to a cement used to fill up joints in masonry; in joinery, to a composition of wax, resin, and pounded brick, applied to fill up knots and chinks in the wood. Putty is also so called.

=Mastigophorus=, Gr. and R. (μαστιγο-φόρος). A slavedriver, and thence an officer who fulfilled the same functions as our policemen. The mastigophori were so named because they carried a whip (μάστιγα φέρειν), in order to put down any crowding or tumult; it was also part of their duty to repress any infringement of the regulations at the public games.

=Match-lock.= A gun which was exploded by means of a match, before the introduction of the flint and steel. (See FIRE-LOCK.)

=Materiatio=, R. (materia, materials). The timber-work of a roof, consisting of two principal rafters (canterii), a tie-beam (tignum), a ridgepiece (calcimen), beams (trabes), struts (capreoli), purlines (templa), and common rafters (asseres).

=Materis=, R. A Celtic javelin with a broad head.

=Matralia=, R. (i. e. pertaining to a mother). The festival of Matuta (the Ino of the Greeks), which was held at Rome every year on the third of the ides of June (11th of June). Prayers were offered by the Roman matrons on behalf of their nephews, they being afraid to pray for their own children, since those of Matuta had turned out so unfortunately.

=Matronalia=, R. A festival of the Roman matrons held on the calends of March, at which matrons offered sacrifices to Mars and Juno Lucina.

=Mattucashlash.= An ancient Scotch weapon, sometimes called the armpit dagger, being worn on the arm ready to be used on coming to close quarters.

=Maule.= (See MALLEUS.)

=Maunde=, O. E. A basket.

=Mausoleum=, R. The tomb of Mausolus, king of Caria, at Halicarnassus, ranked among the seven wonders of the world. The name was afterwards applied to tombs of an imposing size and splendour, such as the tomb of Augustus in the Field of Mars, and that of Hadrian, on the banks of the Tiber, now known as Fort St. Angelo. A representation of it, in its original state, is shown in Fig. 451.

=Mauve= is the colour of a peach blossom; obtained as a dye from aniline found in gas tar.

=Maze=, Chr. Labyrinthine figures in the pavements of churches and on the turf of greens. To trace the former kneeling was a species of penance.

=Mazmorra=, Sp. A tank lined with cement, sunk in the ground and used for storing grain. (See Murray’s Handbook, Spain, p. 361, Granada, &c.)

=Mazonum=, Gr. (μαζο-νομεῖον; μᾶζα, barley-bread). A wooden platter for domestic use, and thence a salver of bronze or gold on which perfumes were burnt in the religious processions of Bacchus.

=Mechlin Lace= is fine, transparent, and effective. It is made in one piece on the pillow; its distinguishing feature is the flat thread which forms the flowers, and gives to the lace the character of embroidery. In 1699—when Charles II.’s prohibition to the introduction of Flanders lace was removed—Mechlin lace became the fashion in England, and continued so during the succeeding century. In the 17th century the Beguinage nuns were celebrated for their lace-making, and they supported their house by their work. Previous to 1665 the name of Mechlin was given to all pillow lace, and much of it was made like our modern insertion. The engraving shows a specimen of old Mechlin lace formerly in great favour as head-dresses and other trimmings.

=Medallion.= (1) A medal of a larger size than the ordinary coinage. (2) In Architecture, a circular or oval tablet on the face of a building.

=Mediæval.= (See MIDDLE AGES.)

=Medimnus=, Gr. (μέδιμνος). The principal Greek measure of capacity, holding as much as six Roman modii. It was especially used for measuring corn.

=Meditrinalia=, R. (medeor, to remedy). Roman festivals in honour of Meditrina, the goddess of healing, celebrated on the 11th of October, at which new wine was tasted, it being looked upon by the Romans as a preservative of health.

=Medium.= The liquid in which pigments are ground. The best are linseed oil and nut oil.

=Medusa Head= was frequently used as an ornament for the centre of a shield. (Cf. GORGONEIA.)

=Megalartia=, Gr. (μεγαλάρτια). Festivals held at Delos in honour of Ceres, who was called Megalartos (Μεγάλαρτος) from her having bestowed bread on mankind.

=Megalesian= (games), R. (Ludi megalenses). Festivals celebrated annually on the 4th of April in honour of Cybelê, who was called the Great (Μεγαλεῖα), in which the people went in procession to the Field of Mars to witness scenic spectacles. The magistrates attended these spectacles in a purple toga, or “toga prætexta;” hence the expression “Purpura Megalensis.”

=Megylp.= A vehicle used by some oil-painters, condemned as tending to destroy the permanency of the picture.

=Melides=, Gr. Nymphs of fruit-trees. (Cf. HAMADRYADES.)

=Melina=, R. A pouch made out of the skin of a marten (or a badger, meles).

=Melium=, R. A collar for sporting-dogs, studded with nails and iron spikes (clavulis, capitatis).

=Mell.= (See MALLEUS.)

=Melotte=, O. E. A garment worn by monks during laborious occupation. (Halliwell.)

=Membrana=, R. (membrum, skin). Parchment for writing on was introduced as a substitute for the Egyptian papyrus by Eumenes II., king of Pergamus. It was usually written over on one side, and the back was stained with saffron. The writings were frequently erased, and the paper or parchment used again. It was then called a palimpsest. All the sheets used for one work were joined together into a long scroll, which was folded round a staff, and then called volumen; usually there were ornamental balls or bosses, projecting from the ends of the staff, called umbilici or cornua. The ends of the roll were carefully cut and blackened; they were called geminæ frontes. The roll itself was kept in a parchment case, which was stained purple or yellow. (See also LIBER.)

=Membranula=, R. (dimin. of membrana). A small strip of parchment on which the title or contents of a volume were inscribed in minium.

=Menat=, Egyp. An Egyptian amulet worn on a necklace. The menat evidently formed some symbol, the meaning of which has hitherto not been discovered.

=Menehis= or =Minihis=, Fr. This term, derived from the Celtic menech-ti (house of a monk), or manach-li (free spot of earth), was formerly used in Brittany to denote a place of asylum which had been consecrated in any way.

=Menhir=, Celt. A Celtic monument consisting of a huge stone fixed upright in the ground. Menhirs are found associated with dolmens, tumuli, and circles of stones. (Consult Bertrand, Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise, p. 84.)

=Menis=, =Meniscus=, Gr. and R. (μηνίσκος; μήνη, the moon). A crescent-shaped piece of metal which was placed on statues of the gods to hinder birds from settling on them. The same term was used to denote an ornament, likewise in the shape of a crescent, placed by the Romans at the beginning of their books; hence the expression a menide, from the beginning. (Cf. LUNA.)

=Mensa=, R. (Gr. τράπεζα). A board, tablet, or table; mensa escaria, or mensa simply, a dining-table; mensa prima, secunda, the first, second course of a meal; mensa tripes, a table with three feet, in contradistinction to monopodium, a table with a single leg; mensa vinaria, a drinking-table (see DELPHICA); mensa sacra, an altar-table; mensa vasaria, a table for holding vessels; mensa publica, a public bank; hence mensarii, bankers.

=Mensao=, Celt. A Celtic monument more usually called MENHIR (q.v.).

=Mensole=, Arch. A term denoting the key-stone of an arch.

=Menzil=, Orient. Houses in the East for the reception of travellers, in places where there are neither caravanserais nor khans.

=Mereack=, Hind. A sort of thick black varnish employed by the Khmers to coat over statues made of any soft stone, which are exposed to the changes of the weather. This varnish was, in many instances, itself covered with gold leaf.

=Merkins=, O. E. A name given to ringlets of false hair, much worn by ladies temp. Charles I.

=Merlons=, Arch. The Cops or raised parts of a battlement. Figures of warriors or animals are sometimes carved on the tops. (See BATTLEMENT.)

=Mermaid.= An ancient device of the Colonna family was the mermaid between the pillars of Hercules, with the motto Contemnit tuta procellas.

=Mesaulæ= (μέσ-αυλα). (1) The narrow passage or corridor which, in a Greek house, connected the andron with the gynæceum. (2) The door in this passage.

=Mese= (the middle, sc. χορδή). The central note of the seven-stringed lyre. The Greeks had no names to distinguish musical notes. They were expressed by the names of the strings of the lyre. Thus, NETE, d; PARANETE, c; PARAMESE, b flat; and MESE, a, in the treble or upper tetrachord; and LICHANOS, g; PARHYPATE, f; and HYPATE, e, in the base or lower tetrachord.

=Mesjid=, Arab. A small mosque. These exist in great numbers. The Sultan Mohamet II. alone consecrated 170 mesjids in Constantinople.

=Messe=, A.S. The Mass.

=Messle-house= or =Meselle-house=, O. E. (from the obsolete word measle, a leper). A hospital or lazar-house.

=Meta=, R. (metior, to measure). Any object with a circular base and of conical shape; in a circus the term meta, or rather metæ (for there were two sets of goals), was applied to a set of three cones placed together upon a pedestal, as shown in Fig. 456, to mark the turning-points of the race-course. In a mill for grinding corn the name of meta was applied to the lower part of the mill, which was hewn into the form of a cone. (See CIRCUS, OVUM, SPINA, &c.)

=Metal=, Tech. (1) A mass of glass in the state of paste, adherent to the pipe and already blown; it may be regarded as the first stage in the production of a piece. (2) Broken glass. (3) Broken stones for repairing roads.

=Metal=, Her. The tinctures or and argent.

=Metallic Canvas.= A combination of metal and canvas; waterproof for various uses.

=Metallic Lava.= A composition of gravel, pounded chalk, tar, and wax, forming an artificial stone to be cast into ornamental shapes in moulds. The vestibule of the Euston Station is paved with this preparation. (Builder, vi. 502.)

=Metallurgy.= It was at a comparatively late period of human civilization that the art of working in iron was brought to perfection. The ancient Egyptians, probably aware of its resources, had a superstitious objection to its use; but they hardened bronze to a degree unknown to later ages, and their bronze statuary of the most ancient period is worthy of any age. The bronze-work of Britain and Ireland is as ancient as any; and, in beauty of form and perfection of casting, rivals the best modern work. Of the work in Greece we are told that Athens alone contained 3000 bronze statues in the year 130 B.C., and vast treasures of metallurgy have been discovered in Herculaneum and Pompeii. In mediæval times Ireland was famous for metallurgy, and of its admirable copper-works of the 11th century many splendid relics remain, especially the so called Bell of St. Patrick. Oriental bronzes, of characteristic design, are plentiful from all ages; especially beautiful and perfect in execution are those of China and Japan. The best period of workmanship in Iron is the Middle Ages; gates and hinges, keys, and especially weapons and defensive armour being the chief objects produced. (Consult Pugin, Digby Wyatt.) (See also BRONZE, COPPER, DAMASCENING, GOLD, &c.)

=Metope=, Arch. (μετ-όπη, i. e. the space between the ὀπαί). A kind of panel between the triglyphs in the Doric frieze (Fig. 458); in some Greek examples quite plain, in others ornamented with sculpture. The metopes of the Parthenon in the British Museum are carved with representations of the war of the Centaurs and Lapithæ. (Fig. 457.) (See ELGIN MARBLES.) In Roman buildings the metopes are usually carved, and are exact squares; but in the Greek Doric this was not necessary.

=Metreta=, Gr. (μετρητὴς, i. e. measurer). The unit in the Greek measures of capacity; it held two cotylæ, or about eight gallons.

=Meurtrière=, O. E. “A black knot, that unties and ties the curles of the hair.” (Ladies’ Dict., 1694.)

=Mews=, O. E. Originally a courtyard for “mewing” (i. e. moulting) hawks.

=Mexican Architecture.= The principal monuments of the valley of Mexico are situated in a small tract in the centre of the table-land of Anahuac. These consist of pyramidal temples (teocallis) formed in terraces, with flat tops, and always surmounted by a chamber or cell, which is the temple itself. In Yucatan there are more architectural remains than anywhere in the world, with palaces of all dates, generally pyramidal, and often rich with elaborate carvings. (See Stephens’s Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.) (Fig. 458 a.)

=Mezza-majolica= was the coarser majolica ware formed of potter’s earth, covered with a white “slip,” upon which the subject was painted, then glazed with the common lead glaze, over which the lustre pigments were applied; the majolica, on the other hand, being the tin-enamelled ware similarly lustred. (See MAJOLICA.)

=Mezzanine=, =Entresole=, =Half-story=, Arch. A small story intermediate between two others of larger size. A mezzanine or Flemish window was a window either square or broader than it was long, made in an attic, or in a lower story lying between two higher stories.

=Mezzo-relievo=, It. Sculpture in relief, in which one half of the figure projects; sometimes called DEMI-RELIEVO.

=Mias=, Hind. A commemorative monument.

=Mica=, =Micatio=, R. (mico, to move quickly). A game called by the Italians of the present day mora; two players simultaneously stretching out one or more fingers, and each guessing the number held up by his adversary.

=Middle Ages.= The mediæval period—of transition between ancient and modern times—between the 10th and the 15th centuries is one of the grandest periods in art. It begins with the decay of Rome, and merges into the Renaissance.

=Middle Distance=, in a landscape:—between the foreground and the background. Great skill is displayed in the expression of distance by the effects of intervening atmospheres, and by the design of intermediate plans carrying the eye onward and suggesting space.

=Middle Ground= in a landscape. (See MIDDLE DISTANCE.)

=Middle Pointed Period= of Architecture is a name given to that period of Gothic architecture in England, which is generally described as “the Decorated Period.”

=Middle Post.= The KING-POST in the truss of a roof.

=Milan Faience.= Fig. 459 is an illustration of the Oriental imitations for which Milan was famous. “It is,” says M. Jacquemart, “of such beautiful enamel that it might be taken for porcelain. The upper and lower edges are decorated with shells, scrolls, and rocailles in relief, heightened with gold; the whole surface has a decoration of peonies and sprigs in blue, red, and gold, which rival in beauty the richest specimens of old Delft.”

=Milan Lace.= The engraving shows a specimen of Old Milan Point or Reticella from the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in that city. (See RETICELLA.) (Fig. 460.)

=Miliarium=, R. (1) A tall narrow copper vessel employed in baths for heating the water. (2) The column of an olive-press (trapetum), which rose from the centre of the mortar (mortarium).

=Military Architecture.= The science of building fortresses and fortifying town walls, &c. [See Viollet le Duc, “Essai sur l’Architecture militaire au Moyen Age.”]

=Milled Money=, with grooved edges, was first coined in this country in 1561.

=Millefiori.= Mosaic glass. (See GLASS.)

=Milliarium=, R. (mille, a thousand, sc. paces). A column placed at intervals of a mile (1618 English yards) along a Roman road to indicate the distance. (Fig. 461.) It was also called lapis. Milliarium aureum was the name given to the golden mile-stone erected by Augustus in the Forum, where the principal roads of the Empire terminated. A stone, called the “London Stone,” in Cannon Street, E.C., is supposed to have marked the centre of the Roman roads in Britain.

=Mill-rind=, =Fer-de-Moline=, Her. The iron fixed to the centre of a millstone.

=Millstone-grit.= The name of a good building stone, plentiful in the north of England. It is supposed to be formed by a re-aggregation of the disintegrated materials of granite. (See the Builder, vol. ix. 639.)

=Millus=, R. (See MELIUM.)

=Mimbar=, Arabic. A pulpit in a mosque. A finely-carved mimbar is in the South Kensington Museum.

=Minah=, =Minar=, Hind. A tower or pillar. The Surkh Minar and Minar Chakri, among the topes at Cabul, are almost the only pillars existing in India. They are generally ascribed to Alexander the Great, but are probably Buddhist monuments of the 3rd or 4th century of our era.

=Minaret= (Arabic menarah, a lantern). A feature peculiar to Mohammedan architecture. A tall, slender shaft or turret, rising high above all surrounding buildings of the mosque to which it is attached; in several stories, with or without external galleries, but usually having three. From these galleries the muezzin summon the faithful to prayer. Blind men are generally selected for this duty, because the minaret commands a view of the house-tops used as sleeping-chambers in the East.

=Mineral Black.= A native oxide of carbon.

=Mineral Blue.= A native carbonate of copper which is liable to change its tint to green, if mixed with oil. (Fairholt.)

=Mineral Brown.= (See CAPPAGH.)

=Mineral Green.= MALACHITE (q.v.). (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)

=Mineral Lake= is a French pigment, a kind of orange chrome.

=Mineral Yellow.= A pigment of chloride of lead, which becomes paler by time. The name has also been applied to YELLOW OCHRE and YELLOW ARSENIC (q.v.).

=Minerval=, R. A present or fee which Roman scholars took to their masters every year, on the fourteenth of the calends of April (19th of March), that is, on occasion of the festivals of Minerva.

=Minever=, O. E. (1) Either the pure white fur with which the robes of peers and judges are trimmed—“minever pure;” or (2) the ermine with minute spots of black in it—minutus varius—in lieu of the complete tails; or (3) the fur of the ermine mixed with that of the small weasel. (Consult Planché’s Cyclopædia; see also VAIR.)

=Miniature.= Literally, a painting executed in minium (vermilion). Now used for any small picture, and especially for a small portrait.

=Ministerium=, Chr. All the sacred ornaments and utensils of a church taken collectively.

=Minium.= A kind of red lead obtained by exposing lead or its protoxide to heat, till it is converted to a red oxide. It is a fine orange pigment, but fugitive and liable to decomposition when mixed with other pigments. The ancient minium was cinnabar, or vermilion. (See ILLUMINATING.)

=Minnim=, Heb. Stringed musical instruments of the lute or guitar kind.

=Minotaur=, R. A monster, half man, half bull, confined in the labyrinth constructed by Dædalus in Crete. It was assumed as a device by Gonzalvo Perez, with the motto from Isaiah xxx. 15. (Fig. 462.)

=Minster=, =Abbey-church=, O. E. (Germ. Münster). A church to which a monastery was attached; a cathedral. The name survives in “West-minster.”

=Minstrel Gallery=, O. E. The LOFT in a church was so called.

=Minuscule.= (See SEMI-UNCIALS.)

=Minute=, It. A subdivision of the module in the measurement of architectural proportion. It is the twelfth, the eighteenth, or the thirtieth part of the MODULE.

=Mirador=, Sp. A belvedere, or overhanging bow-window.

=Mirror.= In the Middle Ages mirrors were often enclosed in cases of metal or carved ivory. The example (Fig. 463) gives a representation of the Siege of the Castle of Love from one of the romances of the period. (See GLASS.)

=Mirror=, Arch. A small oval ornament cut into the deep mouldings, and separated by wreaths of flowers.

=Miserere.= A projecting bracket, on the sellette of a church stall, on which, when the seat was turned up, there was a leaning-space, available to the infirm during the parts of the service required to be performed standing. (See SELLETTE.)

=Misericorde.= The narrow-bladed dagger used to put the victory with sword or lance to the test, by obliging a fallen antagonist to cry for mercy, or by despatching him.

=Mis’rha=, Hind. Hindoo temples built with two kinds of materials; whence their name of mixed (mis’rha). (See SUD’HA, VIMANA, and SANCIRA.)

=Missilia=, R. (i. e. things thrown). Presents of cheques or tickets thrown by the emperor and wealthy persons among the people. The cheques were payable to the bearer at the magazine of the donor. (See CONGIARIUM.)

=Mistarius=, =Mixtarius=, R. Any vessel of large size used for mixing water with wine.

=Mitella=, Gr. (dimin. of mitra). (1) A head-band or coif of peaked form worn by Greek women. (2) A scarf used as a bandage or support for a broken arm.

=Mithriatic= (Festivals), Pers. and R. Festivals held in honour of Mithras, the Persian sun-god.

=Mitis Green.= (See EMERALD GREEN.)

=Mitra=, Gr. and R. (μίτρα). (1) A mitre or head-dress of the Galli or priests of Cybelê; it was a Phrygian cap of felt, which was tied under the chin by lappets; it was also called a Phrygian tiara. (2) A cable fastened round the hull of a vessel to strengthen the timbers.

=Mitre=, Chr. Her. The ensign of archiepiscopal and episcopal rank, placed above the arms of prelates of the Church of England, sometimes borne as a charge, and adopted by the Berkeleys as their crest. The contour of the mitre has varied considerably at various times, growing continually higher and more pointed. It was first worn by bishops about the close of the 10th century. Bishops had three kinds of mitres: the simplex, of plain white linen; the aurifrigata, ornamented with gold orphreys; and the pretiosa, enriched with gold and jewels, for use at high festivals. (Fig. 464.) In Architecture, the corner line formed by the meeting of mouldings intercepting each other at an angle.

=Mitten=, =Mitaine=, Anglo-Norman. A glove; not restricted to gloves without fingers. “Gloves made of linnen or woollen, whether knit or stytched: sometimes also they call so gloves made of leather without fingers.” (Ray.) (See MUFFETEE.)

=Moat=, =Mote=. (1) Originally a heap or hillock; the dune on which a tower was built, forming the original castle. The Saxons assembled on such moats or mounds to make laws and administer justice; hence their word witten-mote for parliament. (2) Mod. Usually applied to the fosse of a rampart, the side next the fortress being the scarp, and the opposite the counterscarp.

=Mobcap=, O. E. A cap tying under a woman’ chin by an excessively broad band, generally made of the same material as the cap itself. (H.)

=Moccinigo.= A small Venetian coin, worth about 9_d._ (H.)

=Mochado=, =Mokkado=, O. E. (1) A silk stuff, commonly called “mock velvet,” much used in the 16th and 17th centuries. (Fairholt.) (2) A woollen stuff of the same kind. (Halliwell.) It was probably a mixture of silk and wool. (Planché.)

=Modena Pottery.= The antique pottery of Modena is referred to by Pliny and Livy, but there is no exact record or marked example of wares produced there during the Renaissance. The manufacture flourishes now at Sassuolo, a town ten miles south of Modena.

=Modesty Bit= or =Piece=, O. E. “A narrow lace which runs along the upper part of the stays, before, being a part of the tucker, is called the modesty piece.” (Guardian.) “Modesty bits—out of fashion” is an announcement in the London Chronicle, vol. xi. 1762.

=Modillions=, Arch. Small brackets under the coronæ of cornices; when square they are called MUTULES. In the Corinthian order they have carved leaves spread under them. Fig. 465 is taken from the temple of Mars the Avenger, at Rome.

=Modius=, R. (modus, a measure or standard). The largest Roman measure of capacity.

=Module=, Arch. A measure adopted by architects to determine by the column the proportions of the different parts of a work of architecture. It is usually the diameter or the semi-diameter of the shaft of the column.

=Mœnia=, R. A term synonymous with MURUS (q.v.); but more comprehensive, in that it implies not merely the idea of walls, but also of the buildings attached to them.

“Mœnia lata videt, triplici circumdata muro.” (Virgil.)

=Mogul Architecture= is that of the buildings erected in the reigns of the Mogul emperors, kings of Delhi, from A. D. 1531 to the present century.

=Moilon= (Fr. moellon), Arch. Rubble-masonry.

=Mokador=, =Mocket=, O. E. A napkin, handkerchief, or bib.

“Goo hom, lytyl babe, and sytt on thi moderes lap, And put a mokador aforn thi brest, And pray thi modyr to fede the with the pappe.” (Twentieth Coventry Mystery.)

=Mola=, R. (molo, to grind). A mill; mola manuaria, a hand-mill; mola buxea, a box-wood mill, or mill for grinding pepper; mola aquaria, a water-mill; mola asinaria, a mill worked by a beast of burden; mola versatilis, a grindstone (Fig. 466 represents Love sharpening his arrows, from an engraved gem); mola olearia, a mill for crushing olives.

=Mold=, O. E. (for mould). Earth; ground. The word is constantly applied to the ground in works of art. (See Degrevant, 1039; Halliwell.)

=Moline=, Her. A cross terminating like the MILL-RIND. In modern cadency it is the difference of the eighth son.

=Mollicina=, =Molochina= (sc. vestis), R. (μολόχινα, i. e. mallow-coloured). A garment made from the fibres of a mallow (hibiscus).

=Mona Marble=. A beautiful marble of a greenish colour, obtained in the Isle of Anglesea.

=Monastic Orders= consisted of Benedictine or black monks, and Cistercian or white monks. There were the Regular Orders, the Military Orders, the Conventual Orders, Colleges, &c.

=Monaulos=, Gr. and R. (μόν-αυλος, single-flute). A Greek pipe made of a reed, of Egyptian origin, blown at the end without a reed mouthpiece, and remarkable for the sweetness of its tone.

=Monelle=, =Monial=, =Moynel=, Arch. (See MULLIONS.)

=Moneris=, Gr. (μον-ήρης, single). A galley or ship with a single bench of rowers.

=Monile=, Gr. and R. A necklace or collar. Fig. 468 represents a bronze necklace belonging to the Gaulish period, and Fig. 467 a part of the same necklace on a larger scale. By analogy the term was applied to the ornaments worn by horses about the neck. (See NECKLACES.)

=Monks=, Chr. In the religious iconography of the Gothic period, especially the 14th and 15th centuries, there frequently occur grotesque representations of monks. (See Fig. 351.)

=Monmouth Cap=, O. E. A cap worn by soldiers and sailors.

=Monochord.= A one-stringed musical instrument, much used for measuring the proportions of length which yield the various sounds within an octave.

=Monochrome Painting.= (1) Painting in a single colour, as, for instance, red upon a black ground, or white upon a red ground. The most numerous class of specimens of this kind of painting are upon terra-cotta, as the Etruscan vases. (2) The term is applied to paintings in tints of one colour, in imitation of bas-reliefs.

=Monogram.= A combination of two or more letters into one design, illustrated especially in ecclesiastical decoration of the 14th and 15th centuries, &c. The abbreviation IHS is said to have been invented by St. Bernardino of Siena about 1437. For Artists’ monograms, see Stellway, Heller, Brulliot (Dictionaries of Monograms).

=Monolith= (μονό-λιθος). An object formed of a single block of stone.

=Monolium=, =Monolinum=, R. A necklace formed with a single string of pearls. (See MONILE.)

=Monoloris=, R. (Gr. μόνος, one, and Lat. lorum, a thong. A hybrid word). Decorated with a single band of purple and gold, like the PARAGAUDA (q.v.).

=Monopodium= (sc. mensa), R. (μονο-πόδιον). A table with a single foot.

=Monopteral=, Arch. (μονό-πτερος). With a single wing; a circular temple or shrine, consisting of a roof supported on columns, without any cella.

=Monostyle=, Arch. (1) Piers of a single shaft are sometimes distinguished by this name from compound piers, then called for distinction polystyle. (2) A building which is of one style of architecture throughout; or (3) surrounded by a single row of pillars.

=Monota=, Gr. A vase with one ear (or handle).

=Monotriglyph=, Arch. The intercolumniation in the Doric order, which embraces one triglyph and two metopes in the entablature. (Parker’s Glossary of Architecture.)

=Monoxylos=, =Monoxylus=, Gr. and R. (μονόξυλος). Literally, hewn or made out of a single piece of wood.

=Monsters=, in Architecture. (See CENTAUR, GRIFFIN, GROTESQUES, SPHINX, &c.)

=Monstrance=, =Expositorium=, Chr. (monstrare, to show). An ornamental vessel of gold, silver, silver-gilt, or gilded or silvered copper, representing usually a sun with rays, in the centre of which is a lunule or glass box in which the consecrated wafer is carried and exposed on the altars of churches. The earliest monstrances, which are now called expositories, do not date beyond the 12th century. Very ancient specimens exist at Rheims, Namur, &c.

=Montem.= An annual custom at Eton; a procession of boats ad montem. (See Brand, i. 237.)

=Montero.= “A close hood wherewith travellers preserve their faces and heads from frostbiting and weather-beating in winter.” (Cotgrave.)

=Monteth=, O. E. A vessel used for cooling wine-glasses in. (Halliwell.)

=Mont-la-haut.= “A certain wier (wire) that raises the head-dress by degrees or stories.” (Ladies’ Dict., 1694.)

=Montmorency Escutcheon.= (See the illustration to HUNTING FLASK.)

=Monumentum=, R. (moneo, to remind). In general, any token, statue, or monument intended to perpetuate the memory of anything. Monumentum sepulchri is the name given to a tomb. The Monument of the Great Fire of London, erected by Sir Christopher Wren, is of the Italo-Vitruvian-Doric order, of Portland stone, and consists of a pedestal about 21 feet square, with a plinth 27 feet, and a fluted shaft 15 feet at the base; on the abacus is a balcony encompassing a moulded cylinder, which supports a flaming vase of gilt bronze, indicative of its commemoration of the Great Fire. Defoe describes it as “built in the form of a candle with a handsome gilt frame.” Its entire height is 202 feet, and it is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its interior contains a spiral staircase of 345 black marble steps. (See COCHLIS.)

=Monyal=, O. E. for MULLION (q.v.).

=Moorish Architecture=, or Arabian or Mohammedan architecture, arose at the beginning of the 7th century in the East, and in Spain, Sicily, and Byzantium in Europe. The style originated in a free adaptation of different features of Christian architecture, and their earliest mosques were built by Christian architects. The horse-shoe arch is a very early characteristic of their style, and the pointed arch appears at Cairo and elsewhere three centuries earlier than in Europe. The most perfect specimen of the luxury of decoration of which this style is capable is found in the Alhambra. (See ALHAMBRAIC ARCHITECTURE; consult the Essai sur l’Architecture des Arabes et des Mores, by Girault de Prangy, 1841.)

=Moor-stone.= A very coarse granite found in Cornwall and some other parts of England, and of great value for the coarser parts of building; it is also found in immense strata in Ireland. Its colours are chiefly black and white.

=Moot-hall=, O. E. A public assembly-house; a town hall, &c. (See MOAT.)

=Mora=, R. (mora, an obstacle). A projection or cross-bar on a spear to prevent its penetrating too far.

=Mordaunt=, Fr. The catch for the tongue of the buckle of a belt.

=Moresco-Spanish=, or Saracenic =Textiles= wrought in Spain, are remarkable for an ingenious imitation of gold, produced by shreds of gilded parchment cut up into narrow flat strips and woven with the silk.

=Moresque= or =Moresco-Spanish Architecture= is the work of Moorish workmen, executed for their Christian masters in Spain. The most remarkable examples are in the city of Toledo (described by Street, Gothic Architecture in Spain).

=Morion.= A head-piece of the 16th century, introduced by the Spaniards, who had copied it from the Moors, to the rest of Europe about 1550. It was worn as late as the reign of Charles I. There were peaked morions, coming to a point at the top; and high combed morions, surmounted by a kind of crest or ridge.

=Moriones=, R. (1) Idiots, dwarfs, or deformed persons, used as slaves, to afford amusement in the houses of the great. (2) A dark-brown gem; perhaps the smoky topaz.

=Morisco=, O. E. (See MORRIS DANCE.)

=Moristan=, Arab. A hospital.

=Morne=, =Mornette=. The head of a blunted tilting-lance, the point being turned back.

=Morning Star=, O. E. A club called also a HOLY WATER SPRINKLER (q.v.).

=Morris Dance=, O. E. (or Moorish). A very ancient dance, of masked and costumed performers, with bells, &c.

=Morris Pike=, O. E. (for Moorish). Long pikes copied from those of the Moors, the staves of which were covered with little nails.

=Morse=, Chr. (Fr. mordre, to bite). The clasp or brooch which fastened the cope on the breast. (See the illustration to POPE.)

=Mort=, O. E. (death). The notes blown on the horn at the death of a deer.

=Mortuary Palls=, in the Middle Ages, for the covering of the biers of dead people were richly decorated. One at Amiens is decorated, upon white stripes on a black ground, with skulls and bones and the words “memento mori” interspersed.

=Mosaic=, or more correctly =Musaic Work=. OPUS MUSIVUM, glass mosaic; OPUS TESSELATUM, clay mosaic; OPUS LITHOSTROTUM, stone mosaic.

=Mosaic Glass=, =Millefiori=. (See GLASS.)

=Mose.= (1) Probably a dish (“Dyschmete” made of apples was called “Appulmoce”). (2) For MORSE (q.v.).

=Moton=, O. E. A piece of armour intended to protect the right armpit, used in the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III.

=Mottoes=, in Heraldry, are words, or very short sentences, sometimes placed above the crest, but generally below the shield. Mottoes are sometimes emblematical or allusive, and frequently punning, as the “Set on” of the Setons, the “Tight on” of the Tittons, and the “Est hic” of the Eastwicks. (See LABELS [2].)

=Mould.= (See MOLD.)

=Mouldings.= A general term for the varieties of outline given to subordinate parts of architecture, such as cornices, capitals, bases, &c. These (described in their places) are principally: the FILLET or LIST, the ASTRAGAL or BEAD, the CYMA REVERSA or OGEE, the CYMA RECTA or CYMA, the CAVETTO or hollow moulding, the OVOLO or quarter round, the SCOTIA or TROCHILUS. These are frequently enriched by foliage, egg and tongue and other ornaments, &c. (See the article in Parker’s Glossary of Architecture for a history of the diversities of the mouldings in the different styles.)

=Moulinet.= A machine for winding up a cross-bow.

=Mound=, Her. A globe encircled and arched over with rich bands, and surmounted by a cross-patée; an ensign of the royal estate. (See CROWN, ORB, REGALIA.)

=Mountain= or =Mineral Blue= (=Green=). (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)

=Moustiers Faience.= Moustiers in Provence is one of the most important of the French ceramic centres. The mug represented in Fig. 469 is coloured with varied enamels, and ornamented with medallion and wreaths.

=Muckinder=, =Muckinger=, O. E. A pocket-handkerchief (sc. dirty).

=Mueta=, Med. Lat. (Old Fr. muette). A watch-tower.

=Muffler.= A handkerchief covering the chin and throat, and sometimes used to cover the face (muffle or muzzle).

“I spy a great peard under her muffler.” (Shakspeare.)

=Muffs= were introduced into England from France in the reign of Charles II. They were previously known in England, but were subsequently more common, and used by both sexes. Very little variation has occurred in their manufacture.

=Muglias=, Arab. A kind of pastilles; a substance employed in the Middle Ages for making odoriferous beads; they were burnt for fumigations.

=Mulctra=, =Mulctrale=, =Mulctrum=, R. and Chr. (mulgeo, to milk). A milk-pail for milking cows. In Christian archæology it is a pastoral vessel which is a eucharistic symbol.

=Mullets=, Her. Stars generally of five, but sometimes of six or more rays. Fig. 470 is of the date 1295, and Fig. 471 its development in 1431.

=Mulleus=, =Mule=, R. (mullus, a red mullet). A red half-boot, which only certain magistrates had the right of wearing, viz. the ancient dictators, consuls, prætors, censors, and ædiles.

=Mullions= or =Munnions=, Arch. The slender piers which separate a window into several compartments.

=Multifoiled=, Arch. Having many FOILS (q.v.). This term is synonymous with POLYFOILED.

=Mummy.= This pigment should be made of the pure Egyptian asphaltum, ground up with drying oil or with amber varnish.

=Mummy-cloths= (=Egyptian=) were of fine unmixed flaxen linen, beautifully woven, of yarns of nearly 100 hanks in the pound, with 140 threads in an inch in the warp, and about 64 in the woof.

=Muniment-rooms=, to be strong and fire-proof, were erected over porches, gateways, &c. They contained charters, archives, &c. (See CHARTER-HOUSE.)

=Munnions=, Arch., for MULLIONS (q.v.).

=Mural.= Generally, on a wall; as—

=Mural Arch.= An arch against a wall, frequent in the aisles of mediæval buildings.

=Mural Crown= (Her.) represents masonry, and is embattled. (See CORONA.)

=Mural Monument.= A tablet fixed to a wall, &c.

=Mural Painting.= (See FRESCO, TEMPERA, &c.)

=Murex=, R. (1) A Triton’s horn or conch; (2) murex ferreus, a caltrap, thrown down to hinder the advance of cavalry, its long spikes being so arranged as to pierce into the horses’ feet, and so disable them. (See CALTRAPS.)

=Murrey=, O. E. A reddish purple or mulberry colour. The livery of the House of York.

=Murrhina=, =Murrhea=, and =Myrrhina=, R. Murrhine vases; they are spoken of by Pliny, and have given rise to interminable treatises and discussions, with the sole result that no light whatever has been thrown on the nature of these vases.

=Murrhine Glass.= (See GLASS.)

=Murus=, R. Walls as defences and fortifications, in contradistinction to paries, the wall of a building. Fig. 473 represents a portion of the walls of Megalopolis. (See MŒNIA.)

=Muscarium=, R. (musca, a fly). (1) A fly-flap. Hence (2) The tail of a horse. (3) A case in which papers were shut up in order to preserve them from fly-stains.

=Muses=, the personifications of the liberal arts, are represented conventionally as follows:—

Calliope. The Muse of epic poetry; a tablet and stylus, sometimes a roll.

Cleio. The Muse of history; seated in an arm-chair with an open roll of paper, sometimes with a sun-dial.

Euterpe. The Muse of lyric poetry; with a double flute.

Melpomene. The Muse of tragedy; with a tragic mask, the club of Hercules, and sword; crowned with the vine-leaves of Bacchus, and shod in the cothurnus; often heroically posed with one foot on a fragment of rock.

Terpsichore. The Muse of choral dance and religious song; with lyra and plectrum. As the Muse of religious poetry, her expression is dignified and earnest.

Erato. The Muse of erotic poetry and soft Lydian music; sometimes has the lyre, sometimes is represented dancing, always gentle and feminine in expression.

Polyhymnia. The Muse of the sublime hymn and divine tradition; usually appears without any attribute, in an attitude of meditation; sometimes the inscription ΜΥΘΟΥΣ (of the myth).

Urania. The Muse of astronomy; points with a staff to a celestial globe. (Lachesis, one of the Parcæ, has the same attributes.)

Thaleia. The Muse of pastoral life, of comedy, and of idyllic poetry; appears with the comic mask, a shepherd’s staff, and a wreath of ivy, or basket; sometimes dressed in a sheepskin.

The Muses are sometimes represented with feathers on their heads, alluding to their contest with the Sirens, whom they stripped of their wing feathers, which they wore as ornaments. (Hirt. Mythologisches Bilderbuch, p. 203.)

=Museum=, Gr. and R. (Μουσεῖον). Literally, a temple of the Muses. The term was afterwards applied to an establishment founded by Ptolemy I., called Soter, at Alexandria in Egypt, in which scholars and literary men were maintained at the public expense. In a villa, it was a grotto or retreat to which people retired for meditation.

=Musivum= (opus), R. (μουσεῖον). This term was used by the Romans to denote a mosaic of small cubes of coloured glass or enamel, in contradistinction to LITHOSTROTUM (q.v.), which was a pavement made of real stones and marbles of different colours; but in a more extended sense, the term Musivum denotes any kind of mosaic. Figs. 474 and 475 show examples of various kinds. Fig. 476 is a mosaic forming a border.

=Muslin=, originally esteemed for the beauty with which gold was woven in its warp, took its name from the city of Mousull in Turkey in Asia.

=Musquet.= A long heavy match-lock gun, introduced from Spain in the Dutch wars of the 16th century, which eventually displaced the harquebus. (See SNAPHAUNCE and WHEEL-LOCK.)

=Musquet-rest.= A staff with a forked head required to support the musquet. It was trailed by a string from the wrist.

=Mustarde Villars=, O. E. Either (1) a kind of cloth, probably so named from Moustier de Villiers, near Harfleur; or else (2) (as Stowe says) “a colour, now out of use.” Mustard was a favourite colour for liveries and official dresses in the 15th century.

=Mutatio=, R. Literally, change. The Romans gave the name of mutationes to the posthouses for relays of horses established along the high roads for the service of the state.

=Mutch=, O. E. An old woman’s close cap. (Fairholt.)

=Mute=, Fr. This term, derived from the Latin muta, is employed by ancient authors as a synonym for belfry, turret, or bell-tower.

=Mutule=, Arch. In a general sense, any stone or wooden projection which stands out beyond the surface of a wall, such as a rafter, for instance. In a more restricted sense, it denotes an architectural ornament characteristic of the Doric order, consisting of a square block placed at equal intervals above the triglyphs and metopes in a Doric cornice. In the Corinthian order mutules are replaced by modillions.

=Mynchery=, A.S. A nunnery. The word survives in local dialects, and is applied to the ruins; e. g. of the ancient mynchery at Littlemore, near Oxford.

=Myrtle Crown= for bloodless victors. The myrtle was sacred to Venus. It flourished on the sea-coast of Italy and Greece. The wood is very hard, and is used for furniture, marquetry, and turning. Another myrtle wood from Van Diemen’s Land is beautifully veined for cabinet-work.

=Myth=, Gen. (μῦθος, lit. that which is spoken). The name given to obscure traditions handed down from remote antiquity, antecedent to written or precise history; opposed to legendary record (which can be read).

N.

=Nablia=, =Nablum=. A stringed musical instrument; a kind of cithara in the shape of a semicircle.

=Nacre=, Fr. Mother-of-pearl, the iridescent inner lining of the pearl mussel or oyster.

=Nacreous Shells.= Iridescent shells. Several kinds are used for manufactures, as some species of Meleagrina, Turbo, Nautili, &c.

=Nadir= (Arab. nadhir, opposite). The part of the heavens directly under our feet; opposite to the ZENITH.

=Nænia.= (See NENIA.)

=Naga=, Malay. Jars with the figure of a dragon traced on them.

=Naga Architecture= (Hind. naga, a poisonous snake). Temples dedicated to the worship of the seven-headed snakes are found in Cashmere, remarkable for their identity of style with the Grecian Doric, unlike anything found in any other part of India. [Consult Fergusson, History of Architecture, ii. 703–732.]

=Nagara.= A Hindoo name for a music-gallery in front of the Jain temples.

=Nahinna.= A Persian manufacture of majolica. The Comte de Rochechouart says that the ancient faience of Persia is as admirable as the modern is detestable, though it retains a degree of oriental elegance.

=Naiad.= A water-nymph.

=Nail.= In cloth measure, 2¼ inches.

=Nail-head Moulding=, Arch. An ornament formed by a series of projections resembling round or angular nail-heads.

=Nainsook=, Hind. A thick sort of jaconet muslin.

=Naipes=, Sp. Playing-cards. The word is supposed to be derived from the initials of Nicolao Pepin, the inventor. (Diccionario de la Lengua Castellana.) Hence the Italian naibi.

=Naked Flooring=, Arch. The timber-work which supports a floor.

=Namby-pamby.= Affectedly pretty. The term originated in criticism of an English poet of the 17th century—Ambrose Phillips.

=Nancy Biscuit.= A peculiar porcelain made at Nancy. The faïencerie was established in 1774 by Nicolas Lelong.

=Nankeen.= A buff-coloured cotton cloth, introduced from the province of Nankin, in China.

=Nân-mo=, Chinese. A beautiful wood, resembling cedar, used for temples, palaces, and houses of state.

=Nantes.= Manufactories of white faience were established here in 1588 and 1625; and that of Le Roy de Montilliée and others in the 18th century.

=Naology.= The science of temples. (See Dudley’s Naology, or a Treatise on the Origin, Progress, and Symbolical Import of the Sacred Structures of the World.)

=Naos=, Gr. The interior apartment of a Greek temple; the cella of the Roman temple.

=Napery.= A general term for made-up linen cloth.

=Naphthar=, Heb. (lit. thick water). The name given by Nehemiah to the substance that they found in the pit where the sacred fire of the temple had been hidden during the Captivity. This “thick water, which” (the legend says) “being poured over the sacrifice and the wood, was kindled by the great heat of the sun and then burnt with an exceedingly bright and clear flame,” was the naphtha of modern commerce.

=Napiform= (Lat. napus, a turnip). Turnip-shaped.

=Napkin= (little nape). A pocket-handkerchief.

“Your napkin is too little.” (Othello.)

=Napkin Pattern.= A decorative ornament very common in German wood-carving of the 15th and 16th centuries. (See LINEN-SCROLL.)

=Naples Majolicas= were already celebrated early in the 16th century. M. Jacquemart describes some vases of colossal size, evidently constructed for “la grande décoration,” being painted on only one face; handles in the form of caryatids add to the majestic appearance of these vases; the subjects are scriptural, executed in blue camayeu picked out in black; the design is free, elegant though rather straggling, and the touch is bold and spirited.

=Naples Yellow= (It. giallolino). A compound of the oxides of lead and antimony, having a rich, opaque, golden hue. As a pigment for oil painting and for porcelain and enamel, it is now superseded by chromate of lead. As a water-colour pigment it is liable to blacken upon exposure to damp or bad air.

=Napron.= An apron used by mediæval masons. Limas was another kind of apron worn by them.

=Nard= (Lat. nardus). Ointment prepared from the spikenard shrub.

=Nares=, Lat. (the nostrils). (1) The perforations in the register-table of an organ, which admit air to the openings of the pipes. (2) The issue of a conduit.

=Nargilé= or =Narghilly=, Persian. A tobacco-pipe with an arrangement for passing the smoke through water. The illustration is the bowl of a Persian pipe of this description, in Chinese porcelain. (Fig. 477.)

=Nariform= (Lat. naris, the nostril). Nose-shaped.

=Narthex=, Chr. The vestibule of a church; sometimes within the church, sometimes without, but always further from the altar than the part where the “faithful” were assembled. Hence it was a place for the catechumens. The narthex communicated with the nave by the “beautiful gates,” and with the outside by the “great gates.” In monastic churches the narthex was the place for the general public.

=Nasal=, O. E. The bar of a helmet which protected the nose.

=Nask=, Hind. A quoin, or coin-stone.

=Natalitii Ludi=, R. Games in the circus in honour of an emperor’s birthday.

=Natatorium.= A cold swimming-pool in the baths. That at Pompeii is of white marble twelve feet ten inches in diameter, and about three feet deep, with three marble steps, and a seat round it raised about ten inches from the bottom. There is a platform or ambulatory round the bath, also of marble. (See SIGMA.) The ceiling is vaulted, with a window in the centre. (See BAPTISTERIUM.)

=Natatorium=, Chr. A baptismal font; Gr. κολυμβήθρα (piscina probata).

=Natinz.= A Persian manufacture of majolica. (See NAHINNA.)

=Nativity.= While the Adoration of the Magi is one of the commonest subjects of early Christian art, the Nativity is one of the rarest. It is not found in any catacomb frescoes, or the mosaics of any basilicas or churches. The only examples are sculptural, and this on ivories, gems, &c. On these generally the Child is seen wrapped in swaddling clothes as the central object, the star appears above, the Virgin on a rude couch, and sometimes St. Joseph rapt in thought, his head resting on his hand; the ox and the ass appear behind, and shepherds with curved staves stand by adoring.

=Natural.= In Music, a character marked ♮ used to correct the power of a previous sharp or flat. A natural scale is a scale written without sharps or flats.

=Naturalisti=, It. Artists who work on the principle of a close adherence to the forms and colours actually combined in natural objects. The epithet was particularly applied as a term of reproach to the founders of the modern Dutch school of painting. (See IDEAL.)

=Naumachia= (ναῦς, a ship, and μάχη, a battle). (1) A spectacle representing a sea-fight, a subject frequently represented on coins and sculptures. (2) A building erected for such shows. Napoleon I. had a theatre at Milan filled with water for a sea-fight.

=Nautilus.= A shell-fish that sails on the surface of the sea in its shell. Its spiral univalve shell is a common motive in ornamental design.

“Learn of the little nautilus to sail, Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.” (Pope.)

The illustration is the device of the Affidati, an Italian literary Academy, with the motto “Safe above and below.”

=Navalis Corona.= (See CORONA NAVALIS.) (Fig. 480.)

=Nave=, Arch. (so called from its vaulted roof resembling in shape an inverted ship (navis); or from nave, the centre of anything). The middle part or body of a church between the aisles, extending from the choir to the principal entrance. The Germans call this part of a church “Schiff.”

=Navette=, =Navicula=, Chr. The vessel, in the shape of a boat, in which incense is placed for the supply of the thurible.

=Navicella=, Chr. A celebrated mosaic, at Rome, of a ship tossed by storms and assailed by demons; emblematic of the Church.

=Neanderthal.= A valley near Dusseldorf, in which bones and skulls were found of men asserted to have been præadamite.

=Neat-house=, O. E. A cattle-shed.

=Nebris=, Gr. (from νεβρὸς, a fawn). A fawn’s skin, worn originally by hunters; an attribute of Dionysus, and assumed by his votaries. It is represented in ancient art as worn not only by male and female bacchanals, but also by Pans and Satyrs. It was commonly put on in the same manner as the ægis, or goat’s skin, by tying the two fore-legs over the right shoulder, so as to allow the body of the skin to cover the left side of the wearer.

=Nebular= (Lat. nebula, a mist). Belonging to the nebulæ, or clusters of stars only visible as a light, gauzy appearance or mist in the skies.

=Nebule Moulding.= A decorated moulding of Norman architecture, so called from the edge forming an undulating or waving line. (See Fig. 481.)

=Nebulée=, Her. A dividing and border line, as represented in Fig. 482.

=Nebulous.= Cloudy or hazy.

=Nebuly=, Her. Ornamented with light wavy lines.

=Neck=, Arch. The plain part at the bottom of a Roman Doric or other capital, between the mouldings and the top of the shaft. (See HYPOTRACHELIUM.)

=Necklaces.= An ornament common to all ages and nations. The ancient EGYPTIANS of both sexes wore them of gold or beads, generally with a large drop or figure in the centre, and strung of the various religious emblems; amethysts, pearls, gold or cornelian bottles, imitations of fish, shell, and leaves; finally, an infinite variety of devices. (See Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians, ii. 343.) An illustration of a common form of GREEK necklaces is given under Crotalium. The BRITISH women of the earliest ages wore necklaces of jet, ivory, and amber, beads, shells, &c., besides gold links hooked together. (See also MONILE, TORQUE.) The Anglo-Norman ladies do not appear to have worn necklaces, and no mediæval examples are found earlier than the 15th century. (See Figs. 303, 304, 483.)

=Neck-mouldings=, Arch. The mouldings at the bottom of the capital, in Gothic architecture.

=Necrodeipnon=, Gr. A feast after a funeral; a common subject on tombs. A horse’s head is usually placed in one corner of the representation, as an emblem of death as a journey.

=Necrologium=, Chr. A book kept in religious houses for the names of the founders and benefactors to be mentioned in the prayers.

=Necromancy= (Gr. νεκρὸς, the dead, and μαντεία, prophecy). Calling up the spirits of the dead for divination; hence generally applied to conjuring. Necromancy was practised in two ways: by inspection of the entrails, and by invoking the dead.

=Necropolis=, Gr. A city of the dead; a cemetery.

=Nectar=, Gr. The drink of the gods.

=Necysia=, Gr. Offerings of garlands of flowers and other objects made at the tombs of deceased relatives on the anniversary of the day of death, or, as some suppose, on their birthdays. (See GENESIA.)

=Needfire=, or Fire of St. John Baptist (Old Germ. Nodfyr, Niedfyr). A superstitious practice of the ancients, derived from a pagan source, of celebrating the birthday of St. John Baptist at the midsummer solstice (St. John’s Eve) by lighting fires, carrying about firebrands, or rolling a burning wheel. The practice is one of many examples of the caution with which the evangelizing ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages refrained from abruptly disturbing the deeply-rooted superstitions of the ancient Germans. [Consult Grimm’s German Mythology; Brand, Popular Antiquities.]

=Needle=, Arch. An obelisk (q.v.)

=Needle Point in relief.= To Venice belongs the invention of the two most perfect productions of the needle—“Point coupé,” and Venetian point in relief. Various other wonderful products of the needle are included under the general name of Venetian point, all of exquisite workmanship. The needle point in relief is made by means of cotton placed as thick as may be required to raise the pattern; an infinity of beautiful stitches are introduced into the flowers, which are surrounded by a pearl of geometric regularity. The engraving is an exquisite specimen of the fine raised needle point.

=Nef= or =Ship=. A costly and curious piece of plate for the table, used as an épergne in the Middle Ages. In the 16th century they were perfect models of actual ships, with masts, yards, shrouds, and sailors climbing in the rigging. They were filled with sweetmeats, and were sometimes put on wheels; and there is one at Emden in Hanover from the hull of which wine was drunk.

=Negative.= In Photography, a picture on glass having the lights and shadows reversed, from which positives may be printed.

=Neginoth=, Heb. A general term for stringed musical instruments.

=Nehiloth=, Heb. (root chalal, to perforate). A general term for perforated wind instruments of music.

=Nelumbo=, Chinese. A fruit-tree closely connected with the Buddhist legends, and from its symbolical significance and adaptability to ornamentation, commonly represented on porcelain. (See Jacquemart, Hist. de la Céramique.)

=Nenia=, R. The funeral song which the hired mourners sang at a Roman funeral, in praise of the deceased. Lessus was their wailing or cry of lamentation.

=Nenuphar= (It. nenufar). The great white water-lily of Europe.

=Neocori=, Gr. and R. (1) Originally sweepers of the temple. (2) In early times applied to the priests in charge of temples. (3) Under the Roman emperors, to all Asiatic cities which had temples dedicated to an emperor; it occurs in this sense (Νεωκόρος) on the coins of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other cities.

=Neoteric=, Gr. Of recent origin; modern.

=Nepaul Paper.= A strong unsized paper, made in Nepaul from the pulverized bark of the Daphne papyracea. Sheets of this paper are sometimes made many yards square.

=Nephrite.= A mineral. (See JADE.)

=Neptunalia.= Festivals celebrated at Rome on the 23rd of July, in honour of Neptune. The people built huts of branches and foliage about the streets.

=Nereids=, Gr. Nymphs of the sea, who were the constant attendants of Neptune.

=Nero Antico=, It. Antique marble of Egyptian and other ancient statuary, of an intense black, probably the result of ages of exposure, as no marble of the same intensity of blackness is found in any quarries. Marble, called also nero antico, of two degrees of beauty, is quarried at Aubert (Girons) in France; and the mausoleum of Napoleon I. is constructed of this stone.

=Nerved=, Her. Having fibres, as leaves.

=Nerves=, Arch. The name is sometimes applied to the ribs and mouldings on the side surface of a vault.

=Nessotrophium=, Gr. A place in a Roman villa for breeding domestic ducks. It was surrounded by a high wall, on which was a high ledge with nests for the birds. A pond was dug in the middle of the enclosure, which was planted with shrubs.

=Net Tracery=, Arch. A simple and beautiful form of tracery of the Decorated period, consisting of a series of loops resembling the meshes of a net, each loop being quatrefoiled. An example occurs in the east cloister of Westminster Abbey.

=Nete=, Gr. The shortest string, or highest note, of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.)

=Netherstocks=, O. E. The name given to stockings in the 16th century, as continuations of the trunk-hose or upper stocks.

=Nethinim=, Heb. (from nathan, to give). The servants of the priests and Levites about the Temple.

=Nettle-cloth.= A material made in Germany of very thick cotton, used as a substitute for japanned leather, on the peaks of caps, &c.

=Network= (filatorium opus). An ancient method of embroidery in England, used for church use or household furniture, by darning or working the subject upon linen netting. This method chiefly prevailed in the 14th century.

=Neuma= or =Pneuma= (lit. a breath). A musical passage consisting of a number of notes sung to one syllable, or simply to a sound, as “āh” prolonged. “In hujus fine neumatizamus, id est jubilamus, dum finem protrahimus, et ei velut caudam accingimus.”

=Neutral Colour= is that resulting from a combination of blue, red, and yellow, resulting in grey.

=Neutral Tint.= An artificial pigment used in water-colours, composed of sepia, and indigo and other blues, with madder and other lakes; producing a scale of neutral colours.

=Neuvaines=, Fr. Chr. Set prayers repeated for nine consecutive days.

=Nevers Faience.= (See NIVERNAIS.)

=Newcastle Glass.= A crown glass, held the best for windows from 1728 to 1830, when it was superseded by the improved make of sheet glass. It was of an ash colour, subject to specks, streaks, and other blemishes, and frequently warped.

=Newel=, Arch. The upright central pillar supporting a geometrical staircase.

=Newel Stairs=, Arch. Where the steps are pinned into the wall, and there is no central pillar, the staircase is said to have an open or hollow newel. (See JOINERY.)

=Niche=, Arch. (It. nicchia, a sea-shell). A recess in a wall for a statue or bust. (Fig. 485.)

=Niche-vaulting=, Arch. (Germ. Muschelgewölbe). A form of roofing in a semi-cupola design, common in the choirs of churches.

=Nick=, =Old Nick=, O. E. (Icelandic nikr; A.S. nicor, a water-god). The devil.

=Nickel= (contraction of Kupfernickel, or Nick’s copper, a term of derision given to it by the German miners). A white or reddish-white metal, from which nickel-silver is made. It is used to a large extent in the arts, being remarkable for the peculiar whiteness and silver-like lustre which it communicates to other metals when alloyed with them.

=Nickel-silver.= German silver, or white metal, a compound of tin and nickel.

=Niello.= The art of chasing out lines or forms, and inlaying a black composition called nigellum or niello, was probably well known to the Greeks. The Byzantines compounded for this purpose silver, lead, sulphur, and copper, and laid it on the silver in a powder; being then passed through the furnace, it melted and incorporated with the solid metal. A process producing a similar result of black tracery is practised in porcelain painting, and called NIELLO-ENAMEL.

=Nigged Ashlar=, O. E. Stone hewn with a pick or a pointed hammer, presenting a gnawed or nibbled surface: from the Swedish nagga, to gnaw.

=Nilometer.= A building erected, A. D. 847, in the island of Rhoda, opposite to Cairo, for recording the annual rise of the Nile (i. e. 16 cubits). It is a slender octagonal shaft about 20 feet in height, with a Corinthian capital. (See the Builder, xvii. 255.)

=Nimbed=, Her. Having the head encircled with a nimbus; usually represented by a circular line.

=Nimbus= (Lat. nimbus, a bright or black cloud). In Christian art, a disc or plate, commonly golden, sometimes red, blue, or green, or banded like a rainbow, placed vertically behind the heads of persons of special dignity or sanctity as a symbol of honour. After the 8th century living persons were, in Italy, distinguished by a square nimbus, which sometimes assumed the form of a scroll partly unrolled. The nimbus is of heathen origin. Virgil describes Juno as “nimbo succincta.” The heads of the statues of the gods, and the Roman emperors, after they began to claim divine honours, were decorated with a crown of rays. On medals of the Christian emperors also the nimbus is found, e.g. Constantine. In illuminated MSS. it is found on Pharaoh, Ahab, and other kings. It is a familiar symbol of dignity or power in the East, but does not appear as a Christian emblem before the 6th century. [See the article NIMBUS in the Dict. of Christian Antiquities.] (See AUREOLE, GLORY, VESICA PISCIS, &c.)

=Nincompoop=, O. E. A corruption of the Latin non compos; a fool.

=Ninth.= In Music, an interval consisting of an octave and a tone, or semitone.

=Nisan=, Heb. The month in the Jewish calendar answering to our April.

=Nitrate of Silver=, used in photography, is silver dissolved in nitric acid.

=Nivarius= (saccus), R. A bag of snow used as a wine-cooler. (See COLLUM VINARIUM.)

=Nivernais Faience.= An important branch of the ceramic art, established in 1608 at Nevers in France by the brothers Conrade. (Fig. 486.)

=Nobbled Stone=, Arch. Stone roughly rounded at the quarry to diminish its bulk for transport.

=Noble.= A gold coin worth 6_s._ 8_d._ (Fig. 487.)

=Nodes.= In Astronomy, the two points where the orbit of a heavenly body intersects the ecliptic.

=Nodus=, Arch. The Latin name for a key-stone, or a boss in vaulting.

=Nog=, O. E. Timbers built into walls to strengthen the structure. They show on the plastering of houses in ornamental patterns. In Kent these houses are called “wood noggen” houses.

=Noggin=, O. E. “A mug or pot of earth with a large belly and narrower mouth.”

=Nogging=, Arch. Brickwork in panels carried between quarters.

=Nome=, Egyp. (νομός). A division or district of Egypt; there were forty-four in all. Each nome was placed under the protection of a special divinity, and ruled by a resident military governor.

=Nonagon.= A nine-sided polygon.

=Nones.= (1) R. One of the three divisions of the Roman month; the ninth days before the IDES of each month. (2) Chr. One of the HOURS OF PRAYER (q.v.).

=Nonunia=, O. E. A quick time in music, containing nine crotchets between the bars. (Halliwell.)

=Norman Architecture.= It was introduced into England at the Conquest, A. D. 1066, and was superseded in the 12th century by the Early English style. Solid massive masonry, round-headed doors and windows, and low square central tower are (broadly) its characteristics. Among details the zigzag and the billet mouldings are the most noticeable. (Fig. 488.)

=Norman Pottery=, Mediæval. The illustration is from a pavement of a church of the 12th century. “Nothing,” says Jacquemart, “is more curious than the study of these tiles, in which, with rudimentary means, art already begins to manifest its power. There, in a graceful chequer-work, the fleur-de-lis of France heightens at intervals a semé of trefoils and rosettes; scrolls of notched leaves combine in graceful borders; circles divided crossways receive in their sections stars and heraldic suns; here are armour-clad warriors, mounted upon horses richly caparisoned, &c.—all that picturesque fancy assisted by the resources of heraldry could invent to animate the cold compartments of the pavement, and give a meaning to the vast naves trodden every day by the Christian multitude.” (Histoire de l’Art Céramique.) (Fig. 489.)

=Norns=, =Nornas=, Icelandic. The three Fates, whose names signify the Past, the Present, and the Future.

=Norroy King at Arms.= The third of the kings at arms, whose jurisdiction lies to the north of the Trent.

=North Side= of a church “was regarded as the source of the cold wind, and the haunt of Satan. In some Cornish churches there is an entrance called the devil’s door, adjoining the font, which was only opened at the time of the renunciation made in baptism, for the escape of the fiend. In consequence of these superstitions, and its sunless aspect, the northern parts of churchyards are usually devoid of graves.” (Wallcott, Sacred Archæology.)

=Norwegian Architecture.= The timber-built churches are of great interest, and exhibit the wonderful durability of the Norwegian pine. They are generally in the form of a cross, with a tower in the centre ending in a cupola or spire, and with high pitched roofs. The ornamental details are elaborate and richly carved. The whole is often painted of a rich brown colour; sometimes of a bright red. Some of these churches date from the 11th or 12th century, and are an imitation in wood of the masonic style of the period.

=Nosocomium=, R. (νοσο-κομεῖον). A hospital.

=Notatus=, R. (noto, to mark). A slave branded with a hot iron.

=Note of a Room.= The vibrations of the air in a chamber or vaulted space produce a musical note proper to the dimensions and other conditions of the place, which a good musical ear can recognize and identify. [See T. R. Smith’s Acoustics, pp. 83–87.]

=Nottingham White.= White lead. (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.)

=November= (Lat. novem, nine). The ninth month of the Roman year, which began with March. It consisted originally of thirty days, but Julius Cæsar added one to it. Augustus, however, reduced it to its original number.

=Nowed=, Her. Coiled in a knot, as a snake. The illustration (Fig. 490) is the ordinary device of the house of Savoy—the “true lovers’ knot;” with the Latin motto, “It binds but constrains not.”

=Nowel=, O. E. (Fr. noel, from natalis). A cry of joy; properly that at Christmas, of joy for the birth of the Saviour. It originally signified the feast of Christmas.

=Nubilarium=, R. A shed used as a barn; it was situated close to the threshing-floor.

=Numella=, =Numellus=, R. A kind of pillory for keeping men and animals in a fixed position. It was made use of in surgical operations, and as an instrument of torture.

=Numismatics= (numisma, coined money). The science of coins and medals. The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks, probably in the 8th century B.C. (See the Article in the Encyclopædia Britan., 8th edition, from which reference can be taken to exhaustive treatises on the various ramifications of this science.)

=Nummud=, Persian. A carpet of felt much used in Persia.

=Nun’s Thread.= A kind of thread formerly made to a large extent in Paisley.

=Nun’s Work= (Fr. œuvre de nonnain). As early as the 14th century needlework was generally so described. Ancient lace is still so called in many parts of the country.

=Nundinæ= (novemdinæ; from novem, nine, and dies, days). Roman weeks; the nomenclature including the day before and that after the seven days. The name was given to the weekly market-days at Rome.

=Nupta=, R.(nubo, to wed). A married woman.

=Nuremberg Vase.= Fig. 491 is one of the gems, of the Renaissance period, issued from Nuremberg; a vase with portraits heightened with enamels and gold. (Jacquemart.)

=Nurhag= (Sardinian Noraga). Primitive buildings in the island of Sardinia, of remote antiquity, having turrets as high as 30 to 60 feet, and containing stones of 100 cubic feet each in their structure. [See Waring, Stone Monuments.]

=Nurspell.= An old English game like trap, bat, and ball. It is played with a kibble, a nur, and a spell. When the end of the spell is struck with the kibble, the nur rises into the air, &c.

=Nut.= In Christian symbolism, an emblem of the Divinity of Christ hidden in His manhood. St. Augustine has a long treatise on the symbolism of the husk, shell, and kernel of the nut. (Serm. de temp. Dominic. ante Nativ.)

=Nut Oil.= This medium for colour-grinding is derived from the walnut; as a vehicle it is preferred to linseed oil, and is the quickest dryer. (See MEDIUMS, OILS.)

=Nutmeg Ornament=, Arch. A common feature in Early English work in the north of England, but not in the south. It resembles half a nutmeg, and is carved at certain distances apart in the hollow of a dripstone at St. Mary’s Church, Nunmonkton, Yorkshire.

=Nuttoo=, Hind. A nose-stud or ornament worn by Indian women, often set with brilliants, rubies, emeralds, and pearls.

=Nymphæum=, =Nympheum= (νύμφαιον and νυμφεῖον). Literally, a building consecrated to the nymphs. It was a large and richly-decorated chamber, with columns, niches, and statues, and a fountain in the centre. Nymphæa were often erected near the head of a spring, and formed cool and agreeable retreats. Fig. 492 represents a portion of the ruins of the nymphæum of Egeria, near Rome; and Fig. 493 the interior of the nymphæum at Nismes, restored. In Christian times the fountains or cisterns common at the doors of churches were called nymphæa.

=Nymphs.= Inferior goddesses of the mountains, forests, waters, or meadows. Those presiding over rivers, &c., were OCEANIDES, NAIADS, NEREIDS; those over mountains, OREIADS; those over woods and trees, DRYADS and HAMADRYADS; those over valleys, NAPÆÆ, &c. They were represented in art as beautiful young women. The waters of Hades had their presiding nymphs, the AVERNALES.

O.

=O= was used as a numeral by the ancients to represent 11, and with a dash over it (Ō) to denote 11,000.

=O=, O. E. Anything circular. Shakspeare calls the stars “those fiery O’s.”

=Oak-apple Day=, O. E. The 29th of May, in commemoration of the escape of King Charles in the oak-tree.

=Oak-tree=, the emblem of virtue, force, and strength, is frequently introduced in ancient sculpture. In Christian art an attribute of St. Boniface, in allusion to his cutting down a Druidical oak.

=Oasis= (from the Coptic ouah, a resting-place). One of the verdant spots that occur at intervals in the deserts of Africa; hence any fertile spot in a desert, with the obvious symbolical application.

=Oast-house=, O. E. A kiln for drying hops.

=Oban.= The principal gold coin of Japan, worth about 4_l._ 2_s._

=Obba=, Gr. and R. (ἄμβιξ). A drinking-vessel of earthenware or wood, probably funnel-shaped; hence—

=Obbatus=, Gr. and R. Made in the shape of an obba, that is, terminating in a point. The term is often applied to the cap of the Dioscuri.

=Obelisk= (ὀβελίσκος, lit. a small spit). Also called a needle. A tall, rectangular, monolithic column, of slightly pyramidal shape, invented by the Egyptians; in nearly every case they are covered from the base to the top, and on all four sides, with hieroglyphic symbols. (Fig. 494.)

=Oberon.= The king of the fairies.

=Obex=, R. (objicio, to obstruct). Any contrivance to keep a door closed, such as a bolt, lock, latch, iron bar, &c.

=Oblata=, Chr. The sacred bread. This word was more commonly applied to the unconsecrated loaf, and HOSTIA to the consecrated. (For particulars respecting the preparation and the form of oblates, see the article ELEMENTS in Smith and Cheetham, Dict. of Christian Antiquities.) In the same manner OBLATI were lay-brothers in a monastery who had not taken the vows.

=Oblate.= Flattened or shortened like the earth at the poles. The earth is an oblate spheroid.

=Oblationarium=, Chr. A small table placed near the high altar, or at the end of one of the side aisles, on which the people laid their offerings. It was also used, when in the choir, to hold the sacred utensils in place of the credence table. In the Greek Church the oblationarium is still used for the bread, wine, and sacred vessels required in the mass.

=Oble=, =Oblete= (Lat. oblata), O. E. The consecrated wafer distributed to communicants at mass.

“Ne Jhesu was nat the oble That reysed was at the sacre.” (Harl. MS.)

Hence, a wafer-cake, sweetened with honey, and made of the finest wheaten bread.

=Oboe= or =Hautboy= (from Fr. haut, high, and bois, wood). A wind instrument like a flute, sounded through a reed.

=Obolo=, Mod. A copper coin, worth about a halfpenny, circulated in the Ionian Islands.

=Obolos=, Gr. (derived from ὀβολὸς, a brooch, originally). A small copper coin worth the sixth part of a drachm. The obolos in later times was of bronze; but in the best times of Athens it was of silver. Its value in the Æginetan standard was 1·166 of a penny.

=Obscœna=, Chr. Obscene representations frequently met with in Christian iconography, which, according to De Canmont, are “to warn the faithful that they ought to enter the temple with pure hearts, leaving outside all the passions that soil the soul.”

=Obsidian.= A volcanic glass found near volcanoes, used in antiquity for the manufacture of mirrors, axes, knives, &c. (See GLASS.)

=Obstragulum=, R. A long leather strap (amentum) worn as a fastening to the crepida.

=Obstrigillum=, R. A shoe, the sides of which were lengthened into a lappet over the instep.

=Obturaculum=, =Obturamentum=, R. (obturo, to stop up). A stopper for the neck of a bottle or the mouth of a vessel.

=Obverse.= Of a coin, the face, or side which bears the principal symbol. The other side is the REVERSE.

=Ocal=, Span. Coarse silk.

=Occabus=, R. (ὄκκαβος). A kind of spoon.

=Occidental Diamond.= A precious stone of inferior hardness and beauty.

=Occultation.= The disappearance or eclipse of one heavenly body behind another.

=Ocellata=, R. (lit. marked with ocelli or spots). Marbles used as playthings by children.

=Ocellated.= Full of eyes; said of a peacock’s tail. (See Fig. 398.)

=Ochre.= Argillaceous earth of different colours which, when finely ground, is used as a pigment. Red ochre is a form of specular iron ore; brown ochre is a variety of hæmatite. The yellow ochres become red when calcined, but the finest reds are made from those which are brown in the bed. Native red ochre is called red chalk or reddle in England. Spanish Brown, Indian Red, Venetian Red, and the yellow ochres have nearly the same composition. The other ochres are known as Oxford, Roman, and stone ochres, and as terra di Sienna and umber. They are all valuable and durable pigments for oil, water, or enamel painting. (See AMATITA.)

=Ocrea=, R. A greave; a piece of armour which covered the shin-bone from below the knee to the ankle. It was generally richly ornamented by designs embossed or chased upon it. (Modern JAMBES.)

=Octagon.= A figure of eight equal sides, considered as an emblem of regeneration; consequently the proper form for baptistries and fonts. (Fairholt.)

=Octahedron.= A solid contained by eight equal sides, which are equilateral triangles.

=Octastyle=, R. (ὀκτά-στυλος). An octastyle portico is a portico having eight columns in front; octastyle pediment, a pediment supported by eight columns. The pediment of the Parthenon at Athens, from which the Elgin Marbles come, is an octastyle.

=Octave.= (1) In Music, the longest interval in the diatonic scale; as from do to do, or C to C. (2) Chr. Eight days, or the eighth day after a Church festival (the festival being included) kept as a repetition or prolongation of the festival. It is a Western custom unknown to the Eastern Church.

=October.= The eighth month of the old Roman year, but the tenth in the calendar of Numa, Julius Cæsar, &c. It was sacred to Mars, and a horse called the October equus was annually sacrificed to Mars.

=Octofoil=, Her. A double quatrefoil; the difference of a ninth son.

=Octophoron= or =Octaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ὀκτώφορον). A litter (lectica) borne by eight slaves.

=Ocularium=, Med. Lat. The narrow slit or opening for the sight in a helmet. (See Fig. 495.)

=Oculus=, Chr. A round window of frequent occurrence in the tympanum of the pediment in Latin basilicas, and occasionally in certain churches of the 11th century.

=Ode= (ᾠδὴ, a song). A short lyrical poem, intended to be sung to the accompaniment of an instrument, especially the lyre; hence the expression lyric poetry.

=Odeon= (ᾠδεῖον; ᾠδὴ, a song). A small theatre at Athens, built by Pericles for musical performances. By analogy, the name was applied to any theatre built on a circular plan and covered with a roof, like that of Athens, shown in Fig. 496.

=Œcos=, =Œcus=, Gr. (οἶκος). A Greek house; the term, however, denoted rather a large apartment resembling the atrium, but entirely shut in, that is to say, without impluvium. In Fig. 497, A is the œcus; B, C, two rooms forming offices; D, a tablinum; E, a portico; G, the entrance to the house; H, work-rooms; J, the triclinium. Œcus tetrastylos was a house in which four columns supported the roof; œcus Corinthius, having one order of columns supporting an architrave, cornice, and an arched roof; œcus Egyptius, in which the pillars supported a gallery with a paved floor, forming a walk round the apartment; above these pillars others were placed, one-fourth less in height; and between the upper columns were placed windows; and the œcus Cyzicenus, which looked to the north, and, if possible, faced gardens, to which it opened by folding doors, was a summer-house. (See DOMUS.)

=Œil-de-bœuf=, Arch. A small round or oval window in a roof.

=Œillets.= (See OILLETS.)

=Œnochoê= (Gr. οἶνος, wine, and χέω, to pour). An earthen vase used to take the wine out of the crater and distribute it into cups. It is the vase carried by the goddesses, and used for libations. (Figs. 498, 498 a.)

=Œnophorum=, Gr. and R. (οἰνοφόρον). A light case or basket for carrying wine.

=Œnopolium=, Gr. and R. (οἰνοπώλιον). The shop of a dealer who sold wine to be carried away; distinct from the taberna meritoria or deversoria, which was a public tavern.

=Offendix=, R. A string by which the apex, or cap worn by the flamens, Salians, or other members of priestly colleges, was fastened under the chin.

=Offertoria=, Chr. (1) The anthems sung in a Christian church while the oblations were received; mentioned by Isidorus, A. D. 595: “Offertoria quæ in sacrificiorum honore canuntur.” (2) Large plates, which, in the Christian churches of Gaul, served to collect the bread which the Christians had just laid on the altar. A beautiful specimen of such dishes, found in Siberia in 1867, and described by Rossi, is 6 inches in diameter, and weighs 1½ lbs. It has a relief in repoussé work, consisting of a cross planted on a small globe studded with stars, beneath which issue the four rivers of Paradise; and on either side stand two nimbed angels, holding a rod in the left hand, and raising their right hand towards the cross in token of adoration. De Rossi regards this dish as the work of Byzantine goldsmiths of the 6th century. (3) At Rome, acolytes went in and out among the people, and collected the offerings in napkins of line linen or richer material called also offertoria.

=Offertories=, in Egyptian archæology, are offerings made to the gods, of various shapes; such as outstretched hands supporting a cup, or spoons of ivory, wood, or bronze, the handle of which is formed by a human figure.

=Officina=, R. A workshop, in contradistinction to taberna, a store, and apotheca, a shop; thus, officina ærariorum was a goldsmith’s workshop; officina fullonum, a fuller’s establishment.

=Offuscati.= One of the Italian literary academies. They bore for their device a bear, roused from his natural heaviness by the stings of bees, with the motto, “Stings (or points) will sharpen steel.” (Fig. 499.)

=Ogam=, Celtic. The sacred writing of the Druids. (Cf. OGHAM.)

=Ogee Arch= or =Contrasted Arch= or =Moulding=, Arch. An arch or moulding described by means of four centres, so as to be alternately concave and convex. It was frequently employed in fifteenth-century monuments, and its constant recurrence in the later Gothic or flamboyant architecture has given rise to its French name of ogival.

=Ogham.= A kind of shorthand writing or cipher in use among the ancient Irish. (S.)

=Ogivale=, Fr. A French architectural term of constant occurrence, applied to the architecture of the mediæval period in France, during which the pointed arch was used.

=Ogive=, Fr. Arch. A pointed arch; not the OGEE.

=Ogivette=, Arch. A small ogee.

=Ogress=, Her. A pellet or black roundle.

=Oil Painting= was introduced in Flanders by the brothers Van Eyck in 1410, and in Italy by Antonello da Messina in or about 1455.

=Oillets= or =Oylets=. Loopholes.

=Oils.= The fixed oils used in painting are linseed, walnut, and poppy, purified and rendered drying by the addition of litharge. They should be pale in colour, limpid, and transparent, and should dry quickly: nut oil in a few hours, linseed in a day, and poppy oil in thirty-six to forty hours. The essential oils used in painting are turpentine, for diluting the pigments ground in oil, and spike, or lavender, for wax and enamel painting.

=Oinerusis=, Gr. (οἰν-ήρυσις). (See ARYSTICHOS.)

=Ointment-box=, in Christian art, is the attribute of St. Mary Magdalene, St. Joseph of Arimathæa, and other saints.

=Oiron=, a small town in France (so named from the flocks of geese which circle round it Oi-rond in winter), is the place where the fine faiences, usually called Henri II. ware, were made. “Here is France,” says M. Jacquemart, “in the 16th century in possession of a pottery, the discovery of which is attributed 200 years later to England.” There are only about fifty pieces known, five of which may be seen in the South Kensington Museum.

=Okel=, Egyp. A caravanserai. A large covered court surrounded by two stories of galleries, of which the lower is used as shops, &c., and the upper one as lodging-rooms.

=Oldham.= A coarse kind of cloth originated at Oldham in Norfolk, temp. Richard II.

=Olibanum.= A gum-resin used for incense.

=Oliphant=, A.S. An elephant; hence a hunting-horn of ivory.

=Olive.= A blue-grey colour; violet mixed with green.

=Olive=(-tree). (1) In Christian art, the emblem of peace and concord, and frequent on early Christian tombs in the catacombs, with or without the dove. (2) Arch. Its leaf was introduced into sculpture by the ancients, in wreaths or garlands. The Corinthian order is enriched with olive-leaves, as are almost all the antiques at Rome of this order. (3) R. The corona oleagina, an honorary wreath made of olive-leaves, was conferred by the Romans on soldiers and commanders through whose instrumentality a triumph had been obtained when they were not personally present in the action. (4) Gr. It was the olive-tree that Minerva caused to spring from the ground in the citadel at Athens. (5) The colour and grain of the wood, and of the root portion especially, are very beautiful, and valuable for decorative and cabinet-work.

=Olivette.= A Flemish name for poppy oil.

=Olivine.= A variety of chrysolite of a dark green, commonly called bottle-green colour.

=Olla=, R. An earthenware vessel of very common make. It resembled our flower-pots, but had swelling sides, and was covered with a lid. It was used for cooking meat and vegetables and for preserving grapes (uva ollaria), and as a cinerary urn (olla ossuaria or cineraria). Hence—

=Olla-podrida=, Sp. A stew of meat and vegetables mixed, common in Spain. The word is used to describe any other incongruous mixture.

=Ollarium=, R. A niche in a sepulchral chamber, in which the olla ossuaria was placed. (See CINERARIUM, Fig. 160.)

=Olpê=, Gr. (ὄλπη). A kind of aryballos with a curved handle, but no spout (originally a leather oil-flask).

=Olympiad=, Gr. (Ὀλυμπίας). The period of four years between two consecutive celebrations of the Olympic games. The first Olympiad began B.C. 776.

=Olympic Games=, Gr. Games instituted by Hercules in honour of Jupiter Olympius; they were the most ancient and celebrated in all Greece. They derived their name from Olympia, in Greece, where they were celebrated. They were finally suppressed by Theodosius, A. D. 394.

=Ombre.= A kind of damask.

=Ombros.= The name for a particular quality of madder.

=Omophagi=, Gr. (ὠμο-φάγοι, sc. δαῖτες, i. e. flesh-eating banquets). Festivals held at Chio and Tenedos in honour of Bacchus.

=Omophorion.= (1) An article of female dress, worn on the shoulders. (2) A vestment of the Greek Church, consisting of a long woollen band with embroidered crosses. It is typical of the lost sheep borne home on the shoulders of the Shepherd.

=Onager=, =Onagrus=, R. An engine for hurling stones of great size.

=Onicolo= or =Nicolo=. A variety of the onyx, with a deep-brown ground, on which is a band of bluish white, used for making cameos.

=Onocentaurs.= Fabulous animals, half man, half ass.

=Onychomancy= (onyx, a nail). Divination by means of the marks on the nails of the hands.

=Onyx= (ὄνυξ, a finger-nail). (1) A general name for the varieties of the agate which consist of alternate layers of white, brown, or black, greatly valued by the ancients for cameos. In the Christian symbolism the onyx typifies innocence and candour. (See ONICOLO.) (2) The name has also been applied by the ancients to Oriental alabaster. (3) Onyx marble was a name given to Algerian marble from Oran, of which “pure white, brilliant red, golden yellow, and hues of green, with every variety of striation and flocculence, exist.” [See the Building News, xiv. 489.]

=Opa=, =Opê=, Gr. Arch. (ὀπή). A cavity in which a tie-beam (tignum) rests; whence the space included between two ὀπαὶ or tigna was called metopa or intertignum.

=Opacity.= Want of transparency.

=Opaion=, Gr. Arch. The panels on a ceiling formed by the intersection of its beams.

=Opal.= A semi-transparent stone, remarkable for the play of colours that it exhibits. Three varieties are, the oriental opal, called also the noble opal and the harlequin opal, remarkable for its flashes of brilliant colours having a triangular disposition. The affection that the ancients entertained for this beautiful gem was unbounded. The Roman senator Nonnius preferred exile to parting with a brilliant opal the size of a filbert which Marc Antony coveted. The fire opal is furnished principally by Mexico. Its colour, more pronounced than that of the oriental opal, and the carmine or vinous red tint of its fires, permit it to be easily recognized. The common opal displays very little fire; its colour is milk-white, which, joined to a texture extremely homogeneous, renders it semi-transparent. [L. Dieulafait.]

=Opal Glass=, called also Milk-white Glass; prepared for globes to lamps, &c.

=Opales=, =Opalia=, R. Festivals of Ops, the wife of Saturn, which were held every year on the fourteenth of the calends of January (19th of December).

=Opalescent.= Having a play of colours like the opal.

=Open-tide=, O. E. The season between Epiphany and Ash-Wednesday, when marriages were publicly solemnized.

=Opera.= A lyrical drama set to music; originated at Florence in the 16th century. [Consult Doni (passim), Arteaga Manfredini, Signorelli, &c.; also Dr. Burney’s Tours and Correspondence, and Grimm’s Correspondence.]

=Operculum=, R. A cover for any kind of earthenware vessel.

=Ophicleide= (ὄφις, a serpent, and κλεὶς, a key). A wind instrument of brass or copper made in the form of a serpent. Generally, the bass of a military band.

=Ophiomancy=, Gr. Divination by snakes.

=Ophiomorphous.= Snake-shaped.

=Ophite= or =Ophiolite=. Green porphyry or SERPENTINE.

=Ophites=, Chr. A sect which arose in the 2nd century in the Christian Church. They believed that the Serpent who tempted Eve was Christ himself. They are also called SERPENTINIANS. (S.)

=Opima Spolia=, R. The “spoils of honour,” consisting of armour set up as a trophy and dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius at Rome. These were spoils taken from the chief of a hostile army, who had been killed by the hand of a Roman general. Plutarch asserts that the spolia opima were actually taken only three times.

=Opinicus=, Her. A fabulous heraldic monster; a dragon before and a lion behind, with a camel’s tail.

=Opisthodomos=, Gr. (ὀπισθό-δομος). Latin, =Posticum=. A small chamber placed at the back of a temple, to which the priests alone had access.

=Oporotheca=, Gr. (ὀπωρο-θήκη). A storehouse for fruits.

=Oppidan.= At Eton College, a boy who is not a king’s scholar, and boards in the town.

=Oppidum=, R. A fortified town, and thence the mass of buildings occupying the extremity of a circus, in which were the stalls for the chariots and horses (carceres). Fig. 502 gives a representation of the oppidum in the circus of Caracalla.

=Optical Correction= is a name given to the task of adapting art objects, or architectural proportions and ornaments, to the circumstances of distance or comparison in which they are to be exhibited. Belzoni observes that the heads of colossal Egyptian statues are proportionally larger than the lower members. (For numerous examples of this contrivance, see the article in the Architectural Publication Society’s Dictionary.)

=Optics= (Gr. ὄπτομαι, to see). The science of the nature and properties of light; of its changes as it penetrates or is reflected or absorbed by bodies; of the structure of the eye, and the laws of vision; and of instruments in connexion with sight. It is thus closely connected with the science of colour, and the arts in general. The earliest treatise extant on this science is Euclid’s Optica et Catoptrica. (Cf. Dr. Smith’s Optics, &c.)

=Optigraph.= A telescope for copying landscapes. (See CLAUDE GLASS.)

=Optostratum=, R. (ὀπτὸς, brick, and στρωτὸν, strewn). A brick pavement, often arranged in a herring-boned pattern, as in the OPUS SPICATUM. (Fig. 509.)

=Opus Albarium.= (See STUCCO.)

=Opus Alexandrinum.= A mosaic flooring much used by the Romans, consisting of geometric figures, and generally of only two kinds of tessera, red and black on a white ground. (See MUSIVUM OPUS.)

=Opus Araneum= (spider-work). A kind of embroidery, 13th century; modern “guipure d’art.”

=Opus Consutum.= Appliqué work in embroidery. (See APPLIQUÉ.)

=Opus Filatorium.= A kind of embroidery, 14th century; modern “filet brodé.”

=Opus Græcum=, R. Inlaid pavement. (See MUSIVUM OPUS.)

=Opus Incertum=, R. A Roman method of building; the construction of walls of very small rough stones, not laid in courses, but held together by the mortar.

=Opus Insertum=, R. A Roman method of building, of courses of flat tiles, the most durable of all. Such courses were also introduced in the other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they served as bond-courses, and also kept the damp from rising from the ground.

=Opus Musivum.= Mosaic. (See MUSIVUM.)

=Opus Pectineum= (comb-wrought). Woven work imitating embroidery.

=Opus Phrygianum=, R. Fine embroidery. (See ORPHREY.)

=Opus Plumarium= (feather-stitch). Embroidery of which the stitches overlap one another like the feathers of a bird.

=Opus Pseud-iso-domum=, Gr. (lit. quasi-equal structure). A Greek method of building in which the courses are (1) parallel and unequal, but regular among themselves, as in Fig. 506; or (2) irregular altogether, as in the Gate of Lions at Mycenæ, Fig. 507 (or in Fig. 504).

=Opus Pulvinarium= (cushion-style). Embroidery like modern Berlin work, generally used for cushions.

=Opus Reticulatum=, R. A Roman method of construction, with an ornamental surface resembling the meshes of a net.

=Opus Spicatum=, R. Herring-bone masonry.

=Or=, Her. The metal gold, expressed in engraving by small dots, as on Fig. 375.

=Or basané=, Fr. Leather stamped in gold, used as hangings in the 16th and 17th centuries.

=Ora=, R. The cable which fastened the stern of a ship to the shore, while the ANCORALE kept her head out to sea.

=Ora.= An old Saxon coin of 16 or 20 pence in value.

=Orange.= The colour formed by the mixture of 5 parts of red and 3 parts of yellow. It is the complementary of blue. The nearest pigment is cadmium yellow.

=Orange Chrome.= A sub-chromate of lead, which yields a beautiful orange pigment.

=Orange Madder lake.= (See MADDER.)

=Orange Minium.= (See MINIUM.)

=Orange Vermilion.= A durable pigment for oil and water-colours, in colour resembling red lead.

=Orange Yellow.= A yellow inclining to red, represented by molybdate of lead. (Ansted, Elementary Course.)

=Orange tree.= In Christian art, symbol of the “Heavenly Bride.”

=Oranti=, It. The name given to certain male and female figures found in the catacomb frescoes at Rome, represented with the hands spread in the Eastern attitude of prayer.

=Orarium=, R. A scarf or handkerchief thrown to the crowd in a circus, to wave to the chariot-drivers. In Christian archæology, (1) A scarf affixed to the pastoral staff; as early as the 13th century. (2) The stole. (3) The border of an ecclesiastical vestment. (Planché.) (See =Stole=, =Sudarium=.)

=Orb.= One of the emblems of sovereignty with which kings are solemnly invested at their coronation. It is a globe surmounted by a cross, and is held in the palm of the left hand. In Art it is a common attribute of the Infant Saviour.

=Orca=, Gr. and R. (ὄρκη or ὕρχα). An earthenware vessel of large size, but smaller than the amphora; it was used for holding salted fish. The diminutive is orcula; the modern Italian orcio.

=Orchestra=, Gr. and R. (ὀρχήστρα, i. e. dancing-place). The lowest part of the Greek and Roman theatres; usually occupied by the chorus. It contained an altar, on which sacrifices to Bacchus were sometimes made.

=Orchestrino.= A modern musical instrument invented by Poulleau. It was shaped like a pianoforte with similar finger-keys, and the sounds were produced by the friction of a bow upon strings.

=Orchestrion.= A modern portable organ, invented by the Abbé Vogler about 1789. A similarly-named instrument invented in 1796 by Kunz, a Bohemian, consisted of a pianoforte combined with some organ-stops.

=Orcula.= Diminutive of orca.

=Order.= In classical architecture, a column entire; i. e. base, shaft, capital, and entablature. There are usually said to be five orders: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite.

=Orders of Knighthood.= (See KNIGHTHOOD.)

=Ordinary=, Her. An early principal charge of a simple character.

=Oread.= A mountain-nymph.

=Oreæ=, R. (ora, the mouth). A snaffle-bit for horses.

=Oreiller=, Her. A cushion or pillow.

=Oreillettes=, Fr. Ear-pieces on helmets; 15th and 16th centuries.

=Orfrays.= The gold, silver, or silk embroidery on rich garments, chiefly sacerdotal ornaments. The term has two derivations; some derive it from aurum Phrygium, because the Phrygians, who were excellent embroiderers, were considered to have invented the style; others take it to be from aurum fractum (broken). In mediæval Latin the term for orfrays was aurifrigia, aurifrisa, aurifrisus, and aurifrixus.

=Organ.= Organs are said to have been first introduced into France, A. D. 289, from Greece. A large organ existed in Westminster Abbey in the 10th century. Portable organs called also REGALS were also common. The antique organs had no key-boards, which were introduced in the 11th century, simultaneously with the invention of the musical stave. (Cf. HYDRAULA.) The REGALS or portable organ is an attribute of St. Cecilia. (Fig. 510.)

=Organdi.= A kind of muslin.

=Organistrum=, O. E. A musical instrument, resembling the modern hurdy-gurdy, played by two persons, of whom one turned the handle, while the other played the keys.

=Organolyricon.= A musical instrument invented in Paris in 1810 by M. de St. Pern. It consists of a pianoforte with two rows of keys, and contains twelve different wind instruments, viz. three flutes, an oboe, a clarionet, a bassoon, horns, trumpet, and fife.

=Organzine.= Thrown silk of a very fine texture. (S.)

=Orgies=, Gr. (ὄργια). Festivals of Bacchus at which all who were present were carried away by frenzy. The same term was also used to denote the festivals of Ceres and those of the CABIRI.

=Orgues=, Fr. Med. (1) Pieces of timber, pointed and shod with iron, hung like a portcullis over a gateway, to be let down in case of attack. (2) An arrangement of gun-barrels, the precursor of the mitrailleuse. (S.)

=Orgyia= (from ὀρέγω, to extend). A Greek measure of length, representing the distance from end to end of the outstretched arms, or the height of the human figure. It was equal to four cubits or six feet, and was one-hundredth of a stadium.

=Orichalcum= (from ὄρος and χαλκὸς, i. e. mountain bronze). A metallic compound, akin to copper and bronze, which was highly prized by the ancients. It was probably brass.

=Oriel= or =Oriole=, Chr. (oriolum, a little entrance). A projecting angular window, generally triangular or pentagonal in shape. A large bay or recessed window in a church or in an apartment. The word has been used in many senses, with the general meaning of a recess within or a projection from a building. A small oratory.

=Orientation=, Chr. The arrangement of a church by which a worshipper faces the east at prayers.

=Oriflamme.= The ancient royal banner of France, coloured purple-azure and gold. It was split into five points, and sometimes bore upon it a saltire wavy, from the centre of which golden rays diverged.

=Orillon=, Fr. A mass of earth lined with a wall on the shoulder of a bastion, for the protection of a gun.

=Orle.= (1) Arch. A fillet or listel placed beneath the ovolo of a capital. (2) In Heraldry, a subordinary formed of a border of a shield which is charged upon another and a larger shield. (3) The wreath or torse which encircled the crest, composed ordinarily of silk of two colours twisted together, and representing the principal metal and tincture in the wearer’s armorial bearings. (Planché.)

=Orleans.= A cloth made of worsted and cotton.

=Orlo.= A Spanish musical instrument.

=Orlop-deck= of a ship. That over the hold, on which the cables are stowed.

=Ormolu=, Fr. (or, gold, and moulu, ground). 72·43 copper, 25·2 zinc, and 2·65 tin; used for cheap jewellery, &c. Mosaic gold, another name for such a metal, is composed of 65 copper and 35 zinc.

=Ormolu Varnish.= A copper, bronze, or imitation-gold varnish.

=Ornithon=, R. (ὀρνιθών). A poultry-yard or aviary.

=Orpharion=, O. E. A kind of lute. (Halliwell.)

=Orpheon.= A musical instrument.

=Orphrey.= An old English word for gold embroidery, from the Latin auriphrygium. (See ORFRAYS.)

=Orpiment= (Lat. auripigmentum; Ang. king’s yellow). A yellow pigment of arsenic with sulphur, or, when the arsenic predominates, an orange colour. The finest native orpiment comes from Persia, and is called golden orpiment.

=Orpin=, O. E., contraction of =Orpiment=. Yellow arsenic.

=Orrery.= A machine for representing in a model the motions and relative positions of the heavenly bodies.

=Orrice= or =Orris=. A peculiar pattern in which gold or silver lace is worked. The edges are ornamented with conical figures, placed at equal distances, with spots between them.

=Orthostata=, Gr. (ὀρθόστατα, i. e. standing upright). (1) The facings of a wall, consisting of different materials from the internal part of it. (Fig. 512.) (2) An anta or pilaster.

=Orthron.= (See HOURS OF PRAYER.)

=Oscen=, plur. =Oscines=, R. (os, mouth, and cano, to predict). A bird or birds from whose singing it was possible to draw auguries.

=Oschophoria=, Gr. (ὀσχο-φόρια, i. e. vine-branch-bearing). Athenian vintage festivals, instituted in honour of Bacchus and Ariadne by Theseus, or according to other authorities, in honour of Dionysus and Athena, in which those who took part carried vine-boughs loaded with grapes. The festival was concluded by a race on the seashore from the temple of Bacchus to that of Minerva. The victor’s prize was a cup called PENTAPLOA, because it contained five ingredients: wine, honey, cheese, meal, and oil.

=Oscillatio=, R. A swing. The Roman swings are represented having legs like a chair.

=Oscilla=, R. (dimin. of os, mouth or face). Small images or masks, generally of Bacchus, hung up in vineyards to ensure a good crop, and practically useful to scare off birds from the grapes.

=Osculare=, =Osculatorium=, Chr. (See PAX.)

=Ossarium= and =Ossuarium=, R. (os, a bone). A sarcophagus of earthenware, stone, or marble, in which the vessel containing the cremated ashes of the dead was placed.

=Ossature=, Arch. (from the Italian ossatura, skeleton). The skeleton or framework of a Gothic roof or a window. In the roof, the ossature comprises the nerves, the transverse or longitudinal arches, the diagonal rib, &c.; in a window, the iron framing.

=Osteau=, Arch. An old term used to denote the rose placed in the upper part of a mullioned window; it was also applied to a rosace and a medallion.

=Ostinati.= An Italian literary academy, whose device was a pyramid blown from all quarters by the winds, with the obstinate motto, “Frustra” (in vain).

=Ostium=, R. A lobby inside the entrance door of a Roman house, deep enough to contain a small porter’s lodge on one side, and leading to an inner door which opened on the ATRIUM. The street door was called JANUA. (See DOMUS.)

=Ostrich Eggs=, Chr. The practice of suspending eggs of ostriches in churches was probably introduced from the East by Crusaders.

“In some churches two eggs of ostriches, and other things which cause admiration, and which are rarely seen, are accustomed to be suspended: that by their means the people may be drawn to church, and have their minds the more affected.” (Durandus on Symbolism.)

=Ostrum=, R. A purple colour used by the ancients, produced from the juice of the murex fish.

=Othone=, Chr. (See STOLE.)

=Ottone=, It. Brass.

=Oubliettes=, Fr. Subterranean dungeons, into which prisoners were thrown to be oubliés (forgotten). The side walls were in some cases armed with strong sharp blades, which cut the victims to pieces as they fell. It should be mentioned that in many cases cesspools have been mistaken for oubliettes.

=Ouch= or =Nouche=, O. E. An ornament of the brooch kind; a jewel. (Mod.) The setting of a precious stone.

=Oudenardes.= Tapestry landscapes first made at that place; called also “tapisseries de verdure.”

=Ourania=, Gr. (οὐρανια, i. e. in the air). A game at catch-ball.

=Outline=, which has no real existence in nature, is defined by Aristotle as πέρας στερεοῦ, “the boundary of solid form.” The only light and shade used in outlines is the greater lightness or darkness of the lines.

=Outré=, Fr. Exaggerated, fantastic, absurd.

=Oval= (Lat. ovum, an egg). The oval, formed of a continuous curve, differs from the ELLIPSE, which is equally broad at both ends, in having one end narrower than the other, and is sometimes called a false ellipse. Ovals in windows, arches, and other parts of architecture exist, but are rare.

=Ovatio.= A lesser triumph distinguished from TRIUMPHUS. The general entered the city on foot, and dressed in the toga prætexta of a magistrate, attended only by musicians, and knights and plebeians; and the sacrifice by which the ceremony concluded was a sheep (ovis) instead of a bull; hence the word ovation.

=Overstory=, Arch. The CLERESTORY.

=Overture= (Fr. ouverture, an opening; It. sinfonia). Instrumental music preceding an opera, &c.

=Ovile=, R. Literally, a sheep-fold, and thence an enclosure in the Campus Martius in which each century assembled before proceeding to place its votes (tabellæ) in the urn (cista). It was divided into compartments approached through narrow passages called pontes of ponticuli. On entering, the citizens received their voting-tablets (tabellæ), and when they had consulted within the enclosure, they passed out by another pons, at which they threw their votes into the chest (cista).

=Ovolo=, Arch. (from the Latin ovum). (1) A convex moulding showing the quarter of a circle, and thence called quarter-round. (2) The echinus of the Doric capital. (3) An ornament composed of eggs, separated either by tongues (Fig. 277) or by darts (Fig. 514). (See ECHINUS.)

=Ovum=, =Egg=, R. Conical egg-shaped balls which were placed upon the spina of a circus, on a stone table supported by four columns. (Fig. 515.) There was a second table at the other end of the spina, on which were placed small marble dolphins. Ovum Orphicum, or Orphic egg, was the mysterious symbol employed by Orpheus to denote the procreative principle with which the whole earth is pervaded. Ovum anguinum was an oval ball of glass worn by the Druids round their neck; so named because, as was asserted, it was produced from the mingled saliva of two serpents (angues).

=Owl.= With the Athenians the owl was the emblem of prudence and wisdom; the bird of Athenê. In Christian art it symbolizes darkness and solitude, and hence unbelief.

=Ox.= In Christian art the attribute of St. Luke; the emblem of the priesthood and of sacrifice. In representations of the Nativity an ox and an ass are commonly introduced.

=Ox-gall.= The bile or bitter fluid secreted by the liver of the ox; when refined it is used in oil and water-colour painting to fix and thicken the colours. (See GALL.)

=Oxford Ochre.= An oxide of iron used as a pigment of a brownish yellow in oil and water-colours. (See OCHRE.)

=Oxide of Zinc.= A white pigment which is more permanent in resisting gases than the white lead.

=Oxides of Copper.= The pigments derived from these were well known to the ancients. Modern pigments are Blue Verditer, Brunswick Green, Verdigris, and Emerald or Scheele’s Green (q.v.).

=Oxybaphoi=, Gr. Small cymbals in the shape of vinegar-saucers.

=Oxybaphon= (ὀξυβάφον). A Greek term applied to a bell-shaped vase with a plain foot and a moulded rim, synonymous with the Latin ACETABULUM (q.v.).

=Oyelet=, =Oylet=. (See OILLETS.)

=Oyer= and =Terminer=. Ancient law-French. The words mean to hear and to determine, and express the authority or commission given to an appointed court of justice.

P.

=Packfong= or =Pakfong=. A Chinese name for Argentine, or German silver.

=Pæan= (Gr. παιάν). A hymn to Apollo, of gratitude or propitiation. It was also used as a battle-song before and after an engagement.

=Pænula=, R. A thick cloak with a hole to put the head through; it was furnished with a hood, and was worn in travelling, or as a protection against cold and rain.

=Pagai=, Hind. A kind of short double oar, with broad ends resembling small scoops.

=Paganalia=, =Paganales=, R. A rustic festival which took place yearly towards the end of January or the beginning of February, seven days after the Sementivæ. It was the festival of villages (pagi) and of villagers (pagani), whence its name. Sacrifices were offered in honour of Proserpine, goddess of vegetation. As the old religion continued to prevail in the villages long after that of Christ was established in the towns, the words pagan and unbeliever gradually became synonymous.

=Paganica= (sc. pila), R. A ball covered with leather and stuffed with feathers or down; it took its name from the peasants or country people (pagani), who used it for playing a game the nature of which is not known.

=Pagina=, R. (lit. a thing fastened). This term, when synonymous with scheda, signifies a page of paper, the page of a volume; or else it serves to denote one of the columns of writing which cover a sheet of paper.

=Pagoda=, Hind. (1) A religious building of the Hindoos. The great ancient pagodas of India are monolithic temples hewn out of rocky mountains; but the term is also applied to temples built in the open air. (2) Gold coins formerly current in India were called pagodas.

=Pagoda-stone.= A limestone containing tapering fossil shells shaped like a Chinese pagoda at the top.

=Pagodite.= A stone much used by the Chinese for carving into pagodas and other ornaments.

=Pagus=, R. Any lofty site in the country capable of being easily turned into a fortified post by means of a few siege works. The name was extended to the country surrounding a fortified village; and each of the country tribes was divided by Numa into a certain number of pagi.

=Paile.= An old term used to denote a striped cloth of floss silk manufactured at Alexandria in Egypt, and thence a mantle, canopy, or pavilion.

=Pala=, It. An altar front. The Pala d’oro of St. Mark’s, Venice, is a celebrated specimen of Byzantine art. It is of silver-gilt ornamented with gems and enamels, with Greek and Latin inscriptions in niello, and representations from sacred and profane history. It was originally made at Constantinople in 976, but has been repaired in 1105, in 1209, and in 1345, by which it has lost much of its original character.

=Pala=, R. A spade, or scoop in the form of a spade, and thence the bezil of a ring.

=Palæstra= (παλαίστρα). A place for wrestling, formerly part of the gymnasium. (See GYMNASIUM.)

=Palanga.= (See PHALANGÆ.) Hence:—

=Palanquin.= A covered conveyance for one person, carried on the shoulders of men in India and China. They are often very splendidly carved, and decorated with tapestry, ornamental woods, and inlaid-work.

=Palaria=, R. An exercise practised by young Roman recruits, which consisted of hurling javelins (pila) against a stake (palus) fixed in the ground. (See PEL.)

=Palè=, Gr. (πάλη). A Greek term having the same meaning as LUCTA, LUCTAMEN, LUCTAMENTUM (q.v.).

=Pale=, Her. One of the ordinaries. =Palewise= or =In Pale=, arranged vertically one above the other, as the lions of England. (See PER.)

=Paleste=, Gr. (παλαιστὴ, i. e. palm of the hand). A lineal measure used by the Greeks equal to the quarter of a foot, or a little more than three inches. (See PALMUS.)

=Palette.= “Setting the palette” is arranging the colours for use. This is always done in a certain order regulated by the key in which the picture is to be painted. The order generally recommended is to begin with white, and then proceed through the yellows, reds, and blues to black. The Egyptians used palettes of a long rectangular form; one side higher than the other, had two or three saucers sunk in it to hold cakes of colour or ink; the other side was notched to receive the calami or cut reeds used as writing-pens.

=Palettes= or =Roundels=, in Armour, are round plates or shields hung on the armour to defend the joints of the arm, necessarily left free for action.

=Palilia=, R. A festival in honour of Pales, the goddess of shepherds and flocks; it was held on the 21st of April.

=Palimpsest= (παλίμ-ψηστος, lit. scraped again). A parchment the writing on which had been erased, so that it might be used again. Monumental brasses are found to have been reversed and used a second time. In both cases the most ancient writing or inscription is generally the most valuable and interesting.

=Palindrome= (πάλιν, again, and δρόμος, a course). A sentence which reads the same when read backwards or forwards. Such is the Greek inscription on the ancient font in the chapel of Dulwich College: “νιψονανομημαμημονανοψιν.” “Purify the heart and not the countenance alone.”

=Palissy Ware.= The pieces to which Palissy owes his reputation, in the first place, are the so called “rustic pottery” (rustiques figulines), “dishes or vases where upon a rough ground strewn with fossil shells, lizards and salamanders are running, frogs jumping, snakes crawling or sleeping, or more still, in a streamlet of water wriggling eels, pointed-nosed pikes, trout with spotted scales, and a thousand others of our fresh-water fishes are swimming.” When afterwards he worked in the capital, he did not give up his rustic compositions, but mixed them with the human figure. “There is an identity of style in all his figures and compositions; such as the Diana, Plenty, &c., framed round with delicate and ingenious ornaments drawn in the taste of the period.” (Jacquemart.)

=Paliurus.= A thorn-bush with long sharp spikes, common on the coasts of the Mediterranean, where it is called Christ’s thorn, because it is said to have furnished material of which the Crown of thorns was woven.

=Palla=, Gr. and R. A robe of state worn by patrician ladies, and frequently represented on statues of goddesses. Palla citharœdica was the name given to a long robe which musicians wore upon the stage; Apollo is often represented with this garment, especially when he is surnamed Citharœdus and Musagetes. Palla Gallica was a short garment like a TABARD, open in front and behind; it was worn by the Gauls and adopted by the Romans, who called it CARACALLA (q.v.).

=Palla Corporalis=, Chr. The veil for the Pyx. (See CORPORAL.)

=Palladium.= (1) An image of Pallas Athenê, kept carefully hidden, and revered as the safeguard of the place where it lay. The most celebrated was the Palladium of Troy, said to have been thrown from Olympus by the hand of Zeus. It was about three cubits high, and represented the goddess sitting with a spear in her right hand, and in her left a distaff and spindle. (2) The term has been applied to a metal discovered by Dr. Wollaston in 1803, obtained from platinum, which it resembles in colour and lustre.

=Pallium= (Gr. ἱμάτιον). A large square woollen sheet or blanket worn by the Greeks over the shoulders, and fastened like the ABOLLA round the neck with a brooch (fibula); it formed the principal article of the amictus or Greek dress. (Hence the expression to palliate, or cloak over, an offence.) (2) Chr. A vestment bestowed by the Pope on all patriarchs and archbishops on their accession to office as the symbol of their ecclesiastical power. The material is obtained from the wool of two lambs slain on the Eve of St. Agnes. The modern pallium of the Church is a short white cloak ornamented with a red cross, which encircles the neck and shoulders, and falls down the back. The pall or pallium is a charge in the arms of the Sees of Canterbury, Armagh, and Dublin.

=Pall-mall.= The ancient form of the game of croquet, “wherein a round box bowle is with a mallet strucke through a high arch of yron standing at either end of an ally.” (Cotgrave.) “This game is used at the long alley near St. James’s, and vulgarly called Pell-Mell.” (Blount’s Glossary, 1681.)

=Palm.= The ancient classical emblem of victory and triumph was early assumed by the Christians as the universal symbol of martyrdom. In England we understand by palm, not the leaves of a palm-tree, but “the yelowe that groweth on wyllowes.”

=Palm-leaf=, Arch. An architectural ornament bearing more or less resemblance to a palm-leaf, employed for mouldings, and for the decoration of the corners of the ceilings in Doric cornices; and in antefixæ, as crownings for the pediment and as acroteria. Figs. 516a and 516b represent palm-leaves of terra-cotta.

=Palmus=, Gr. and R. A measure of length. Of the Greek palmus the greater (σπιθαμὴ) contained nine finger-breadths, and the less (παλαιστὴ) four. The greater Roman palmus contained twelve finger-breadths or about nine inches, and the less four finger-breadths. The greater palmus was taken from the length of the hand or span, the less from the breadth of it.

=Palstave=, Celt. A wedge-shaped axe used by the Celtic nations in war for battering the armour of the enemy. (See Fig. 255.)

=Paltock= (modern paletôt). “A short cloake with sleeves,” i. e. a great-coat.

=Paludamentum=, R. A military cloak worn over their armour by the generals and superior officers of the Roman army; an officer thus dressed was said to be paludatus. (See Fig. 44.)

=Palus=, R. (pango, to fix). A stake planted in the earth, against which recruits hurled their javelins (pila). The mediæval PEL (q.v.).

=Pam=, O. E. The knave of clubs. (HALLIWELL.)

=Pammachium= (παμμάχιον). A synonym for PANCRATIUM (q.v.).

=Panache=, Her. A plume of feathers set upright and borne as a crest. Fig. 517 is from the seal of Edward Courtenay, A. D. 1400.

=Panarium=, R. (panis, bread). A bread-basket; a pantry in which bread was kept.

=Panathenæa=, Gr. (Παναθήναια). Festivals of Minerva Athenê among the Athenians, so called because they formed the festival of all the peoples placed under the protection of Minerva (πᾶν, all, and Ἀθήνη). There were the Greater and Lesser Panathenæa; the former being held every five years, the latter every three years. The procession at the Greater festival is the subject of the friezes from the Parthenon now in the British Museum. (See ELGIN MARBLES.) They represent the solemn transportation of the peplus of Athenê to her temple, in which nearly the whole of the population took part, on foot, on horseback, or in chariots. Old men carried olive-branches, young men attended in armour, and maidens carried baskets of flowers.

=Panaulon.= An enlarged German flute with sixteen finger-keys; invented recently by Trexler of Vienna. It is available as a bass to other flutes.

=Pancratium=, R. (from πάν every: and κράτος force). A wrestling and boxing match, in which the combatants employed every means to disable each other; and the contest was continued until one of the combatants owned himself disabled by holding up a finger, or was killed.

=Paned=, O. E. Striped.

=Paned Hose.= Breeches formed of stripes, with small panes or squares of silk or velvet. (Halliwell.)

=Panegyris=, Egyp. (πανήγυρις). A popular festival of Egypt, to which the whole country was summoned in order to celebrate the thirtieth anniversary of the reigning monarch.

=Panels=, Arch. The sunken compartments in wood and stone-work; very abundant in Gothic architecture as ornaments on walls, ceilings, &c. After the expiration of Gothic architecture, panelling in great measure ceased to be used in stone-work.

=Panel Picture.= A painting on a board or panel.

=Panisci=, R. (Πανίσκοι, dimin. from Πάν). Literally, small Pans, small rustic gods no bigger than pigmies.

=Pannetier Green.= A handsome and durable emerald green, prepared by a secret process by its inventor, M. Pannetier. It is sold at a high price.

=Panoply= (πανοπλία). A complete suit of armour. (See ARMOUR.)

=Pantables= (for PANTOFLES). Slippers.

“Hee standeth upon his pantables, and regardeth greatly his reputacion.” (Saker’s Narbonus, 1580.)

=Pantaloon.= From the Italian, pianta leone (plant the lion); the Venetian standard-bearers (of the lion of St. Mark) being so called, who wore tight hose, the name came to be given to tight hose in general. In ancient pantomimes, Pantaloon was always a Venetian. (See HARLEQUIN.)

=Pantaloons=, O. E. “Garments made for merry-andrews, that have the breeches and stockings of the same stuff, and joined together as one garment.” (Halliwell.)

=Panthea=, Gen. (πάν-θεια). Statues or figures which combine the symbols of several divinities.

=Pantheon= (πᾶν, every, and θεὸς, god). A temple dedicated to all the divinities collectively. That at Rome is now a Christian church. It is circular, 150 feet in height and in diameter, with a domed roof.

=Pantherinæ=, R. Panther-tables; of wood striped like the skin of a panther. (See TIGRINÆ.)

=Pantobles=, =Pantoffles=, O. E. Slippers.

=Pantofles=, O. E. Slippers or wooden pattens.

=Pantograph.= An instrument for enlarging or reducing plans and designs, largely used in the arts, e. g. in machine embroidery.

=Pantomine= (παντὸς, of everything; μῖμος, mimic). Gesture and action applied, without speech, to represent emotion; hence applied to the form of theatrical performance which consists entirely or principally of gesture and action.

=Paper.= (See CHARTA.)

=Papier-maché=, Fr. Paper-pulp; made by compressing the pulp, or by pasting together different thicknesses of paper, to the hardness and consistency of wood. It is an invention of the 18th century, and originated in snuff-boxes called after their manufacturer “Martins.” The process has since been developed to great perfection by the invention of new varnishes and methods of ornament, the principal of which are gilding and bronzing, pearl and gem inlaying, &c. (See a paper by R. Hunt in the Art Journal, 1851.)

=Papilio=, R. (lit. a butterfly). A military tent, so called because the curtains opened and shut like the wings of a butterfly.

=Papyrus.= The paper made of the papyrus plant, used by the Egyptians and other nations of antiquity. The Papyrus rolls on which important relics of Egyptian literature and art have come down to us, were formed of a sheet of papyrus rolled on a slender wooden cylinder. They have mostly been discovered in mummy cases, and contain illustrations of funeral ceremonies and religious emblems relating to the future of the soul. Others are historical or literary, and some have been discovered containing caricatures and comic illustrations. (Cf. LIBER.)

=Parada=, Celt. A tent or awning stretched over the deck of a vessel, and thence a cabin hung with tapestry.

=Paradise= or =Parvise=, Chr. (1) A vestibule or courtyard in front of a church. The term must thus, at a certain period, have been synonymous with narthex or porch. At the present day the term is applied to the open space to be found in front of cathedrals or public buildings. (2) The word is sometimes applied to the room that is often found above church porches. (See CLOISTER GARTH.)

=Paradisus= (παράδεισος). A Persian park or pleasure-garden, enclosed within a wall, elaborately planted and irrigated, and stocked with animals for the chase. Hence the Garden of Eden was so called.

=Paragauda=, =Paragaudis=, R. An embroidered band of silk or gold thread sewn on to a tunic.

=Paraison=, Fr. A term in glass, equivalent to the English METAL (q.v.).

=Paralus= (πάραλος). The name of an Athenian state vessel, kept, like that of the Doge of Venice in modern times, for state and religious ceremonies. A sister vessel was named the SALAMINIA; they were both fast-sailing triremes.

=Paramese=, Gr. (next to middle), or TRITE (third). The third treble note, immediately above the mese, of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.)

=Paranete=, Gr. (beside the shortest). The second treble note of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.)

=Parapet=, It. (parare petto, to defend the breast). A wall breast-high on a fortification, roof, or other gallery. (See CRENELS.)

=Paraphernalia= (from the Greek παράφερνα). That which a wife brings besides her dower; i. e. her personal attire and ornament.

=Parasang.= A Persian measure of distance, about 30 Greek stadia or 3¾ English miles.

=Paratorium.= (See OBLATIONARIUM.)

=Parazonium=, R. (παραζώνιον). A short sword or kind of dagger worn by the tribunes and superior officers of the Roman army attached to their belt on the right side. This sword was shorter than the gladius worn by the common soldier on the right side.

=Parchment.= The finer kind of parchment known as vellum is from the skins of calves, kids, and dead-born lambs. The stout parchment of drum-heads is from the skin of the wolf, although that of the ass or calf is sometimes used. The parchment of battledores is from the skin of the ass, and that used for sieves from the skin of the he-goat. The green parchment used in bookbinding is coloured by means of Verdigris. (See LIBER.) The name comes from the Latin Pergamentum. Eumenes, King of Pergamus, has the honour of the invention.

=Parentales=, =Parentalia=, R. Festivals, also called Februales, which were held by the Romans in honour of deceased ancestors.

=Pargetting=, =Parge-work=, O. E. In Architecture, an old term for the ornamental plasterwork common on the outside walls of timber-built houses of Queen Elizabeth’s and earlier periods.

=Parhypate=, Gr. (beside the longest). The second bass note of the seven-stringed lyre (See MESE.)

=Parian Chronicle.= A slab of Parian marble, among the so called ARUNDEL MARBLES in the University of Oxford, containing a chronological record of Greek history from B.C. 1582 to B.C. 264.

=Parian Marble= from the island of Paros was of extremely fine grain, easy to work, and of a creamy white. The marble now called Parian has a coarse sparkling grain, which, however, takes a high finish. (Redford, Ancient Sculpture.)

=Paries=, R. The wall of a house or any building, in contradistinction to murus, muri, which denoted the walls of a city.

=Paris Black.= A name for IVORY BLACK (q.v.).

=Paris Blue.= A very handsome dark violet-blue pigment. “Its great qualities of body and intensity of coloration will always ensure it a large sale; moreover, its mixture with chrome yellow produces a fine green cinnabar or leaf-green.” (Habich.)

=Paris Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.)

=Parlour= (Lat. parlatorium). (1) The old “speke-house” in a convent for inmates to speak with their friends. (2) Any private room.

=Parma=, R. (πάρμη). A shield, usually of circular form, carried in the Roman army by the light-armed troops or light infantry (velites) and the cavalry (equites). The parma thracidica used by the class of gladiators called Thraces was not round, but in the form of a small SCUTUM (q.v.).

=Parquet.= French flooring of inlaid wood-work.

=Parsley=, Arch. In every period, but especially in Romano-Byzantine and Gothic art, parsley-leaves have been abundantly made use of in architectural decoration.

=Parthenon.= The famous temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens. The finest example of the GRECIAN DORIC style of architecture; built by Pheidias, 454–438 B.C. Fergusson says, “For beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unrivalled—the glory of Greece.” (Hist. of Architecture.) The celebrated frieze, 525 feet in length, ran all round the outer wall of the cella close up to the ceiling. The best work on the Parthenon sculptures is by Michaelis (Der Parthenon, Leipzig, 1871). (See ELGIN MARBLES.)

=Partisan=, O. E. A kind of short pike, introduced temp. Edward III.

=Partlet=, O. E. A ruff. “A maydens neckerchefe or lynnen partlette.”

=Party=, =Parted=, Her. Divided. (See PER.)

=Parvise.= (See PARADISE.)

=Paschal Taper=, Chr. A large wax candle which was consecrated during the service on Easter Eve, and lighted on Sundays from Easter to Whitsuntide, with five grains of incense attached to it to indicate the five movable feasts of the year.

=Pasquinade=, It. A lampoon; so called from Pasquino, an Italian barber at Rome, whose door was opposite to the statue of a gladiator on which such satirical writings were posted.

=Passamen=, O. E. A kind of lace. (Hall.)

=Passant=, Her. Walking and looking forward. Passant guardant, walking and looking out from the shield; passant reguardant, walking and looking back; passant repassant, walking in opposite directions. (Fig. 518, 519.)

=Passe-partout=, Fr. A light picture-frame of cardboard, having the inner edges generally gilt.

=Passementerie=, Fr. Trimming, lace, or tape of gold, silver, lace, or thread.

=Passion, Instruments of the=—a frequent subject in ecclesiastical decoration of the Middle Ages—are, the PITCHER from which Jesus poured water; the TOWEL—represented as hanging on a ring—wherewith He wiped the Apostles’ feet; the TWO SWORDS which they showed Him, when He said, “It is enough;” the EAR of Malchus; ST. PETER’S SWORD, represented as a small falchion; the POST to which the Saviour was bound; the SCOURGE; the CROWN OF THORNS; the REED wherewith He was smitten on the head; the CROSS; the LADDER; the NAILS; the SPEAR of Longinus, crossed by the REED with the SPONGE; the FIRE at which St. Peter warmed himself; the COCK; the PINCERS, and a HEART pierced with five wounds.

=Passus=, R. A pace, from the point where the heel leaves the ground, to where the same heel is set down; five Roman feet. Mille passuum, or a thousand such paces, formed the Roman mile.

=Pasta Verde=, It. Sap-green; a vegetable green pigment prepared from the berries of the buckthorn.

=Pastel.= The French name for coloured crayons. Pastel-painting was much used for portraits in the beginning of the 19th century.

=Pasticcio=, It. An imitation of the style of another painter in an independent design.

=Pastophori=, Gr. and Egyp. (παστο-φόροι). Priests who, at certain ceremonies, carried small shrines (ναὸς) containing the image of a deity, which were hidden from the eyes of the crowd by a veil of different colours called παστὸς, whence παστὸν φέρειν (to carry the pastos), the term applied to the priests who performed this duty. The keepers of the temple were also so called.

=Pastophoria=, Chr. Small apses flanking the principal apse in a basilica, in which the consecrated bread was kept.

=Pastoral Staff=, Chr. The pedum of antiquity and emblem of a bishop’s pastoral responsibility is distinct from the CROZIER (q.v.) of an archbishop, and has a crook head.

=Pastouraux=, Cubical stones, usually of two colours, applied in the ornamentation of Romano-Byzantine architecture.

=Patagium=, R. A band of purple, or with gold ornaments or embroidery, which was placed round the neck and down the front of a woman’s tunic (tunica muliebris).

=Patee= or =Pattee=, Her. A small cross with the arms widening towards the ends.

=Patella.= Diminutive of PATERA (q.v.).

=Patena=, R. and Chr. A manger of wood, stone, or marble for holding food for horses; when it was divided into several compartments, these were called loculi. (See LOCULUS.) In Christian archæology, patena was the term applied to a small plate of gold or silver, used in the celebration of mass to cover over the chalice, and to hold the pieces of the host after it has been broken by the priest.

=Patent Yellow.= (See TURNER’S YELLOW.)

=Patera=, dimin. =Patella= (φιάλη). Flat plates or dishes for holding fluids for domestic use, and wine for libations in the sacrifices. The common kinds were of red earthenware, ornamented with designs in black. Others were of bronze or silver, often richly decorated with chasing, &c. (Compare PATINA.) In Architecture, a great variety of flat ornaments used in all styles of architecture are improperly called pateræ, the word applying properly to circular ornaments resembling the classical dish often found on friezes of classical architecture. (Fig. 521, 522.)

=Paternosters= or =Bead-ornament=. (1) A rosary. (2) Architectural ornaments in the form of berries or beads (Fig. 523), which decorate bands or other mouldings, and which often occur above ovolos.

=Patibulum=, R. An instrument of punishment in the form of a fork (furca), between the prongs of which the criminal’s neck was placed. His hands were fastened to the prongs of the fork, and in this condition (patibulatus) he was flogged through the city. The name of patibulum, or crux patibularia, was also given to a cross to which criminals were nailed.

=Patina.= The rust of antiquity found on bronzes and coins; it cannot be removed by rubbing or wetting it. It varies with the nature of the soil, and in some cases the surface acquires the smoothness and colour of malachite.

=Patina=, R. An earthenware vessel, used generally for cookery. It was deeper than the patera, but less deep than the olla.

=Patonce=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross.

=Patriarchal=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross, with a short cross-bar on the upper limb.

=Patrick, Order of St.=, indicated by the letters K.P., was instituted by George III. in 1783. The badge or jewel is of gold enamelled and oval in form, and is worn suspended from a collar formed of alternate roses and harps, or from a broad sky-blue ribbon.

=Patten=, Fr. (1) A woman’s clog. (2) The base of a column.

=Patulous.= Spreading.

=Paul Veronese Green.= An arsenite or arseniate of copper. A fine and durable colour, used either for oil or water-colour painting. (See EMERALD GREEN.)

=Pavilion=, Arch. A projecting apartment, usually with a dome or turret.

=Pavimentum=, R. A pavement formed by means of pieces of tile, crushed stones, flints, and other materials set in a bed of ashes or cement, and consolidated by beating down with the rammer (pavicula), whence its name of pavimentum. There were various kinds of pavimenta: the sectile (Figs. 525, 526), the tessellatum or tesseris structum, the vermiculatum, the sculpturatum, and the testaceum, &c.

=Pavo.= (See PEACOCK.)

=Pavonaceum= (sc. opus), R. An arrangement of materials placed so as to overlap one another, and bearing more or less resemblance to the feathers in a peacock’s tail.

=Pavonine.= Coloured like a peacock’s tail.

=Pax=, =Paxboard=, Chr. A representation of the Crucifixion upon a piece of wood or metal, with a handle at the back. It was kissed by the priest in the mass at the words “Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum,” and afterwards passed round to be kissed by the congregation. It was also spelt Paxbrede. Also called OSCULATORIUM.

=Peach-stone Black=, prepared from calcined stones of fruits, is a handsome colour, but has a reddish tinge. Ground with oil and white lead, the colour called old gray is obtained.

=Peacock=, R. and Chr. In antiquity the peacock was sacred to Juno, and is called Junonia avis. It is represented on Roman imperial coins bearing the empresses up to heaven, as the eagle does the emperors; and hence in Christian archæology is the symbol of the resurrection. (Her., see Fig. 398, IN PRIDE.)

=Pea-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.)

=Pean=, Her. One of the furs; represented in gold spots on a black ground.

=Pean= or =Pæan=. A song or shout of triumph.

=Pearl.= A secretion of the mollusc; in its normal development a thickening of the shell, which supplies mother-of-pearl; abnormally, forming globules for the purpose of encysting foreign substances intruded within the shell, which are the precious pearls used in jewellery.

=Pearl=, in Chinese the emblem of talent, is put by the Chinese on porcelains destined for rewards of poets and other laureati in China.

=Pebble.= A name given by lapidaries to many different stones.

=Pechblende= or =Pech-urane=, Germ. An ore of uranium and iron, used in porcelain painting and glass, producing a handsome greenish-yellow pigment.

=Pecten=, Egyp. and R. (pecto, to comb). (1) A comb for the hair; among the Egyptians and Romans they were made of box-wood or ivory. (See COMB.) (2) A weaver’s comb for pressing the threads of the web firmly together. (3) A comb for carding flax or wool. (4) A reaper’s “comb,” used in several countries, especially Gaul, instead of a sickle, for plucking the ears of wheat from the stalk. (5) A haymaker’s rake, &c.

=Pectinated.= Having teeth like a comb.

=Pectoral=, Gen. (pectus, the breast). A plate forming the front of a cuirass, and thus covering the chest.

=Peculium=, R. Property or earnings which a slave or a filius familias was permitted to acquire and consider as his own, although in strict law it belonged to the master or father. The slave was sometimes allowed by agreement to use this peculium for the purpose of purchasing his liberty.

=Pecunia=, R. Money; so called from pecus, a herd of cattle, Man’s primitive medium of exchange.

=Pedal.= In Music, a passage where the harmony moves upon a sustained sound, which is either the dominant or the tonic of the key.

=Pede-cloth=, Chr. A carpet laid on the space between the altar and the rails.

=Pedestal=, Gen. The base of a structure; the base supporting a statue, group, or monumental column. A pedestal has three parts: the base or foot next the ground, the dado or die forming the centre, and the cornice or surbase mouldings at the top. Fig. 527 represents a half-section of the base of Trajan’s column at Rome; Fig. 528 a half-section of the base of the column dedicated to Antoninus Pius, and preserved in the Pio Clementino Museum at Rome; lastly, Fig. 529 gives a part of the pedestal or base of the Pandrosium at Athens; when, however, pedestals support caryatides or columns, they are more commonly called STYLOBATES (q.v.).

=Pedica=, R. (1) A snare by which an animal is caught by the foot (pes). (2) Fetters or irons worn on the feet by slaves.

=Pediculated=, Arch. Sustained or supported by a PEDICULE (q.v.).

=Pedicule=, Arch. A small pillar which serves as a support to anything; whence the expressions monopediculated (with a single pedicule) (Fig. 387), and polypediculated (with several pedicules).

=Pediluvium.= (See ABLUTIONS.)

=Pediment=, Arch. The triangular crowning of a portico, usually supported by a row of columns. (Fig. 26.) The temples of antiquity generally had two pediments, one on each face. The inner part of the pediment is called the TYMPANUM (q.v.).

=Pedum=, Gen. (pes, a foot). A shepherd’s crook, or curved stick for catching goats or sheep by the leg. Fauns and satyrs are often represented carrying the pastoral crook, and it is the attribute of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry. (See under PEPLUM.) In Egyptian archæology it is a symbol of authority, and is frequently to be seen in the hands of Osiris and the Pharaohs; the Egyptian term for it is hyq. (Cf. HYCSOS.) In early Christian art it is an attribute of Our Lord as the Good Shepherd. Representations of the pedum are of frequent occurrence in the catacomb paintings. (See PASTORAL STAFF.)

=Pegasus.= A horse with wings; emblem of fame, eloquence, poetic study, and contemplation. A bronze medal of Cardinal Bembo, the great Italian author of the 16th century, in the Museum at South Kensington, shows his device given above. (Fig. 530.)

=Pegma=, R. (πῆγμα, i. e. a thing fastened). (1) This term denotes generally anything made of a number of boards joined together. (2) In a more restricted sense it means a theatrical machine of several stages (tabulata), one above the other, which could be raised or lowered by balance weights. On such stages gladiators called pegmares fought in the amphitheatres, and battles and other scenes were represented. When they were used in sacrifices, the victim was slaughtered in an upper stage and the priest stood in one under the ground, and was afterwards brought up to be shown to the people with the blood of the victim upon him. In theatres similar pegmata were employed for the purpose of changing the scenery. (3) Lastly the term was used to denote any kind of wooden furniture or joinery in a house, such as shelves, side-boards, bookcases, &c.

=Pegola=, It. Greek pitch; boiled resin for varnishes.

=Pel=, O. E. (Lat. palus). A post, six feet in height, set firmly in the ground, to be hewn at with sword or mace for exercise. The weapons were double the ordinary weight, and the swordsman had to cover himself from imaginary blows in return with a shield, called a fan, also of double weight. (See QUINTAIN.) (Consult Meyrick, vol. i. 145.) The pel was in the same way set up as a mark to throw spears at, and for archery practice.

=Pelecinon=, Gr. A sun-dial so called because it ended in a “dove-tail” (πελεκῖνος).

=Pelican= tearing open her breast to feed her young with her own blood was an early symbol of the Redemption and of the virtue of Charity. As a device it was borne by William of Orange, with the appropriate motto “Pro lege, grege et rege” (for the law, the people, and the king); a slight modification of that of Alphonso the Wise. (Fig. 531.) It is described in Heraldry as “a pelican in its piety.”

=Pelisse= (from pellis, a skin). A robe made of fur.

=Pellet=, Her. A black ROUNDLE.

=Pellicatus=, R. (pellis, a skin). Literally, covered with skin. The term was specially applied to earthenware vessels which were covered over with skin in order to keep the provisions they held fresh.

=Pellitus=, R. (pellis, skin). Clothed by means of skins; dressed in furs.

=Pelluvia=, =Pelluvium=, R. (pes, a foot, and luo, to wash). A basin in which the feet were washed, in contradistinction to the vessel called malluvium.

=Pelta=, Gr. (πέλτη). A small shield made of some light material, such as wood or wicker-work, and covered with leather. In shape it was sometimes elliptical, but more often cut away at the top, so that at that part it resembled a crescent. (Compare CLIPEUS.)

=Pelvis=, R. A general term used in ancient times to denote any kind of circular-shaped vessel. The term corresponded to the Greek πελίκα.

=Penates= (penus, food). Household gods who were believed by the ancients to be the bestowers of all the worldly blessings enjoyed by a family.

=Pencil.= A collection of rays of light converging to a point is so called.

=Pendant.= In Heraldry, drooping.

=Pendant Key-stone.= A synonym of PENDENTIVE. (See this word and FURCA.)

=Pendants=, Arch. Ornaments hanging down from the ceilings and roofs of Gothic architecture. Generally, a pair of pictures or statues appropriate to each other are called pendant each of the other.

=Pendentives=, Arch. In a spherical roof intersected with groined compartments, the term pendentives was applied to the surfaces included between such compartments. The same term is applied to the surfaces included in the angles formed by a groined vaulting at its spring.

=Penetrale=, R. An inner apartment. (Cf. ADYTUM.)

=Penicillum=, =Penicillus=, R. (penis, a tail). (Gr. ὑπογραφίς.) A painter’s pencil or brush. The brushes of the ancients were made either with hair or a kind of sea-weed or sponge.

=Peniculus.= Synonym of PENICILLUM.

=Penna=, R. A quill, a large and strong feather, in contradistinction to pluma, which denotes the small feathers spread over a bird’s body; and thence a writing-pen, which was used instead of the arundo or calamus.

=Penna=, Med. During the Middle Ages this term was used to denote the battlements of a castle wall, and thence the castle itself.

=Pennon=, Her. An armorial lance-flag, pointed or swallow-tailed at the fly, borne by knights.

=Pentachord.= Any musical instrument having five strings; a system of five sounds.

=Pentacle= (It. pentacolo). A talisman; a figure formed of two triangles, intersecting so as to form a six-pointed star. A frequent object in early ornamental art.

=Pentagon.= A figure of five sides and five angles.

=Pentagraph.= A mechanism contrived to facilitate the copying of drawings on a different scale, invented by Christopher Scheiner, a Suabian Jesuit, in the 16th century.

=Pentahedron.= A solid figure having five equal sides.

=Pentalpha.= The pentacle was so called.

“A star of five points, composed of five A’s interlaced, was formerly made by physicians the symbol of health, under the name of Pentalpha.” (Menestrier.)

=Pentaptych.= An altar painting of five or more leaves. (See DIPTYCH.)

=Pentaspastos=, Gr. (παντά-σπαστος). A kind of pulley, the block of which contains a system of five pulleys (orbiculi). This engine was employed to lift great weights.

=Pentastyle=, Arch. A portico of five columns.

=Pentathlon=, Gr. Greek games similar to the QUINQUERTIUM (q.v.) of the Romans, frequently represented on ancient vases.

=Pentelic Marble= from a mountain of that name near Athens, of which the Parthenon and other temples are built, has a beautiful warm yellowish tone, comparable to ivory. All the Athenian statues are of this marble.

=Penteloris.= (See PARAGAUDA.)

=Pent-roof=, Arch. A roof sloping only from one side; hence a pent-house for a house or shed covered by such a roof.

=Penula.= (See PÆNULA.)

=Penumbra= (Lat. pene, almost, and umbra, shade). The part of a picture where the light and shade blend together.

=Peperino=, It. (pepe, pepper). A pepper-coloured building stone much used in the construction of ancient Rome, formerly called Lapis Albanus.

=Peplum= and =Peplus=, Gr. (πέπλον and πέπλος). The robe peculiarly proper to Minerva. (See PANATHENÆA.) A large full robe or shawl worn by women, corresponding to the himation or pallium of the men. On occasions of funerals or weddings this shawl was thrown over the head as a veil. The choicest productions of the loom in antiquity were pepli; and the most splendid dyes, and curious workmanship, and skilful designs were lavished upon their manufacture. They were a common form of offering to the treasures of the temples. A fine statue in the British Museum represents the Muse Thalia wearing the peplos and chiton, and holding the pastoral pedum in her hand. (Fig. 533.)

=Per=, Her. In blazoning the divisions of a shield the term “per,” signifying “by” or “by means of,” is employed sometimes alone, and sometimes (having the same signification) with the word “party” or “parted.” The following are the primary divisions of a shield:—Fig. a, Per Pale, or Parted per Pale, or Party per Pale; Fig. b, Per Fesse or Parted per Fesse; Fig. c, Per Cross or Quarterly (Per Pale and Per Fesse together); Fig. d, Per Bend; Fig. e, Per Bend Sinister; Fig. f, Per Saltire (Per Bend and Per Bend Sinister); Fig. g, Per Chevron; Fig. h, Per Tierce or Tiercée (divided into three equal divisions by two vertical lines). (Boutell.)

=Pera=, R. (πήρα). A wallet or haversack of leather or hide, which was carried, slung over the shoulder, by travellers, peasants, and beggars. The Cynic philosophers, anticipating the fraternity of the GUEUX, adopted the wallet as a distinctive part of their costume.

=Pergula=, R. (pergere, to continue on). Generally, any construction added to another beyond the original plan, generally in the way of a lean-to; e. g. a balcony built over the colonnades of a forum, or a gallery placed on a house-top; a room in which paintings were exhibited; a lecture-room, &c.

=Periactos=, R. (περί-ακτος, i. e. that turns round). A theatrical machine used by the ancients; it was of very simple construction, being formed of three frames arranged so as to form a triangular prism, on each face of which a different scene was painted. At each side of the stage there was a periactos which turned on pivots as required, so as to admit of a rapid change of scene.

=Periapts=, O. E. Charms worn about the neck. (Shakspeare.)

=Peribolê=, Gr. and R. (περιβολὴ, an enclosing). The sacred enclosure of a temple, which was in some instances of sufficient size to contain not only altars and statues of the god, but shrines and a sacred wood. In Christian architecture the word was used for the wall of enclosure of the choir, &c.

=Peridot=, Fr. A yellow gem supposed to be the topaz of the ancients.

=Peridromê=, Gr. and R. (περι-δρομὴ, a running round). A gallery or covered promenade which ran round a temple or other building.

=Perigee.= Near the earth; figuratively “at its lowest.”

=Perihelion.= Near the sun; figuratively “at its highest.”

=Perimeter.= The outline of a rectilinear figure.

=Peripatetics.= Disciples of Aristotle, who walked about during his lectures in the Lyceum at Athens.

=Peripetasma= (περι-πέτασμα). A general term including anything that is flat and hung up or spread out, such as a covering, tapestry, hangings, curtains, &c.

=Periphery=, Gr. and R. (περι-φέρεια). (1) The circumference of a curvilinear figure. (2) Ornaments in relief executed on the sides of vases, running round them. (See CRUSTÆ.)

=Periptery=, Arch, (περί-πτερος, lit. with wings around). A building surrounded by columns at equal distances one from the other; the distance between the wall of enclosure and the colonnade being equal to that between the columns. Peripteral temples are distinguished as monopteral, or those with a single row of columns; dipteral, those with two rows; pseudo-dipteral, or buildings with one row of columns standing apart and one embedded; lastly, pseudo-peripteral (Fig. 535), or buildings whose columns are embedded in the wall.

=Periscelis=, Gr. (περι-σκελίς). (1) An anklet worn by Oriental and Greek women, and less frequently by Roman ladies also. (2) The word is sometimes used for feminalia (q.v.).

=Peristerium=, Chr. A kind of canopy surrounding the sacred vessels containing the host. The eucharistic doves are called peristera.

=Peristroma=, R. (περί-στρωμα). In general, anything used as a covering, in especial that which is spread over a bed, and thence curtains, carpets, or hangings.

=Peristyle=, Arch. (περί-στυλον). A building the interior of which is surrounded with columns, the opposite of PERIPTEROS; a building may, however, be peripteral and yet possess a peristyle. The term is also a Greek name for the ATRIUM.

=Perivalium=, Med. A Latin word used in the Middle Ages to denote the choir of a church, or the stalls of the choir.

=Permanent White.= (See CONSTANT WHITE.)

=Pero=, R. A tall boot reaching to the calf, made of untanned leather with the fur on, worn by shepherds and agricultural labourers, and still common in Italian villages.

=Perogue.= (See PIROGUE.)

=Perpend-stone=, Arch. A large stone reaching through the wall, visible on both sides.

=Perpendicular Style of Architecture.= The third and last of the pointed or Gothic styles of architecture used in England. It was developed from the Decorated during the latter part of the 14th century, and continued in use till the middle of the 16th, when it gave way to the style called ELIZABETHAN. It is peculiar to England. Its chief characteristics are a general prevalence of perpendicular lines, panelling of flat surfaces, and the multiplicity of small shafts with which the piers, &c., are overlaid.

=Perron=, Arch. A staircase, or flight of steps, outside a building.

=Perse=, Fr. Chintz.

=Persian.= A thin inferior silk used for lining garments.

=Persian Blinds= (Fr. Persiennes). Venetian blinds.

=Persian Pottery.= The illustrations (from Jacquemart’s History of the Ceramic Art) are (Fig. 536) a bowl of soft porcelain, blue externally and decorated with abundant vegetation and fantastic birds with peacocks’ tails; (Fig. 537) a flask, also of soft porcelain, characterized by a blackish-blue scroll encircling the principal subject; and (Fig. 538) a faience tile which M. Jacquemart considers pure Mohammedan art, is very interesting for the subject that it represents—the caaba or sacred mosque of Mecca, the object of the Mohammedan pilgrimage. (Consult Souvenir d’un voyage en Perse, Comte de Rochchouart.)

=Persian Red.= (See INDIAN RED.)

=Persiana=, It. (1) A silk with a pattern of large flowers. (2) Venetian blinds; Persiennes.

=Persians=, Gr. and R. (περσικά). Columns the shafts of which consist of figures of Persian slaves; they are also known as Persian columns.

=Persona=, Gr. and R. A mask worn by actors upon the stage; there were personæ tragicæ, comicæ (Fig. 539), mutæ, &c., that is, masks for tragic, comic, or mute persons, &c. The custom is attributed to that of smearing the face with certain juices and colours, and appearing in disguise at the festivals of Dionysus; and is probably as old as the drama itself.

=Perspective.= The art of representing on a flat surface the appearance of objects from one given point of view. Linear perspective is the science by which the principles of geometry are applied in this art. (See AERIAL and ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.)

=Pertica=, R. A rod, pole, or stick; a foot, or measure of length divided into twelve inches (unciæ) and sixteen fingers (digiti).

=Perticæ=, Chr. In mediæval architecture, beams behind the altar in a church, from which relics were suspended on days of festival.

=Peruque.= (See WIGS.)

=Peruvian Architecture.= The Peruvian temples and palaces were generally low and spacious, constructed of great blocks of stone often 38 feet by 18 and 6 feet in thickness. The interiors were richly ornamented, the sides of the apartments being thickly studded with gold and silver. Niches in the walls were filled with images of plants and animals, also of the precious metals. The Western wall of the temple was placed to receive the first rays of the rising sun upon a statue of the god engraved on a plate of gold and thickly studded with emeralds and precious stones.

=Pes=, R. A foot; the standard measure of length, composed of 12 unciæ or inches, or 16 digiti, finger-breadths. It equalled 11·6496 inches English.

=Pesante=, It. A weight = half a drachm.

=Pesaro Ware.= The particular characteristic of the mother-of-pearl majolica of Pesaro is a pale, limpid yellow, associated with a pure blue; under the effect of luminous rays these colours become animated and shoot out in pencils of red, golden yellow, green, and blue of remarkable intensity. (Jacquemart.) (Fig. 540.)

=Peseta=, Sp. A silver coin, about the fourth of a Mexican dollar; about 10½_d._

=Pesillo=, It. Small scales used for weighing gold and silver, and gems.

=Pessi= (Gr. πεσσοί). Draughts. (See LATRUNCULI.)

=Pessulus=, R. A bolt for a door.

=Petasus=, Gr. and R. (πέτασος, i. e. that which spreads out). (1) A soft felt hat with broad brim. (2) The winged cap of Mercury. Most of the horsemen in the Panathenaic procession (see ELGIN MARBLES) wear the petasus. In Greek art it is a conventional sign of a traveller. (Compare PILEUS.)

=Petaurum=, R. (πέταυρον, lit. a perch for fowls). A machine employed in the Roman games; probably a fixed “see-saw.”

=Peter-boat=, O. E. A river fisherman’s wherry.

=Petit Canon=, Fr. A kind of printing-type; two-line in English.

=Petit Gris=, Fr. Minever fur. (See VAIR.)

=Petit Texte=, Fr. A kind of printing-type; brevier.

=Petoritum=, R. An open four-wheeled carriage, a kind of cart used for conveying slaves. Its Gallic origin is indicated by the etymology of the word, viz. petoer, four, and rit, a wheel.

=Petronel= (Fr. poictrinal). A piece of artillery or fire-arm, used in the 16th century, which was afterwards converted into a clumsy gun called a blunderbuss. It was the medium between the arquebus and the pistol.

=Petunse=, Chinese. A fine clay used for porcelain; a kind of kaolin.

=Peulvan=, Celt. (See MENHIR.)

=Pewter.= An alloy of 100 parts of tin to 17 of antimony; or 89 tin, 7 antimony, and 2 copper. Tin and zinc, and lead and tin, are sometimes used to make pewter. The ancient guild of the Pewterers’ Company have their hall in Lime Street.

=Phæcasia=, Gr. and R. (φαικάσιον). White shoes worn by different classes among the Greeks and Romans, but more especially by the priests and gymnasiarchs.

=Phalæ= or =Falæ=, R. Wooden towers which were erected temporarily in a circus for the display of sham fights and captures of cities. (Compare PEGMA.)

=Phalangæ=, =Palangæ=, R. (φάλαγξ). A pole employed for carrying purposes. Two men took the ends of this pole upon the shoulders, the burden being suspended from it in the middle. The same term was also applied to the rollers placed beneath objects whose weight rendered them difficult to move. The persons who made use of phalangæ for carrying anything were called phalangarii.

=Phalanx=, Gr. A close compact mass of infantry soldiers drawn up in files, usually eight deep. The Theban phalanx was twenty-five in depth.

=Phalarica.= (See FALARICA.)

=Phaleræ=, R. (φάλαρα). Medals of gold, silver, or bronze (Fig. 541), worn upon the breast as a military decoration, and frequently displayed on the harness of the horses.

=Phannel=, O. E. (See FANON.)

=Phantasmagoria.= Literally, a procession of images. A name applied especially to dissolving views shown by the alternate use of each of two magic lanterns.

=Pharetra=, Gr. and R. (φαρέτρα). A quiver. This was made of hide or leather, often richly ornamented with gold, painting, or braiding. It had a lid, and hung, from a belt over the right shoulder, on the left hip. (See CORYTUS, QUIVERS.)

=Pharos=, =Pharus=, Gr. and R. (φάρος). A lighthouse; the name was derived from that which Ptolemy Philadelphus erected in the island of Pharos, at the entrance to the harbour of Alexandria, in Egypt.

=Phaselus=, Egyp. (φάσηλος). A light Egyptian boat, long and narrow in shape, and made of very slight materials, such as osier, papyrus, and terra-cotta; it derived its name from the resemblance it bore to the pod of a bean (φάσηλος).

=Phaskon=, Gr. A vessel of a flattened ovoid form, with a long spout, and a handle at the top, like the askos.

=Phenakistoscope= (φενακιστικὸς, deceptive, and σκοπέω, to view), or =Spectroscope=. A toy for illustrating the duration of impressions on the retina of the eye. (See SPECTRA.)

=Phenicine.= An indigo purple pigment.

=Pheon=, Her. A pointed spear-head borne with the point in base. (Boutell.) “The peon, or pheon, was a barbed javelin; the heads of these are still heraldic bearings, and from their figure, we find the barbs escalloped, or invecked as the heralds term it, aside.” (Meyrick.)

=Pheretrum.= (See FERETRUM.)

=Phiala=, =Phialê=, Gr. (φιάλη). The Greek term synonymous with the Latin PATERA. But Jacquemart says, “Quant à la phiale, sorte de petite bouteille qui nous a donné le mot fiole; elle figure assez souvent dans les mains des divinités.”

=Phigalian Marbles.= Friezes in the Hellenic room of the British Museum, from a temple to Apollo Epicurius, near the ancient Phigalia in Arcadia. There are twenty-three slabs in high relief, eleven representing the battle between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, and the rest the contest of the Greeks and Amazons. They are attributed to the same period as the Parthenon, but are considered inferior in style and workmanship. (Fig. 544.)

=Philactery.= (See PHYLACTERY.)

=Philomel.= Poetical for the nightingale.

=Philyra= and =Philura=, Gr. (φιλύρα). Strips of papyrus used for making a sheet of writing-paper; ten or twelve strips of papyrus were first glued together lengthwise, and at the back of these a sufficient number of strips were fastened crosswise to double the thickness of the surface so obtained.

=Phimus=, Gr. (φιμός). A Greek term synonymous with FRITILLUS (q.v.).

=Phiolæ Rubricatæ.= (See SANGUINOLENTA.)

=Phœnix=, Chr. In Christian archæology the phœnix, which is consumed by concentrating the sun’s rays in its body, and immediately rises again from its ashes, represents the mystery of the resurrection after death. In this sense it was adopted frequently as a device by ecclesiastics. (See BENNOU.) In blazon it is always represented as issuant from flames. (Fig. 545.)

=Phorminx=, Gr. (φόρμιγξ). Homer’s epithet for the ancient lyre. It was a large lyre, and resembled the cithara of later times, or the modern guitar. It was used at an early period singly, or for accompanying recitations.

=Photogalvanography.= An art invented by Mr. Paul Pretsch, of Vienna, for printing from photographs by the medium of gutta percha. For a description of the process, see the Manual of Photography, 5th edition, pp. 269, 270.

=Photoglyphic Engraving.= An invention of Mr. Fox Talbot (1858) for engraving on metal plates by the action of light. (See Photographic Journal, vol. v. p. 58.)

=Photography.= A great many processes of producing pictures by the action of the sun’s rays upon a sensitive surface are included under this general term, such as the Daguerreotype, the Talbotype, &c. [Consult in the first instance R. Hunt’s Manual of Photography, from which reference can be taken to other authorities.]

=Photolithography.= The art of preparing lithographic stones for printing from, by the medium of photography.

=Photometallography.= A process of etching on metal plates, by the action of light, invented by Mr. C. J. Burnett (1858). (See Photographic Journal, vol. v. p. 97.)

=Photometer.= An instrument for measuring the intensity of light.

=Phototype.= A plate, like an engraved plate, produced from a photograph, for printing from.

=Photozincography.= The art of preparing zinc plates for printing from, by the medium of photography.

=Phrase.= In Music, a passage of melody or harmony containing a musical idea, more or less complete in respect of cadence.

=Phrygian.= Applied to music of a lively kind. (Cf. LYDIAN.)

=Phrygian Work=, O. E. Embroidery. (See ORFRAYS.)

=Phrygianum= (opus). A name given to all fine embroidery by the Romans, at a period when the work of the Phrygian women was most perfect.

=Phrygio=, R. A Phrygian, or embroiderer, because the inhabitants of Phrygia had the reputation of being excellent embroiderers.

=Phylactery=, Gen. (φυλακτήριον, a preservative). (1) A general term which included any kind of amulet worn about the person as a protection against dangers of all kinds. (2) Strips of parchment or vellum, upon which the Jews transcribed passages from the sacred books, and which they either wore upon the arm or the forehead, in a small leather box. (3) In the Middle Ages the term was applied to the scrolls held in the hands of angels or other persons represented in painting or sculpture. These scrolls bore inscriptions. (See LABELS.)

=Phylaka=, Gr. (φυλακή). A prison; a Greek term corresponding to the Latin words CARCER and ERGASTULUM (q.v.).

=Phytography.= A process of nature-printing from plants, by passing them between soft metal plates through a rolling press.

=Piazza=, It. A square or open place surrounded by buildings, generally supported by pillars, and forming a vaulted promenade; hence the term is sometimes applied to the archways of a colonnade.

=Pibroch=, Scotch. Bagpipe music.

=Pica= (pic). Printing-type of the size formerly used in printing the pic, or service-book.

=Piccadilly=, Old Fr. A high, broad, peaked collar or ruff, temp. James I. The tailor who made these ruffs is said to have built the street called by this name.

=Piccagium=, Med. Lat. (English use). Money paid in fairs for breaking ground.

=Piccolo=, It. A small flute. Small pianofortes are so called also.

=Pictura=, R. (pingo, to paint). The art of painting; pictura in tabula, a painting on wood; pictura in linteo or in sipario, a painting on canvas; pictura inusta, a painting in encaustic or wax; pictura udo tectorio, a fresco-painting. Embroidery was called pictura textilis.

=Picturatus=, R. Painted; tabella picturata, a painted panel; linteum picturatum, embroidered linen.

=Pièce de Maitrise=, Fr. A test-work produced by an apprentice to prove his competence to become a master of his art or craft.

=Piedouche=, Fr. A bracket-pedestal.

=Pieds de Hérisson=, Fr. Fabulous animals so called represented on Persian pottery, mentioned by Jacquemart (p. 152); having the legs of a stag, the tail of a tiger, and the head of a woman. The legend is that Mohamet and Ali will mount such beasts on the Day of Judgment.

=Piers=, in Architecture, are the perpendicular supports from which arches spring.

=Pietà=, It. A picture or statue of the Body of Christ, attended by the Virgin Mary, or by holy women and angels.

=Pietra Dura.= Mosaic panelling of hard pebbles of variegated colours, representing fruit, birds, &c. in relief, and used as a decoration for coffers and cabinets in the 15th century.

=Pietré Commesse=, It. Costly inlaid-work representing flowers, fruit, &c., in precious stones—such as agates, jaspers, lapis lazuli, &c.—introduced in Florence in the 17th century, and still maintained in the royal manufactory of that city. The finest examples are in the chapel of the Medici attached to the cathedral church of St. Lorenzo.

=Pig.= A black pig was represented at St. Anthony’s feet, representing his victory over sensuality and gluttony. The monks of the order of St. Anthony used to keep herds of consecrated pigs.

=Pigments.= The colours used in painting. A large number are described in their order. Standard works on ancient and modern pigments are Eastlake’s Materials for a History of Painting; Merrifield’s Ancient Art of Painting; Hundertpfund’s Art of Painting restored to its Simplest and Surest Principles. An exhaustive catalogue of other works on the subject has been issued by the Librarian of the South Kensington Museum.

=Pike.= A celebrated infantry weapon now replaced by the bayonet, consisting of a strong spear or lance with a spike at the butt for fixing in the ground. The shape of the head has varied at different periods.

=Pila=, R. This word has different meanings, according as the first syllable is long or short. In the first case it denotes (1) a mortar; (2) a pillar or conical pier for supporting the superstructure of a bridge; (3) a breakwater. When the first syllable is short, the word denotes (1) a playing-ball. The game of ball, from the earliest times to the fall of the Roman Empire, was one of the favourite exercises of the Greeks and Romans. In the baths and the gymnasiums a room (sphæristerium) was set apart for the purpose. Pila was a small ball; follis, a large one filled with air: other balls were the paganica and the harpastum. (2) Pila vitrea, a glass globe. (3) A dummy made to roughly imitate the human form.

=Pilaster=, It. A square pillar on a wall, partly embedded in it, one-fourth or one-fifth of its thickness projecting.

=Pile.= (1) Her. One of the ordinaries, in form like a wedge. (2) An arrow used in hunting, with a round knob below the head, to prevent it penetrating too far. (3) The nap or surface on velvet.

=Pileatus=, R. One who wears the pileus, or skull-cap of felt; it was specially worn by the seafaring classes, and also by the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux).

=Pilentum=, R. A state carriage in which the Roman ladies rode when attending any ceremony, whereas for purposes of recreation or for visiting they made use of the carpentum or the harmamaxa.

=Pileolus=, R. Diminutive of PILEUS; it was a small felt skull-cap which hardly covered the top of the head.

=Pileus=, =Pileum=, R. (πῖλος, felt). A kind of close-fitting felt cap worn more particularly by the seafaring classes. The pileus varied in form amongst the different nations by whom it was adopted; it was worn exclusively by men. The most familiar form of the pileus, in art, is the Phrygian bonnet, or cap of liberty. (Cf. PETASUS.)

=Pillar Dollars= are Spanish silver coins, stamped on the obverse with the royal arms of Spain supported by two columns.

=Pillion=, O. E. A soft pad-saddle with a footrest, for a woman or child to ride on behind a man.

=Pillow= or =Head-stool=, Egyp. A kind of rest for the head, made sometimes of stone (onyx, alabaster, or sandstone), but more generally of wood, and used by the Egyptians to support and raise the head during sleep. In form it was a half-cylinder, and the base was more or less raised above the ground. This kind of pillow is still in use at the present day among various peoples, particularly the Nubians, the Japanese, and the Ashantees of Western Africa.

=Pillow-beres=, O. E. Pillow-cases. They were at all times an object of rich ornamentation.

=Pillow Lace.= Lace worked by hand, by throwing bobbins upon a cushion or pillow. (See LACE.)

=Pilum=, R. A javelin; the missile weapon of the Roman infantry, but used likewise as a pike for charging the enemy. It was a thick strong weapon, 6 feet 3 inches in length, half of wood and half of iron, with a barbed head of 9 inches of solid iron. The term also denotes a heavy pestle for bruising things in a mortar.

=Pilus=, Med. Lat. (Fr. pieu). A pointed club or javelin.

=Pina=, Sp. An amalgam of silver.

=Pinacotheca=, Gr. and R. (πινακο-θήκη). A picture-gallery, one of the ordinary adjuncts to Greek or Roman houses of wealthy private persons.

=Pinaculum=, Gr. and R. (a ridge or crest). A roof terminating in a ridge, the ordinary covering for a temple, whereas private houses had a flat roof.

=Pinchbeck.= An alloy of 85 per cent. copper or brass, and 15 per cent. zinc; named after its inventor. It is sometimes called tomback.

=Pindaric.= Of verses, irregular in metre; like the verses of the lyric poet Pindar.

=Pingle Pan=, Scotch. A small tin ladle used for mixing children’s food.

=Pink Madder.= (See MADDER.)

=Pinking.= Stamping out borders and edges upon textile fabrics with a cutting instrument.

=Pinks= (Fr. stil de grain). These are water-colour pigments of a yellow or greenish-yellow colour produced from the precipitation of vegetable juices, such as saffron, aloes, buckthorn-berries, broom-flowers, &c., upon chalk or whiting. They are Italian pink, sometimes called yellow lake; brown pink, rose pink, and Dutch pink.

=Pinna=, R. (lit. a wing). (1) The top of an embattled wall, the battlements. (2) The blade of a rudder.

=Pinnacle=, Arch. A small spire, generally with four sides and ornamented; it is usually placed on the tops of buttresses, both external and internal.

=Pins.= Metal pins were introduced into this country from France in 1543, previous to which ladies were accustomed to fasten their dresses with skewers of box-wood, ivory, or bone.

=Pipe.= A musical wind instrument, represented in the 14th century, in Strutt’s Sports and Pastimes, as used with the TABOR to accompany mountebanks, &c. (See also AULOS, PITO, &c.)

=Pipe-clay.= An oily clay found in large quantities in Devonshire; used for moulding earthenware, but chiefly for tobacco-pipes.

=Piriform=, Arch. Pear-shaped. The term is applied to roofs domed in the form of a pear; the Baptistery of Parma may be cited as an example.

=Pirogue.= An Indian canoe, hollowed out of a solid tree.

=Piscina=, R. (piscis, a fish). (1) A fishpond, an indispensable appendage to the villa of a wealthy Roman. (2) A large uncovered tank in the open air used as a swimming-bath, and distinct from the baptisterium, which was under cover. (3) Piscina limaria was the reservoir of an aqueduct. In mediæval archæology the name was given (1) to credence-tables; (2) to baptisteries. (See BAPTISTERIUM, NATATORIUM.)

=Pisé-work.= A method of constructing very durable walls of blocks of kneaded earth. It was probably suggested by the building processes of the ants, and Pliny calls such walls formaciæ.

=Pistillum=, =Pistillus=, R. A pestle for a mortar.

=Pistol.= Invented at Pistoia in Tuscany. (See Pallas Armata, Sir James Turner, 1670; Meyrick, iii. 76.)

=Pistole.= A Spanish gold coin, worth about 16_s_.; the fourth of a doubloon.

=Pistolese=, It. A long dagger or stabbing-knife of Pistoia.

=Pistrina=, =Pistrinum=, R. (pistor, a miller). Originally this term denoted a mill for grinding grain; later on it was used exclusively to denote a house of correction for slaves who had to turn the mill. The work was of a most laborious kind.

=Pistris=, =Pistrix=, R. (πίστρις). (1) A marine monster, representations of which are to be seen on the walls of several houses at Pompeii (in the legend of Theseus and Andromeda). It is always represented with the head of a dragon, and the fins and tail of a fish; and was adopted in early Christian art for the fish that swallowed Jonah. (2) A military engine.

=Pitch-blende.= An ore used in porcelain painting. It produces a fine orange colour; also a black.

=Pitch-pipe.= A sort of whistle for ascertaining the pitch of a musical instrument, or for setting the key-note.

=Pithos=, R. (πίθος). A large earthenware jar with a narrow neck, used in ancient and modern times for storing wine and oil. It appears upon a bas-relief in the Villa Albani as the tub of Diogenes.

=Pito=, Sp. A Mexican name for the pipe of the Aztecs, which resembled a flageolet. It was made of red clay, and had four finger-holes. The young man selected as a victim at the sacrifice to Tezcatlepoca was carefully instructed before his death in the art of playing this instrument, and as he ascended the temple or TEOCALLI to the sacrifice, he broke a flute upon each of the steps of the temple.

=Piu=, It. Rather; used in Music, as piu forté, rather loud.

=Pix= or =Pyx=, Chr. (πυξίς). (1) A box to keep the unconsecrated altar breads in. It was generally circular, with a pointed cover, and richly enamelled. (2) The vessel in which the holy eucharist was suspended over the altar. (3) The box kept at the British Mint to contain the coins selected to be tried in assay, to ascertain whether the coinage is of the standard purity. (See CIBORIUM [3], MONSTRANCE, &c.)

=Pizzicato= (It.). An expression in music; playing on the violin like a harp.

=Placage=, Fr. Veneering or inlaying.

=Plack=, Scotch. A small copper coin formerly current in Scotland; equal to the third of an English penny.

=Placket=, O. E. A petticoat. (Shakspeare.)

=Plafond=, =Plafonner=, Fr. Arch. (plat-fond). The French term for a ceiling, often the subject of elaborate architectural, carved, or painted decoration. The peculiar foreshortened perspective characteristic of figure-pictures on a ceiling is hence described as “plafonné;” and it is generally said of a painter distinguished for bold foreshortenings, “Il excelle à plafonner.” Plafonds of different periods are found of wood, lath and plaster, or stone.

=Plaga=, R. A hunting-net, the diminutive of which is plagula (small net); the latter term also denotes the curtains hung round a couch or litter, a width of cloth, a strip of paper, &c.

=Plagula.= (See PLAGA.)

=Planchet.= A name for the smooth coin prepared for stamping before it has passed under the die.

=Planeta.= A robe worn by priests, resembling the DALMATIC (see Fig. 236) worn by deacons. (See CHASUBLE.)

=Planetary Machine.= (See ORRERY.)

=Planisphere.= A projection of the sphere and its various circles on a plane surface.

=Planta Genista=, Her. The broom-plant badge of the Plantagenets.

=Plaque=, Fr. A flat plate of metal or painted china. Limoges enamels of the 15th century are described as plaques.

=Plasm.= A mould or matrix.

=Plasma.= A green transparent chalcedony found in India and China.

=Plaster of Paris.= The cement or plaster obtained from gypsum, originally prepared near Paris. It is usually sold in the form of white powder, and is largely used in the arts. Verrocchio (1435–1488) is said to have been the first sculptor to cast moulds in plaster of Paris. (See GYPSUM.)

=Plastic Art.= Sculpture; opposed to Graphic Art, or painting, &c.

=Plastron=, Fr. A fencing-pad to cover the body. Plastron-de-fer was an iron breastplate worn under the hauberk, especially when the latter was of ringed mail.

=Plat-band.= (See TÆNIA.)

=Plata=, Sp. Silver (hence our plate).

=Plate=, Her. A silver roundle.

=Plate armour=, consisting entirely of metal plates, became general during the 15th century.

=Plate-glass.= A superior kind of thick glass, used chiefly for mirrors and for large windows.

=Plate-jack=, O. E. Coat armour.

=Plate-marks.= (See HALL-MARKS.)

=Plate-paper= is a thick soft paper expressly prepared for printing engravings upon.

=Platea=, Gr. and R. (πλατεῖα, i. e. broad). A wide fine street in a city, in contradistinction to a small street called angiportus, which means literally a narrow street.

=Platen.= Of a printing-press, the flat part by which the impression is made.

=Plateresca=, Sp. A name given to goldsmiths’ work of the 14th and 15th centuries, which reflected the complicated and delicate forms of ornament applied in the pointed architecture of the period.

=Plates= are properly illustrations taken from copper or steel engravings; cuts are impressions from wood-blocks.

=Platina.= Twisted silver wire.

=Platina Yellow.= Two pigments, one of a pale yellow colour, the other resembling cadmium yellow, are sold under this name.

=Plating= is the art of covering metals with a thin surface of silver or gold for ornament.

=Platinum= (Sp. plata, silver). A white metal exceedingly ductile, malleable, and difficult of fusion. It is found in the Ural Mountains and in South America, and is much used in goldsmiths’ work in Russia.

=Plaustrum=, R. (plaudo, to rumble). A two-wheeled cart drawn by two oxen, and used for conveying agricultural produce; plaustrum majus was a much larger cart mounted on four wheels. It had a long pole projecting behind, on which blocks of stone or other cargo could be balanced on planks attached. The wheels (tympana) were of solid wood nearly a foot in thickness, and their creaking was heard to a great distance (hence the name).

=Plectrum= or =Plektron=, Gr. and R. (from πλήσσειν, to strike). A short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends, used to strike the chords of the lyre, the barbiton, the cithara, and some other stringed instruments.

=Plemochoê=, Gr. and R. (πλημο-χοὴ, i. e. that pours a flood). A vessel in the shape of a top; it resembled the cotylê.

=Plenitude=, Her. Said of the moon when in full.

=Plenshing-nail.= A large nail for fastening the planks of floors to the joists.

=Plethron=, Gr. The basis of land measurement, being 100 feet square, or 10,000 square feet. As a lineal measure, 100 feet, or about 101 of English measurement.

=Plinth=, Arch. (πλίνθος). Lit. a tile or brick, and thence the lower projecting base of a column, pedestal, or wall, which resembles a strong square tile placed beneath the last torus at the base of a column. (See ABACUS.)

=Plinthium=, R. (πλινθίον). A sun-dial, so called because its divisions were marked on a flat surface (πλίνθος).

=Plocage=, Fr. Carding-wool.

=Plombage.= Lead work.

=Plombagine.= Plumbago.

=Plostellum.= Diminutive of PLAUSTRUM.

=Ploughs= are mentioned in Deuteronomy (1451 B.C.), and represented on Egyptian sculptures of still earlier date. The Roman plough of the date of our era is described by Virgil.

=Plough Monday= was the name given by our ancestors to the first Monday after the Epiphany, the return to labour after the Christmas holiday.

=Plumæ=, R. (lit. feathers). The scales of armour, arranged to imitate feathers. (See PENNA.)

=Plumarium Opus.= (See OPUS P.)

=Plumbago.= A carburet of iron commonly known as black-lead, also called GRAPHITE, used for making crucibles and black-lead pencils.

=Plumbeous Wares.= Lead-glazed, by the addition of an oxide of lead in the preparation of the glaze. (See POTTERY.)

=Plumbum=, R. (lit. lead). A general term denoting anything that is made of lead, such as a lead pipe, a slinger’s bullet, &c.

=Pluteus=, R. A general term including anything made of boards adapted to afford a support, cover, passage, &c.; and thus sometimes used as a synonym for musculus or protective shed. Fig. 547, a pluteus upon three wheels, was used for protecting soldiers conducting an approach at the foot of a rampart. These plutei were covered with the skins of animals, which were wetted to protect the machines from fire; and helped to deaden the shock of missiles.

=Plynteria=, Gr. (πλυντήρια, washing). Festivals held at Athens in honour of Athena Aglauros, in which the statue of the goddess was stripped of its garments and ornaments and washed. It was carefully concealed in the mean time, and the city being thus in a manner deprived of its protecting divinity, the day was considered an ill-omened one.

=Pnigeus=, R. (πνιγεὺς, lit. a choker). A kind of funnel employed to stop or repress the air in a hydraulic organ.

=Pnyx=, Gr. The site in Athens where the ECCLESIÆ were held. It was a semicircular rising ground, with an area of 12,000 square yards, levelled with a pavement of large stones, and surrounded by a wall, behind which was the BEMA or platform from which speakers addressed the people.

=Pocillum= or =Poculum=, R. Any cup or glass for drinking, distinct from the CRATER for mixing, and the CYATHUS for ladling the wine. (Cf. POKAL.)

=Poddisoy=, =Padusoy=, O. E. (Fr. pou de soie). A rich plain silk.

=Podera=, Gr. (ποδήρης, i. e. reaching to the feet). A rich linen dress worn by Greek women, the edges of which were indented.

=Podium=, Arch. (πόδιον, lit. a small foot). A low wall or basement, generally with a plinth and cornice, running round a room or in front of a building, forming a sort of shelf or seat. Fig. 548 shows the podium of a sepulchral chamber. In an amphitheatre, podium was the name for a raised basement which ran like a high enclosure round the whole circumference of the arena. Lastly, the term is sometimes used as a synonym for a socle, and a console or bracket.

=Poële=, Fr. (lit. a frying-pan). A square shield with a raised edge and a grating on it, which resembled the German baking-dish. In a tournament, the joust “à la poële” was the most dangerous of all, as the champions fought bare-headed and without armour. Their horses were blindfolded, and a coffin was brought into the course before the combat commenced. (Meyrick.)

=Point Lace= à bride picotée ground. This lace is made with the needle (see NEEDLE POINT), some parts of the pattern only slightly raised in relief being united by stitches called bride picotée. (Fig. 549.)

=Point of Sight.= The principal vanishing point, in perspective, to which the horizontal lines converge.

=Pointed= or =Christian Architecture= is generally called GOTHIC; and is a general term, descriptive of all the styles that have prevailed subsequent to the introduction of the pointed arch, commencing with the 11th century.

=Pointel.= The mediæval stylus or graphium (q.v.).

=Points.= In the 15th and 16th centuries, before the introduction of buttons, the different parts of dress were fastened with ribands, having ornamental points or metal tags at the end. (See Fig. 559.)

=Poitrine=, Fr. A breastplate for man or horse.

=Pokal=, Germ. (Lat. poculum). A drinking-cup. (Fig. 550.)

=Poke=, O. E. A bag; modern pocket.

=Poker Pictures.= Drawings burned upon wood with hot irons; much patronized in the 18th century.

=Pol=, =Edepol=, R. A familiar oath or adjuration especially employed by the Roman women; it was an abbreviation of By Pollux!

=Polariscope.= An instrument for exhibiting the polarization of light.

=Pole-axe.= A weapon of the 15th century, combining a hatchet, a pike, and a serrated hammer. Used principally by cavalry.

=Poleyns=, Fr. (See GENOUILLIÈRES.)

=Pollubrum= and =Polubrum=, R. An old term for which there was substituted later on malluvium, aquimanale, aquiminarium, trulleum; it was a kind of basin for washing the hands, the χέρνιψ, χερόνιπτρον of the Greeks.

=Polos=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.)

=Polyandrion=, Chr. (Gr. πολυ-άνδριον). A common sepulchre in which more than four bodies were buried. (See LOCULUS.)

=Polychord.= An instrument for application to the pianoforte for coupling together the strings of two octave notes.

=Polychromy.= Colouring statuary, bas-reliefs, and architecture; to be distinguished from forming them of variously-coloured materials. This was not done by painting with an opaque colour, but a sort of staining of the surface by thin, transparent colouring matter. M. de Quincy states that the fine preservation of the surface of some antique statues, such as the Apollo Belvedere, Hercules of Glycon, and Venus de Medici, is attributable to the use of wax colouring. Stones of various colours were used to represent different parts of the figure, and in busts of the Roman emperors the dress is frequently of coloured marble, while the flesh is of white. [Consult Redford’s Ancient Sculpture.]

=Polyhedron.= A solid with many faces or planes.

=Polyptyca=, Gr. (πολύ-πτυχα). (1) Tablets, a sufficient number of which are put together to form what we now call a note-book. (2) A polyptych; a picture with several compartments. (Cf. DIPTYCH.)

=Polystyle=, Arch. Surrounded by several rows of columns, as in Moorish architecture. The porticoes of a Greek temple had never more than ten columns in front (decastyle).

=Pomander=, O. E. (from pomme d’ambre, perfume apple). A scent-box worn at the end of the hanging girdles of the 16th century. (See POUNCET-BOX.) (Fig. 551.) Consult an interesting monograph by R. H. Soden Smith, “Notes on Pomanders.”

=Pomme=, Her. A green roundle.

=Pomœrium=, R. (post and mœrium (murus) behind the walls). A line enclosing a town, marked out at intervals by stone pillars. When the limits of the town were extended, the pomœrium could not be changed without augury by the jus pomœrii, and, in any case, only by a town whose inhabitants had contributed to the extension of the limits of the empire.

=Pompa=, R. and Gr. (πομπή). A solemn procession, especially that with which the games of the circus were preceded.

=Pondus=, =Weight=, R. (pendo, to suspend). An object used for weighing, either with the balance (libra), or the steelyard (statera). The same term was also applied to a weaver’s weights; these were of stone, terra-cotta, or lead.

=Pons=, R. (Gr. γέφυρα). (1) A bridge; the causeway (agger) which traversed the Roman bridge was paved with large polygonal stones; on either side of it was a pathway (crepido). Fig. 552 shows the Roman bridge at St. Chamas, at the ends of which were erected triumphal arches (fornices). (See FORNIX.) Pons sublicius was a wooden bridge built upon piles; pons suffragiorum, the voting-bridge over which the electors passed as they came out of the septum to cast their vote (tabella) into the urn (cista). It is probable that the Greek bridges were of wood. (2) A wharf or landing-stage by the water-side.

=Poongi=, Hindoo. A curious musical instrument made of a gourd, or sort of cocoa-nut, into which two pipes are inserted. It is the instrument played by the Sampuris, or snake-charmers, to the performing cobras.

=Pope.= The illustration represents the Pope of Rome in full pontificals, viz. the tiara, consisting of three crowns of gold decorated with precious stones and surmounted by a cross, and over a rochet (surplice) of silk a mantle of gold-work plentifully ornamented with pearls. The under vestment, which is long, is of hyacinth colour. The slippers are of velvet with a cross of gold, which all who wish to speak to the Pope reverently kiss. Late mediæval artists attributed this costume to the First Person of the Trinity. It is given also to St. Clement, St. Cornelius, St. Fabian, St. Gregory, St. Peter, and St. Sylvanus.

=Popina=, R. A tavern or refreshment-place where food was sold, in contradistinction to caupona, which was a shop for selling wine.

=Popinjay=, O. E. A parrot.

=Poplin.= A textile of modern introduction, woven of threads of silk and worsted.

=Poppy=, Chr. This plant, the seed of which affords a soporific oil, symbolizes, in Christian iconography, death.

=Poppy Oil.= A bland drying oil, obtained from poppy-seed, and used in painting. (See OILS.)

=Poppy-head.= A term in decorative art for the carved ornaments with which the tops of the uprights of wood-work, such as the ends of benches, backs of chairs, bedposts, &c., were crowned.

=Popularia=, R. The second mænianum or tier of seats in an amphitheatre.

=Porcelain= (Ancient Chinese) (from the Portuguese porcellana, little pigs; a name given to cowrie-shells by the early traders, and applied to porcelain, which they thought was made of them, or because it resembled the interior of a shell). A fine species of transparent earthenware, the chief component part of which is silex. (Fairholt.) The most ancient examples of porcelain in China are circular dishes with upright sides, very thick, strong, and heavy, and which invariably have the marks of one, two, or three on the bottom thus: I. II. III. The colours of these rare specimens vary. The kinds most highly prized have a brownish-yellow ground, over which is thrown a light shot sky-blue, with here and there a dash of blood-red. The Chinese say there are but a few of these specimens in the country, and that they are more than a thousand years old. (Fortune.) The first imitations of Chinese porcelain in Europe date from the 16th century, under the Medici family, and include specimens supposed to have been designed by the immediate pupils of Raffaelle. (See RAFFAELLE-WARE.) Among the next earliest produced is that of Fulham, by Dr. Dwight, in 1671, and of St. Cloud in France about 1695.

=Porch=, Arch. A structure placed in front of the door of a church or other building, and very variable in form. In the ancient basilicas the vestibule is more commonly called NARTHEX (q.v.). Fig. 554 shows a wooden porch also called a pent-house porch, and Fig. 555 a plan of what is called a cupola porch, from the fact that, its ground being circular, it is surmounted by a dome.

=Porcupine= (Fr. porc epic). Hereditary device of the Valois family. The “Order of the Porcupine” was instituted in 1397 by Louis, Duke of Orleans, and abolished by Louis XII., who retained the badge (Fig. 556), and had his cannon marked with a porcupine. In numismatics his golden “écus au porc epic” are rare and highly valued.

=Porcupine-wood.= The ornamental wood of a palm, the markings of which in the horizontal section resemble porcupine quills.

=Porphyry.= A hard stone much used in Egyptian sculpture, and for sarcophagi. It was of a fine red colour, passing into purple and green, and susceptible of a fine polish. (See also Rosso Antico.)

=Porporino=, It. A yellow powder substituted for gold by mediæval artists. It was compounded of quicksilver, sulphur, and tin.

=Porta=, R. This term denotes the gate of a city, a large gate in any enclosure, in contradistinction to JANUA and OSTIUM (q.v.), which denote the doors of a building. Fig. 557 shows the ancient gate of Perugia.

=Portcullis.= A kind of iron grating, forming an outer door, which slided up and down perpendicularly in the grooves of a bay. It was suspended by a chain, which could instantly be lowered, as occasion required, in order to prevent ingress and cut off all communication. By the Greeks and Romans they were called portæ cataractæ, and in the Middle Ages they were known as Saracenic gates.

=Portcullis=, Her. A defence for a gateway, borne as a badge by the Houses of Beaufort and Tudor. Motto, “Altera securitas.” (Fig. 558.)

=Porticus=, =Portico=, R. (porta). A long colonnade serving as a covered promenade. In an amphitheatre, the covered gallery at the top which was appropriated to women or slaves. A wooden gallery covered over with a roof, but in some cases entirely open on the side of the country. (See TEMPLUM.)

=Portisculus=, R. A director’s staff wielded on board ship by the officer who gave the time to the rowers to make them row in unison.

=Portrait Painting.= The earliest portrait on record is that of Polygnotus, painted by himself, B.C. 400. Giotto is said to have been the earliest successful portrait painter of modern times. The different sizes of portraits are the following:—

ft. in. ft. in. Bishop’s whole length 8 10 by 5 10. Whole length 7 10 „ 4 10. Bishop’s half-length 4 8 „ 3 8. Half-length 4 2 „ 3 4. Small half-length 3 8 „ 2 10. Kit-cat 3 0 „ 2 4. Three-quarter size 2 6 „ 2 1. Head size 2 0 „ 1 8.

=Portula.= A wicket made in a large gate in order to give admittance into a city without opening the porta or large gate.

=Posnett=, O. E. A little pot.

=Postergale=, Chr. A DORSAL (q.v.).

=Postern= (posterna, a back door). A private gate in a rampart, either upon the platform or at the angle of a curtain, and opening into the ditches, whence it was possible to pass by the pas-de-souris, without being seen by the besiegers, into the covered way and the glacis.

=Posticum=, R. (Gr. παραθύρα). (1) A back door to a Roman house. (2) In Architecture, the part of a building opposite to the façade; the posterior façade.

=Postis=, R. The jamb of a door, supporting the lintel or limen superius.

=Postscenium=, R. The part of a Roman theatre behind the stage, in which the actors dressed, and the appointments and machines were kept.

=Potichomanie.= A process of ornamenting glass with coloured designs on paper, in imitation of painted porcelain.

=Potter’s Clay=, found in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, is used for modelling and for pottery; mixed with linseed oil, it is used as a ground in painting.

=Pottery= (=Fayence=, =Terraglia=), as distinct from porcelain, is formed of potter’s clay mixed with marl of argillaceous and calcareous nature, and sand, variously proportioned, and may be classed under two divisions: Soft (Fayence à pâte tendre), and Hard (Fayence à pâte dure), according to the nature of the composition or the degree of heat under which it has been fired in the kiln. What is known generally in England as earthenware is soft, while stone-ware, Queen’s ware, &c., are hard. The characteristics of the soft wares are a paste or body which may be scratched with a knife or file, and fusibility generally at the heat of a porcelain furnace. These soft wares may be again divided into four subdivisions: unglazed, lustrous, glazed, or enamelled. Among the three first of these subdivisions may be arranged almost all the ancient pottery of Egypt, Greece, Etruria, and Rome; as also the larger portion of that in general use among all nations during mediæval and modern times. The glazed wares may be again divided into silicious or glass-glazed wares, and plumbeous or lead-glazed. In these subdivisions the foundation is in all cases the same. The mixed clay or “paste” or “body” is formed by the hand or on the wheel, or impressed into moulds; then slowly dried and baked in a furnace or stove, after which, on cooling, it is in a state to receive the glaze. This is prepared by fusing sand or other silicious material with potash or soda to form a translucent glass, the composition of the glaze upon vitreous or glass-glazed wares. The addition of oxide of lead constitutes the glaze of plumbeous wares; and the further addition of the oxide of tin produces an enamel of an opaque white of great purity, which is the characteristic glazing of stanniferous or tin-glazed wares. Most of the principal seats of the manufacture of pottery, and a description of the objects manufactured, and methods used in the manufacture, will be found mentioned under their respective headings.

=Poulaines=, Fr. Long-toed boots and shoes, introduced in 1384. (See CRACOWES.)

=Pounce-paper.= A kind of transparent tracing-paper, free from grease, &c.; made in Carlsruhe.

=Pounced.= In Engraving, dotted all over.

=Pouncet-box=, O. E. A perfume box, carved with open work. (See POMANDER.)

=Pouranamas=, Hind. Very ancient books of India, which give a part of Hindoo history from the beginning of the Hindoo monarchy, or the time of the king Ellou or Ella.

=Pourpoint=, Fr. A quilted doublet, worn in the 14th and 15th centuries. The illustration represents a Venetian gallant of the 16th century. (See GAMBESON.)

=Powder-blue= is pulverized pipe-clay, a good “pounce” for transferring designs upon linen for embroidery.

=Powdered=, Her. (See SÉMÉ.)

=Powers=, Chr. Guardian angels, usually represented bearing a staff. (See ANGELS.)

=Præcinctio=, E. (præcingo, to gird). A lobby running quite round the circle formed by the caveæ in the interior of a theatre or amphitheatre; the same term is also used to denote the passages between the tiers of seats comprised within each mænianum. According to their importance, theatres and amphitheatres were divided into two, three, and sometimes four præcinctiones.

=Præfericulum=, R. A metal basin without handles, used for holding sacred utensils.

=Præficæ=, R. Women hired as mourners at the funerals of wealthy persons.

=Præfurnium=, R. The mouth of a furnace placed beneath a hypocausis or heating-stove in a set of baths. Fig. 560 shows the præfurnium of a hypocausis which was drawn upon the walls of a laconicum situated near the church of St. Cecilia at Rome. (See HYPOCAUSIS.)

=Prætexta=, R. A TOGA with a broad purple border. It was introduced by the Etruscans, and was the costume assigned to priests and magistrates, to boys before they came of age, and to women before their marriage. (See TOGA.) (Fig. 561.)

=Prætorium=, R. The tent of the commander-in-chief of the army; it was so called because in the earliest times of Rome the consul who commanded the army bore the title of prætor. The residence of a governor of a province was also called prætorium, and finally the name was given to any large house or palace.

=Prandium=, R. (prandeo, to breakfast). The midday meal, which came between breakfast (jentaculum) and dinner (cœna).

=Prastura.= (See UPAPITHA.)

=Préa-koul=, Hind. An upright stone or sacred boundary among the Khmers.

=Préasat=, Hind. The tower of the Khmers; préasat-stupaï means little tower; préasat-phradamrey, the elephant tower of the king.

=Precarium=, Chr. A temporary benefice granted to a layman by the Church; the holder of the benefice was, however, bound to pay the Church certain dues.

=Predella=, It. A ledge behind the altar of a church on which the altar-piece was placed, containing small pictures, of similar subjects to the altar-piece.

=Prefericulum=, R. A shallow metal bowl used in sacrifices for carrying the sacred vessels. Its shape resembled the patera.

=Premier Coup.= (See PRIMA PAINTING.)

=Pre-Raphaelites.= A modern school of painters, who, throwing aside all conventional laws and traditions in art, direct their study to the forms and colours of Nature.

=Presentoir=, Fr. An épergne or table-stand for flowers; made very shallow, on a tall and richly-decorated stem. A favourite subject of the goldsmith’s art in the 16th century.

=Pressed Glass.= Glass pressed into a mould by a machine; differing from blown glass.

=Presto=, It. In Music, quickly.

=Priapeia=, R. (πριάπεια). Festivals in honour of Priapus; they were held chiefly at Lampsacus.

=Pricket.= A young stag of two years, when his horns begin to sprout.

=Prie-Dieu.= A kneeling-desk for prayers.

=Prima Painting= (in French, peinture au premier coup) is a modern style directed to the avoidance of extreme finish, described in a work by Hundertpfund, “The Art of Painting restored to its Simplest and Surest Principles.”

=Primary Colours.= Blue, yellow, and red, from which all colours are derived.

=Primero=, O. E. A game at cards mentioned by Shakspeare.

=Primicerii=, Chr. This term had several meanings, but it was usually employed to denote the first person inscribed on a list, because the tablet on which the names were written was covered with wax; whence primicerius (from cera, wax), the first upon the wax. In cathedral churches the primicerius presided over the choir, and regulated the order and method of the ceremonies.

=Priming.= (See GROUNDS.)

=Prince’s Metal= or =Prince Rupert’s Metal=. An alloy of 72 parts of copper and 28 parts of zinc, which has a resemblance to gold.

=Princedoms= or =Principalities=, Chr. An order of THRONES of angels; usually represented in complete armour, carrying pennons. (See Fig. 24.)

=Principes=, R. A body of heavy-armed foot-soldiers; thus named, because, in the order of battle, they were placed first.

=Principia=, R. (princeps, chief, foremost). The headquarters in a Roman camp, comprising not only the tents of the general and the superior officers, but also an open space in which justice was administered and sacrifices offered to the gods; it was in the same open space that all the standards of the legion were set up.

=Priory=, Chr. A monastery attached, as a rule, to an abbey; there were also, however, priories which formed the head of an order. In the order of Malta each tongue comprehended several great priories.

=Prismatic= (mouldings). A kind of moulding resembling the facets of a prism (Fig. 562), which is sometimes met with in archivolts of the Romano-Byzantine period. The same term is likewise applied to mouldings characteristic of the flamboyant style, which assume, especially in their base, the form of prisms.

=Proaron=, Gr. and R. (πρόαρον; ἀρύω, to draw water). A vessel of a flattened spheroid form, with two handles.

=Proaulium=, R. (pro, in front of). The vestibule of any building.

=Prochous=, Gr. (πρόχοος, i. e. thing for pouring out). A small jug for pouring liquid into a cask; it had a narrow neck, a very large handle, and a pointed mouth.

=Procœton=, Gr. and R. (προ-κοιτών). An antechamber or room preceding other rooms or chambers.

=Prodd=, O. E. A light cross-bow, used by ladies, temp. Elizabeth.

=Prodomos=, Arch. (πρό-δομος). The façade of a temple or building, and sometimes the porch of a church.

=Profile.= The side view of the human face. It is observed by Fairholt that “a face which, seen directly in front, is attractive by its rounded outline, blooming colour, and lovely smile, is often divested of its charms when seen in profile, and strikes only as far as it has an intellectual expression. Only where great symmetry exists, connected with a preponderance of the intellectual over the sensual, will a profile appear finer than the front face.”

=Projectura=, R. The beaver of a helmet.

=Proletarii=, R. The proletariate, or Roman citizens of the lowest class of the people, so called because they contributed nothing to the resources of the republic except by their offspring (proles); being, as they were, too poor to pay taxes.

=Prom=, Hind. An ornamented carpet in Khmer art.

=Prometheia.= An Athenian festival in honour of Prometheus, with a torch-race (lampadephoria).

=Promulsis.= The first course at a Roman dinner, arranged to stimulate the appetite; eggs were a principal ingredient, whence the proverb ab ovo usque ad mala (from first to last).

=Pronaos=, R. (πρό-ναος). A portico situated in front of a temple; it was open on all sides, and surrounded only by columns, which, in front, supported not only the entablature, but the pediment (fastigium).

=Proper=, Her. Said of a thing exhibited in its natural, or proper, colour.

=Proplasma=, Gr. and R. (πρό-πλασμα). A rough model or embodiment of the sculptor’s first idea, executed by him in clay.

=Propnigeum=, Gr. and R. The mouth of the furnace of the HYPOCAUSIS (q.v.).

=Propylæa=, Gr. The open court at the entrance to a sacred enclosure; e. g. an Egyptian temple, or especially the Acropolis at Athens.

=Prora=, R. (πρῷρα). The prow or fore-part of a ship, whence proreta, a man who stood at the ship’s head; proreus was a term also used. (See ACROSTOLIUM.)

=Proscenium=, R. (προ-σκήνιον). The stage in a Greek or Roman theatre; it included the whole platform comprised between the orchestra and the wall of the stage; the term was also used sometimes to denote the wall of the stage itself.

=Proscenium=, Mod. The ornamental frame on which the curtain hangs.

=Prostylos=, Gr. (πρό-στυλος). A building or temple which has a porch supported by a row of columns.

=Proteleia=, Gr. (προ-τέλεια). Sacrifices which were offered to Diana, Juno, the Graces, and Venus prior to the celebration of a marriage.

=Prothyrum=, Gr. (πρό-θυρον). With the Greeks, the vestibule in front of the door of a house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo, or a statue or laurel-tree; with the Romans, the prothyrum was the corridor or passage leading from the street to the atrium (Fig. 563).

=Prototype= (πρῶτον, first; τύπον, mould). The model of a plastic design; hence figuratively, a type or forerunner.

=Protractor.= An instrument for laying down and measuring angles upon paper.

=Protypum=, Gr. and R. (πρό-τυπον). A model, first model or mould for making any object in clay, such as antefixæ.

=Prussian Blue.= A valuable pigment of a greenish-blue colour, of great body, transparency, and permanency; a mixture of prussiate of potash and rust, or oxide of iron. (See CYANOGEN.)

=Prussian Brown.= A deep-brown pigment, more permanent than madder.

=Psaltery.= A stringed instrument or kind of lyre of an oblong square shape, played with a rather large plectrum.

=Pschent=, Egyp. The head-dress of the ancient kings of Egypt, which should properly be called skhent, since the p only represents the article the. This head-dress is the emblem of supreme power, the symbol of dominion over the south and north. It is a diadem composed of the united crowns of the Upper and Lower Egypts.

=Psephus=, Gr. (ψῆφος). A round stone used by the Athenian voters to record their votes.

=Pseud-iso-domum= (opus). (See OPUS PSEUD-ISO-DOMUM.)

=Pseudodipteros=, Gr. and R. (ψευδο-δίπτερος). A building or temple which presents the appearance of being surrounded by a double colonnade, though it possesses only a single one, which is separated from the walls of the cella, as in the dipteral arrangement. (Fig. 564.)

=Pseudoperipteros=, Gr. and R. (ψευδο-περίπτερος). A building or temple which presents the appearance of being surrounded by a colonnade, although in reality it does not possess one, the columns being embedded in the walls of the cella. (See PERIPTEROS, under which an example of this kind of temple is given.)

=Pseudothyrum=, Gr. and R. (ψευδό-θυρον). Literally, a false door, and thence a secret door, or door hidden by some means or other.

=Pseudourbana= (sc. ædificia), R. The dwelling-house of the owner of a farm, which was distinct from the buildings set apart for the farm people and the slaves, the familia rustica.

=Psili=, Gr. (ψιλοί). Light-armed troops, who wore skins or leather instead of metal armour, and fought generally with bows and arrows or slings.

=Psychè=, Fr. A cheval-glass or mirror.

=Psycter=, Gr. (ψυκτήρ). A metal wine-cooler, often of silver, consisting of an outer vessel to contain ice, and an inner vessel for the wine.

=Pterotus=, R. (πτερωτός). That which has wings or ears; an epithet applied to the drinking-cup called calix.

=Puggaree=, Hind. A piece of muslin worn as a turban.

=Pugillares=, R. Writing-tablets small enough to be held in the hand (pugillus), whence their name.

=Pugio=, R. (Gr. μάχαιρα). A short dagger, without a sheath, worn by officers of high rank.

=Pulpitum=, R. The tribune of an orator, or the chair of a professor. In a theatre the term was used to denote the part of the stage next to the orchestra. (See PROSCENIUM.)

=Pulvinar=, R. (pulvinus, a cushion). A cushion or bolster, and thence a state couch or a marriage-bed.

=Pulvinarium=, R. (1) A room in a temple, in which was set out the pulvinar or couch for the gods at the feast of the LECTISTERNIUM. (2) See OPUS PULVINARIUM.

=Pulvinatus=, R. Having a contour similar to that of a cushion or bolster, and thence the cylinder formed by the swelling of the volute at the side of the Ionic capital. (Fig. 565.)

=Pumice-stone.= A kind of lava of less specific gravity than water. The dome of the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople is built of pumice-stone.

=Punchau.= (See INTI.)

=Punctum=, R. A vote or suffrage, because in early times each citizen, instead of laying down a tessera or tablet with his vote, passed in front of the rogator, or voting officer who had the list of candidates before him, and pricked a hole (punctum) in the tablet against the name of the candidate for whom the vote was given.

=Punkahs.= Swinging fans suspended from the ceilings of houses in India, often richly embroidered and decorated with feathers, brilliant insects, gold and silver, &c.

=Puntilla=, Sp. A narrow point-lace edging.

=Pupa=, R. A doll; a child’s plaything. Dolls of terra-cotta have been found in various countries. In Egypt dolls have been found, made out of wood, painted, and in perfect proportion, with glass beads on the head in imitation of hair. As a rule, the ancient dolls are made with movable joints.

=Puppis=, R. The poop or after-part of a vessel as opposed to the prora or prow. (See PRORA.)

=Purbeck-stone.= A rough grey sandstone from Dorsetshire, largely used for building purposes in London.

=Purim= (Festivals of), Heb. Jewish festivals called Festivals of the Lots, instituted in memory of Esther, who had averted the peril with which Haman threatened the Jews; they were so called because the favourite of Ahasuerus was to have decimated the Jews by casting lots to see who should be put to death.

=Purple=, Gen. An insignia of authority pertaining to certain magistrates who wore purple robes or bands of purple on their attire. There were two kinds of purple, the amethyst and the Tyrian; the former was a deep violet, and obtained from a shell-fish (murex trunculus); the Tyrian was more brilliant and had a redder tinge; it was obtained from the murex brandaris.

=Purple= is red graduated with blue, the red predominating; red with black makes purple-black. Purple pigments are madder purple, violet mars, burnt carmine (for water-colours).

=Purple Lakes= and Green Lakes are made by mixing yellow lakes with blue pigments. (See YELLOW LAKE.)

=Purple Madder.= (See MADDER.)

=Purple-wood.= A beautiful deep-coloured Brazilian wood, used for marquetry and inlaid-work, but principally for the ramrods of guns.

=Purpure=, Her. Purple.

=Purree=, Hind. A bright golden yellow pigment prepared from camel’s dung. (See INDIAN YELLOW.)

=Pursuivants.= The lowest order of officers in Herald’s College; of whom there are four, called respectively Rouge Croix, Rouge Dragon, Blue Mantle, and Portcullis. In the Middle Ages these officers were attached to the households of the nobility, and bore titles generally taken from the armorial insignia of their lords.

=Puteal=, R. A place struck by lightning, and thus rendered sacred; in order to keep it from the tread of profane feet, it was surrounded by a low wall similar to that which protected a well (puteus); whence the name of puteal.

=Puteus=, R. (1) A well fed by a spring or an underground stream of water; (2) an opening or manhole of an aqueduct (Fig. 566); (3) a pit for preserving grain.

=Puticuli=, =Puticulæ=, R. Common pits in which the bodies of those slaves and paupers were buried, who had not the means to pay for a funeral pyre or a private tomb.

=Puttock=, O. E. A base kind of hawk. (Shakspeare.)

=Pyanepsia=, Gr. (πυανέψια). Ancient “Beanfeasts.” Athenian festivals in honour of Apollo, instituted by Theseus after his victory over the Minotaur; they were so called because beans were cooked for the banquet in honour of the god (πύανος, a bean, and ἕψειν, to cook).

=Pyat=, O. E. A magpie.

=Pykers=, O. E. A kind of fishing-boats.

=Pylon=, Egyp. (πυλών). A monumental gate composed of two lofty and massive pyramidal towers, forming the entrance to the enclosure of the great Egyptian temples. The interior of a pylon contained staircases and chambers. A splendid example in full preservation is that of the temple at Esneh on the Nile.

=Pyra=, Gr. and R. (πυρὰ, lit. the burning-place). A funeral pile before it was set on fire, in contradistinction to rogus, a funeral pile which has been lighted. It was built in the form of an altar with four equal sides, which were frequently covered with foliage of dark leaves; and cypress-trees were placed in front of the pile. The corpse was placed on the top, in the bier (lectica) on which it had been borne to the place. (See FUNERAL CEREMONIES.)

=Pyræum=, Pers. (πυρεῖον). A place in which the Persians kept the sacred fire (puros, fire). At Bactria there were seven pyræa, in honour of the seven planets.

=Pyramid= (Egyptian, Pi-rama, a mountain). In the hieroglyphics called Abumer, “a great tomb,” which it essentially is, or rather a great cairn over the cave tomb excavated in the live rock immediately under its apex. This sepulchral chamber having been connected with the upper world by a passage sloping downwards from the north, the graduated structure was regularly built over it, the proportions of the base to the sides being constantly preserved, and the whole forming always a perfect pyramid; so that the building could be continued during the whole lifetime of its destined tenant, and covered and closed in immediately upon his death. It is on record that from Seneferoo, the first king whose name has been found upon monuments, to the last of the Sixth Dynasty, i. e. during the whole period of the Ancient Empire, every king of Egypt built a pyramid. (Consult Vyse, Pyramids of Gezeh.)

=Pyrotechny= (πῦρ, fire, and τέχνη, art). The art of making fireworks. The Chinese had great skill in this art long before its introduction into Europe, and are at this day unrivalled in it. The best English work on the subject is perhaps that by G. W. Mortimer (London, 1853).

=Pyrrhica=, Gr. (πυρρίχη). A war-dance in great favour with the early Greeks, and frequently represented in sculptures, in which warriors brandished their weapons and went through a mock combat.

=Pythia=, Gr. (πύθια). (1) A priestess of Apollo at Delphi, represented seated on the sacred tripod. (See CORTINA.) (2) Games instituted at Delphi in honour of Apollo, and of his killing the Pytho, the monstrous serpent born from the waters in Deucalion’s flood.

=Pythoness.= Synonym of PYTHIA (q.v.). The term was also used to denote certain sorceresses, such as the pythoness of Endor.

=Pyx=, or =Pix Cloths=. (See =Corporals=.)

=Pyx.= The word in its earliest meaning included any small box or case, and often in the Middle Ages it contained relics. Thus in the Durham treasury there was “a tooth of St. Gengulphus, good for the falling sickness, in a small ivory pyx.” The pyx used for the sacrament was usually ornamented with religious subjects, other than the incidents of the lives of saints. (Fig. 567.)

=Pyxis=, Gr. and R. (πυξὶς, lit. a box-wood box). A casket, trinket-box, or jewel-case.

Q.

Many Old English words are indifferently spelt with qu, ch, and c; such as quire, choir; quoif, coif, &c.

=Quadra=, R. Generally, any square or rectangular object; such as a table, plinth, or abacus.

=Quadragesima=, Chr. Lent is so called, because it has forty days.

=Quadrans=, R. (a fourth part). A small bronze coin worth the quarter of an as, or about a farthing.

=Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring celestial altitudes; superseded by the CIRCLE. (See SEXTANT.) (Consult Lalande, Astronomie, § 2311, &c., 3me edition).

=Quadrantal=, R. A square vessel used as a measure, the solid contents of which were exactly equal to an amphora. A standard model was kept in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus.

=Quadrelle=, O. E. A mace, with four lateral projections, ornamental like the leaves of a flower. (See Planché, Cycl. of Costume, Plate xii. 16.)

=Quadrellus=, Med. Lat. A quarrel for a cross-bow.

=Quadriforis=, R. A door folding into four leaves.

=Quadriga=, R. Generally =Quadrigæ= (Greek τετραορία or τέθριππος). A chariot in which four horses were yoked abreast. The two strongest horses were harnessed under the yoke in the centre; the others were fastened on each side by means of ropes. (See CURRUS.)

=Quadrigatus=, R. A silver denarius, so called from its having a quadriga on the reverse.

=Quadrilateral.= Four-sided.

=Quadriliteral.= Consisting of four letters.

=Quadrille=, Med. (It. squadriglia, dimin. of squadra—our “squadron”—a small party of troops drawn up in a square). Small parties of richly-caparisoned horsemen, who rode at tournaments and public festivals. The modern dance so called was introduced in 1808.

=Quadriremis=, R. A galley with four banks of rowers.

=Quadrisomus=, Chr. A sarcophagus with compartments for four bodies. One discovered in the Vatican cemetery at Rome contained the bodies of the first four popes called Leo. (Cf. BISOMUS.)

=Quadrivalves=, Arch. (See QUADRIFORIS.)

=Quadrivium= (lit. of four ways). The four minor arts of arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. (See TRIVIUM.)

=Quadrivium=, R. A place where four roads meet.

=Quadrumane.= Having four prehensile hands or feet, like monkeys.

=Quadruplatores=, R. Public informers, who were rewarded with a fourth part of the criminal’s property on obtaining a conviction.

=Quæstiones Perpetuæ=, R. Permanent tribunals established at Rome to take cognizance of criminal cases.

=Quæstorium=, R. In a Roman camp, the quæstor’s tent; this was in some cases near the porta decumana, or the rear of the camp; in others, on one side of the PRÆTORIUM (q.v.).

=Quaich=, =Queish=, or =Quegh=, Scotch. An old-fashioned drinking-cup or bowl, with two handles. (English MASER [?].)

=Quality-binding=, Scotch. A kind of worsted tape used in the borders of carpets.

=Qualus=, R. (Gr. KALATHOS, q.v.). A wicker-work basket.

=Quandary=, O. E. (from Fr. qu’en dirai-je?). Doubt and perplexity.

=Quannet.= A tool for working in horn and tortoise-shell.

=Quarnellus=, Med., in fortification. (See CRENEL.)

=Quarrel= (Fr. carreau), Arch. A lozenge-shaped brick, stone, or pane of glass; a glazier’s diamond.

=Quarrel=, O. E. An arrow for the cross-bow with a four-square head.

=Quarter-deck=, on a ship of war. The deck abaft the mainmast, appropriated to the commissioned officers. These were originally of great height, corresponding with the lofty forecastle for soldiers, and helped to make the ships top-heavy and unmanageable. A commission on ship-building in 1618 says,—

“They must bee somewhat snugg built, without double gallarys, and too lofty upper workes, which overcharge many shipps, and make them coeme faire, but not worke well at sea.”

=Quarter-gallery= of a ship. A balcony round the stem.

=Quarter-round=, Arch. The ovolo moulding (q.v.).

=Quarter-tones= (Gr. diesis), in Music, were the subject of much discussion among the ancient Greeks, but they were used on the lyre for an occasional “grace-note.” Aristoxenos says “no voice could sing three of them in succession, neither can the singer sing less than the quarter-tone correctly, nor the hearer judge of it.” (Consult Chappell’s Hist. of Music.)

=Quartering=, Her. Marshalling two or more coats of arms in the different quarters of the same shield. (Fig. 568.)

=Quartet=, =Quartetto=, It. A piece of music for four performers, each of whose parts is obligato, i. e. essential to the music.

=Quartile.= In Astronomy, distant from each other 90 degrees, or a quarter of a circle.

=Quasillum= (dimin. of QUALUS, q.v.) was a small basket in which the quantity of wool was measured, which was assigned to a slave to spin in a day’s work.

=Quatrefoil.= An ornament in pointed architecture consisting of four foils. The term is likewise applied to a rosace formed of four divisions, which figures frequently in the upper part of pointed windows.

=Quatrefoil= or =Primrose=, Her. A flower or figure having four foils or conjoined leaves.

=Quattrocento=, It. (lit. four hundred). A term applied to the characteristic style of the artists who practised in the 15th century; it was hard, and peculiar in colour as well as in form and pose. It was the intermediate of that progressive period of art, which, commencing with Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Mantegna, Botticelli, and other celebrated painters, between A. D. 1400 and 1500, reached excellence in the 16th century (the cinque-cento) with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael.

=Quaver.= A musical note of very short time = half a crotchet.

=Queen.= Crown of Her Majesty. (See Fig. 570.)

=Queen-post= (anciently prick-post or side-post), Arch. An upright post similar in use and position to the KING-POST, but rising, not in the centre to the point of the gable, but midway between the wall and the centre.

=Queen’s Boots.= The interesting fact in English archæology is not generally known, that Her Majesty’s boots are provided for by an annual tax of two shillings (on the whole) upon the village of Ketton in Rutlandshire “pro ocreis reginæ.”

=Queen’s Ware.= A cream-coloured glazed earthenware of the Wedgwood manufacture at Burslem, 1759–70.

=Queen’s Yellow.= A colour formed from the subsulphate of mercury.

=Queintise=, O. E. A dress curiously cut or ornamented. (See COINTOISE.)

=Querpo= (for =Cuerpo=). Partly undressed.

=Querpo-hood.= A hood worn by the Puritans. (P.)

“No face of mine shall by my friends be viewed In Quaker’s pinner, or in querpo-hood.” (Archæologia, vol. xxvii.)

=Queshews=, O. E. Cuisses; armour for the thighs.

=Queue=, Fr. A support for a lance. It was a large piece of iron screwed to the back of the breastplate, curved downward to hold down the end of the lance.

=Queue Fourchée=, Her. Having a double tail, or two tails.

=Quichuas.= Remarkable specimens of pottery, from this Peruvian coast province, doubtless of remote antiquity, resemble in their freedom from conventionality and successful imitation of natural forms all primitive Egyptian and other sculpture. Jacquemart describes the vase of the illustration (on page 214) as the chef-d’œuvre of American ceramics; and, from the close resemblance of the features of the figure represented to certain groups of prisoners on the Egyptian bas-reliefs, as well as to the ethnic type of the ancient Japanese kings, makes important deductions with reference to the dispersion of mankind, and the commerce of the old and new worlds in prehistoric times.

=Quicksilver=, alloyed with tinfoil, forms the reflecting surface of looking-glasses, and is largely used in the operations of gilding and silvering metals.

=Quilled=, Her. A term used to blazon the quills of feathers; thus a blue feather having its quill golden is blazoned—a feather az., quilled or. (Boutell.)

=Quilts= for bed-coverings, in England, were formerly made of embroidered linen with emblems of the evangelists in the four corners. At Durham, in 1446, in the dormitory of the priory was a quilt “cum iiij^{or} evangelistis in corneriis.” The Very Rev. Daniel Rock (Textile Fabrics) suggests that this gave rise to the old nursery rhyme:—

“Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, Bless the bed that I lie on.”

=Quinarius.= A Roman coin = half a denarius, or five asses.

=Quincaillerie=, Fr. A general term for all kinds of metallurgical work in copper, brass, iron, &c.

=Quince=, Her. The “Pomo cotogno,” the emblem of the town of Cotignola, adopted by the founder of the Sforza family who was born there. The Emperor Robert of Bavaria added a lion in 1401 as a reward of an act of bravery, to “support the quince with his left hand and defend it with his right,” adding “guai a chi lo tocchi!” (Fig. 571.)

=Quincunx=, R. (i. e. five-twelfths of anything). (1) A Roman bronze coin, equivalent to five-twelfths of an as, and weighing five ounces (unciæ). (2) An arrangement of five objects in a square; one at each corner, and one in the middle. (3) In gardening, said of trees planted in oblique rows of three and two, or in a quincunx (No. 2).

=Quincupedal=, R. A rod five feet in length, for taking measurements in masonry.

=Quindecagon.= A plane figure having fifteen sides and fifteen angles.

=Quinite.= A Spanish textile of hair with silk or other thread.

=Quinquagesima=, Chr. The fiftieth day before Easter; Shrove Sunday. (S.)

=Quinquatrus= (or —=ia=), R. Festivals of Minerva, celebrated on the 19th of March. They lasted five days; on the first no blood was shed, but on the last four there were contests of gladiators. Another festival called Quinquatrus minores, also in honour of Minerva, was celebrated on the ides of June.

=Quinquennalia=, R. Games celebrated every four years at Rome; instituted by Nero, A. D. 60. They consisted of music, gymnastical contests, and horse-races.

=Quinqueremis=, R. A galley with five banks of oars.

=Quinquertium=, R. (Gr. Pentathlon). A gymnastic contest of Greek origin, so called because it consisted of five exercises, viz. leaping, running, wrestling, throwing the discus, and throwing the spear. Introduced in the Olympic games in Ol. 18.

=Quintain=, O. E. A post set up to be tilted at by mounted soldiers; sometimes a man turning on a pivot; sometimes a flat board, on a pivot, with a heavy bag of sand at the other end, which knocked the tilter on the back if he charged unskilfully. (See Strutt, Sports and Pastimes, p. 89, Plates ix. and x.)

=Quintana=, R. A causeway fifty feet wide in a Roman camp.

=Quintetto=, It. A piece of music for five performers, obligati. (Cf. QUARTET.)

=Quintile.= In Astronomy, distant from each other 72 degrees, or a fifth of a circle.

=Quippa=, Peruv. (lit. a knot). A fringe of knotted and particoloured threads, used to record events in ancient Mexico.

=Quippos= or =Quippus=, Peruv. A plaited cord of strings of different colours and lengths, used as a substitute for writing among the ancient Peruvians.

=Quire.= O. E. for CHOIR.

=Quirinalia=, R. A festival sacred to Romulus—Quirinus—held on the 17th of February, as the anniversary of the day on which he was supposed to have been carried up to heaven. The festival was also called Stultorum feriæ. (See FORNACALIA.)

=Quirk=, Arch. An acute channel by which the convex parts of Greek mouldings (the ogees and ovolos) are separated from the fillet or soffit that covers them. In Gothic architecture quirks are abundantly used between mouldings.

=Quishwine=, =Quusson=, and =Qwissinge=. Old ways of spelling the word “cushion.”

=Quivers.= The ancient Greeks and Etruscans, the Normans and Saxons wore quivers (pharetra) on a belt slung over the shoulder. Archers of the 12th to 14th century carried their arrows stuck in their belts.

“A shefe of peacock arwes bryght and kene Under his belt he bare ful thriftely.” (Chaucer.)

Quivers were probably introduced into England in the 15th century.

=Quoif= or =Coif=, O. E. A close-fitting cap worn by both sexes, and by lawyers, temp. Elizabeth.

=Quoin= or =Coin=. (1) Arch. The external angle of a building. (2) O. E. A wedge.

=Quoits.= A very ancient game derived from the Roman DISCUS (q.v.).

R.

=Ra.= The sun-god with hawk head is a common object of Egyptian pottery and architectural ornament, subsequent to the Asiatic invasions. It typifies the union of the yellow Asiatic and the native Egyptian races.

=Rabato=, Sp. A neck-band or ruff. (See REBATO.)

=Rabbet= (from rebated). In Joinery a groove in the edge of a board.

=Rabyte=, O. E. (for Arabyte). An Arab horse.

=Racana=, Chr. A blanket of hair-cloth prescribed for the couches of monks, &c., in summer.

“Pro anis rachinis propter æstus utantur.”

=Rack=, O. E. The last fleeting vestige of the highest clouds.

=Racon=, O. E. The pot-hook by which vessels are suspended over a fire. (See GALOWS.)

=Radiant=, =Rayonée=. Encircled with rays. (Fig. 395.)

=Radius=, R. A pointed rod employed by certain professors of astronomy and mathematics for tracing figures on the sand. Also the spoke of a wheel, a ray of light, and lastly, a stake used in constructing intrenchments (valla).

=Radula=, R. A scraper, an iron tool used for paring or scratching off.

=Raffaelle-ware.= A fine kind of Urbino majolica, the designs for which were probably furnished by pupils of the great master.

=Rag.= In Masonry, stone that breaks in jagged pieces.

=Ragged Staff=, Her. (See RAGULÉE.)

=Ragman’s= or =Rageman’s Roll=, O. E. (1) In History, a roll of the nobles of Scotland, who swore fealty to Edward I. at Berwick, in 1296; hence (2) a game of chance, in which a number of versified descriptions of character were drawn from a roll by the members of a company; 13th to 15th century. The game survives among children of the present age in the custom of drawing Twelfth-Night characters.

=Ragstone.= A rough kind of sandstone found in Kent.

=Ragulée=, =Raguly=, Her. Serrated. A “ragged staff,” or “staff ragulée,” is a part of a stem from which the branches have been cut off roughly. The illustration is the well-known device of the Earls of Warwick, originating with Arthgal, one of the Knights of the Round Table; because, says Leland, “this Arthgal took a bere in his arms, for that, in Britisch, soundeth a bere in Englisch.” (Fig. 573.)

=Rahal=, Arabic. A load for a camel; about 5 cwt.

=Rains=, or =Raynes=, =Cloths= (A. D. 1327–1434, &c.). Fine linen woven at Rennes in Brittany.

=Rajeta=, Sp. A coarse cloth of mixed colours.

=Rallum=, R. A piece of iron on the end of a stick, used to scrape off earth from the plough-share.

=Ram=, in Christian iconography, is a symbol not fully explained. It was probably connected with the idea of a manful fight with the powers of evil. Two rams face to face with a cross between them are a frequent symbol. (Consult Martigny, Dict. des Antiq. Chrét. s. v. Belier.)

=Ram=, O. E. for rain. (Shakspeare.)

=Ram= or =Battering-ram=. (See ARIES.) The illustration (Fig. 574) is from the Assyrian sculptures, showing the invention of the testudo to be of great antiquity.

=Ramadhan.= The ninth month of the Arabian calendar, and the Mohammedan month of fasting; it is followed by the festival of the Little Bairam.

=Ramalia=, R. (ramus, a ram) Roman festivals instituted in honour of Ariadne and Bacchus.

=Ramillete=, Sp. A nosegay; a pyramid of sweetmeats and fruits.

=Rampant=, Her. Erect, one hind paw on the ground, the other three paws elevated; the animal looking forward, and having his tail elevated.

=Rampant guardant=, Her. The same as rampant, but looking out of the shield.

=Rampant reguardant=, Her. The same as rampant, but looking backwards.

=Ranseur=, Fr. A sort of partisan in use in the time of Edward IV., having a broad long blade in the centre, and projecting shorter blades on each side.

=Rantle-tree=, Scotch. (1) The beam in the chimney from which the crook is suspended, when there is no grate (Angl. GALOWS. See also REEKING-HOOK). (2) A tree chosen with two branches, which are cut short, and left in the shape of a Y, built into the gable of a cottage to support one end of the roof-tree.

=Rapier=, introduced from Spain in the 16th century, remained the favourite weapon of gentlemen. It is a light sword with a narrow blade adapted only for thrusting. It used to be called a tuck.

=Rapier-dance.= A theatrical dance still practised in Yorkshire, consisting of evolutions of the dancers with naked rapiers round a performer who kneels in the centre and finally simulates death. (Compare SWORD-DANCE.)

=Raploch=, Scotch. Coarse undyed woollen cloth.

=Rareca.= Peruvian aqueducts; distinct from the subterranean aqueducts called HUIRCAS or Pinchas (q.v.).

=Rash.= “A species of inferior silk, or silk and stuff manufacture.” (Nares.)

=Raster=, =Rastrum=, R. (rado, to scrape). A rake.

=Rat.= In Chinese symbolism, the month of November. (See TCHY PERIODS.)

=Rath=, Celtic. An ancient fortress or castle of the Irish chiefs, consisting of a circular intrenched enclosure, with buildings in the centre.

=Rational=, Heb. A square piece of richly embroidered cloth worn by the Jewish high priest upon the breast, above the ephod.

=Ratis=, R. A raft of strong beams or planks; and thence a flat boat, a bridge of boats, &c.

=Raunle-tree.= Scotch; for RANTLE-TREE (q.v.).

=Raven=, the ensign of the ancient Danes, was the bird of Odin. In Christian art, the emblem of Divine Providence (in allusion to the history of Elisha); attribute of certain saints, especially of ascetics. (See CROW.)

=Ray=, Chr. The fish (rina diaudan) which was burned by Tobias (vii. 2, 3), and the eggs of which are still burnt for intermittent fevers among the Greeks. (Harris, 408.)

=Ray=, O. E. (i. e. rayed). Striped cloth much worn in the 13th and 14th centuries.

=Raynes=, O. E. (from Rennes in Brittany). Fine linen.

“Cloth of raynes to sleep on soft.” (Chaucer.)

=Rayonnée=, Her. (See RADIANT.)

=Real= (Eng. ROYAL). A Spanish coin. There are two kinds: a real of plate, worth 4¾_d._, and a real of vellon, worth 2½_d._ (Cf. RIAL.)

=Realgar.= A red pigment, formed of arsenic in combination with sulphur. A fugitive and corrosive pigment. (See Merimée, De la Peinture à l’huile, p. 124.)

=Realism=, =Realistic=, in Art. (See IDEAL and REAL.)

=Rebated.= Turned back, as the head of a MORNE or jousting-lance.

=Rebato=, Sp. The turn-down collar of the 15th and 16th centuries.

=Rebec=, Sp. A musical instrument of three strings, tuned in fifths, and played with a bow like a fiddle. It was originally introduced into Spain by the Moors.

=Rebiting.= A process of renewing the lines of a worn-out plate, by etching them over again; a difficult and delicate operation, which is rarely performed with entire success.

=Rebus=, Her. An allusive charge or device. A ton or tun pierced by a bird-bolt is in the church of Great St. Bartholomew, of which Prior Bolton was the last prior.

“Prior Bolton With his bolt and tun.” (Ben Jonson.)

=Recamo=, Sp. Embroidery of raised work.

=Recel=, Sp. A kind of striped tapestry.

=Receptorium=, R. (recepto, to receive). A kind of parlour, also called salutatorium, which generally adjoined the ancient basilicas.

=Recercelée=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross.

=Recheat=, O. E. A sound on the horn to call dogs away from the chase.

=Recinctus.= Equivalent in meaning to DISCINCTUS (q.v.).

=Recorders.= A musical instrument mentioned by Shakspeare. It resembled a very large clarionet. Milton also speaks of

“the Dorian mood Of flutes and soft recorders.” (Paradise Lost, i. 550.)

=Recta=, R. A straight tunic, made out of a single piece, which took the form of the body; it hung from the neck, and fell down as far as the feet.

=Rectilinear= figures are those composed entirely of straight or right lines.

=Red.= One of the three primary colours, producing with YELLOW, orange, and with BLUE, violet. The principal red pigments are carmine, vermilion, chrome red, scarlet lake, madder lake, light red, burnt sienna, for yellow reds; and Venetian red, Indian red, crimson lake, for blue reds. Red, in Christian art, represented by the ruby, signified fire, divine love, the Holy Spirit, heat or the creative power, and royalty. In a bad sense, red signified blood, war, hatred, and punishment. Red and black combined were the colours of purgatory and the devil. (See REALGAR, INDIGO.)

=Red Chalk= or =Reddle= is a mixture of clay and red iron OCHRE, used as a crayon in drawing. (See OCHRE.)

=Red Lake.= (See CARMINE.)

=Red Lead.= A pigment which mixes badly with other pigments. (See MINIUM.)

=Red Ochre= includes Indian red, scarlet ochre, Indian ochre, reddle, &c.

=Red Orpiment.= (See REALGAR.)

=Redan=, the simplest kind of work in field fortification, generally consists of a parapet of earth, divided on the plan into two faces, which make with one another a salient angle, or one whose vertex is towards the enemy.

=Reddle.= (See RED CHALK.)

=Redimiculum=, R. (redimio, to bind round). A long string or ribbon attached to any kind of head-dress.

=Redoubt= is a general name for nearly every kind of work in the class of field fortifications.

=Redshank=, Scotch. A Highlander wearing buskins of red-deer skin, with the hair outwards.

=Reduction.= In Art, a copy on a smaller scale. The work is done mechanically by a process of subdivision of the original into segments or squares.

=Reekie=, Scotch. Smoky; hence Auld Reekie, the city of Edinburgh.

=Reeking-hook=, O. E. A pot-hook hung in the chimney, to suspend vessels over an open fire. (See GALOWS.)

=Re-entering=, in Engraving, is the sharpening or deepening with a graver the lines insufficiently bitten in by the acid.

=Refectory=, Mod. (reficio, to refresh). A hall in which the monks of a monastery assembled to take their meals; one of the most important rooms of the establishment; it was often divided into two naves by a row of columns called the spine (spina), which received the spring of the vaultings forming the roof of the refectory.

=Reflected Lights= thrown by an illuminated surface into the shadows opposed to it, modify the LOCAL COLOUR of every object that we observe in nature, and should accordingly be made to do so in painting.

=Reflexed=, =Reflected=, Her. Curved and carried backwards.

=Refraction= is the diversion of a ray of light which occurs when it falls obliquely on the surface of a medium differing in density from that through which it had previously moved. The differently-coloured rays have different degrees of refrangibility. Refraction is the cause of the phenomena of the mirage, Fata Morgana, &c., and presents to us the light of the sun before his actual emergence above the horizon.

=Regal= or =Regals=, O. E. (1) A small portable organ, with single or double sets of pipes (the attribute of St. Cecilia, and of saints and angels of the heavenly choir). The illustration (Fig. 579) of an angel playing the regals, is taken from an ancient MS. (2) A kind of harmonica, with sonorous slabs of wood.

=Regalia.= The ensigns of royalty. The regalia of England are the crown, sceptre, verge or rod with the dove, St. Edward’s staff, the orb or mound, the sword of mercy called Curtana, the two swords of spiritual and temporal justice, the ring of alliance with the kingdom, the armillæ or bracelets, the spurs of chivalry, and some royal vestments; and are kept in the Jewel Office in the Tower of London. The Scottish insignia, a crown, a sceptre, and a sword of state, are kept in the Crown-room at Edinburgh. The illustration shows the regalia and state vestments of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in the 16th century. (Fig. 580.)

=Regifugium=, R. (lit. flight of the king). An annual festival held on the sixth day of the calends of March (24th of February), in commemoration of the flight of Tarquin and the establishment of the Roman republic.

=Regioles=, Fr. Chr. Small doors in the confessio or martyrium of an altar, containing relics of a saint or martyr. The faithful used to introduce handkerchiefs by these doors, that they might consecrate them by contact with the relics.

=Regrating= or =Skinning=, in Masonry, is the process of scraping or hammering off the outer surface of old stones to make them look white and new; it has been greatly abused in the restoration of ancient buildings.

=Reguardant=, Her. Turning the head and looking back; emblematic of circumspection and prudence.

=Regula=, R. A straight rule used by artisans.

=Regulares=, Chr. Horizontal rods of wood or metal in churches for the suspension of veils or curtains. These were often made of gold or silver, with a row of images on the upper part.

=Regulus= (in Greek βασιλίσκος) is the name given by ancient astronomers to a line drawn from the polar star, between the pointers, &c., to the bright star called α Leonis or Cor Leonis (the lion’s heart).

=Reindeer=, Her. A hart with double antlers, one pair erect, the other drooping.

=Reisner-work.= A corrupt spelling of the name of Riesener, a celebrated worker in marquetry in France in the 18th century.

“Riesener used tulip, rosewood, holly, maple, laburnum, purple-wood, &c. Wreaths and bunches of flowers, exquisitely worked and boldly designed, form centres of his marquetry panels, which are often plain surfaces of one wood. On the sides, in borders and compartments, we find diaper patterns in three or four quiet colours.” (See Pollen, Ancient and Modern Furniture, &c.)

=Relief= (It. rilievo). Sculpture projecting—ALTO-RELIEVO, more than half; MEZZO-RELIEVO, exactly half; BASSO-RELIEVO, less than half. (See also RONDO BOSSO, INTAGLIO-RELIEVATO, STACCIATO.)

=Reliquary=, Chr. A portable shrine or casket made to contain relics. A reliquary made to be worn round the neck was called encolpium (ἐν κόλπῳ, in the bosom), phylacterium, &c.; one to be carried processionally, feretrum. (See FERETORY, Fig. 307.)

=Remarque=, Fr. A slight sketch on the margin beneath an etching or engraving, to denote the earliest proof impressions.

=Removed=, Her. Out of its proper position.

=Remuria=, R. A Roman festival in honour of Remus, held on the third of the ides of May (13th of May) on the Palatine mount, on the spot where Remus had taken the auspices, and where he was buried.

=Renaissance= (lit. new-birth or revival). The term is popularly applied to the gradual return to classical principles in Art in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Italian renaissance, begun by NICCOLA PISANO in architecture and sculpture, and by GIOTTO in painting, was fostered by the Medici family, and culminated in Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Teutonic art (Flemish, German, and Dutch) had also their periods of revival. It is, however, impossible to indicate their representatives without entering upon debateable questions. Goldsmith’s work, pottery, and other useful arts passed through parallel periods of revival concurrent, or nearly so, with those in painting.

=Rengue=, Sp. A kind of gauze worn on official robes in Spain.

=Reno= and =Rheno=, R. A very short cloak, often made of skins, peculiar to the Gauls and Germans, and adopted by the Roman soldiery.

=Repagula=, R. (lit. fastening back). A double fastening to a door; of two bolts (pessuli), one of which was shot towards the right, and the other to the left.

=Replica.= A duplicate of a picture, done by the same painter.

=Repose.= (See RIPOSO.)

=Repositorium=, R. (repono, to lay down). A side-board for plates and dishes in a dining-room; it was divided into several stories, and formed a kind of dinner-wagon; and many examples were richly ornamented, and inlaid with variegated woods, or tortoise-shell and silver, &c.

=Repoussé=, Fr. Metal-work hammered out from behind into ornaments in relief.

=Requiem=, Chr. The Roman Missa pro Defunctis, or service for the dead, beginning with the anthem “Requiem æternam dona eis, Domine.”

=Rerebrace=, O. E. (for the French arrière bras). Armour for the upper part of the arm.

=Rerebrake=, O. E. A pommel at the back of a saddle to support the horseman under the shock of a tilting-bout. (See Meyrick, vol. ii. p. 137.)

=Reredos=, Chr. (1) The wall or screen at the back of an altar. In the primitive churches, in which the bishop’s seat was at the back of the altar, there was no reredos. Its introduction dates from the period (about the 12th century) when the episcopal seats and the choirs were established in front of the altars. (2) The ROOD-SCREEN was sometimes so called. (3) The open hearth was so called. Hollinshed relates that, before the invention of chimneys, “each man made his fire against a reredosse in the hall, where he dined and dressed his meat.”

=Rere-supper= (Fr. arrière souper). The last meal taken in the day; 15th century.

=Resins.= (See AMBER, COPAL, DAMARA, MASTIC, &c.)

=Ressaunt=, O. E. Arch. An obsolete term applied to members of architecture inflected or curved like an OGEE moulding.

=Rest.= In Music, a character denoting silence for a length denoted by the character used to express the rest, i. e. semibreve, minim, crotchet, quaver, &c.

=Restoration.= In Architecture, a drawing of an ancient building in its original design.

=Retable= (Fr.), Chr. (See REREDOS.)

=Rete= and =Retis=, R. A net.

=Retiarius.= A gladiator whose only arms were a trident and net; with the latter he tried to embarrass the adversary by casting it over his head, and, having done so, to wound him with the trident; failing in their throw, their only resource was to run round the arena preparing the net for a second attempt. They fought generally with the Mirmillones, and had no helmet nor other protective armour excepting for the left arm. (See GLADIATORS.)

=Reticella= (Lat. reticulus, a little net). This was the first known needle-made lace, produced in all lace-making countries under different names. (See GREEK LACE.) It was made in several ways: the first consisted in arranging a network of threads on a small frame, crossing and interlacing them in various complicated patterns. Beneath this network was gummed a piece of fine cloth, open like canvas, called quintain (from the town in Brittany where it was made). Then with a needle the network was sewn to the quintain by edging round those parts of the pattern which were to remain thick, then cutting away the superfluous cloth: hence the name of cutwork in England. A more simple mode was to make the pattern detached without any linen; the threads radiating at equal distances from one common centre served as a framework to others, which were united to them in geometric forms worked over with button-hole stitch (or point noué). The engraving shows a fine specimen of reticella from Venice, 1493. (See also MILAN RETICELLA.)

=Reticulated.= Latticed like the meshes of a net (rete).

=Reticulated Glass.= (See GLASS.)

=Reticulated Porcelain= is an Oriental product, of which the outer side is entirely cut out in geometric patterns, honeycomb, circles intercrossed and superposed to a second vase of similar, or of simply cylindrical form. Fig. 582 is a specimen of this style.

=Reticulated Work=, Arch. (Lat. reticulata structura, literally, made like a net). Masonry constructed with diamond-shaped stones, or QUARRELS, shown in Figs. 493 and 583. The latter shows one of the mouths of the cloaca opening on the Tiber. Reticulata fenestra was a window grated over with bars of wood or metal crossing in the form of network.

=Reticulum=, R. Diminutive of rete, a net.

=Retinaculum=, R. (retineo, to hold back). A rope used to moor a vessel to the shore.

=Retorted=, Her. Intertwined.

=Retro-choir=, Chr. Arch. Chapels behind or about the choir.

=Reverse.= The back of a medal. In very ancient coins this had no mark except that of the instrument by which it was fixed to receive the stamp of the obverse. By degrees this grew into a figure of a dolphin or some other animal. Some ancient Greek reverses are intaglios of the stamp in relief of the obverse. Complete reverses appear on Greek coins about 500 B.C., and are of exquisite execution. (Cf. OBVERSE.)

=Revinctum= (opus), R. (revincio, to bind fast). Dove-tailed masonry. (See Fig. 269.)

=Rhabdion= (lit. a small rod). An instrument used in encaustic painting, with which the wax tints were blended. It was probably flat at one end, and kept heated in a small furnace close at hand. (See Eastlake, Materials, &c., i. 154.)

=Rheda=, R. A roomy four-wheeled carriage, of Gallic origin, with several seats. The driver was called RHEDARIUS.

=Rheno=, Gr. (ῥὴν, a sheep). A sheepskin cloak, covering the shoulders and as far as to the waist, worn by the ancient Germans as a protection against rain.

=Rhingrave.= The petticoat breeches worn in the reign of Charles II. (Planché.)

=Rhomboid.= “An equilateral oblique parallelogram.”

=Rhomphæa=, =Romphæa=, =Rumpia=, R. A sword with a long blade, used by the Thracians.

=Rhyton=, Gr. and R. (ῥυτὸν, lit. flowing). A drinking-vessel of earthenware in the form of a horn or trumpet; in many instances with a handle.

=Rial= or =Royal= (Sp. real). A Spanish coin introduced into England in 16th cent. (See REAL.)

=Riband= or =Ribbon= (Welsh rhibin; Irish ruibin, &c.). A long narrow web of silk worn for ornament or use; especially for a badge of devotion in love or war.

“See in the lists they wait the trumpet’s sound: Some love-device is wrought on every sword, And every ribbon bears some mystic word.” (Granville.)

The Ribbons of the various orders of Knighthood are:—of the GARTER, a broad dark blue ribbon passing over the left shoulder; of the THISTLE, a broad dark green ribbon; of St. PATRICK, a light blue; of the BATH, red; of the STAR OF INDIA, pale blue with white borders.

=Ribbon=, =Riband=, Her. A diminutive of a BEND.

=Ribibe.= A kind of fiddle; 15th century.

=Ribs=, Arch. Projecting bands on ceilings, &c.

=Rica=, R. A square piece of cloth with a fringe, worn by priests and women on the head, and especially by the former when they were offering a sacrifice; ricula was a smaller veil worn in the same fashion. (Cf. FLAMMEUM.)

=Rice-paper.= A delicate vegetable film brought from China, and used as a substitute for drawing-paper in the representation of richly-coloured insects or flowers, &c.

=Ridels.= French word for bed-curtains; 15th century.

=Rimenato=, It. (See CRUSCA.)

=Ring Mail.= Flexible armour of iron rings interwoven; introduced from the East by the Crusaders.

=Rings.= The symbolic use of signet-rings is mentioned in many passages of the Holy Scriptures, especially as a transfer of authority; as Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. xli. 42), Ahasuerus to Haman, &c. A large collection of Egyptian signet-rings is in the British Museum, many being much too large to be worn on the hand. EGYPTIAN rings were of ivory, porcelain, or stone, but generally of gold. The ETRUSCANS and SABINES wore rings at the foundation of Rome, 753 B.C., those of the former being remarkable for beauty and intrinsic value. The LACEDÆMONIANS wore iron rings. The ROMANS also under the Republic were proud of wearing an iron ring; under the Empire the privilege of wearing a ring raised the wearer to the equestrian order. GREEK and ROMAN rings were, generally speaking, massive and simple, and of obvious value in metal and stone, until in the degenerate times of the Empire luxury spread, and the lower classes began to disfigure themselves with cheap jewellery. Solid rings were carved out of rock-crystal in Christian times; and others were made of stone, chiefly of calcedony. Rings of amber, glass, earthenware, and other materials were exhumed at Pompeii. The BRITONS and SAXONS had beautiful jewellery. The former wore the ring on the middle finger; the Anglo-Saxons on the third finger of the right hand, which was thence poetically called the “golden finger.” A beautiful specimen of enamelled art is the gold ring of Ethelwulf, king of Wessex (the father of Alfred the Great), now in the medal room of the British Museum. Among the niello rings of the Saxon period is one in the British Museum inscribed “Ahlreds owns me, Eanred engraved me.” Plain wire rings, or plain bands of metal merely twisted round the finger, are common objects in Saxon tombs; but the most beautiful specimens of this, as of other branches of the goldsmith’s art in antiquity, are from IRELAND. In SCANDINAVIA the earliest forms are spiral, and of simple workmanship. RINGS were a part of the official jewellery of kings, bishops, and cardinals; and the fisherman’s ring, with a representation of St. Peter in a boat fishing, was the papal ring of investiture. A copious literature on this special subject deals with the superstitions, ceremonies, customs, and anecdotes connected with finger-rings, as well as with their exemplification of the history of the development or decadence of art. A collector divides his rings into Antique, Mediæval, and Modern; the former period ending A. D. 800, and classified by nationalities. The later collections are classified as Official: ecclesiastical, civil, and military; or Personal, viz. signet-rings, love and marriage, mourning, &c.; historical, religious (i. e. devotional, &c.), magic, and simply ornamental. (The substance of the above is drawn from Finger-ring Lore, &c., by W. Jones, Chatto, 1877; and Antique Gems, by the Rev. C. W. King. For the significance of rings in connexion with the history of Christianity, see Smith and Cheetham, Dict. of Christ. Ant. s. v.)

=Rinman’s Green.= (See COBALT.)

=Rip-rap=, Arch. A builder’s term for a foundation of loose stones.

=Riposo=, It. The rest of the Holy Family during the Flight into Egypt is often shortly designated the Riposo; it is treated by different masters in a great variety of styles.

=Riscus=, R. (ῥίσκος). A wardrobe or chest for clothes.

=Rising=, =Roussant=, Her. Said of birds about to take wing.

=Rivers=, Chr. The four rivers of Paradise are variously represented in primitive Christian art; e. g. the LAMB standing on a mountain, from which they flow; or they are personified, and symbolize the four Evangelists: the Gihon is St. Matthew; Pison, St. John; Tigris, St. Mark; and Euphrates, St. Luke. The following lines in one instance accompany such a representation on an engraved copper plate:—

“Fons paradisiacus per flumina quatuor exit; Hec quadriga levis te Χρε per omnia vexit.”

In CLASSIC art generally, rivers are personified as half-prostrate figures reclining upon an urn, and marked by certain attributes; e. g. of the Nile, a hippopotamus; of the Tiber, a wolf suckling Romulus and Remus; other rivers by the flora or by certain cities of their banks, &c. (Consult Didron, Iconographie Chrét.; Martigny, &c.)

=Roan.= (1) A kind of leather much used for bookbinding; it is of sheepskins tanned with sumach. (2) Said of a bay or sorel horse marked with grey.

=Robigalia=, R. Roman festivals held every year on the sixth of the calends of May (25th of April), in honour of the god Robigus, to preserve the wheat from mildew.

=Roborarium= (robur, strength). An enclosure within a wooden palisade.

=Robur=, R. The subterranean dungeon of a prison (carcer), in which criminals were executed. In Fig. 588 the character of the robur is clearly seen; it is that of the prison of Ancus Martius and Servius Tullius at Rome, of which some ruins still remain.

=Rochet=, Chr. (Lat. rochetum; Anglo-Saxon roc, a loose upper garment). A short surplice without sleeves, open at the sides; imitated from a linen outer garment of the same name, much worn by women in the 14th century. Chaucer says,—

“There is no clothe sytteth bette On damoselle than doth rokette.”

=Rock-crystal.= A material much used for carving in China. Fortune says, “Fine specimens of rock-crystal, carved into figures, cups, and vases, are met with in the curiosity shops of Foo-chow-foo. Some of these specimens are white, others golden yellow, and others again blue and black. One kind looks as if human hair was thrown in and crystallized. Imitations of this stone are common in Canton, made into snuff-bottles, such as are commonly used by the Chinese.” The GREEK name (κρύσταλλος, ice) refers to the belief that it was frozen water; the INDIANS believe it to be the husk of which the diamond is the kernel, and call it the unripe diamond; in JAPAN it is cut into round balls used for cooling the hands; in CHINA also it is extensively carved; in the MIDDLE AGES it was highly valued throughout EUROPE as a detector of poison. Still more recently crystal balls have been supposed to have magical influence, and used for divination and conjuring.

=Rockets=, O. E. Slabs of wood used on lances, during exercise, for the same purpose as the buttons of foils.

=Rococo=, It. The style of decoration into which that of the Louis Quinze period culminated, distinguished for a superfluity of confused and discordant detail. (See LOUIS XV.)

=Rod.= In measurement, 16½ feet linear, or 272½ square feet.

=Rodomel=, O. E. The juice of roses, mixed with honey.

=Rogus=, R. A funeral pile when in process of burning, in contradistinction to PYRA (q.v.).

=Rokelay=, O. E. A short cloak.

=Roll-moulding= (Arch.), profusely used in the Early English and Decorated styles, is a round moulding, divided longitudinally along the middle, the upper half of which projects over the lower. Roll and fillet moulding is a roll-moulding with a square fillet on the face of it.

=Rolls of Arms.= Heraldic records of ancient armorial insignia, preserved on strips of parchment. The earliest known are of the 13th century. (Consult Boutell.)

=Romal=, Hind. A silk fabric, of which cotton imitations are made in England.

=Roman Architecture= is a combination of the Etruscan and the Greek, principally distinguished from the latter by the circular arch, and the monopteral or circular temple unknown to the Greeks, but a favourite form with the tomb-building ancestors of the Etruscans. The orders of Roman architecture were the Doric and Ionic, detrimentally modified; the Corinthian, which they greatly enriched; and the Composite, of which the upper part of the capital was Ionic, and the remainder Corinthian. The distinguishing feature of the Roman architecture is, however, less in the modifications of the orders, than in their application in composite arcades, or plain arches of Etruscan design, faced by and supporting a purely ornamental arrangement of a long horizontal entablature on two columns. (Consult Fergusson, Hist. of Arch., vol. i.)

=Roman Doric Order of Architecture.= A deteriorated imitation of the Grecian Doric, adopted, with considerable modifications, by modern Italian architects.

=Roman Ochre= or =Italian Earth=. A pigment of a rich orange yellow, used both raw and burnt in oil and water-colours. (See OCHRE.)

=Roman Sepia= is sepia (q.v.) mixed with red.

=Romanesque.= A degenerated and hybrid style of architecture and ornament, transitional from the classical Roman to the introduction of the Gothic. In the architecture there is an incongruous combination of the horizontal and arched methods of construction; and in the ornament a similar dissonance of natural and conventional or fanciful objects. Fairholt calls it the classic rococo. Fergusson (Hist. of Arch., vol. i. p. 352) defines the Romanesque as “that modification of the classical Roman form, which was introduced between the reigns of Constantine and Justinian, and was avowedly an attempt to adapt classical forms to Christian purposes.” He says, “If Romanesque is to be applied to our Norman architecture, the Parthenon ought to be called Egyptianesque, and the Temple at Ephesus Assyrianesque.” There seems to be no universally-received definition of this term.

=Rondache=, Fr. A round shield for foot-soldiers. It had a slit near the top to look through, and another at the side for the sword.

=Ronde Bosse= (It. rondo bosso). Sculpture in relief with a complete rounded outline, detached from the ground.

=Rood=, Chr. (1) A cross or crucifix. (2) A space of 1210 square yards; the fourth of an acre. (3) In building, 36 square yards of work. (4) As a linear measure variable, from 21 feet to 36 yards.

=Rood-beam=, Chr. The beam across the church by which the rood was supported when there was no rood-loft.

=Rood-cloth=, Chr. The veil by which the large crucifix or rood was hidden during Lent.

=Rood-loft=, =Rood-screen=, Chr. A gallery, generally placed over the chancel screen in parish churches, in which the cross or rood was set to view.

=Rood-tower=, =Rood-steeple=, Chr. Arch. A tower or steeple of a cruciform church, built above the intersection, i. e. immediately over the rood.

=Roquelaure.= “A short abridgment or compendium of a cloak, which is dedicated to the Duke of Roquelaure.”

=Rorarii=, R. (ros, the dew). A body of light skirmishers in the Roman army, who were ranged in the second rank of the triarii, with the accensi behind them in the third line. They took their name from the light missiles which they scattered upon the enemy, which were like the drops of rain before a thunder shower. It was their business to begin the attack, and retire behind the triarii when pressed. Their skirmishing was a prelude to the charge of the heavy-armed spears (hastati).

=Rosary=, Chr. A string or chaplet of beads for numbering prayers, an Oriental and ante-Christian custom of great antiquity. They are called tasbih by the Indian Mohammedans; in Sanscrit Japanata, “the muttering chaplet,” &c.

=Rose=, Her. Represented in blazon without leaves. The rose of England is generally drawn like the natural flower, or with natural stem, branches, leaves, and buds, but with heraldic rose-flowers. (See Fig. 395.) In Classic art, a rose upon a tomb is an emblem of a short life. The ancient Romans were passionately fond of roses, and cultivated them assiduously in their gardens, and introduced them plentifully in their feasts and symposia. In mediæval England roses were the favourite presents on birthdays; and Whitsuntide was called, from the plenty of them, Rose Easter. Sticking a rose in the ear was the boast of an accepted lover.

“That in mine ear I durst not stick a rose, Lest men should say, Look where three farthings goes.” (Shakspeare.)

The allusion refers to a thin silver coin of the reign of Elizabeth, called the three-farthing rose. (Planché.)

=Rose-engine Pattern= (Fr. guillochis). (1) An architectural moulding, also called Greek fret, meanders, and quirked torus. (2) In goldsmiths’ work it is an ornament of network made by means of a machine called a rose-engine. (Bosc.)

=Rose Lake=, =Rose Madder=. A rich tint prepared from lac and madder. (See MADDER.)

=Rose Pink.= A coarse kind of lake; a delicate and fugitive colour. (See PINKS.)

=Rose-quartz.= A massive quartz of a rose-red colour, common in Ceylon.

=Rose-window= (sometimes called a Catherine wheel), Arch. A large circular window divided into compartments by curved mullions. The most beautiful examples are met with in churches of the Florid Gothic period. (Fig. 591.)

=Rose-wood=, =Rhodes-wood=, largely used in furniture as a favourite veneer, is a name applied to a large variety of trees, mostly imported from Brazil.

=Rosemary=, in Old England, was closely connected with wedding-feasts and with funerals.

“There’s rosemary: that’s for remembrance; pray you, love, remember: and there is pansies; that’s for thoughts.”

(Hamlet.)

“There’s Rosemarie; the Arabians justifie, It comforteth the braine and memorie.” (A Dialogue between Nature and the Phœnix, by R. Chester, 1601.)

=Rosetta-wood.= A beautifully-veined East Indian wood, of a bright red orange colour.

=Rosettes.= (See RIBANDS.)

=Rosins.= (See RESINS.)

=Rosso Antico=, It. Ancient marble of a deep red tint, probably deepened in colour by antiquity, like the NERO ANTICO (q.v.). It is the material of many ancient Egyptian and early Greek sculptures, unequalled in tone by the products of any modern quarries. It contains white spots and veins.

=Rostrum=, R. (Gr. Embolos). The prow of a ship. The plural rostra was used to denote a tribune in the Roman forum, from which orators addressed the people; it was so called because it was decorated with the figure-heads of the ships taken from the Volscians in the Latin War.

=Rota=, R. (1) A wheel composed of a nave (modius), spokes (radii), felloes (absides), and iron tires (orbes or canthi ferrarii). (2) It was also an instrument of punishment. Rota aquaria was a hydraulic wheel; rota figularis, a potter’s wheel.

=Rotta= (Germ. rotte; Eng. rote), a stringed instrument of the early Middle Ages, sounded either as a harp or a fiddle.

=Rotunda.= A dome-shaped or monopteral (q.v.) structure. The largest rotunda ever made was that of the Vienna Exhibition in 1873.

=Rouelle=, Fr. (lit. a small wheel). A French term which has been applied by antiquaries to numerous objects more or less resembling a wheel, such as brooches and coins. The Gallic coin (Fig. 592) is from the bas-reliefs on a Roman arch at Orange.

=Rouennais Faience.= This style, of strongly Oriental character, and mostly applied to the decoration of what are called “lambrequins” (or mantlings) and “dentelles” (lace), has been the object of universal imitation in France and other countries. Figs. 593 and 594 are representative specimens remarkable for great originality.

=Rouge Croix=, =Rouge Dragon=. Two of the four Pursuivants (heralds of the lowest type) of Herald’s College.

=Rouge Royal=, Arch. A kind of red marble.

=Round Towers.= There are upwards of a hundred in Ireland, of which about twenty are perfect. Generally the tower is a hollow circular column from 50 to 150 feet high, capped by a short pointed roof of stone. The base, frequently of cyclopean masonry, measures from 40 to 60 feet in circumference, and the form of the whole tower is tapering towards the summit. The single entrance door is always from 8 to 15 feet above the ground; the windows, scattered, light the internal stories or rooms. Innumerable and wild conjectures of the origin and purpose of these towers have been made. The most sober appears to be that they were the earliest form of buildings of a monastic order, adapted to the exigencies of a Christian settlement in the midst of pagans and pirates. (See Petrie, The Round Towers of Ireland.)

=Roundels.= (1) Wooden platters decorated with painting and gilding; 16th century. (2) Small round shields borne by soldiers in the 14th and 15th centuries. (3) Arch. The bead or astragal moulding.

=Roundle=, Her. A circular figure in Heraldry, of which there are many kinds: as the BEZANT, PLATE, TORTEAU, &c. (q.v.). In modern Heraldry a roundle gules is called TORTEAU; azure, HURT; sable, PELLET or OGRESS; vert, POMME; purpure, GOLPE. (See also FOUNTAIN, ANNULET.)

=Roussant=, Her. About to fly.

=Rowan-tree=, Scotch. The mountain ash.

=Rowel.= The wheel of a spur.

=Rowel Lights=, Chr. Lights in a church, let up and down by a pulley, especially a star-like light made to move at the Epiphany, when the coming of the wise men was acted as a religious play. Any small hoop or ring movable on the place that holds it is a “rowel.”

=Rowell= or =Ricel=, O. E. A vessel mentioned, but not described, in Church records (of Walberswick, Suffolk), to be used twice in the year; “whereby, and the great quantity of Wax and Frankincense, a ceremonial Imitation of the Birth and Burial of our Saviour seems to have been celebrated.” (Gardner, T., Historical Account.)

=Royal.= (1) Paper: 21 inches by 19. (2) Artillery. A very small mortar. (3) Sailing. The upper sail above the top-gallant. (4) O. E. A RIAL (q.v.), a coin of the value of ten shillings.

=Royal Blue= (Fr. bleu du roi). A vitreous pigment used in porcelain painting, resulting in a rich, deep blue colour. It is prepared from smalt.

=Rubelite.= A precious stone not much used for jewellery. It is a species of tourmaline, red and pink in colour.

=Rubens Brown.= A rich brown pigment.

=Rubiate.= A name for Liquid Madder Lake (q.v.).

=Rubicelle.= An orange-coloured stone, a variety of the spinel ruby.

=Rubrica=, R. Red ochre; and thence rubric, an edict or ordinance of the Civil Law written in red ochre, while the ordinances and rules of the prætors were written in black on a white ground on the ALBUM (q.v.).

=Ruby=, in Christian art. (See RED.)

=Ruby= or =Red Sapphire=. A corundum, the most valuable of all gems; when perfect and large, exceeding even the diamond in value. The colour varies from the lightest rose tint to the deepest carmine. The most valuable tint is called “pigeon’s blood,” a pure deep rich red, without any admixture of blue or yellow. Brahmin traditions speak of the abode of the gods lighted by enormous rubies; and one name of the Kings of Pegu was “Lord of Rubies.” In mediæval times the ruby was regarded as an amulet against poison, plague, sadness, evil thoughts, wicked spirits, &c. It also kept the wearer in health, and cheered his mind, and blackened when he incurred danger. (Consult Emanuel, Diamonds and Precious Stones, &c.)

=Rudder.= On ancient coins, &c., with the orb and fasces, emblem of the supreme power.

=Rudens=, R. The smaller ropes in a ship.

=Rudiarii.= Veteran gladiators discharged from the service by the presentation of a wooden sword (rudis).

=Rudis=, R. (1) A spoon or similar instrument. (2) A wooden sword. (See RUDIARII.) When a gladiator received his discharge, a rudis was given him, together with a freedman’s cap, by way of declaration that he had been granted his liberty, a fact expressed by the phrase rude donari.

=Rue=, Her. A chaplet of rue is blazoned bend-wise (see PER BEND) across the shield of Saxony. (See CRANCELIN.)

=Ruffles.= Lace frills worn over the wrists, introduced temp. Henry VIII.

=Ruff and Honours.= An ancient game of cards from which Whist is derived.

=Ruffs.= Large collars of lace or muslin. A fashion of the 16th century; it commenced at the end of the reign of Henry VIII. Cambrics and lawn for making ruffs were first imported under Elizabeth. For illustrations of various modifications of this fashion, see Figs. 267, 283, 304, 559, 561, 580, &c. (Consult Planché, Cycl. of Costume.)

=Rugæ=, Chr. The metal cancelli or screens of the more sacred parts of a church. The presbytery of St. Peter’s was fenced in with silver “rugæ,” and the confessional with rugæ of gold. (See Smith and Cheetham.)

=Rullions=, Scotch. Shoes made of untanned leather.

=Rum-swizzle.= “The name given in Dublin to a fabric made from undyed foreign wool, which, while preserving its natural property of resisting wet, possesses the qualities of common cloth.” (Simmonds’ Commercial Dict.)

=Rumex=, R. A weapon of similar character to the SPARUM, the head of which was formed like a spear with a hook on the blade.

=Runcina=, R. A carpenter’s tool of the nature of a plane.

=Runco=, R. A hoe.

=Runes=, Scand. Magical inscriptions in a character believed by the northern nations to have been invented by Woden. “The Runic alphabet,” says Mr. Wheaton, “consists properly of sixteen letters, which are Phœnician in their origin.... They are only Roman, with the curves changed into straight lines for the convenience of engraving on hard substances.” (Hist. of the Northmen, p. 61.)

=Ruskie=, Scotch. A coarse straw hat; a basket or beehive of plaited osiers or straw.

=Russells=, O. E. A kind of satin.

=Russet.= A red grey colour; violet mixed with orange. Its complementary is green grey.

=Rust= (oxide) of iron. “The best rust” is mentioned in a list of colours of the 17th century. (Brown, Ars Pictoria, Appendix, p. 5.)

=Rustic Work= (Fr. bossage). Ashlar masonry, the joints of which are worked with grooves or channels to render them conspicuous; sometimes the whole of the joints are worked in this way, and sometimes only the horizontal ones. (See Fig. 597.)

=Rustre=, Her. A LOZENGE pierced with a circular opening.

=Rustred Armour= seems to have grown out of the ring armour. It consisted of one row of flat rings about double the usual size, laid half over the other, so that two in the outer partly covered one.

S.

=S=, as a numeral, was used to represent 7; as an abbreviation it generally means socius or Fellow (of a society); S. P. Q. R., on Roman monuments, stands for senatus, populusque Romanus.

=Sabanum=, R. (σάβανον). A kind of cloth, towel, or napkin.

=Sabaoth=, Heb. Armies; hosts of angels. It is also written Zabaoth.

=Sabatines=, O. E. (1) Steel armour for the feet; 16th century. (2) Slippers, or clogs.

=Sabianism.= The worship of the heavenly bodies.

=Sable.= (1) The best and most costly brushes for painting are made from this fur. (2) In Heraldry, the colour black, represented in engraving by crossed lines. (See Fig. 375.)

=Sabre=, Fr. A curved sword with a broad and heavy blade.

=Sabretasche=, Fr. A pocket worn, suspended, from the sword-belt, by a cavalry officer.

=Sac-friars.= (See SACCUS.)

=Sacciperium=, R. A large sackcloth bag. A pocket.

=Saccus=, R. (σάκκος). A large sack of coarse cloth for wheat, flour, &c. (2) A beggar’s wallet. (3) Chr. (Angl. sack). A coarse upper garment of sack or hair-cloth, worn by monks; hence called SAC-FRIARS. (Cf. SACQUE.)

=Sacellum=, R. (dimin. of sacrum). A small precinct enclosing an altar, and consecrated to a divinity. In Christian architecture, small monumental chapels within churches.

=Sachem.= The chief of a tribe of North American Indians.

=Sackbut=, O. E. (9th century). A wind instrument resembling the trombone.

=Sacque.= Part of a lady’s dress in the reign of Louis XIV. It was a silk cloak, and hung from the shoulders, spreading over the dress to the ground. In England it was worn in part of the reign of George III. (Fig. 598.)

=Sacrarium= (sacrum, holy). A place in which sacred things are kept; the sacristy in a temple. In a private house a place used as a chapel or oratory.

=Sacring Bell=, Chr. A hand-bell rung at the elevation of the Host.

“Her eye was as bright as the merry sunlight, When it shines on the dewy grass; And her voice was as clear as a sacring bell, That is rung at the holy mass.”

(See also SANCTUS BELL.)

=Sacristy=, of a church, the apartment where the vestments and vessels are kept.

=Sacro Catino=, It. An extraordinary hexagonal glass dish preserved in the cathedral at Genoa, which was for a long time supposed to have been formed of a single emerald; and to have been either, “a gift from the Queen of Sheba to Solomon, or the dish which held the Paschal Lamb at the Last Supper,” &c. It was obtained in the Crusades in 1101, and was for many generations an object of superstitious reverence. Its principal interest now is in the evidence it bears to the early perfection of the art of making and colouring glass.

=Sadda=, Pers. (lit. a hundred gates). An abridgment of the Zend-Avesta or sacred books of the ancient Persians.

=Saddle-bars.= Said of small iron bars, in glazing casements, to which the lead panels are fastened.

=Saddle-roof=, Arch. A roof of two gables. (French, en batière.)

=Safety-arch=, Arch. An arch in a wall over a door or window, to keep the weight of the wall above off the lintel.

=Safflower.= A delicate red colour obtained from the flower of that name.

=Saffron= (It. zafferano). Produced from the flowers of the crocus; a yellow pigment principally used as a glazing.

=Saga=, R. A woman skilled in religious mysteries; and thence a witch or sorceress.

=Sagaris=, Orient. (σάγαρις). A two-edged axe, also called bipennis; it was used by the Amazons, Massagetæ, and Persians. (See BIPENNIS.)

=Sagena=, Gr. and R. (σαγήνη). A large fishing-net; modern seine. It was fitted with leaden weights at the bottom and corks at the top.

=Sagitta=, R. (1) An arrow; primitively with heads of flint, afterwards of bronze and iron. The heads of the arrows of the Greeks and Romans were oval; among other nations they were triangular and barbed, like those carried by the SAGITTARIUS in Fig. 599. This kind of arrow was called sagitta hasta or adunca. (2) A lancet for bleeding animals.

=Sagittarius=, R. An archer; a sign of the zodiac, represented as a centaur. (Fig. 599.) In Christian art, a symbol of Divine vengeance.

=Sagma=, R. (σάγμα). A wooden pack-saddle.

=Sagmarius=, R. A beast of burden carrying the sagma.

=Sagochlamys=, R. A military cloak which combined the Roman sagus and the Greek chlamys.

=Sagus= or =Sagum=, Celt. A woollen cloak with a long nap, worn folded and fastened round the neck by a clasp, especially by soldiers on a campaign (Fig. 44); hence saga is a sign of war, as toga is of peace. At a later period the same name was given to a kind of blouse, striped or checked in staring colours, and adorned with flowers and other ornaments, and bordered with bands of purple and gold and silver embroidery, worn by the Gauls in Artois and Flanders.

=Saic=, Turk. A sailing vessel common in the Levant.

=Saie=, O. E. A delicate serge or woollen cloth.

=Saints-bell=, O. E. for SACRING BELL.

=Salade=, =Sallet=. A light helmet resembling the KETTLE-HAT (Fig. 407), introduced from Germany in the 15th century.

=Salam-stone.= A name given to the blue or oriental sapphire from Ceylon.

=Salamander=, Chr. In Christian art, a symbol of fire, and supposed to live in fire; or, according to Pliny, “to quench it as if ice were put into it.” In Heraldry it is either represented as a lizard, or as a kind of dog breathing flames. Fig. 600 is the device of Francis I. of France, with a motto implying that a good prince nourishes that which is good, and expels the bad. At the meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold, the king’s guard at the tournament was clothed in blue and yellow, with the salamander embroidered thereon.

=Salamander’s Hair.= The variety of asbestos called amianthus.

=Salet=, O. E. A light helmet. (See SALADE.)

=Salic Dances.= (See SALII.)

=Salient=, Her. In the act of leaping or bounding, the hind-paws on the ground, both the fore-paws elevated.

=Salinum=, R. (sal, salt). A salt-cellar.

=Saltatio=, R. (salto, to dance). Dancing; applied to religious dances, gymnastic or war dances, CORYBANTIC, SALIC, MIMETIC or theatrical dances, &c.

=Saltire= or =Saltier=, Her. An ordinary in the form of St. Andrew’s Cross. The illustration (Fig. 601) is “argent a SALTIRE gules.”

=Salutatorium.= (See RECEPTORIUM.)

=Salute at Sea.= The English claim the right, formerly claimed by the Venetians, of being saluted first in all places, as sovereigns of the seas. The naval salute to the British flag began in the reign of King Alfred.

=Sambuca=, R. (σαμβύκη). (1) A stringed musical instrument, which varied in form, but resembled a harp. (2) Military. A scaling-ladder.

=Sam-cloth=, O. E. (needlework). A sampler. “A sam-cloth, vulgarly a sampler.”

=Samit=, for =Exsamit= (ἑξ, six; μίτοι, threads). A splendid tissue, having six threads of silk in the warp, and the weft of flat gold shreds.

=Sammaron-cloth=, O. E. A woven mixture of linen and hemp.

=Samnites.= Gladiators armed like the Samnite soldiers, with a close helmet, shield, and greaves.

=Sampan.= A Chinese canoe or small boat.

=Sampler= (Lat. exemplar). A piece of ornamental needlework, done for a sample or specimen.

=Sanctus Bell=, Chr. (1) A fixed bell rung at the elevation of the Host, at the words “sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Deus Sabaoth.” It was fixed outside the church, generally on the eastern gable of the nave. (See SACRING BELL.) (2) In the absence of a fixed bell, small bells carried by acolytes, often the subject of rich ornamentation, sometimes consisting of a carillon of three small bells hidden within one large one, thus blending their sounds.

=Sandal.= (See CENDAL.)

=Sandal-wood.= Ornamental wood highly valued for cabinet-work; when old it becomes yellow and highly odoriferous.

=Sandalium=, Gr. and R. (σανδάλιον). A richly ornamented sandal worn exclusively by women.

=Sandapila=, R. A rough kind of bier for the poor. (See LECTICA.)

=Sandarac.= A resin used for spirit varnishes.

=Sandyx=, Gr. (σάνδυξ). A Lydian tunic, of a fine and transparent texture, dyed with the juice of the sandyx, which gave it a flesh-coloured tint.

=Sang-réal= (Saint Graal). The Holy Grail said to have been brought to England by Joseph of Arimathea. The legend is that it is an emerald cup, or the cup used at the Last Supper, containing the real (or it may mean “royal”) Blood (sang-réel or réal).

“The cup, the cup itself, from which our Lord Drank at the last sad supper with his own.” (Tennyson.)

=Sanglier=, Her. A wild boar.

=Sanguine.= A deep blood colour, prepared from oxide of iron.

=Sanguinolentæ= (sc. ampullæ). Glass vessels found in the catacombs at Rome, containing a red sediment, ascertained by analysis to be blood; and canonically pronounced by the Roman Church to be that of the early Christian martyrs in whose tombs it has been found. (The subject is discussed at length by V. Schultze: die Katakomben, Leipzig, 1882.)

=Sanhedrim=, Heb. The supreme council of the Jews, which sat at Jerusalem in a circular hall, one half of which was within the temple, and the other outside. (Bosc.)

=Sap-green.= The only green vegetable pigment; used in water-colour painting. Obtained by evaporating the juice of the berries of the buckthorn, mixed with lime.

=Sap-wood.= The soft white wood immediately under the bark of a tree.

=Sapphire= (Syriac saphilah). The oriental sapphire from Arabia, which has been known from the earliest antiquity, was one of the stones on the breastplate of Aaron, and was dedicated to Apollo by the Greeks, by whom it was regarded as the gem of gems—the sacred stone par excellence. The sapphires from Brazil are also called oriental sapphires. The sapphires of Puy, found in a mountain in Central France, vary from the deepest to the palest blue, passing sometimes to a reddish blue or even to a yellowish green. The sapphire, although extremely hard, has been engraved by the ancients. There is a beautiful sapphire among the crown jewels of Russia, representing a draped female figure: the stone is of two tints, and the artist has skilfully used the dark tint for the woman and the light for the drapery. (L. Dieulafait.)

=Sapphire=, in Christian art. (See BLUE.)

=Saraballa=, =Sarabara=, Gr. and R. (σαράβαλλα). Loose trousers, which reached from the waist to the instep, worn by the Parthians, Medes, and Persians.

=Saraband=, Sp. A slow dance derived from the Saracens; the music for sarabands, by Corelli and other old masters, is interesting. (See Chappell’s History of Music, &c.)

=Saracenic Architecture=. (See ALHAMBRAIC, MOORISH, MORESCO-SPANISH.)

=Sarapis=, Pers. (σάραπις). The tunic of the kings of Persia; it was made of a fine purple-coloured cloth, with a white band in front embroidered with gold.

=Sarcenet.= A fine thin woven silk. An improved cendal, introduced in the 15th century by the Saracens of the south of Spain; hence its name. (See CENDAL.)

=Sarcilis=, Chr. A woollen garment—not described.

=Sarcoline= (Gr. σὰρξ, flesh). Flesh-coloured.

=Sarcolite.= A stone of a rose-flesh colour.

=Sarcophagus=, Gen. (σαρκοφάγος; σὰρξ, flesh, and φαγεῖν, to eat). A coffin of a limestone called Lapis Assius, in which the corpse was rapidly consumed. The great sarcophagus called “of Alexander the Great,” in the British Museum, is a celebrated specimen. (See BISOMUS, QUADRISOMUS, and TRISOMUS.)

=Sard= or =Carnelian=. A brownish-red variety of chalcedony.

=Sard-achates.= A name given by the ancients to varieties of agate, which contained layers of Sard or carnelian.

=Sardonic Laughter.= A distortion of the features of the dying, the closing symptom of several fatal diseases; named from the poisonous herb Sardonia.

=Sard-onyx.= A precious stone composed of alternate layers of carnelian and chalcedony; extensively used for gem-engraving.

=Sardel=, =Sardine=, =Sardius=. A precious stone mentioned in Scripture in the description of Aaron’s breastplate.

=Sarissa=, Gr. (σάρισσα). The longest and heaviest spear of the Greeks peculiar to the Macedonian phalanx.

=Sarrazinois Carpets.= Embroidered stuffs resembling tapestry, made in the 10th and 11th centuries, doubtless imitated from work by the Saracens.

=Sarsen-stones.= Boulders of sandstone found on the Chalk downs in Wiltshire.

=Sarsnet.= (See SARCENET.)

=Sartago=, R. A frying-pan; in the patois of Languedoc, sartan.

=Satin.= This fine silk, originally imported from China, was first known in England in the 14th century. It is thicker than ordinary silk, and remarkable for its smooth glossy surface, not exhibiting the marks of the reticulations of the threads.

=Satin-spar.= An ornamental stone, having a soft satiny surface when polished.

=Satin-wood.= An ornamental yellow wood much used in cabinet-making.

=Satinet.= A thin kind of satin.

=Saturn=, Her. The black colour in the arms of sovereign princes.

=Saturnalia=, R. Festivals of Saturn, held on the seventh of the calends of January (14th of December), instituted by Numa. During the four or five days that this festival lasted, both public and private business was interrupted; and banquets and festivities were held, in which masters and slaves met on a temporary footing of equality. In the feasts at rustic places, the hollow statue of Saturn was filled with oil; he held a pruning knife in his hand, and his feet were surrounded with a band of wool.

=Satyrs.= Greek deities of the wooded plains, as the Roman fauns were of the fields. They are usually represented as the attendants of Bacchus, or the lovers of the Nymphs, with goat’s legs and horns, and human bodies covered with short hair; often with LACINIA on the neck.

=Saunders’ Blue= (=Green=) (from the French cendres’ bleu). The blue ashes of calcined lapis lazuli. (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.)

=Saurians.= Animals of the lizard tribe, crocodiles, &c., antediluvian and other.

=Savage-man= or =Wood-man=, Her. A wild man, naked, or clothed in skins or leaves, and carrying a club. The illustration is the device of De Chaumont, Marshal of France (+ 1510), with the motto, “Mitem animum agresti sub tegmine scabro,” which he bore embroidered on the pennon of his company.

=Savonnerie.= (See TURKEY-STITCH.)

=Saxon Blue.= Sulphate of indigo used as a dye-stuff.

=Saxon Gold-work= of elegant design and skilful workmanship, may be attributed to the 5th and 6th centuries. The art was doubtless imported by Roman colonists. Specimens may be studied in the South Kensington Museum. (See METALLURGY.)

=Scabellum=, R. (dimin. from SCAMNUM, q.v.) (1) A stool or step to get into bed with. (2) A shoe with a castanet in the sole, with which the wearer beat time, as an accompaniment to music.

=Scagliola= (It. scaglia, a chip of marble). Artificial marble made of gypsum, glue, &c., of variegated colours, in imitation of marble, applied in ornamental work like stucco, but admitting a fine polish.

=Scalæ=, R. (scando, to climb). A ladder or staircase.

=Scald=, Scand. A poet or bard.

=Scaldino=, It. A copper.

=Scale=, in Music (It. scala, a ladder). (See TONES.)

=Scalmus=, R. (σκαλμός). The thole, or strong peg with a thong, with which an oar was attached to the side of a ship.

=Scalper=, =Scalprum=, R. (scalpo, to cut). A general term for all kinds of cutting tools, such as chisels, knives, &c.

=Scalptura.= Engraving in precious stones. (See INTAGLIO, CAMEO.)

=Scamnum=, R. (scando, to climb). A stool for a bed or arm-chair, or a stone bench with a step.

=Scandula=, R. A wooden shingle used for tiles (tegulæ).

=Scansoria Machina= or =Scansorium=, R. (scando, to mount). A scaffolding, such as a tower, which enables work to be carried on at various heights from the ground.

=Scantling.= In Masonry, the size of a stone, in length, breadth, and thickness. In Carpentry, the dimensions of a timber in breadth and thickness only. Any piece of timber less than five inches square is called scantling.

=Scapha=, R. (σκάφη, i. e. dug out). A long-boat or cutter attached to a larger vessel; obviously, from the etymology, a sort of canoe in its origin; our “skiff.”

=Scaphium=, R. (σκάφιον). A vessel of Greek origin and of small size, and in the form of a boat (scapha), which, though used as a drinking-cup, is especially to be classed among sacrificial utensils.

=Scapple.= In Masonry, to reduce a stone to a straight surface, without making it smooth.

=Scapulary=, Chr. A part of the monastic dress, worn by both sexes over the shoulders (scapula). It is generally a narrow strip of cloth contrasting with the colour of the dress, reaching almost to the feet.

=Scapus=, Gr. and R. (σκᾶπος). A shaft or stem. This term is applied to several distinct things, which all, however, imply an idea of use in support of some other thing; as, for instance, the shaft of a column, which supports a capital, and occasionally an entablature; the central shaft or newel which supports the staircase of a column; the stem of a candelabrum or lamp-rest, and so on.

=Scarabæus= (Egyp.), or sacred ateuchus, is an attribute of Phtha, and the symbol of creation. Under the name of Kheper (creator), the scarabæus was given to the soldiers in exchange for their oath of fidelity, and worn by them as a finger-ring. With wings extended (as in Fig. 603) it is a funereal ornament.

=Scarlet.= (See IODINE SCARLET.)

=Scarlet Ochre.= (See VENETIAN RED.)

=Scarpe=, =Escarpe=, Her. A diminutive of a bend sinister.

=Scauper.= A tool used by engravers; a kind of gouge. (Angl. scooper.)

=Scena=, Gr. and R. (σκηνή). (1) The stage of a theatre, including not only the part so called at the present day, but the wall at the back, which was provided with three doors, one in the centre (valvæ regiæ), and two lateral ones (valvæ hospitales). (2) A double-edged axe, used in the sacrifices; one of the iron sides of this axe had the broad blade of the securis, and the other that of the dolabra. In the sense of “an axe,” scena is the contracted form of an old Latin word sacena.

=Scene-painting= was invented by Inigo Jones, about 1610.

=Scenographia=, R. (σκηνο-γραφία). The drawing of a building in perspective. A geometrical plan is called orthographia.

=Sceptre=, Gr. and R. (σκῆπτρον). Originally, in early antiquity, a long staff similar to the shaft of a spear, which was carried by great persons to lean on when walking. Afterwards it became the truncheon, and a weapon of offence and defence. Later on, an ornament was added to the upper end of this staff, and it became the insignia of power and authority. The ivory sceptre of the kings and consuls of Rome was surmounted by an eagle. The sceptre was an attribute of Jupiter and Juno, as sovereigns of the gods.

=Schafte=, O. E. (See SHAFT.)

=Scheele’s Green.= A green pigment; an arsenite of copper; arsenite of potash mixed with sulphate of copper; used in oil and water-colours.

=Scherzo=, It. (playful). A lively style in music; faster than the minuet (such as in Beethoven’s Second Symphony, op. 36, in D major).

=Schleswig Lace.= North Schleswig (or South Jutland) is the only province of Denmark in which there was a regular manufacture of lace. The art itself is supposed to have been introduced, in 1515, by Queen Elizabeth (sister of the Emperor Charles V., and wife of Christian II. of Denmark). About 1712 lace-making was much improved by Brabant women. The earlier specimens are all of Flemish character, made on the pillow in the same way, occasionally imitating the Mechlin ground with the pattern apparently run in with the needle. All Schleswig laces are remarkable for their fine quality and excellent workmanship. The engraving shows part of a shirt-collar of Christian IV., of a Brabant pattern to be seen in his portrait in Hampton Court Palace.

=Schmeltz=, Germ. Glass ornament; produced by fusing lumps of coloured glass together to imitate marble, cornelian, and other stones. (See GLASS.)

=Schweinfurth’s Green.= A brilliant sea-green pigment.

=Scimitar.= (See SCYMETAR.)

=Scimpodium=, Gr. and R. (σκιμπόδιον, lit. footprop). A couch or long chair for an invalid.

=Scintillant=, Her. Emitting sparks. (See Fig. 342.)

=Sciolist= (from σκιὸς, a shadow). A man of superficial acquirements, who sees only the shadows of things.

=Scioptics= (σκιὰ, a shadow). The branch of the science of optics applied in the construction of the camera obscura.

=Sciothericon= (σκιοθηρικόν). A sun-dial.

=Scipio.= An official staff. (See SCEPTRE.)

=Scirophoria.= Athenian festivals held in the month Scirophorion or June.

=Scirpea=, R. A waggon formed of basket-work of plaited rushes (scirpus), and used principally for agricultural operations.

=Scobina=, R. (scabo, to scrape). A rasp for wood; distinct from lima, a file for metals.

=Scobs.= Shreds of ivory, metals, &c., turned off the lathe or rasp, &c.

=Sconces.= Brackets projecting from the wall, supporting candlesticks: originated in the 15th century, and from that date form an important branch of metallurgical art-work.

=Scopæ=, R. A broom made of small twigs of wood. This term survives in the Languedoc escoube.

=Scopulæ=, R. A little broom.

=Scorpers.= In wood-engraving, tools used for cutting away large spaces after outlining or engraving, so as to leave only the drawing in relief.

=Scorpio=, Gr. and R. (lit. a scorpion). (1) A kind of cross-bow. (2) A pyramid of stones raised for a landmark in country places.

=Scotia= or =Trochilus=, Arch. (σκοτία, τροχίλος). A concave moulding employed especially in the decoration of the bases of columns or pilasters, between the fillets of the tori. In plain bases the scotiæ are smooth, and in decorated bases they are ornamented with sculptures, as shown in Fig. 605.

=Scourge.= (See FLAGELLUM and FLAGRUM.)

=Scraper.= An engraver’s tool for removing BURRS (q.v.).

=Screen=, Chr. An open barrier of wood-work or stone enclosing the choir or chancel of a church, chapel, or tomb; generally highly enriched by carving and gilding, and the lower panels decorated with painting. (See ROOD-LOFT.)

=Scrinium=, =Scrinia=, Chr. and R. (1) Chr. A chest which held chiefly liturgical writings; according to the writings they contained, these cases were variously distinguished as scrinia epistolarum, scrinia dispositionum, scrinia libellorum, scrinia memoriæ, scrinia sacra, &c. Scrinia were generally kept in the diaconicum or scevophylacium. (2) Cylindrical boxes or cases used for carrying volumes (i. e. rolls) and papers (cf. HANAPER). (3) Scrinia unguentaria were used to contain phials of oils and perfumes, &c., for the toilette.

=Scriptorium=, Chr. An apartment in large monasteries where manuscripts were transcribed.

=Scripulum.= (See SCRUPULUM.)

=Scrupulum=, R. (scrupus, lit. a small stone). A scruple, the smallest Roman gold coin; it weighed a third of the denarius aureus. (See DENARIUS.)

=Scrutoire=, Fr. An old way of spelling escritoire.

=Scudo=, It. A silver coin worth about 4_s._ In Rome the gold scudo is worth 65_s._

=Sculponeæ=, R. A common kind of boot, with a wooden sole; it was worn by the familia rustica, or slaves who worked in the country.

=Sculpture= (from sculpo, to carve) includes all carved work, in wood, ivory, stone, marble, metal, or other material; and also those works formed in a softer material not requiring carving, such as wax or clay. It includes STATUARY, carved ornament, and GLYPTICS or incised gems and cameos. From the practice of preparing the model in clay, sculpture is also called the plastic art. A most remarkable incident in the history of sculpture, is the fact that the most ancient specimens are carved of the hardest stones, such as basalt, granite, and porphyry; and that this work was done at a period antecedent to the introduction of steel tools. (Consult Redford’s Ancient Sculpture.)

=Scumbling.= The process of going over a painting with a nearly dry brush, to soften and blend the tints.

=Scutage=, O. E. (from scutum, a shield). A tax upon lands held by knight-service.

=Scutale=, R. (from scutum, i. e. shield-shaped). The hollow in the thongs of a sling in which the missile is laid.

=Scutarius=, Med. An esquire or shield-bearer.

=Scutcheon=, for ESCUTCHEON (q.v.).

=Scutella.= Diminutive of SCUTRA (q.v.).

=Scutica=, Gr. and R. A whip made with a leather thong (σκυτικός).

=Scutiform.= Shaped like a shield.

=Scutra=, R. (from scutum, i. e. shield-shaped). Diminutive scutella. A square wooden tray for plates, dishes, and cups.

=Scutum=, R. and Egyp. The large oblong shield of the Roman infantry, in contradistinction to clipeus, a round shield. (See SHIELDS.)

=Scymetar.= A sword of oriental origin, with a curved blade, very sharp.

=Scyphus=, Gr. and R. (σκύφος). A drinking-cup of wood or silver, of smaller capacity than the BROMIAS (q.v.). It was sacred to Hercules.

=Seals.= Ancient porcelain seals, to which the Chinese attribute an antiquity of from 1000 to 2000 years, are met with in collections; and precisely identical specimens have been found in the bogs of Ireland. They are of a peculiar white or cream-coloured porcelain, such as has not been made in China for several hundred years. It is believed that the Irish specimens must have lain buried there from a period anterior to history. (Fortune.) (See SIGILLUM, RINGS.)

=Seax.= A Saxon sword.

=Secco=, It. Fresco-painting in secco is that kind which absorbs the colours into the plaster, and gives them a dry sunken appearance. (Fairholt.)

=Second Distance.= In a picture, the part of the middle distance next the foreground.

=Secondary Colours.= The three primary colours (containing nothing of any other colour)—blue, red, and yellow—when mixed in equal proportions produce three secondary colours:—blue and yellow produce green; blue and red, violet; and yellow and red, orange. Mixed in unequal proportions they produce what are called TONES (q.v.).

=Secos=, Egyp. (σηκός). The name for the NAOS in an Egyptian temple.

=Secretarium=, Chr. (secretum, secret). A sacristy (not a tabernacle, as maintained by some authors) in the apse, at the side of the altar. In the ancient basilicas there were two such recesses, one on each side of the altar.

=Sectilis.= (See PAVIMENTUM.)

=Securicula= (diminutive of securis). In Architecture, a dove-tail mortise.

=Securis=, R. (seco, to cut). An axe or hatchet of any kind; but esp. that borne by the lictors in the FASCES. (See DOLABRA, BIPENNIS, FASCIS, &c.)

=Securis Dannica=, Med. (See BIPENNIS.)

=Secutores=, R. Gladiators appointed to fight with the Retiarii (whom they were constantly pursuing round the circus); or those who replaced others killed were so called.

=Sedes=, =Sedile= (dimin. sedicula). Any kind of seat.

=Sedilia.= (1) R. The rows of seats in the amphitheatre. (2) Chr. In a Catholic church, the stone seats on the south side of the altar, for the use of the clergy in the intervals of the services.

=Segestrium=, R. (lit. of straw). A coarse wrapper made of skins or straw-matting.

=Segmenta=, R. (seco, to cut off). Strips of rich cloth or tissues of gold or silver worn as a border to the dresses of wealthy Roman ladies.

=Segno.= In Music, a direction to repeat:—al segno, as far as the sign; dal segno, from the sign.

=Segreant=, Her. A griffin or wyvern rampant. (See Fig. 369.)

=Sejant=, Her. Sitting:—of a lion, at rest with his fore-legs stretched on the ground, but awake, and his head and tail elevated.

=Sejant Rampant.= Seated like a cat, with his fore-legs erect.

=Sejugis=, R. (sex, six, and jungo, to join). A chariot drawn by six horses abreast.

=Seliquastrum=, Chr. A seat of highly archaic character met with on certain monuments of Christian art.

=Sella=, R. (sedeo, to sit). A low seat without back, a stool; sella curulis, a curule chair; its feet were of ivory, and took the form of an X, and it folded like a camp-stool; sella castrensis, a real camp-stool; sella balnearis, a bath-seat, we possess a specimen in ancient red marble of the greatest beauty, another name for it was sella pertusa; sella tonsoria, a barber’s chair. Again, the term sella was applied to a sedan-chair (sella portatoria, gestatoria, fertoria), and a pack-saddle for beasts of burden (sella bajulatoria), and to a riding-saddle (sella equestris).

=Sellaria=, R. A large reception-room, so called because it was furnished with a number of sellæ.

=Sellaris= (sc. equus), R. A saddle horse.

=Sellula=, R. (dimin. of SELLA). A small sedan-chair.

=Sembella=, R. A nominal subdivision of the denarius, of which it was worth a twentieth part, or about fivepence.

=Semée= or =Aspersed=, Her. Sown broadcast, or scattered, without any fixed number, over the field. (Fig. 608.)

=Sementivæ=, R. (sementis, a sowing). A festival which took place at seed-time in honour of Ceres and Tellus.

=Semi-= (ἡμι-), as an adjunct, is the Greek form of demi = half.

=Semibreve.= In Music, half a breve; the longest note in modern music, marked [Semibreve symbol].

=Semicinctium=, R. (semi, half, and cingo, to gird). A short kilt worn by men when going through violent exercises or severe bodily labour; it reached from the waist to the knees.

=Semidiapason.= In Music, an octave lessened by a semitone.

=Semiquaver.= A sixteenth of a semibreve—[Semiquaver symbol].

=Semis=, =Semissis=. The half of an As, or six ounces; hence Semisses = six per cent. interest.

=Semita=, R. (se and meo, i. e. going aside). A pathway in a field; a narrow lane in a town.

=Semitarge=, Med. Fr. A scimitar. (See TARGE.)

=Semitone.= In Music; the smallest interval in modern music; the ancients had quarter-tones (q.v.).

=Semi-uncials.= During the 6th and 7th centuries, a transition style of illuminating prevailed, the letters of which have been termed semi-uncials. This, in a further transition, became more like the old Roman cursive, which was called then minuscule; it began to prevail over uncials about the 8th century, and in the 10th its use was established. (See UNCIAL LETTERS.)

=Semuncia.= Half an ounce.

=Senaculum=, R. A place in which the senate used to meet. There were at Rome three senacula; one between the Capitol and the Forum, a second near the Porta Capena, and a third near the temple of Bellona.

=Senio=, R. The number six inscribed on the face of dice, and thence the throw when all the sixes turned up.

=Sentina=, R. The well or hold of a ship.

=Sentinaculum=, R. A ship’s pump.

=Sepia.= A warm, brown, water-colour pigment obtained from the ink-bag of the cuttlefish. (See ROMAN SEPIA.)

=Sept-foil=, Chr. A figure of seven foils, typical of the seven sacraments of the Church, and other mysteries of religion linked to the number seven.

=Septilateral.= Having seven sides.

=Septimontium=, R. A festival of the seven hills, celebrated at Rome in December.

=Septizonium=, =Septemzonium=, R. A building of great magnificence, which had seven stories of columns one above the other; each set supported an entablature and cornice running right round the building (zona), whence the name Septizonium.

=Septum=, R. and Chr. (sepio, to fence in). In general, any enclosure shut in by walls, palisades, barriers, hedges, &c. In Christian archæology, septum was the name given to a barrier, which, in the ancient Roman basilicas, separated the nave from the absides.

=Septunx=, R. (septem and uncia). Seven-twelfths of any quantity, whatever its nature.

=Sepulchre=, Chr. The Holy Sepulchre is a favourite subject of architectural sculpture, in cathedrals and continental churches. It is generally found on the north side of the chancel near the altar.

=Sepulcrum=, R. (sepelio, to bury). A sepulchre, the general term for any kind of tomb in which the dead were buried, or in which their ashes were deposited in urns. Sepulcrum familiare, a sepulchre erected for a single person, or for the members of a family. The sepulcrum commune was a tomb held in common by a number of persons belonging either to a single family, or several families, or a group of individuals, such as that given in Fig. 182, which represents the tomb of the freedmen of Octavia.

=Sequin= (It. zecchino). A gold coin in Italy, worth about 9_s._ 6_d._; and in Turkey worth about 3_s._ 6_d._

=Sera=, R. (sero, to fasten). A padlock or movable lock to a door.

=Serapeum=, Egyp. (σαραπεῖον). A general term for sepulchral monuments in Egypt, but more especially that of Memphis. (Bosc.)

=Seraph=; pl. =Seraphim=, Heb. (See ANGELS, CHERUBIM.) “They are usually represented with wings and a flaming heart, to typify spiritual emotion and divine affection; or covered all over with eyes, to denote their knowledge of all human events as counsellors of the Most High. The Seraph’s head in Heraldry, is usually delineated with six wings, two above and two below, which cross each other, and one on each side of the head.” (Fairholt.)

=Serges=, Chr. Fr. The large wax candles used in churches. They are often covered with texts and devices.

=Seria=, R. An earthenware vessel used chiefly for holding wine and oil; it was larger than the amphora, and smaller than the dolium.

=Serpent.= A musical wind instrument, of a powerful bass; invented by a French priest at Auxerre in 1590.

=Serpent.= (1) In Christian archæology an emblem of the principle of evil; the Virgin Mary is frequently represented trampling on the head of the serpent. It is especially a symbol of cunning, lying, and envy. (2) Generally. The serpent with its tail in its mouth describes a circle which is the symbol of eternity. In Classic Art it is an attribute of Æsculapius, and of Apollo; and a symbol of the Genius Loci (esp. of temples, &c.).

=Serpentine Verses= begin and end with the same word:

“Ambo florentes ætatibus, Arcades ambo.”

=Serrated.= Having an edge like the teeth of a saw (serra).

=Set-offs=, Arch. The mouldings and slopes on buttresses, dividing them into stages.

=Setting= drawings in pencil or crayon is done by simply passing them through a dish of milk, or by washing the surface with a weak solution of isinglass.

=Severey=, Arch. A bay, or compartment in a vaulted ceiling.

=Sèvres Porcelain.= The celebrated manufactory at Sèvres was established in 1756. Soon afterwards it became the property of the king, Louis XV., and was much patronized both by him and Madame de Pompadour. Some of the first artists of France were employed to decorate the plaques and vases, and the productions of this factory are more highly prized than any others in the world. In 1870 three jardinières were sold by auction in London for over 10,000_l._ The finest colours of this porcelain were the bleu du roi and the rose de Pompadour.

=Sewer.= (See CLOACA.)

=Sextans=, R. (sextus, sixth). A copper coin worth the tenth of an as, in weight about two ounces (unciæ).

=Sextant.= The sixth part of a circle; an arc of 60 degrees.

=Sextarius=, R. (sextus). A measure of capacity used for liquids, grain, &c.; it held the tenth of a CONGIUS (q.v.).

=Sextertius=, R. A coin originally of silver, and afterwards of fine copper (aurichalcum); it was worth two ases and a half.

=Sextula=, R. The sixth part of the ounce (uncia); the smallest denomination of Roman money.

=Sforzato= (It.). In Music; with force, louder than the rest.

=Sfregazzi= or =Sfregature=, It. By this term is meant a peculiar thin kind of glazing, which is executed by dipping the finger into the colour, and drawing it once lightly and evenly along the part of the picture on which it is to be applied—such as the shade on the cheek, the limbs, &c., or wherever it is wished to lay a soft thin shadow. (Consult Mrs. Merrifield, Ancient Practice of Painting, vol. ii. p. 879.)

=Sgraffito=, It. (lit. scratched). A method of painting on stucco, in which a ground of dark stucco is covered with a coat of white, and the design is formed by scraping this away for the shadows. (Consult an article by Mr. Alan Cole in the House Furnisher and Decorator, May 10, 1873.)

=Shackle= and =Padlock=, Her. A badge of the Yorkist party during the wars of the Roses; called also a FETTER-LOCK.

=Shades.= (See UMBRÆ.)

=Shaft=, Arch. The part of the column comprised between the base and the capital.

=Shaft=, O. E. The May-pole. May-poles seem to have existed in most villages until the Civil War. They were abolished by an ordinance of the Long Parliament, April 6, 1644, as heathenish vanities “generally abused to superstition and wickednesse.”

=Shaftman=, O. E. A measure roughly six inches; “the measure of the fist with the thumb set up.” (Ray, 1674.)

=Shagreen.= A grained leather prepared from the skin of a species of shark, and stained green. A close imitation is made from horses’ or asses’ skins, in Russia, and dyed red, blue, or black.

=Shalm= or =Shawm=. A musical instrument, a pipe with a reed in the mouth-hole.

=Shamrock=, Her. A trefoil plant or leaf, the badge of Ireland.

=Shard=, O. E. A piece of broken pottery. (It has other meanings. Consult Halliwell.)

=Shay-le=, Chin. A relic of Buddha.

=Sheaf.= (1) A bundle of ripe corn bound up in the field; the device assumed by Alfonso d’Avalos, when he was made captain-general of the army of Charles V., with the motto implying incessant devotion to his work,—that, as soon as one harvest is reaped, its successor must be sown. (2) A bunch of twenty-four arrows, enough to fill a quiver.

=Sheep.= In Christian art, the twelve apostles occur in early mosaics as twelve sheep, and our Lord in the midst as their Shepherd.

=Shekel.= A Jewish coin, value about 2_s._ 6_d._

=Shell=, Chr. In Gallic as in Christian tombs shells are of frequent occurrence; there is no doubt that they symbolize the resurrection, the body of man being looked upon as a shell which he leaves behind him at death. Different kinds of shell are met with, but that of most frequent occurrence is the common snail-shell (helix pomatia). (See ESCALLOP.)

=Shell-cameos.= Cameos carved on shells. These are certain conch shells or strombs, the substance of which consists of two distinct layers of different colours. The black conch offers the most decided contrast in the colours.

=Shell-lac.= Crude lac-resin melted into plates or shales. (See LAC.)

=Shenti=, Egyp. A short pair of drawers, fastened round the hips by a belt, worn by the ancient Egyptians.

=Shepherd’s Crook.= (See PEDUM.)

=Shepherds.= (See HYCSOS.)

=Shingles.= Wooden tiles; frequently used for church spires.

=Ship.= A symbol of the Church. (See NAVETTE.)

=Shoes.= The shoes worn by the Greeks generally reached to the middle of the leg; the ROMANS had the calceus and the solea or sandal; the former was worn with the toga on ordinary occasions; the sandal on a journey or at a feast; but it was considered effeminate to appear in public with them. Black shoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank (see ATRAMENTUM, CHALCANTHUM), and white ones (sometimes red) by the women; on ceremonial occasions the magistrates wore red shoes. Patricians and their children wore a crescent shoe-buckle (see LUNA). Slaves went barefooted. The Jews had shoes of leather, wood, &c., tied with thongs passed under the soles of the feet; to “untie the latchets” of a man’s shoes was a sign of deep subservience. In ancient as in modern times the Oriental peoples put off their shoes as we uncover the head. (Consult Herbert Spencer on Ceremonies.)

=Shop.= (See TABERNA.)

=Shrine.= A repository for relics; either fixed, as a tomb; or movable, as a feretory. (See Fig. 307.) The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral is one of the most celebrated and costly in the world. (Fig. 612.)

=Sibina=, =Sibyna=, Gr. and R. (σιβύνη). A kind of boar-spear employed in hunting.

=Sibylline= (Books), R. The Sibylline books were a series of oracles of the destiny of the Roman Empire; they were three in number, and were placed by Tarquin in a vault of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and were consulted in cases of difficulty by an order of the senate. They perished in 670 A.U.C., when the Capitol was burnt. A set of Sibylline oracles in existence, which predict very clearly the establishment of the Christian religion, have been ascertained to be a forgery of the 2nd century of the Christian era.

=Sibyls=, Gr. and R. (Σίβυλλα). Prophetesses of antiquity recognized by the ancient Christian Church, and a common object of symbolical ecclesiastical sculpture, with reference to their foreknowledge of the fulfilment of inspired prophecy; they are twelve in number, having each a proper emblem. (Cf. Smith and Cheetham.)

=Sica=, R. (dimin. sicilla). A curved dagger or scimitar; distinct from PUGIO, a straight dagger. It was the weapon preferred by thieves and assassins on account of the convenience of its shape for concealment. (From this word our English sickle is derived.)

=Siccative.= A synonym for DRYING (q.v.).

=Sicilis=, R. A sickle.

=Sienite.= A statuary marble from Syene (Assouan) on the Nile.

=Sienna=, =Terra di Sienna=. A brown pigment. (See OCHRES.)

=Sigilla=, R. (dimin. of signum, an image), (1) A seal or signet. (2) Small sculptured or moulded bosses, used to decorate vases or architecture. (3) Small statuettes, called also SIGILLARIA.

=Sigillaria=, R. (1) The last days of the festival of the Saturnalia, when sigilla, or statuettes of gold and silver or terra-cotta, were offered to Saturn, and amongst the people, as presents to each other.

=Sigillatus=, R. Ornamented or decorated with sigilla. (See SIGILLUM.)

=Sigla=, It. (contraction of sigilla). A conventional sign used instead of a word or phrase; such as = for equal to, and + for plus; A.U.C. for ab urbe conditâ, &c.

=Sigma=, R. A semicircular couch, so called because it assumed the form of the Greek Σ, which was originally written like our C. Hence, the seat which ran round the walls of the PISCINA in a bath. (See STIBADIUM.)

=Signa Militaria.= (See ENSIGNS.)

=Signature=, in printing, is a letter put at the bottom of the first page in every sheet, as a direction to the binder in collating them.

=Signets.= (See RINGS.)

=Signinum= (opus), R. A kind of concrete for floorings, invented at Signia, and formed of broken tiles consolidated with mortar, and levelled with a pavior’s beetle.

=Signum=, R. A general term for any kind of sign or mark by which anything can be recognized; such as an image or figure, the intaglio on a ring, the sign of a shop, or a military standard or ensign (signa militaria), as represented in Fig. 665.

=Silex=, R. In general a flint or flint-stone, and thence, by extension, any kind of hard stone hewn into polygonal blocks, as shown in Fig. 613.

=Silhouette=, Fr. A profile portrait, or representation of the shape contained in the outline of an object, with no attempt to fill in the parts.

=Silicernium=, Gr. and R. A funeral feast in honour of the dead.

=Silicious Wares.= (See POTTERY.)

=Sill= or =Cill= of a window or door. The LIMEN INFERIUS (q.v.).

=Silver.= The history of working in silver is identical with that of Goldsmiths’ work in general. (See GOLD.) Pollen remarks that though Phidias and his contemporaries made great statues of gold, many artists who devoted themselves mainly and altogether to working in the precious metals executed their best work in silver. Silver was also largely used for the surfaces of mirrors, which were hung on the walls of temples. The best collection of antique silver plate was found at Hildesheim, in Germany, in 1869, and is now in the Berlin Museum. The silver stoup (Fig. 615) belonging to the Corporation of Norwich, is of the time of Elizabeth. The illustration (Fig. 614) of the silver dish and ewer at St. John’s College (1670), is representative of the change that the goldsmiths’ style underwent about the middle of the 17th century, after which time the light and graceful leaf work gave way to heavier designs. (Consult Pollen, Gold and Silversmiths’ Work.)

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