The seven books of Paulus Ægineta, volume 3 (of 3) (part 1 of 3)

The seven books of Paulus Ægineta, volume 3 (of 3)

THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY

INSTITUTED MDCCCXLIII

LONDON MDCCCXLVII.

THE SEVEN BOOKS OF PAULUS ÆGINETA.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK.

WITH A COMMENTARY EMBRACING A COMPLETE VIEW OF THE KNOWLEDGE POSSESSED BY THE GREEKS, ROMANS, AND ARABIANS ON ALL SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE AND SURGERY.

BY FRANCIS ADAMS.

IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. III.

LONDON PRINTED FOR THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY MDCCCXLVII.

PRINTED BY C. AND J. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD VOLUME.

I think it necessary to say a few words in explanation of the reason why the reader will find in the Commentary contained in this, my concluding volume, some deviation from the plan upon which the Commentaries in the two preceding volumes were executed.

In the Advertisement to the First Volume it is stated that, by the advice of the Council of the Sydenham Society, I had restricted the history which I gave of professional opinions on the various subjects treated of in the course of my work to what is properly called the period of ancient literature, and to this rule it will accordingly be observed that I have generally adhered, except in a few instances, where a departure from it seemed to be demanded for the sake of illustration, or for some other special object. But in dealing with the subject-matter of the present volume, namely, the Materia Medica and Pharmacy of the ancients, it became apparent to me from the first that a different plan of proceeding was indispensable, otherwise the usefulness of the whole work to the ordinary reader would be very much impaired. It is well known how frequently the nomenclature of the sciences connected with these subjects has changed, and what differences of opinion have prevailed with regard to many of the substances used in the practice of medicine by the ancients. In order, therefore, to render the information contained in this and the preceding volumes of ready access for practical purposes, it appeared to me necessary to bring down the annotations to modern times, so that one might see at once what is the exact import of the ancient terms of art, and what the medicinal substances mentioned in the course of the work actually were, according to the nomenclature of the present age. Accordingly it will be found that the Commentary in this volume abounds in references to modern authorities, and contains a variety of materials collected, not only from the earlier herbalists and commentators on Dioscorides, Theophrastus, and other ancient authors, but likewise from recent writers on Botany, Mineralogy, and the Materia Medica, in illustration of the various articles which are treated of in this work. And I have much satisfaction in having it in my power to state that the plan now described has the authority and sanction of the Council, who gave it their entire approval. To Dr. Pereira I owe my grateful acknowledgment for much valuable advice and assistance received from him on this part of my work; but at the same time it is fair to him to state I have no right to make him in anywise responsible for opinions herein advanced which may turn out to be erroneous.

And now, having brought my laborious undertaking to a conclusion, I would embrace the present opportunity of returning my most sincere expression of thanks to the Council for the honour which they conferred upon me in selecting my work for publication, and for the very flattering terms in which they speak of the first volume in the Annual Report of their proceedings for 1845. I trust that whatever degree of merit they discovered in it will be found not to be wanting in the succeeding parts, and that, taken together, the three volumes will be acknowledged to constitute a more copious repertory of ancient opinions on professional subjects than is to be found elsewhere. If such be the judgment which the intelligent members of the Sydenham Society shall generally pronounce on my work, I shall certainly never regret the time and exertions which I have bestowed upon it.

τοιόν δ’ ἀπέβη τόδε πρᾶγμα,

F. A.

BANCHORY, June 21st, 1847.

CONTENTS OF THE THIRD VOLUME.

SEVENTH BOOK.

SECT. PAGE

1. On the Temperaments of Substances as indicated by their Tastes 1

2. On the Order and Degrees of the Temperaments 2

On the powers of simple medicines 6

3. On the Powers of Simples individually 17

Appendix to the Third Section—On the Substances introduced into the Materia Medica by the Arabians 424

4. On Simple Purgative Medicines 480

On those things which evacuate bile 481

Medicines which evacuate black bile 483

Medicines which evacuate phlegm ib.

Medicines which evacuate water 484

On cholagogues 489

On melanogogues 491

On phlegmagogues 492

On hydragogues ib.

5. On Compound Purgatives 493

6. On the Management of those who take Purgative Medicines; and what is to be done to those who are not purged by a proper dose of Purgatives 497

7. On the Treatment of Hypercatharsis 499

8. On the Antidotes called Hieræ 500

9. On Liniments to be applied to the Anus, and purgative Applications to the Navel 502

10. On Emetics 503

Modes of administering hellebore 504

11. On the different kinds of Antidotes 510

12. On Trochisks, or Troches 528

13. On Dry Applications and Abstergents (Smegmata) 536

14. On Liniments to the Mouth and Throat 541

15. On Delicious and Officinal Potions 544

16. On Collyria and Agglutinative Applications 548

17. On Plasters, and those things which are added to the boiling of them, from the Works of Antyllus, and on the proportion of wax to oil 558

18. On Emollient Plasters and Epithemes 576

19. On Restorative Ointments (Acopa), Liniments, Calefacient Plasters (Dropaces), and Sinapisms 581

20. On Different Preparations of Oil and Ointments 589

21. On Œnantharia 598

22. On Perfumes and Cyphi 599

23. On the Preparations of Masucha, which some call Masuaphium 601

24. On Pessaries, from the Works of Antyllus ib.

25. On Medicines which may be substituted for one another, from the Works of Galen 604

26. On Weights and Measures 609

GENERAL INDEX 629

PAULUS ÆGINETA.

BOOK SEVENTH.

In this book, being the seventh and last of the whole work, we are to treat of the properties of all Medicines, both Simple and Compound, and more especially of those mentioned in the six preceding books.

SECT. I.—ON THE TEMPERAMENTS OF SUBSTANCES AS INDICATED BY THEIR TASTES.

It is not safe to judge from the smell with regard to the temperament of sensible objects; for inodorous substances consist indeed of thick particles, but it is not clear whether they are of a hot or cold nature; and odorous substances, to a certain extent, consist of fine particles and are hot; but the degree of the tenuity of their parts, or of their hotness, is not indicated, because of the inequality of their substance. And still more impracticable is it to judge of them from their colours, for of every colour are found hot, cold, drying, and moistening substances. But in tasting, all parts of the bodies subjected to it come in contact with the tongue and excite the sense, so that thereby one may judge clearly of their powers in their temperaments. Astringents, then, contract, obstruct, condense, dispel, and incrassate; and, in addition to all these properties, they are of a cold and desiccative nature. That which is acid, cuts, divides, attenuates, removes obstructions, and cleanses without heating; but that which is acrid, resembles the acid in being attenuant and purging, but differs from it in this, that the acid is cold, and the acrid hot; and, further, in this, that the acid repels, but the acrid attracts, discusses, breaks down, and is escharotic. In like manner, that which is bitter cleanses the pores, is detergent and attenuant, and cuts the thick humours without sensible heat. What is watery is cold, incrassate, condenses, contracts, obstructs, mortifies, and stupefies. But that which is salt contracts, braces, preserves as a pickle, dries, without decided heat or cold. What is sweet relaxes, concocts, softens, and rarefies: but what is oily humectates, softens, and relaxes.

SECT. II.—ON THE ORDER AND DEGREES OF THE TEMPERAMENTS.

A moderate medicine which is of the same temperament as that to which it is applied, so as neither to dry, moisten, cool, nor heat, must not be called either dry, moist, cold, or hot; but whatever is drier, moister, hotter, or colder, is so called from its prevailing power. It will be sufficient for every useful purpose to make four ranks according to the prevailing temperament, calling that substance hot, according to the first rank, when it heats, indeed, but not manifestly, requiring reflection to demonstrate its existence: and in like manner with regard to cold, dry, and moist, when the prevailing temperament requires demonstration, and has no strong nor manifest virtue. Such things as are manifestly possessed of drying, moistening, heating or cooling properties, may be said to be of the second rank. Such things as have these properties to a strong, but not an extreme degree, may be said to be of the third rank. But such things as are naturally so hot as to form eschars and burn, are of the fourth. In like manner such things as are so cold as to occasion the death of a part are also of the fourth. But nothing is of so drying a nature as to be of the fourth rank, without burning, for that which dries in a great degree burns also; such are misy, chalcitis, and quicklime. But a substance may be of the third rank of desiccants without being caustic, such as all those things which are strongly astringent, of which kind are the unripe juice of grapes, sumach, and alum.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The following is a list of the ancient authorities on the Materia Medica and Pharmacy: Hippocrates (pluries); Dioscorides (de Materia Medica); Celsus (v); Scribonius Largus (pluries); Marcellus Empiricus; Pliny (H. N. pluries); Rei Rusticæ Scriptores; Apuleius (de Herbis); Antonius Musa (de Herba Betonica); Macer Floridus; Galenus (de Simpl.; de Comp. Med. sec. loc.; de Comp. Med. sec. gen.); Aëtius (i and ii); Oribasius (Med. Collect. xi et seq.); Sextus Platonicus (de Med. ex animal.); Zosimus Panopolita (de Zythorum confectione); Actuarius (Meth. Med.); Myrepsus (pluries); Psellus (de Lapidibus); Rhases (Contin. liber ult.; ad Mansor. iii); Avicenna (ii, et alibi); Serapion (de Simpl.; de Antidot.); Mesue (de Simpl.); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii and x); Averrhoes (Collig. v); Albengnefit (Libellus de Simpl. med. virt.); Geber (Chemia); Servitor (de Præpar. Med. i. e. xxviii Albucasis); Baitharis Præfatio ap. Casiri Biblioth. Arab. Hisp. p. 276; Ebn Baithar (Uebersetz von Sontheimer); Rei Rusticæ Scriptores Arabici ap. Casiri B. A. H.; Alchindus (Libellus de Med. compos. grad.)

Hippocrates, although he appears to have been familiarly acquainted with the properties of most of the vegetable substances of the Old World, still employed in the practice of medicine, has left no regular treatise on the Materia Medica and pharmacy of his time. Theophrastus has treated more fully and ingeniously of botany and vegetable physiology than any other Greek writer; but except in two or three instances he scarcely alludes to the medicinal powers of the articles which he describes. In short, Dioscorides is the first and great authority on the Materia Medica,—his contributions to which can never be too highly appreciated; for, as Alston justly remarks, the science in ancient times remained ever after in nearly the same state as he left it. The genius of Galen, it is true, shed a considerable degree of lustre over the subject by his philosophical theory regarding the general actions of medicines; but his descriptions of particular substances, and even his detail of their properties, are mostly borrowed from Dioscorides. The Greek authors, subsequent to his time, can scarcely be said to have added one single article to the list of medicinal substances described by him. Aëtius, however, although he can advance no great claim to originality, has given, as we shall see presently, a remarkably lucid exposition of the Galenical principles of therapeutics. Of Pliny’s great work, so replete with the most rare and curious information on almost every department of ancient literature, we feel reluctant to speak otherwise than in terms of unqualified eulogy, and yet candour obliges us to admit that on all medical subjects this writer is but a very indifferent authority. For, being evidently possessed of no practical acquaintance with professional matters, he appears to have been wholly incapable of discriminating real from pretended facts in medicine, and has accordingly jumbled important and useless matter together in many instances with very little judgment, nor can his opinions be much relied upon except when he copies closely from Dioscorides. The same objection cannot be made to his countryman Celsus; but the plan of his work being limited, the account which he gives of these matters is confined to a classification of simple substances, and a few formulæ for the formation of the more important pharmaceutical compounds. The Arabians added camphor, senna, musk, nux vomica, myrobalans, tamarinds, and a good many other articles to the Materia Medica; but, upon the whole, they transmitted the science to us in much the same shape as regards arrangement and general principles as they received it from their Grecian masters. At the same time it is impossible to take even a cursory view of the great work of Ebn Baithar, now fortunately rendered accessible to many European scholars by Dr. Sontheimer’s translation of it into German, without being struck with the amazing industry, enterprise, and talent displayed by that wonderful people in this department of medical science. In this collection, more than 1400 medicinal and dietetical articles are described, many of them no doubt in nearly the same terms as they had been noticed by Dioscorides and Galen, but of original matter relative to substances then for the first time introduced into the practice of medicine, there is no lack; and it is only to be regretted that a proper key to these stores is still a desideratum which it is to be feared will not soon be supplied. Ebn Baithar’s list of medicinal substances, however, is far more copious than those of the other Arabians, who in general follow closely in the footsteps of the Greek authorities, and seldom supply anything very original of their own. For example, the Materia Medica of Rhases contains only 765 articles, and that of Avicenna only 747, which it is to be remarked, is a smaller number than is contained in the work of Dioscorides, wherein Alston states that he counted above 90 minerals, 700 plants, and 168 animal substances, making 958 in all. This is nearly triple the number of simples contained in the Materia Medica of the Edinburgh Dispensatory at the present day, which amount only to 341 articles; so that if this branch of medical science has received any material improvement in modern times, it must arise principally from our superior accuracy in estimating the virtues of the substances now in use, or in making more ingenious compositions of their elementary ingredients. At all events, it is quite clear that the Greek, Roman, and Arabian physicians were amply provided with medicines of every possible character, and there is no reason to suppose that they were in anywise behind us in the skilful management of them. It has been affirmed, indeed, in some late publications which we have seen, that the ancients had never classified the articles in the Materia Medica according to the nature of their actions; but this we need scarcely assure the reader is a very erroneous account of the matter: and in proof of this we could have wished, if our limits had permitted us, to have introduced here some of the classified lists of medicinal substances as given by the ancient authorities, and more especially those of Aëtius and Serapion.

Verum hæc ipse equidem, spatiis inclusus iniquis Prætereo, atque aliis post me memoranda relinquo.

We have mentioned above that Aëtius’s account of the general principles of the Materia Medica is particularly excellent, and we have now to add, that as it is sufficiently explicit to convey a distinct idea of the Galenical system, and is contained within moderate limits when compared with the full and lengthy exposition of it given by Galen himself, we shall give that of Aëtius entire, and confine our annotations almost solely to it in the present instance:—

“On the Powers of Simple Medicines.

“There are differences in the particular actions of medicines, arising from each of them being to a certain degree hot, or cold, or dry, or humid, or consisting of subtile or of gross particles, but the degree in which each of them is possessed of the above-mentioned properties cannot be truly and accurately determined. We have endeavoured, however, to define them in such a manner as will be sufficient for all practical purposes, laying it down that there is one class of medicines possessed of a similar temperament to our bodies, when they have received a certain principle of change and aliation from the heat in them, and that there is another which is of a hotter temperament than we. Of this temperament I have thought it right to make four orders, the first being imperceptible to the senses, and only to be inferred from reflection; the second being perceptible to the senses; the third strongly heating but not burning; and the fourth, or last, caustic. In like manner of frigorific or cooling things, the first order requires reflection to demonstrate its coldness: the second consists of such things as are perceptibly cold; the third is perceptibly cold, but does not occasion mortification; the fourth produces mortification. So it is in like manner with humectating and desiccant articles. Let such an order of degrees be laid down to render clearer the course of instruction, rose oil or the rose itself being placed in the first order of cooling things; the juice of roses in the second, and in the third and fourth those things which are extremely cold, such as cicuta, meconium, mandragora, and hyoscyamus. In regard to hot things, dill and fenugreek belong to the first order; those which are next to them, to the second; and so of the third and fourth, until we come to the caustic. In like manner, respecting moistening and desiccant medicines, beginning with those of a moderate degree, we may arrange them until we come to their extremes. Such knowledge is of no small importance for the purpose of medical instruction. One ought also to exercise the sense of taste, and remember the peculiar qualities of juices; as, for example, that such a substance when applied to the tongue dries strongly, contracts, and roughens it to a considerable depth, such as unripe wild pears, cornels, and the like; every such thing that is intensely austere is called sour. Such things, as when applied to the tongue, do not constringe and contract it like astringents, but, on the contrary, appear to be detergent and cleansing, are called salt. Such things as are more detergent and also rougher in a painful degree, are called bitter. Those things which are biting and corrosive with a strong heat, are called acrid; and such as are biting without heat, are called acid, and these have the power of causing a fermentation when poured upon earth. Of those which lubricate, fill, remove asperities, and, as it were, erosions of the tongue, such as do so with sensible delight, are called sweet; but such as do this without sensible delight, are called fat. If, then, you wish to form a judgment of acrimony, you may learn to do so from garlic, onions, and the like, which are to be frequently tasted and long masticated, in order that the sensation thereby imparted may be fixed in the memory. But if you wish to acquire the perception of astringency, you may do so from galls, sumach, and the like; if of bitterness, from natron and bile; and if of sweetness, from rob and honey. Further, if you would wish to judge of such things as are devoid of all qualities, or of an intermediate quality as to taste, take water, and having tasted it, retain the perception in your memory; but see that it be the purest water, and that it contain none of the aforesaid qualities; neither sweetness, acidity, acrimony, nor bitterness; and, in addition, that it be neither very hot nor very cold. Proceeding from this, you may the more readily perceive the obscure taste of certain juices which I call moderately sweet, but which others call watery; such as the juice of green reeds and of grass, of wheat and of barley, and of moderately sweet things, as resembling what I have described to be of all other things the most devoid of qualities, I mean water, which is in an intermediate state between heat and cold, or inclines a little to cold. If being endowed with such a taste, it have not a liquid but a dry consistence, it must necessarily be terrene and desiccative without pungency. These things are called emplastic, such as starch, and most of the thoroughly-washed metals, as pompholyx, ceruse, calamine, Cimolian earth, Samian earth, and the like. Some are not only terrene, but also watery in their nature; and some contain no little air in them: such are viscid and therefore emplastic. There are two kind of emplastic medicines, the one very terrene and dry, and the other altogether viscid, being composed of water, earth, and, for the most part, of air, such as sweet oil. The white of an egg is similar to oil, but more terrene. The cheesy part of milk is emplastic, and so also the fat of swine. The fat and suet of a bull and a buck-goat are acrid, and more terrene than that of swine. That of a goose or a cock is hotter and drier than that of swine; but of subtile parts, and by no means terrene. The fats then, if they have no acrimony, are emplastic, or obstruent of the pores, more especially if of a drier and more terrene nature, such as well-washed wax. Emplastic medicines then are of such a nature. But astringents are terrene, and with regard to the composition of their particles are thick; but in their qualities they are cold. Acids in composition are attenuating, but cold, like astringents. The terrene particles contained in the juices, which, when melted, contract and dry the humidity of the sentient parts of the tongue, if particularly rough, are called sour; but if less so, austere; and we properly call the temperament of such juices cold. But since they are unequally desiccative—for in this consists their asperity—they are likewise terrene; for every watery substance permeates the body evenly, and when removed it easily coalesces; but what is terrene when removed does not readily coalesce again. And the peculiarity of the sensation, if you will recollect the impression, will testify to the same effect; for the passage of acid juices, in the organs of sensation, appears quick; but that of sour, slow; and acids exert their actions more on the deep-seated parts, whereas sour substances act more superficially. When you wish to ascertain the action of a truly sour substance, if that which is made trial of appear at the same time sour and pungent, I would recommend you to lay that species aside, and to have recourse to something which is sour without being pungent, and neither acid, sweet, nor bitter, but as much as possible having no one quality or power mixed up with its astringency; for it is useless and foolish to make trial of such a medicine, as it cannot be ascertained whether it be by its astringency, or by any of the qualities mixed with it, or by a combination of both, that the substance which is made trial of exerts its action. Therefore, chalcitis, misy, copperas, the flakes of copper, sori, and, in addition to them, the armeniacum pictorium (Armenian pigment), mercury, and other astringent substances which are also at the same time pungent, act by both their properties upon the bodies to which they are applied; but we are not thereby informed whether they burn by their astringency or by their acrimony; for such substances, when taken into the body, being composed of gross particles, and rather hot in their powers, having become ignited in the course of time, according to the change which they undergo in the body of the animal, ulcerate and burn the parts about the stomach like heated stones or irons; and owing to their weight they are incapable of being distributed over the body. It is better, therefore, after much observation, to look out for something that is purely astringent, and when you have found such a substance, make haste to try it in the manner you have formerly heard described; such as having tasted the flowers of the wild pomegranate, galls, or the flowers of the cultivated pomegranate, hypocistis, acacia, sumach, or the like, if the substance appear intensely sour, and it is manifest that it contains no other quality, you must prove the action of astringency from it. A sour substance then is terrene and cold, and its quality may necessarily be removed in three ways; either by being heated, or moistened, or by undergoing both these changes at the same time. If only heated, it will neither become more humid nor softer; but becoming harder it will have acquired sweetness, as is the case with acorns and chesnuts, as they are called. But if only moistened, and if the humidity is of a thick nature and watery, it becomes austere; for the astringent part being dissolved renders the juice austere, it being the property of a watery fluid to obtund the powers of every juice. If a subtile and airy fluid be superadded, it will become acid, for coldness being attenuating will render the former quality acid. When moistened and heated at the same time, if with a watery humidity, it will occasion a change to sweetness; but if with an airy, to fatness; for the fruits of such trees as appear sweet to us when ripened, are, when newly formed, sour and dry in their consistence, each according to the nature of the tree which produced it; but in process of time, they become more humid or juicy; and some get acidity superadded to their sourness, which latter quality when they have laid aside they become again sweet as they arrive at maturity. Some do not acquire sweetness at all while upon the trees, but after a time, when separated from them. Some without the intermediate acidity pass from sourness to sweetness, as the fruit of the olive. All things are concocted by heat, which is of a twofold nature, the one proper and innate, and the other supplied from without by the sun. But, since being sour at first, they become sweet when ripe, their sweetness is occasioned by heat; but their acidity and sourness by cold. And it has already become obvious that as fruits being sour at first, in process of time become, some sweet, some acid, some austere, and some remain sour, that great variety will arise from a mixture of these qualities. Wherefore, the fruit of the ilex, the cornel, and other such things, are sour to the last, because they remain cold and dry as at the beginning, being only increased in size, but acquiring no other internal change. The fruits of the myrtle, the wild pear, and the oak are sweet and sour at the same time; but the fruit of Aminæan vines, wine, and such like things, are only austere. The fruit of the palm tree, and of wines, the Surrentine, and such as have sweetness joined to astringency, are at the same time austere and sweet. The Theræan wine, the Scybelitic, boiled must called rob, and other such like things, are only sweet. The fruit and juice of the olive in particular, but also of all other such things from which oil is formed, are fatty. And as a sour juice in process of time, becoming at first sweeter, and afterward turning more acrid and bitter, ends in becoming wholly bitter; so in like manner, a cold juice becomes at first more acid, and if wholly congealed it turns entirely acid; and such fruits as at gathering are filled with much humidity, and such as otherwise acquire much water, readily become acid from very slight causes. For if the unripe grape is acid, but the ripe sweet, and if all fruits are ripened by the solar heat, it is obvious that what is more imperfect and colder is acid; whereas, what is more perfect and hotter is sweet. When wine, therefore, from refrigeration becomes acid, it is clear that it returns again to the same juice from which it was formed, I mean that of the unripe grape. But vinegar differs thus far in power from the juice of the unripe grape, that the vinegar has acquired a certain degree of acrimony from the putrefactive heat (”fermentation?“); but the juice of the unripe grape has no acquired heat, and therefore none of the acrimony of vinegar; wherefore, vinegar is more attenuating than the juice of the unripe grape, as the sensation bears testimony to the truth of what has been said; but the acrimony of the vinegar is not sufficient to overcome the coldness arising from its acidity; it serves, however, to make it more penetrating; for inasmuch as heat is more penetrating than cold, so does the acrimony of vinegar the more readily pass the pores of sensible bodies, and thus acrimony takes the lead, but coldness follows at no great interval. And it is this mixed and almost indescribable sensation which prevents us from calling vinegar simply cold; for we perceive in it a certain fiery acrimony. But the coldness, from the accompanying acidity, straightway obtunds and extinguishes the acrimony, and therefore there is a much greater sensation from the coldness than from the heat; for some persons by drinking oxycrate in the summer season are sensibly cooled, and remain free from thirst. But since thirst arises from two distinct causes, either from a deficiency of moisture or an excess of heat, that arising from dryness is not cured, but that occasioned by heat is removed by it; for vinegar by itself does not moisten, but is decidedly refrigerant. Thirst, therefore, arising from a hot intemperament, or from a hot and dry one, is not to be cured by drinking vinegar; but when humidity and heat meet together, the proper cure of such a kind of thirst is vinegar; but otherwise in the case of those who are thirsty in ardent fevers and all other hot diseases, and in those during summer and hot weather, their state is a compound of heat and dryness, so that the proper cure for it is a composition of vinegar and water; for the vinegar is decidedly refrigerant, and by its tenuity readily diffusible, and the water, in addition to its property of cooling, is the most moistening of all substances, for nothing is more moistening than water. But as an external application for heat of the hypochondrium, the juice of unripe grapes is preferable to vinegar, because it has no violent and offensive coldness, nor any pungent heat mixed with it; for in such affections persons require to be soothed without violence by an application which will not induce externally any pungent acrimony. The juice of the unripe grape, then, is not only acid but sour; for, as mentioned before, almost all the fruits of trees are at first sour to the taste; and not only are acids cold, but so also are sour and austere things. And if any one will taste quinces, myrtles, or medlars, he will perceive clearly that there is one sensation from acids, and another from sour and austere things; for sour things seem to propel inwards the part which they touch, everywhere equally squeezing, constricting, and contracting, as it were; but the austere seem to penetrate deeply, and to induce a rough and unequable sensation, so that by drying they expel the humidity of the parts of sensation. Thus, between sour and austere juices, there is a certain peculiar difference of sensation not easily to be described, but which everybody must understand from what has been said. Every sour substance, then, when free from all other qualities, I have upon trial always found to be cold; but every sweet substance is hot, and does not greatly exceed the heat in us; and as we are delighted, more especially if we are cold, with the touch of warm water, until it expand the parts congealed by the cold, and as it heats us, and does not dissolve nor break the continuity of the parts, it is very pleasant and useful; so all sweet food is hot, and yet it is not possessed of such a degree of heat as to be unpleasant, but remains within the limits of those things which expand, soften, and are demulcent: for all nutritive food is allied to, and agrees with, the whole substance of the bodies which it nourishes; it requires, therefore, to be moderately hot, so as to agree with the bodies which are nourished; and hence one kind of food and medicine does not agree with all men; for according to his peculiar substance and affection is every one delighted and benefited. And such being the nature of things those kinds of food which are less sweet are less hot, and their heat is proportionate to their sweetness; but these things, when they get to an immoderate degree of heat, are no longer sweet, but appear bitter, such as honey which is old and much boiled, and so also with all other sweet things; for such things as without boiling or preparation are allied to the temperaments of the bodies which they nourish, appear already sweet; but all such as are not allied appear unsavoury until prepared, for those which are hot require to be corrected by cold, and those which are sufficiently cold by the mixture of calefacient food and by heat. In like manner such things as are terrene and drier than proper, are to be corrected by humidity; and those things which are humid and watery, by drying; that which is sweet therefore, in addition to being more or less hot, is necessarily more or less humid. But when this bitterness arises from being over-roasted, as in lime and ashes, it is necessarily rendered dry and hot. For this reason every bitter thing is of such a nature as to prove detergent, and is calculated to break down and to cut viscid and thick humours, and such are ashes and natron; but that bitter sap is dry and terrene, may be collected from the circumstance, that bitter things are of all others the least prone to putrefaction, and do not engender worms nor other animals such as are usually formed in roots, herbs, and fruits when they become putrid; for we see that such animals and putrefactions take place in humid bodies. Those things which are intensely bitter (I call those things such which have no other manifest quality) are uneatable, not only by men, but by almost all animals, because every living creature is more or less humid, and bitter things are dry in like manner as ashes and cinders. As, therefore, that which is truly sweet is nutritive, and that which is purely bitter innutritive, so those things which are intermediate are nutritive indeed, but less so than the sweet. The salt juice is allied to the bitter, for both are terrene and hot; but they differ from one another perceptibly in this, that the bitter is more attenuated and wrought by the heat and dryness; and thus, too, of salts, such as are hard, denser, and more terrene (as are almost all the fossils), are less calefacient and attenuating; but such as are brittle and porous are at the same time more attenuating and hotter; and some of them are bitterish, being intermediate between the hard salts and aphronitrum; and if you will warm any saltish thing to a great degree it will straightway become bitter. Thus, the water of the Lake Asphaltitis, which they call the Dead Sea, being contained within a hollow and hot place, and overheated by the sun, becomes bitter, and for this reason it becomes more bitter in summer than in winter. And if you will draw some of it, and put it into a hollow vessel in a place exposed to the sun during the summer season it will straightway become more bitter than it generally is. For no animals appear to be found in such water, neither plants; and although the rivers which fall into it contain many large fishes, more especially the river near Jericho called Jordan, none of the fishes pass the mouth of the river, and if you will catch some and throw them into the Lake, you will see that they die immediately, and hence it is called the Dead Lake or Sea. Thus, that which is intensely bitter is inimical to all plants and animals, and is of a parched and dry nature, becoming like soot from roasting. Having, therefore, settled the powers of bitter juices, and said that they are cutting, detergent, attenuant, and decidedly hot, to such a degree only as not to burn, we shall next proceed to the acrid; and first we may say of them that they are truly hot, then corrosive, caustic, escharotic, and of a dissolvent nature, when applied externally to the skin; but when taken internally, those which, in their whole substance are adverse to certain animals, are all septic and destructive to them, as the cantharis and buprestis are to men. But such as are distinguished only by excess of their heating powers, if thicker and terrene, as arsenic, sandarach, and the like, we call ulcerative of the internal parts; but if they consist of subtile parts, such as the common seeds, carrot, anise, and the like, they are diuretic, diaphoretic, and, in a word, cutting and discutient; and some are also useful in expectorations from the chest and menstrual discharges. But acrid juices would seem to differ from bitter, not only in possessing strong heat, but also in this, that all bitter things are not only hot but of a dry temperament like ashes, while in such acrid substances as are not bitter, there is often much humidity mixed, and therefore we use no few acrid things as articles of food. But since enough has been said respecting all the juices, it still remains to treat of the vapours. Most of the vapours, then, affect us similarly to the juices; for all acids, and likewise vinegar itself, move the senses of smell and taste in like manner; and acrid things, as garlic, onions, and the like, are pungent and offensive to the smell, no less than to the taste; so that, without tasting certain things, such as dung, we are confident that we know its quality, and therefore at once we abstain from them, because we repose confidence in the sense of smell. And of fragrant things, such as have become putrid and offend the smell, we straightway throw away, and do not attempt to taste; and in short, with regard to almost all things, the smell and taste are found to agree; and we refer each of them to two classes, calling the most of those substances which have smell, odorous, and fetid, and considering the odorous analogous to sweet things, and the fetid to such as are not sweet to the tongue, it would appear that from bodies which have no smell there is but little emitted, or at least that it is disproportionate to their bulk, as is the case with salt and sour things in particular; for the substance of sour things is of a dense and cold nature, so that it is natural that what is emitted from them should be small in quantity, thick, and terrene in its parts, so as not to reach the brain in respiration. Hence it is not safe to judge of their temperament from the smell as it is from the taste: for we know that things which are inodorous consist of thick particles, but it is not apparent how they are as to heat and cold; and that fragrant things consist of subtile particles, and are hot in their nature; but it is not shown by the smell but by the taste what is the degree of their tenuity and heat. The inequality of their substance is the cause why fragrant things give no certain indication of temperament; and therefore it is not safe to judge of all the qualities of the rose from its smell; but in taste all the parts of the bodies which are tasted fall equably upon the tongue, and each excites a sensation agreeably to its nature, namely, the sour part in it which is terrene consists of thick particles and is cold; the bitter, which consists of subtile parts and is hot; and third, the watery, which is necessarily cold. It is not safe then, as has been said, to form a judgment of all the powers of simple substances from the smell; but it is still more impracticable to estimate simple medicines from their colours; for hot, cold, dry, and humid substances are found of every colour. And yet from the colour of every kind of seeds, roots, or juices it is possible to derive a certain indication of their temperament. For example, onions, squills, and wine, the whiter they are, are the less hot; but such as are of a yellowish and intermediate colour are hotter. And wheat, vetches, and kidney-beans, and chick-peas, the root of iris, that of kingspear, and many others, are similarly affected. In each genus, for the most part, such things as are gold coloured, red, and of a bright yellow, are hotter than the white, so that if any conjecture can be formed therefrom of the powers of medicines, it is so far well. It is best then, as has been often said and demonstrated, to determine the powers of each by exact experiment, for by this you cannot be deceived; but before ascertaining their powers by experiment, the taste will give many indications, in which it will be assisted in a small degree by the smell.” (Præfatio in Aëtium.)

For a fuller account of the subject, the reader is referred to the first five books of Galen’s work ‘On the Powers of Simples;’ to the first tractate of the Second Book of Avicenna; and to the introductory part of Serapion’s work ‘On Simples.’ A useful abstract of the ancient opinions is given in the small tract of Albengnefit. The nature of the tastes is ingeniously discussed in the ‘Timæus’ of Plato, and by Theophrastus (de Causis Plantarum, vi.) Alkhendi’s theory of the action of compound medicines appears to be ingenious; but it is complex and difficult to explain, being founded upon the principles of geometrical properties and musical harmony. The ‘Chemia’ of Geber contains a very interesting abstract of the knowledge possessed by the ancients regarding the recondite nature of substances, that is to say, on alchemy, but supplies little or no information on the Materia Medica or Pharmacy.

Before concluding our present commentary, it may be proper to remark, as tending to show the importance of the Galenical theory of the action of medicines in the literature of medicine, that not only was it generally adopted by most of the Greek and Arabian authorities subsequent to Galen, but it prevails in the works of all our old herbalists, as, for example, Gerarde, Parkinson, Culpeper, and of the other writers on the Materia Medica, down to the days of Quincy. We may also take the present opportunity to state that in the works of the ancient authorities, we have detected a few traces of the singular doctrine of signatures, as it has been called, but that with the exception of Geber, who can scarcely be held to be a medical writer, we have found no allusion to alchemy or astral influence, as having anything to do with the operation of medicines. The first ancient writer who notices alchemy, we believe, is Firmicus (iii.) Though the Arabians were much given to this superstitious conceit, it would appear from what we have mentioned that their medical authorities had kept their minds free from the contamination of it.

SECT. III.—ON THE POWERS OF SIMPLES INDIVIDUALLY.

COMMENTARY. The part of our task upon which we are now entering is at once so arduous and important, that we cannot but feel diffident of our abilities to execute it properly. We may venture, however, to assure the reader that we have spared no pains as far as lay in our power to unravel the intricacies with which this department of ancient science is involved, and that, with this intention, upon every article we have carefully compared the descriptions of the ancient authors, and have likewise availed ourselves of the learned labours of modern commentators on Theophrastus, Pliny, and Dioscorides. We may mention that those we have generally reposed most confidence in are Matthiolus, Dodonæus, Harduin, Stackhouse, Schneider, Sprengel, and Sibthorp. It will also be seen that we have paid a good deal of attention to the works of our English herbalists, the study of whose works we consider highly important, as reflecting much light on the ancient literature of this subject. We have further culled freely from a variety of other sources. As our limits prevent us from entering into the discussion of controverted points, we are under the necessity of merely giving the result of our own investigations in each case. Those who wish to see the commentator’s opinions more fully on these matters are referred to the Appendix to Dunbar’s ‘Greek Lexicon,’ which was written exclusively by him.

Ἀβρότονον,

Abrotonum, Southernwood, warms and dries in the third degree, being of a discutient and cutting nature, for it is possessed of a very small degree of sourness, and if rubbed with oil over the whole body, it cures periodical rigors. But it is prejudicial to the stomach; and the burnt being more desiccative than the unburnt, cures alopecia, along with some of the finer oils.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and most of the subsequent authorities, with the exception of Paulus, describe two species, the mas. and the femina. The one without doubt is the Artemisia Abrotanum; the other probably the Santolina Chamæcyparissus. The use of southernwood is as ancient as Hippocrates, but Galen is the ancient author who has treated of its faculties most elaborately. He recommends it strongly both externally in fomentations, and internally as an anthelminthic. For the latter purpose it is praised by the natural historian Ælian (H. A. ix, 33), and by most of the medical authorities on the Materia Medica, both ancient and modern. As an application in ophthalmy, along with the pulp of a roasted quince, it is highly spoken of by Galen and the others. Galen says, that friction with the oil of southernwood is useful in intermittents, and this character of it is confirmed by all the authorities down to recent times. Avicenna joins Dioscorides in praising it as an emmenagogue, and says, that it produces abortion. (ii, 266.) Aëtius is fuller than the others on the virtues of the lixivial ashes of southernwood, recommending them particularly in diseases of the anus and in alopecia. Celsus ranks it among the cleansing medicines (v, 5.) Pliny makes mention of a vinous tincture (xiv, 19.) See also Dioscorides (v, 49.) Macer Floridus, a comparatively modern authority, joins the more ancient authorities in commending it as an antidote to narcotic poisons. He also says, that a vinous tincture of it is useful in sea-sickness. Serapion, after quoting freely from Dioscorides and Galen, under this head adds, upon “an unknown authority,” that, when boiled with oil and rubbed over the stomach, it cures coldness of the same. (De Simpl. 317.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (Athens, 1837), the two species of wormwood are described by the names of Artemisia Abrotonum and Artemisia contra. See further Pereira (M. M. 1356.)

Ἀγάλλοχον,

Agallochum, is an Indian wood resembling the thyia, of an aromatic nature. When chewed it contributes to the fragrance of the mouth. It is also a perfume. Its root, when drunk to the amount of a drachm weight, cures waterbrash and loss of tone in the stomach, and agrees with hepatic, dysenteric, and pleuritic complaints.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is probably the lignum aloes or Aloexylon Agallochum, Lour., although there has been considerable difference of opinion on this point. See Gerarde’s ‘Herbal’ and the commentators on Dioscorides and Mesue. Our author’s description of it is taken from Dioscorides (i, 21.) The Arabian authorities and Simeon Seth describe several varieties of it; the most excellent of which is said to be the Indian. At all times it has been much used in India as a perfume. See in particular Avicenna, who gives an elaborate dissertation on the different kinds of agallochum or xylaloe, found in India, and the modes of preparing it (ii, 2, 733.) See also Serapion (De Simpl. 197); Ebn Baithar (ii, 224); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 27.) It does not occur in the Hippocratic treatises, nor in the works of Celsus. Although not retained in our Dispensatory, it is still kept in the shops of the apothecaries, and has the reputation of being cordial and alexiterial. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 91.)

Ἀγαρικὸν,

Agaricum, Agaric, is a root or an excrescence from the trunk of a tree, of a porous consistence, and composed of aerial and terrene particles. It is of a discutient nature, cuts thick humours, and clears away obstructions, of the viscera particularly.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears to have been the same as the Boletus igniarius (touchwood or spunk), which is still retained in our modern Dispensatories. It is a fungous excrescence which grows on the trunk of the oak, larch, cherry, and plum. Dioscorides and most of the ancient authorities speak highly of it as a styptic. Dioscorides also commends it in stomach complaints, but Aëtius maintains that it is prejudicial to the stomach. Galen calls it cathartic, and speaks highly of its virtues in the cure of jaundice and other hepatic affections. (De Simpl. v.) For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2); Serapion (De Simpl. 78); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 28.) They recommend it in jaundice, like Galen, and in complaints of the lungs, melancholy, protracted fevers, and in other cases. It is now seldom used, being found to act harshly both as an emetic and a cathartic. We have treated of the poisonous agarici in another place (v, 64.) The Boletus Laricis occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. (Athens, 1837.)

Ἀγήρατον,

Ageratum, Maudlin, is possessed of discutient and slightly anti-inflammatory powers.

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COMMENTARY. Our modern herbalists are generally agreed that this is our maudlin, that is to say, the Achillea Ageratum, and the commentators on Mesue hold that it is his eupatorium. From Dioscorides down to modern times it has been commended as a diuretic medicine and an emollient of the uterus. Dioscorides, however, seems to say that it is heating, whereas Galen represents it as mildly anti-inflammatory. Perhaps there is some error in the text of the former. (iv, 59.) We do not find it in the works of Hippocrates, nor in those of Celsus, nor have we found it treated of by any of the Arabians, except Ebn Baithar, who merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen (ii, 57.)

Ἄγνος ἢ λύγος,

Vitex, the Chaste-tree, heats and dries in the third rank. It consists of fine particles and dispels flatulence, whence it is believed to contribute to chastity, not only when eaten and drunk, but also when strewed under one. Its seed also, when drunk, acts as a deobstruent of the liver and spleen. When toasted it is less flatulent and more distributable.

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COMMENTARY. The anaphrodisiacal powers of the Vitex Agnus Castus, or chaste-tree, are noticed by most of the medical authorities, and by Ælian (H. A. ix, 36.) But modern authorities question its claims to this character. Until lately, however, it held a place in our Pharmacopœia. Our author abridges Dioscorides (1, 134), and Galen (De Simpl.) For the Arabians, see particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 43), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 31.) It occurs in the works of Hippocrates.

Ἄγρωστις,

Gramen, Grass, that of Parnassus is particularly useful; it is desiccative, moderately cooling, consists of fine particles, and is somewhat sour; it, therefore, is an agglutinant of bloody wounds, and its decoction is lithontriptic.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides treats separately of the agrostis, which probably is our couch-grass, or Triticum repens, and of the agrostis in Parnasso, which has been very doubtfully referred to the Parnassia palustris. (iv, 30.) Our author would appear to have confounded these two articles together, and to have applied to the latter the characters which Dioscorides gives to the other. The modern herbalists agree with the ancients in commending the couch-grass as being diuretic and lithontriptic. None of the commentators or herbalists have given a satisfactory account of the esculent grass of Galen. The Arabians treat of the grasses very confusedly. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 704); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. iii, 50); Serapion (c. 119.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia the Triticum repens stands for the ἀ. (p. 72.) Apuleius says “Græci agrostem Latini gramen appellant.”

Ἄνχουσαι,

Anchusæ, Alkanet; there are four varieties, all of which are not possessed of the same powers. For that which is called onoclea has a root which is astringent and somewhat bitter; whence it is useful in splenitic and nephritic cases. It is a suitable remedy for erysipelas when applied with polenta. The leaves are less cooling and desiccative than the root, and, therefore, they are also drunk for diarrhœa. The lycapsos being more astringent, agrees in like manner with erysipelas. The onochilos (or alcibiadios) being possessed of stronger medicinal properties than these, is beneficial for the bites of vipers, when applied as a cataplasm, as an amulet, and when eaten. The fourth variety being smaller than the others, has scarcely got a name: but being more bitter than the alcibiadios, it is applicable in cases of the broad lumbricus when taken in a draught to the extent of an acetabulum.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The first species is either the Anchusa tinctoria L., or the Lithospermum tinctorium; the lycapsos, the Echium italicum L.; the alcibiadios, the Echium diffusum, and the fourth species the Lithospermum fruticosum. There is considerable difficulty, however, in determining the alkanets of the ancients. Our author, in his account of them, follows Galen, who, in his turn, copies from Dioscorides. Avicenna, Rhases, and Haly Abbas borrow all they say of them from Dioscorides and Galen. The only one of these substances that is retained in our modern Pharmacopœias is the Anchusa tinctoria, and it is used only for colouring. The medicinal virtues of the Lithospermum, or of any species of Echium, are scarcely recognized. Indeed, as the Anchusa tinctoria is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, and as it is there stated to be a common plant in Greece, we need have no hesitation in admitting it to be the common anchusa of the ancients.

Ἄδάρκη,

Adarce is a sort of froth of salt water, collecting about rubbish and weeds. It is very acrid, and heating almost to burning when applied externally with other things; for it cannot be taken internally.

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COMMENTARY. The description of this substance given by Dioscorides, Galen, and the other authorities is substantially the same as our author’s, from which all we can gather is that it was a saline concretion formed about reeds and herbs in salt lakes. But even Matthiolus confesses that he never could satisfy himself that he had found the substance in question, and no modern authority on the Materia Medica has treated of it. Dioscorides compares it to the alcyonium, from which we think it probable that the adarce may have been applied to some species of this zoophyte. See Alcyonium. Dioscorides recommends it for the cure of lepra and sciatica (v, 136.) The Arabians borrow from him under this head. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 17); Serapion (c. 378.) It is not mentioned by Celsus.

Ἄδίαντον,

Adiantum, Maiden-hair, is desiccative, attenuant, and moderately discutient; and with regard to heat and cold, it holds an intermediate place. It, therefore, cures alopecia, discusses swellings, proves lithontriptic when taken in a draught, dries up expectorations from the lungs, and stops defluxions of the belly.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Theophrastus says that it derives its name from its property of not being wet in rain. He adds, that it promotes the growth of the hair. (H. P. vii, 13.) Nicander says the same of it. (Ther. 846.) According to Apuleius, it is the same as the callitrichon, polytrichon, and asplenon. There can be no doubt that it is the A. Capillus Veneris L. Dioscorides describes another species by the name of τριχόμανες, which Sprengel and Schneider agree in referring it to the Asplenium Trichomanes L. Stackhouse agrees with them respecting both these species. The syrup of capillaire, which still holds its place in the shops as a favorite domestic medicine, is prepared from the Adiantum.

Αΐζωον,

Sempervivum, Wall-pepper (or House-leek?), of which there are two varieties. It cools in the third degree, is moderately desiccative and astringent, and is applicable for erysipelas, herpes, and inflammations from a defluxion.

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COMMENTARY. Our author, copying from Galen and Aëtius, describes two species which seem to be the Sempervivum arboreum and Sedum rupestre. Dr. Lindley, however, refers the latter to S. ochroleucum. Dioscorides has a third species, which may be referred to the Sedum stellatum. The greater house-leek is praised by Dioscorides as an application for headache, for the bites of venomous spiders, diarrhœa, and dysentery; as an anthelminthic when drunk with wine; for stopping the fluor of women in a pessary, and as an application to the eyes in ophthalmy (iv, 88, 89.) Macer Floridus commends it in menorrhagia. He calls it acidula. Serapion, Avicenna, Rhases, and Haly Abbas merely copy from the Greeks. Even Ebn Baithar has nothing original under this head. These plants, although not retained in our Dispensatory, are still allowed to possess medicinal properties. See Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 345.) It is still retained in some of the foreign Dispensatories, and is held to be refrigerant and astringent.

Ἀετώνυχον,

Ætonychon will be treated of under the head of Stones.

Ἀθηρά,

Pulticula, Pap, is a kind of puls fit for being supped, which is prepared from ground spelt or from any corn, and agrees with children. It answers also for cataplasms.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides gives the same account of it. It is the Puls fritilla of Pliny. Matthiolus says it is called bouillie in French, i. e. pap. Hesychius speaks of its being prepared from wheat, and Pliny from rice.

Ἀιγίλωψ,

Ægilops, Cockle, is possessed of discutient powers, whence it cures indurated inflammations and ægilops (fistula lachrymalis.)

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There is great difficulty in determining the grasses of the ancients. This may be seen by consulting the ‘Herbal’ of Gerarde on this subject. The present article was probably the Ægilops ovata. Dioscorides gives nearly the same account of it as our author, who copies Galen. He further mentions that the juice of it, mixed up with flour and dried, was laid up for use (iv, 136.) The Arabians borrow closely from Dioscorides. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 211), and Serapion (c. 25.)

Ἄιγειρος,

Populus nigra, the Black Poplar; it is heating in the first degree, moderately desiccative, and consists of fine particles. Its leaves, when applied with vinegar, remove gouty pains; but the resin of it being hotter than the leaves, is mixed with restorative ointments and emollient plasters. But its fruit, when drunk with vinegar, is beneficial to epileptics.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it is the Populus nigra. Our author and all the other authorities, both Greek and Arabian, copy closely from Dioscorides (i, 110.) We will have occasion to treat of its gum or resin afterwards. See Karabe. Celsus does not mention the black poplar. The αἴγειρος κρητικὴ of Hippocrates was no doubt a variety of Populus nigra. For the Arabians, consult in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 333, 340, 364); Serapion (c. 266); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 165.)

Ἀιδοῖον,

Testiculus, the testicle of a stag, when dried and triturated with wine and drunk, is a remedy to those who have been bitten by vipers. It is also mixed with compound medicines.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sextus Platonicus in like manner recommends the privy parts of a stag as an antidote for poisons. All copy from Dioscorides (ii, 46.)

Ἀιθάλη and λίγνυς will be treated under Λ.

Ἀιθιοπίς,

Salvia Æthiopis, Ethiopian Sage, has leaves like the petty-mullein; and the decoction of its root, when drunk, relieves ischiatic and pleuritic diseases, hæmoptysis, and asperity of the trachea, when taken with honey.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It may be set down as being the Salvia Æthiopis, to which our English herbalist Gerarde gives the English name of mullein of Æthiopia. Neither Galen nor Aëtius has treated of it. Our author has borrowed from Dioscorides (iv, 193.) We do not find it in the Materia Medica of the Arabians, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely gives an extract from Dioscorides under this head.

Ἃιμα,

Sanguis, Blood; no kind of it is of a cold nature, but that of swine is liquid and less hot, being very like the human in temperament. That of common pigeons, the wood pigeons, and the turtle, being of a moderate temperament, if injected hot, removes extravasated blood about the eyes from a blow; and when poured upon the dura mater, in cases of trephining, it is anti-inflammatory. That of the owl, when drunk with wine or water, relieves dyspnœa. The blood of bats, it is said, is a preservative to the breasts of virgins, and, if rubbed in, it keeps the hair from growing; and in like manner also that of frogs, and the blood of the chamæleon and the dog-tick. But Galen, having made trial of all these remedies, says that they disappointed him. But that of goats, owing to its dryness, if drunk with milk, is beneficial in cases of dropsy, and breaks down stones in the kidneys. That of domestic fowls stops hemorrhages of the membranes of the brain, and that of lambs cures epilepsies. The recently coagulated blood of kids, if drunk with an equal quantity of vinegar, to the amount of half a hemina, cures vomiting of blood from the chest. The blood of bears, of wild goats, of buck goats, and of bulls, is said to ripen apostemes. That of the land crocodile produces acuteness of vision. The blood of stallions is mixed with septic medicines. The antidote from bloods is given for deadly poisons, and contains the blood of the duck, of the stag, and of the goose.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author abridges this article from Galen. See also in particular Serapion (De Simpl. ex Animalibus.)

Ἄιρα,

Lolium, Darnel, is heating and drying, almost in the third degree, being equal in power to the iris.

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COMMENTARY. This, which is the Zizanien of the Arabians, may be set down as the Lolium temulentum. Dioscorides gives the fullest account of its medicinal faculties; he recommends it along with radishes and salt as an application to gangrenous and spreading sores, and with sulphur and vinegar for lichen and lepra; when boiled with pigeon’s dung and linseed in wine for discussing strumous and indolent tumours; for ischiatic disease boiled with mulse and applied as a cataplasm; and used in a fumigation with myrrh, saffron, and frankincense, he says it promotes conception (ii, 122.) Aëtius says, it is more acrid but less attenuant than iris. We have not been able to find it noticed in the works of Hippocrates nor in those of Celsus. The Arabians merely copy Dioscorides and Galen. See Serapion (c. 70); and Avicenna (ii, 2, 658.) Our old English herbalists repeat the ancient characters of this plant.

Ἀκαλλίς

is the fruit of a shrub growing in Egypt, the decoction of which is an ingredient in the Collyria, for promoting acuteness of vision.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen and Aëtius have not treated of this article. Our author copies from Dioscorides, who, under the name of ἀκακαλὶς, describes it as an Egyptian plant, resembling the myrica (i, 118.) We may therefore conjecture, with considerable probability, that it is merely some species or variety of the tamarix. It does not appear that it is treated of by the Arabians, nor have we found it in the works of Hippocrates or Celsus.

Ἀκακία,

Acacia is of the third order of desiccants, and of the first of cooling medicines; but if washed, of the second. It is sour and terrene.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes the acacia as being a thorny tree or shrub, not erect, having a white flower and fruit like lupine, inclosed in pods, from which is expressed the juice that is afterwards dried in the shade (i, 133.) It was much disputed among the older commentators on Dioscorides whether or not this description applies to the Acacia vera; but since the time of Prosper Alpinus, it has been generally decided in the affirmative by all scholars, with the exception of Dierbach, who contends in favour of the A. Senegal, without any good reason, as far as we can see. This gum was used medicinally by the authors of the Hippocratic collection, who prescribe it as an astringent in hemorrhages, for which purpose it is also recommended by Celsus (v. 1.) Serapion and the others merely copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 3.)

Ἀκαλύφη,

Urtica, the Nettle; the fruit and leaves are composed of fine particles, and are desiccative without pungency; they dispel and cleanse swellings, loosen the bowels, are moderately flatulent, and therefore incite to venery.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This article is either the Urtica dioica, or the pilulifera; or both species were comprehended under it. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, the pilulifera stands first (p. 164.) Galen, like our author, calls it aphrodisiacal. Macer Floridus recommends it strongly as being calefacient and stimulant. Both Dioscorides and Galen agree in commending it as an expectorant when the chest is loaded with thick humours. The Arabians treat of it at considerable length. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 714); Serapion (c. 150); Rhases (Cont. l. ult.; 152.)

Ἄκανθος,

Acanthus, Bears-breech (called also Melamphyllon and Pæderos), has discutient and desiccative powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the plant which our English herbalists describe by the name of Bears-breech, now called the Acanthus mollis by botanists. Dioscorides recommends it as being diuretic, and astringent of the bowels (iii, 17.) Our author follows Galen. Whether “gummi acanthinum” of Celsus (v, 2) belong to this place, or not rather to the acacia, as Milligan suggests, we cannot determine for certain. Modern authorities have confirmed the characters which the ancients ascribed to it. (See Rutty, M. M. p. 70); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 45.)

Ακάνθιον,

Acanthium, is composed of fine particles, and has heating powers, therefore it is a remedy for convulsions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Gerarde and our other herbalists delineate and describe this plant under the name of the cotton-thistle, meaning either the Onopordon acanthium or O. Illyricum, cotton-thistle. Dioscorides affirms that it is of service to persons affected with tetanus, and upon his authority all the others, both ancient and modern, ascribe virtues to it in this case. The reader may be amused by comparing what Gerarde and Culpeper have written of it with the ancient descriptions of Dioscorides and Pliny. The cotton-thistle was long used as a potherb. See Beckmann (History of Inventions, under ARTICHOKE); and Loudon (Encycl. of Garden, p. 736.)

Ἄκανθα λευκή,

Spina alba, the White-thorn. Its root is desiccative and moderately astringent, therefore it relieves stomachic complaints, hæmoptysis, and toothache; but its seed, consisting of fine particles, and being of a hot nature, when drunk relieves convulsions. Acantha Ægyptia, or Arabica, the Egyptian or Arabic thorn, is possessed of very astringent and desiccative powers. Whence it restrains a flow of blood and other discharges.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Respecting the two thistles here described, we may refer the former, with Sibthorp, to the Cirsium Acarna, and the latter, or Arabian, to the Onopordon acanthium. All the authorities follow Dioscorides in giving its characters. (iii, 12.) See Avicenna (ii, 2, 671-3); Serapion (c. 130); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 670.)

Ἄκινος,

Acinus; it resembles basil, and is moderately astringent, therefore it restrains alvine and uterine discharges, when taken in a draught; and when applied as a cataplasm, is of use for erysipelas and phygethlon.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our old herbalists describe it under the name of wild basil, meaning perhaps the Ocimum pilosum, and there seems little reason to question their authority in this instance. Neither Galen nor Serapion has described it. Indeed we are not aware that any of the Arabians has described it except Ebn Baithar (ii, 254); neither have we found it in the Hippocratic collection, nor in the works of Celsus.

Ακόνιτον or Παρδαλιαγχὲς,

Aconitum, Wolfsbane, is possessed of septic and deleterious properties; it is, therefore, not to be taken internally, but externally it may be applied to flesh requiring erosion. The lycoctonon, being possessed of the same properties as the former, is particularly fatal to wolves, as the other is to panthers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The two species of aconite described by Dioscorides (iv, 77), and the other authorities, are generally supposed to be the Doronicum Pardalianches and the Aconitum Napellus. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, the Neomontanum is substituted for the former of these. The κάμμαρον of Hippocrates would seem to be the latter. It has been already treated of among the poisonous substances in the Fifth Book (§ 45.) It was used only as an anodyne, and principally in complaints of the eyes. Avicenna in treating of the aconites, borrows closely from Dioscorides (ii, 2, 361, 676.) He says of the lycoctonon, that it is not administered either internally or externally. Rhases says of the aconite, that it was used to relieve pains of the eyes. (Cont. l. ult. i, 20.)

Ἄκορον,

Acorum, Sweet Flag, heats and dries in the third degree. We use its root for a diuretic, and for scirrhus of the spleen. It also attenuates a thickened cornea.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears indisputably to be the Acorus pseudacorus, as even Gerarde the old herbalist has clearly stated, and not the Acorus verus, as Dr. Hill and others have maintained. All the ancient authorities ascribe much the same virtues to it as our author. See particularly Dioscorides (i, 2); Avicenna (ii, 2, 45); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 21); Serapion (c. 269.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia it is identified with the κάλαμος ἁρωματικός (p. 32.)

Ἀκρίδες,

Locustæ, Grasshoppers, in fumigations relieve dysuria, especially of women. The wingless grasshopper, when drunk in wine, relieves the bite of scorpions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is quite certain that the Ἀκρὶς of the Greeks, and the Locusta of the Romans was a species of locust or grasshopper. See Harduin (ad Plin. H. N. xi, 35.) Without doubt, then, it was the Gryllus migratorius L. The wingless locusta mentioned by our author is the insect in its larvous state. Our author copies from, and abridges, Dioscorides (ii, 56); and Avicenna does the same (ii, 2, 388.) Celsus treats of the locusta only as an article of food (ii, 28.) In this way, as is well known, the locusts were much used by the ancients. They are not noticed, however, either as an article of food or of medicine in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἄκτη μεγάλη,

Sambucus, the Elder-tree, and Χαμαιάκτη, Sambucus humilis vel Ebulus, Dwarf-elder, are possessed of desiccative, moderately discutient and agglutinative powers. When eaten or drunk they occasion a discharge of water from the bowels.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The two species of elder, namely, the Sambucus nigra and Ebulus, are much commended by the ancients for the cure of dropsy. As Dioscorides states, the elder is hydragogue, but disagrees with the stomach. He further recommends a hip-bath made of water in which elder has been boiled, for obstructions and hardness of the uterus (iv, 161.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in general terms like Paulus. The Arabians in treating of it generally borrow from Dioscorides and Galen. See particularly Serapion (c. 284.) It appears to be the acte of Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 23); and is the aktha of Ebn Baithar, according to his German translator, Dr. Sontheimer, in which opinion we fully agree with him. The Sambucus of Avicenna (ii, 2, 611) is not the elder, but the jasmine. We have not been able to detect the other in his Book on the Mat. Med., but can scarcely suppose that he has entirely overlooked it.

Ἅλες,

Sales, Salts, have desiccant and astringent powers. Wherefore they consume whatever humours are in the body, and also contract by their astringency. Whence they form pickles, and preserve substances from putrefaction. Roasted salts are more discutient.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. For an account of the factitious salts of the ancients, see in particular Pliny (H. N. xxxi, 39.) Sprengel remarks that the ἅλος ἄχνη, or spuma maris, is merely the skum or down of salt, which sticks to rocks in such situations as salt is usually formed in. The ἅλος ἂνθος, or flos salis, he adds, is a very different substance, being a native, impure carbonate of soda; containing also magnesia, lime, and some terrene admixture, to which it owes its colour. When deprived of its carbonic acid it becomes caustic, and was then called ἄφρος νίτρου by the ancients (v. ἀφρόνιτρον.) The sal ammoniac of the Greeks was a native fossil salt, and considerably different from ours. Geoffroy seems to agree with Salmasius, that it was the sal gem. Dr. Hill also maintains that it was only a peculiar form of the sal gem. See also Jameson’s ‘Mineral.’ (iii, 15.) In fact, from Dioscorides’ description of the ammoniac salt, nobody can avoid seeing that it was merely a variety of the common fossil salt. He treats of the medicinal faculties of the salts at so great length that we dare not venture to copy his account of them. It is literally translated by Pliny (xxxi, 45.) He recommends them internally by the mouth and in clysters, and externally in fomentations, baths, and fumigations. Serapion quotes the whole of Dioscorides’ chapter on Salts without supplying much additional information of his own. He describes minutely the process of roasting salts in an earthen vessel, and covering them up with coals, and thus applying heat to them. The sal ammoniac he describes, from Arabian authorities, as being a white red salt, extracted from hard clear stones, and being saltish, with much pungency (c. 409.) We never could altogether satisfy ourselves whether or not this be the same as the sal ammoniac of the Greeks. Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 600) and Avicenna (ii, 2, 608) are brief and indistinct in describing the sal ammoniac, but probably refer to the true sal ammoniac. Ebn Baithar minutely describes several kinds of it. Pliny also has a description of a factitious salt, which it would appear could be nothing else than our sal ammoniac. (N. H. xxxvi, 45.) Still, however, we need have no hesitation in setting down the ammoniac salt of the Greek medical authors as being a variety of the sal gem. This is the conclusion which Beckmann arrives at regarding it: he holds, however, that Geber and Avicenna were certainly acquainted with our ammoniac salt. (History of Inventions.)

Ἀλθάια ἢ Ἐβίσκος,

Althæa or Ebiscus, Marsh-mallows, is a species of wild mallows. It is discutient, relaxant, anti-inflammatory, soothing, and ripens tumours (phymata). But the root and seed have all the other properties in a more intense degree, and are also detergent of alphos. The seed is lithontriptic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This must either be the Lavatera arborea or Althæa officinalis. Dioscorides is much fuller than our author in enumerating its properties, but upon the whole they agree very well as to its general character. Besides the cases in which our author recommends it, Dioscorides speaks highly of the decoction of it when drunk with wine in dysuria, the grievous pains of calculus, dysentery, and other acute affections. He also advises the mouth to be rinsed with it in cases of toothache (iii, 153.) It would be useless to go over the other authorities, who supply no new views. Even our modern herbalists all agree in repeating the praises of the marsh-mallow as delivered by Dioscorides. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 72); Serapion (c. 76); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 26); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) This genus of the Malvaceæ does not seem to be noticed either by Hippocrates or Celsus. The Althæa officinalis occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, published at Athens in 1837.

Ἅλιμον,

Halimon consists of heterogeneous particles, being saltish and sub-astringent. But the greater part of it is of a hot temperament, with an undigested sap. It therefore promotes the formation of milk and semen.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author abridges the characters of this substance, which probably is the Atriplex Halimus, from Galen or Dioscorides (i, 126.) It is the sea-purslane of our English herbalists. For the Arabians, see particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 470.)

Ἁλκάια,

Alcæa, Vervain-mallow, is a species of wild mallows. When drunk with wine it removes dysenteries and gnawing pains of the belly, more particularly its root.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the authorities agree in giving this article, which evidently is the Malva Alcæa, Vervain-mallow, the general characters of the mallow. See particularly Dioscorides (iii, 154.) It does not occur in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus, nor, as far as we know, in those of the Arabians.

Ἁλκυονία,

Alcyonia; they are detergent and discutient of all matters, being possessed of an acrid quality; but the kind called milesium (it is vermiform and purple) is the best: wherefore, when burnt, it cures alopecia, and cleanses lichen and alphos. That which has a smooth surface is most acrid, proving not only detergent, but likewise excoriating; but that which resembles unwashed wool is the weakest of all.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. For an account of the alcyonia, see Aristot. (Hist. Anim. ix, 15); Pliny (N. H. x, 47, and xxxii, 27.) According to Sprengel, the A. consisted of the bones of fishes which the kingfishers had swallowed and vomited up. The term, however, was also applied to a kind of zoophytes, five species of which are described by Dioscorides and Pliny. The 1st species is the Alcyonium cotoneum, Pall.; the 2d, the A. papillosum; the 3d, the A. palmatum; the 4th, the Spongia stuposa, Ellis, or Spongia panicea, Pall.; and the 5th, the A. aurantium, Pall. (Mat. Med. v, 135.) Geoffroy says that the alcyonia “are of a substance much like gum tragacanth, and when mixed in broth of warm milk they swell and make a rich soup.” The zoophytes called alcyonia are a kind of spongy substances, containing a sort of living jelly in their interior. Our author abridges Dioscorides’ account of the alcyonia, as likewise do Avicenna (ii, 2, 605) and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 1, 677.) Celsus prescribes it several times as a corrosive, caustic, and cleansing medicine. (v, 6, 7, 18.) We believe it does not occur in the Hippocratic treatises.

Ἅλμη,

Muria, Brine; that which is unmixed with other matter has properties like salts, only weaker from the mixture with water. But the brine of pickled fish and of pickled olives is possessed of very detergent powers, and therefore is injected in ischiatic and dysenteric complaints.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Regarding the nature of this article, there can be no doubt. Galen recommends the brine from pickled fish as a wash for putrid ulcers both of the mouth and rectum. Dioscorides, in addition, recommends it for such cases as sea-water is useful in, when poured upon the part. (v, 126.)

Ἀλόη,

Aloe, Aloes, is heating in the first degree, and desiccative in the third. It is stomachic, detergent, discutient, and eccoprotic. When washed it is less detergent, but more stomachic; it is anti-inflammatory, and promotes the cicatrization of ulcers, especially those about the anus and pudendum.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides is the first author who gives a distinct account of this important article. He describes two varieties of the juice (gum-resin), namely, the arenaceous and the hepatic. He says that it closes up the mouths of veins in hemorrhoids; but, according to Avicenna and Mesue, it produces the contrary effect. Hence, says Mesue, it is hurtful in hemorrhoids and affections of the fundament. (De Simpl. i.) Galen properly remarks that it is at the same time stomachic and eccoprotic. Didymus mentions the hepatic aloe (Geopon. vi, 6), as do several of the medical authorities. It is marked by Dr. Pereira as being the Aloe hepatica vera and Aloe indica (Ph. Ed.), being the liver-coloured socotorine aloe. That is to say, the hepatic is merely a variety of the socotorine aloe. See also Dr. Royle (M. M. 598.) Isidorus says of aloes: “In India et Arabia gignitur, arbor odoris suavissimi et summi.” (Orig.) Averrhoes says it is an excellent purgative which evacuates the stomach and liver. He commends it as an application to apostemes. (Collig. v, 42.) Aloe was used in stimulant applications to ill-conditioned sores. See Aëtius. Avicenna forbids us to administer it during the prevalence of severe cold. (ii, 2, 64.) It was used in eye-washes (Cels. vi), as it is by the native doctors in India to this day. (Ainslie’s Mat. Ind. i, 10.) The aloe is not found in the Materia Medica of Hippocrates.

Ἁλὸς ἄνθος,

Flos salis, the Flower of Salt, is a humid medicine, consisting of more subtile particles than burnt salts, and is moderately acrid and discutient.

Ἁλὸς ἄχνη,

Spuma maris; this is a frothy efflorescence of salts, but consists of more subtile particles than salts, and discusses more, but contracts less.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. (Ἁλὸς ἄνθος and Ἁλὸς ἄχνη, see Ἃλες.)

Ἀλσίνη, or μυὸς ὂυς,

Alsine, or Auricula muris, Chickweed, has powers like the pellitory of the wall, namely, cold and diluent. Wherefore it is applicable to hot inflammations.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This has been generally set down as the Stellaria media, but doubtfully. Dioscorides describes it as a Myosotis. (ii, 214.) See also Pliny (H. N. xxvii, 8), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 18.)

Our old herbalists give a confused account of the chickweed. In fact, this is one of the articles in the Materia Medica of the ancients which we must set down as lost, from our inability to determine what it was. It seems to have been looked upon by the Arabians as an important article. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 18); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 99.) Like our author, they copy closely from Dioscorides. We have not detected it in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus. It does not occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἄλυπον,

Alypon; the seed of it purges black bile downwards when taken in the same quantity as dodder of thyme, with salts and vinegar; but it occasions slight ulceration of the intestines.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Many of the older commentators supposed this to be the plant which produces turbit, but we shall have occasion to discuss this question when treating of the additions to the Materia Medica made by the Arabians. What this article really was is very uncertain. Pliny and all the medical authorities mention its purgative powers. See in particular Dioscorides (iv, 177), from whom our author evidently copies.

Ἄλυσσον,

Alysson, Madwort, is so called because it is of use to those who have been bitten by mad dogs. Being possessed of discutient, detergent, and desiccative powers, it removes obstructions of the kidneys, and cleanses ephelis.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It was supposed by the earlier herbalists and commentators that the A. of Galen is a different substance from that of Dioscorides. The former (which is also our author’s) is a species of horehound, to which the herbalists give the distinctive name of Galen’s madwort. It is the Marrubium Alyssum. That of Dioscorides has been conjectured to have been some species of Veronica, but, in fact, there is no certainty on this point, and we must own our inability to perceive the difference between it and the A. of Galen. Dioscorides recommends his plant in ephelis and hydrophobia, (iii, 95.) See also Avicenna (ii, 2, 26.)

Ἀλώπηξ,

Vulpes, the Fox; the whole animal, if boiled alive or dead, renders the oil discutient, when it attracts the deep-seated fluids to the surface. Wherefore, when arthritic patients are put into a hip-bath of this oil for a considerable time it removes the complaint entirely, if at its commencement, and moderates it if protracted.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen and Serapion give nearly the same account of the medicinal properties of the Canis vulpes as our author.

Ἀμάρακος,

Amaracus, Marjoram; it is calefacient in the third degree, and desiccative in the second.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That it was some species of marjoram appears quite certain from the ancient descriptions of it; but, otherwise, it cannot be satisfactorily determined. Most probably, it was the same as the sampsuchus, namely, the Origanum Marjorana. Dioscorides strongly recommends the ointment as an emmenagogue, and for various other purposes. (i, 78.) For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 466); Serapion (c. 286); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 439.)

Ἀμάραντον,

Amarantum, Amaranth, is attenuant and incisive, and therefore when taken with wine it promotes the menstrual discharge, and dissolves coagulated blood when taken with wine and honey. It dries up all defluxions, and is bad for the stomach.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The old herbalists describe a plant under the English name of Flower-gentle, which they represent to be this article, but it cannot be satisfactorily determined. Our author borrows from Galen and Aëtius his account of its medicinal properties, which certainly appears rather contradictory. How a plant, which they represent as being of a drying nature, should at the same time act as an emmenagogue, does not well appear. Our English herbalist Gerarde sagaciously remarks that it has probably got the character of stopping bleeding solely from its ears being red, as if, forsooth, all red things must act in this way; although, as he adds, Galen had laid it down as a rule (Simpl. 2, 4) that no inference with regard to the virtues of substances can be drawn from their colours. But see under helicrysus, which Dioscorides holds to be the same plant.

Ἀμβροσία,

Ambrosia; when applied as a cataplasm it has astringent and repellent powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Ambrosia, as Pliny remarks (H. N. xxvii, 11), is a vague name which has been applied to various plants. Our old herbalists describe a plant under the English name of Oak of Cappadocia, which they represent as the A. of Dioscorides. He gives it the same medicinal character as our author (iii.) Galen and Aëtius do the same. It probably is the Ambrosia maritima, a plant not yet wholly unknown to the shops. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 70.) We have not found it described by any of the Arabians except Ebn Baithar (i, 80.)

Ἄμμι,

Ammi, Bishop’s Weed, is of the third order of calefacients and desiccants, being composed of subtile particles, discutient and diuretic; but the seed of it is particularly useful.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Ammi copticum, or Bishop’s weed, has long held a place in the Materia Medica, and yet it is now scarcely recognized. See Dioscorides (iii, 63); Galen (De Simpl. v); Avicenna (ii, 2, 60); Serapion (c. 297.) It is now ranked as one of the four lesser hot seeds, and is held to be attenuant, aperient, and carminative. In a word, all the authorities, ancient and modern, agree in giving it the characters bestowed upon it by Dioscorides and Galen.

Ἀμΐαντον,

Lapis Amiantus, is formed in Cyprus, being like stone-alum, and is so called because when put into the fire it is not burnt. Some use it in desiccative depilatories.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is generally confounded with the Alumen plumosum, with which it is compared by Dioscorides, but it is in fact a different substance, being a variety of asbestus. Dioscorides does not mention any medicinal properties of which it is possessed, but states that garments were made out of it, which resisted the force of fire. (M. M. v, 155.) See also Pliny (H. N. xix, 4.)

Ἄμμος,

Arena, Sand; that on the sea-shore is sufficiently desiccative. Wherefore when heated by the sun it dries up all humid bodies which have been buried in it; and when roasted it forms a dry fomentation instead of millet or salts.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Sand of the Sea-shore. We have often had occasion, in the course of this work, to mention the use of heated sand as a dry fomentation.

Ἀμμωνιακὸν θυμίαμα,

Ammoniacum thymiama, Ammoniac Perfume, is a juice of intense emollient powers, so as to dissolve scirrhous tumours and tofi.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes the ammoniac as being the juice of a Ferula growing near Cyrene, and mentions afterwards that an inferior kind is also obtained from a tree of the reed tribe in Lybia, near Ammon. The reed which produces the better kind is now called the Ferula tingitana. Whether the inferior kind be the commercial ammoniacum of the present day, which is procured from the Dorema ammoniacum, does not appear certain. Dr. Hill holds that the ancients were acquainted with the two kinds which we have. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia it is questioned whether it is the product of the Heracleum gummiferum, or Ferula orientalis. The thymiama, or suffimentum, was the finest kind of ammoniac, and was so called from being used in religious rites. Dioscorides recommends ammoniac for many medicinal purposes, both internally and externally; as for loosening the bowels when taken in a draught; for asthma and other affections of the chest when given as a linctus with honey; for indurations of the spleen and liver when applied in the form of a cataplasm; and for nebulæ of the cornea. (iii, 88.) Galen gives nearly the same characters of it. Serapion quotes Dioscorides and Galen, and adds a few other particulars of not much importance from Arabian authorities, such as that it is diuretic and emmenagogue, and expels humours from the body. (c. 268.) Rhases, Avicenna, Ebn Baithar, and Haly Abbas supply no additional information of any interest under this head. Averrhoes commends it as a medicine which softens and dissolves hard tumours. (Collig. v, 42.)

Ἀμόργη,

Amurca, the Lees of Oil, is of the second order of intensely calefacient, and desiccative medicines. By these means it cures ulcers in dry bodies, but increases and exasperates those in others.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The amurca, as Dioscorides states, is the sediment of strained oil. Celsus mentions it often as a strong external application, in which form it is greatly commended by Dioscorides in various affections. He says it is an article in collyria and plasters. He also speaks of its being used as an injection into the rectum, the urethra, and the vagina, in diseases of these parts.

Ἀμπελόπρασον,

Ampeloprasum, Vine-leek, being a species of wild leek, is most acrid and hot according to the last degree: hence it proves deleterious. It is incisive, deobstruent, and hurtful to the stomach.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Allium Ampeloprasum L. is recommended by Dioscorides as being more powerfully calefacient and emmenagogue than the leek (Allium Porrum); and when given in food, beneficial to persons stung by venomous animals. Our author follows Galen.

Ἄμπελος ἀγρία,

Vitis sylvestris, the Wild Vine; its grapes and tops are possessed of detergent powers, but have also some astringency. The powers of the cultivated vine are like those of the wild, but weaker. The shoots of the white vine (called also bryonia and psilothrum) are eaten as stomachics, and prove diuretic. The root is detergent, attenuant, and moderately hot. Wherefore it melts down the spleen when drunk or applied externally as a cataplasm with figs; and it cures itch and leprosy. The black vine, also called bryony, is like the aforementioned, only weaker.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The wild vine is evidently the Tamus communis; the white the Bryonia dioica; and the black the Bryonia alba. Gerarde, our old herbalist, says that the reason why the bryony and the wild vine are confounded together, is that Pliny could not sufficiently expound them (xxiii, 1), and made them all one, in which error are all the Arabians. Dioscorides treats of them at considerable length, and more especially of the white, which he commends in the strongest terms, as an application to malignant and ill-conditioned sores. (iv, 180.) He and Oribasius take notice of its purgative powers. Our modern herbalists and older writers on the Materia Medica, all treat of the bryonies in the same terms as the ancient authorities. See Bryonia.

Ἀμὐγδαλα,

Amygdalæ, Almonds; the bitter are possessed of powers which are attenuant and deobstruent of deep-seated viscid and thick humours, and detergent of those lodged in the skin. The wood has the same powers. The sweet are moderately hot.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Respecting this article there can be no difference of opinion. Plutarch and many of the ancient authorities take notice of the powers of almonds in resisting intoxication. Dioscorides states that a cataplasm formed from almonds, with vinegar or rose oil, and applied to the forehead or temples relieves headache. Taken internally, he says, they are laxative, soporific, and diuretic. (i, 186.) Serapion gives nearly the same account of them. (c. 82.) Dioscorides greatly commends almond oil as a demulcent in various complaints, such as pains, inflammation, and displacement of the uterus, also in headache and earache, in nephritic, calculous, and other diseases. (i, 38.) Avicenna gives it the same character, and otherwise enlarges very fully in recapitulating the virtues of almonds. As an article of food, he says, bitter almonds are stomachic, and sweet almonds are fattening. He recommends them as an application to herpes and other diseases of the skin. Bitter almonds he speaks highly of in obstructions of the kidneys. Altogether the account which he gives of this article is most interesting. (ii, 257.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 45); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) The latter recommends them as powerful deobstruents of the liver.

Ἄμυλον,

Amylum, Starch, is formed from clean wheat moistened with water during the heat of the dog-days, which water is to be poured off five times in the day. When it becomes very soft, it is to be strained and the water poured off, and the bran separated; and it is to be dried quickly in the sun before it become sour. Its powers are moderately cooling, desiccant, and emollient of acrid humours.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the mode of preparing starch is mostly taken from Dioscorides (ii, 123.) Pliny describes the process in nearly the same terms. He says, it may be prepared from wheat or spelt. (H. N. xxviii, 17.) He calls it astringent, and recommends it in hæmoptysis. Serapion also recommends it in this complaint. (c. 29.) Celsus ranks it among the “res boni succi.” (ii, 20.) It is mentioned by Hippocrates, who recommends it as an application to the mouth of the womb. (De Mulieb. ii.)

Ἄμωμον,

Amomum; its powers are like those of the sweet-flag; but the former is the drier, and the latter more digestive.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. For the general literature of this subject, we would beg to refer to what we have said in the Appendix to the Greek Lexicon. Notwithstanding all the illustration which it has received, it must be admitted that now we have no practical acquaintance with the article in question, unless we agree with Dr. Pereira in setting it down as the Amomum Cardamomum. This opinion, however, which had been previously stated by Feæus (Flor. Virg. xvi, 199), is controverted by the learned Sprengel. (ad Dioscor. i, 14.) But still if the cardamom be not exactly the amomum of the ancients, there can be no doubt that these two substances must have been very similar to one another. Dioscorides treats more fully of this article than Galen, Aëtius, Oribasius, or our author, describing it as being calefacient, astringent, desiccative, soporific, and anodyne when applied in a plaster to the forehead, and stating that it ripens and discusses boils and meliceris, proves useful to persons stung by scorpions, in a cataplasm with basil; relieves gouty persons, soothes inflammations of the eyes, and those in the bowels, with raisins; that it is useful in female complaints, in the form of a hip-bath, and that the decoction of it is fitting in cases of nephritis, hepatitis, and gout. (i, 14.) Serapion quotes the descriptions of it given by Dioscorides and Galen, and adds, upon the authority of Humaim, the son of Isaac, that it is possessed of inebriating and soporific powers. (c. 279.) Avicenna’s account of it is made up from Dioscorides, Galen, and Serapion (ii, 251.) Haly Abbas recommends the decoction of it (hamama) in diseases of the liver and kidneys. Celsus includes both the amomum and cardamomum (which, by the way, seems decidedly to prove that they were not exactly the same thing) among the ingredients of an emollient plaster (malagma) which he describes, and which he recommends as an excellent application to abscesses, and various schirrous tumours. (v, 18, 7.) It does not occur, we believe, in the Materia Medica of Hippocrates; at least we have failed to detect it while writing this article.

Ἀναγαλλὶς,

Anagallis, Pimpernel; both kinds are of sufficiently detergent powers, having some hottish and attractive properties, so that they extract thorns; and the juice of it purges by the nose.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. These two well-known plants, namely, the Anagallis arvensis and cærulea, are included in all the ancient lists of medicinal herbs, and were only of late excluded from our British Pharmacopœias. All the authorities, ancient and modern, give them the same characters as Dioscorides, to whom our author is principally indebted. (ii, 209.) He says they are useful in diseases of the kidneys and liver. (l. c.) The anagallis does not occur in the works of Celsus. For the Arabians, see Serapion (c. 155); Avicenna (ii, 2, 32.) They all copy from Dioscorides and Galen. Even Ebn Baithar supplies nothing of much consequence. (i, 90.)

Ἀνάγυρος,

Anagyrus, Stinking-bean Trefoil; is a strong-scented and acrid shrub of hot and discutient powers, but the seed consists of more subtile particles, and is emetic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and Pliny recommend the Anagyris fœtida for promoting the pains of labour, and the expulsion of the placenta after delivery. It is curious to remark that our old herbalists ascribe the same virtues to it. It was therefore to our forefathers in the profession what the ergot of rye is to the present generation; being, according to Galen, an acrid, diaphoretic, and heating substance, its action must, in many respects, have resembled the ergot. With the exception of Oribasius, who merely copies Dioscorides, we are not aware of any ancient writer that treats of it, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, and he also merely copies the descriptions of it given by Dioscorides and Galen. Though excluded from our Dispensatory, this article is not wholly unknown to the shops. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharm. 93.)

Ἀνδράχνη,

Portulaca, Purslain, is cooling in the third degree, but humectates in the second; and by these powers it relieves heat of the stomach when applied to the abdomen, and dispels defluxions. By its viscidity it smooths the teeth when set on edge by acids; and by its astringency it relieves dysentery and hemorrhages.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Aëtius, like our author, describes the purslane (Portulaca oleracea) as a cooling and sub-astringent herb. Both he and our author copy from Galen, who writes earnestly in commendation of this plant, which retained its place in our English Dispensatories down to a late date. Dioscorides likewise writes fully on its virtues, recommending it as a cooling and astringent medicine, externally, in pains of the head, inflammations of the eyes &c., and internally, for inflammations of the bowels, intestinal worms, hæmoptysis, hemorrhoids, and various other cases. (ii, 150.) Celsus also calls it an astringent and cooling herb. (ii.) For the Arabians, see Serapion (c. 349); Avicenna (ii, 2, 534); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 563); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) They treat of it in nearly the same terms as the Greeks.

Ἀνδρόσαιμον,

Androsæmum, Tutsan, or Park-leaves, (or St. John’s wort?); there are two varieties of it, the one of which is called ascyrron and ascyrroides, being a species of hypericon, but the other is named dionysias. Their fruit is purgative, but their leaves more desiccant.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our Tutsan or Park-leaves has been generally set down as this plant, but Sibthorp, who viewed the plants of classic lands on the spot, inclines to the Hypericum ciliatum. The truth of the matter we believe to be that as the Hypericum is a numerous genus, and the species have a close resemblance to one another, they were often confounded together by the older authorities. Both Culpeper the herbalist and Rutty have expressed their wonder that so important an article as the androsæmum should have been lost sight of in recent times. Pliny, and all the medical authorities, recommend it strongly as an application to burns and ulcers, and ascribe cholagogue powers to it when administered internally. See Dioscorides (iii, 163); Galen (De Simpl. v); Aëtius (i); Oribasius (Med. Coll. xiii); Ebn Baithar (ii, 579); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 59.) The last two merely give extracts from Dioscorides and Galen.

Ἀνδρόσακες,

Androsaces, is a bitter and acrid herb, discutient and desiccative. It and its fruit, when drunk, are diuretic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is a Syrian plant, which, although both Matthiolus and Gerarde pretend to give figures of it, has never been satisfactorily determined. Serapion and Avicenna have completely omitted treating of it, and Rhases merely says of the androsafes, by which he probably meant the androsaces, that it is decidedly heating with moderate astringency. (Cont. l. ult.) Our author seems to copy from Dioscorides (iii, 140.)

Ἀνεμώνη,

Anemone, Wind-flower; all the varieties of it have powers which are acrid, detergent, epispastic, and open the mouths of vessels: whence they increase phlegm, remove leprosy when applied, and attract milk.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The wind-flowers, so celebrated in ancient poetry, being a numerous genus, there has been some difficulty in determining exactly the species described by Dioscorides. He mentions two, the cultivated and the wild, and divides each into two varieties, according to the difference of colour in their flowers. The former may be set down as the A. coronaria, and the other as the A. nemorosa. The latter only is indigenous in this country, but the other is commonly cultivated in gardens. He recommends them principally as external applications, as for foul ulcers, in collyria for inflammation of the eyes, and in pessaries to promote menstruation. (ii, 207.) Galen and the succeeding authorities follow him. The anemone is not to be found in Celsus. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 655); Serapion (c. 72); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. iii, 48); Ebn Baithar (ii, 100.) They do little more than copy from Dioscorides. The A. pratensis occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (132.)

Ἄνηθον,

Anethum, Dill; it warms in the second degree intensely, and dries in nearly the same degree. When boiled in oil it is diaphoretic, anodyne, and soporific; and concocts crude swellings. But when burnt it becomes of the third order of heating and drying medicines, and is useful when sprinkled upon foul ulcers. But the green is more humid, and less hot and digestive.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author condenses and abridges the account of the dill (Anethum graveolens) given by Galen. Dioscorides, in his usual empirical style, recommends it for various purposes, such as promoting the flow of milk, stopping slight vomiting, opening the bowels, increasing the urine, proving useful to hysterical women in a hip-bath, and so forth. (iii, 60.) The Arabians as usual copy from both. See Avicenna. (ii, 2, 69.)

Ἄνθυλλις,

Anthyllis; there are two varieties, both of which are desiccant applications to ulcers; but that resembling the ground-pine consists of more subtile particles, so as to be beneficial in epileptic cases. It is also more detergent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The former species, which Dioscorides describes and recommends for the cure of wounds, we would willingly refer to the Anthyllis vulneraria, but the predominance of authority is against it, and in favour of the Cressa cretica. The other is probably the Ajuga Iva. Avicenna joins Dioscorides in commending it as a vulnerary herb (ii, 2, 744), for which virtue the anthyllis was long celebrated, as its scientific name implies.

Ἄνησον,

Anisum, Anise; the seed is particularly acrid, eating, and drying in the third degree. Hence it is diuretic and dispels flatus.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Serapion and Avicenna, like the Greek authorities, call the Pimpinella anisum diuretic and emmenagogue. It is now reckoned the first of the four hot seeds, the other three being carui, cumin, and fennel.

Ἀντίρρινον or Ἀνάρρινον,

Antirrinon, or Anarrinon, Snapdragon, has properties resembling those of the bubonium, but weaker, whence you may learn its properties.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen writes of this article, Antirrinum Orontium, or Calfsnout, as being of no use in medicine. (De Simpl. v.) Dioscorides, also, mentions it only as an amulet and external application. (iv, 131.) It is scarcely noticed by the other authorities. According to Pliny, it is emmenagogue. Serapion has omitted it.

Ἄνωνις or Ὤνωνις,

Anonis, or Ononis, Rest-harrow, has heating powers, especially in its root. Its juice, when drunk with wine, promotes the secretion of urine, is lithontriptic, breaks eschars, and soothes pains of the teeth.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author abridges his account of the Ononis antiquorum from Galen. All in fact borrow from Dioscorides, who further mentions of it, that it was sometimes used as a pickle. (iii, 18.) It would appear to be the Onobes of Rhases (Cont. i, 520), who gives the characters of it from Galen. Serapion and Avicenna have omitted it. Modern authorities enumerate it among the five aperient roots. It is only of late years that it has been expelled from our Pharmacopœias. Even yet it is not wholly unknown to our apothecaries. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 94.) Two species of the Anonis, the antiquorum and spinosa, occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 119.)

Ἀπαρίνη,

Lappa, Cleavers (which some call philanthropon, others omphalocarpon), is moderately detergent and desiccative; it also consists of subtile particles.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the herbalists and best commentators agree that it is the Galium aparine. (See Gerarde, Sprengel, and others.) According to Dioscorides a decoction of its leaves is useful to persons bitten by phalangia and vipers, when drunk with wine; an injection of the same into the ears cures earache; and when mixed up with axunge it discusses scrofulous tumours. Galen and the subsequent authorities seem to attach less importance to it. (iii, 94.) We cannot find it in Serapion, Rhases, Avicenna, nor Haly Abbas; but it is treated of by all our older herbalists, and has found a place in many modern pharmacopœias. It is not contained, however, in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἄπιον,

Pyrum, the Pear, is unequal as to temperament, consisting partly of terrene and partly of watery matter. When eaten, therefore, it is stomachic, and quenches thirst. When applied as a cataplasm it dries and cools moderately.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author copies the characters of the Pyrus communis from Galen and Aëtius. We have treated of it as an article of food in the First Book. Both Dioscorides and Pliny make mention of perry. Dioscorides says, that pears prove prejudicial to hungry persons when eaten. (i, 167.)

Ἀπόκυνον or Κυνοκράμβη,

Brassica canina, Dog’s-bane; it is also called cynomoron, because it proves quickly fatal to dogs. But it is also deleterious to men, being very fetid and hot, without being desiccant. Hence, when applied externally as a cataplasm it is discutient.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author borrows his account of this article very closely from Galen. It is clearly a poison rather than a medicine. In fact, it is classed by Schulze among the ancient poisons. (Toxicol. veterum.) Orfila also treats of it among the acrid poisons (p. 82, Eng. ed.) It seems doubtful whether it be the Periploca Græca, as we formerly stated it to be (II, 242); the Cynanchus erectus, as Sprengel supposes; or one of the species of Apocynum. Having no practical acquaintance with these herbs, we cannot pretend to give any decided opinion on the subject.

Ἀπόχυμα,

Apochyma, is the old pitch scraped from ships. It is solvent, desiccant, and discutient of tumours.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides calls it also Ζωπίσσα. It consists, as he explains, of the wax and pitch of ships which had been macerated in salt water. Pliny says of it, “Zopissam eradi navibus diximus cera marino sale maceratâ. Optima hæc a tirocinio navium. Additur autem in malagmata ad discutiendas collectiones.” (H. N. xxiv, 26.)

Ἀράχνη,

Aranea, the Spider, when softened into a plaster, and applied to the forehead and temples, is said by Dioscorides to remove the periodical attacks of tertians. Its web, when applied, stops hemorrhage, and preserves superficial sores from inflammation.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species, which probably are the Aranea retiaria, and the Aranea domestica. Serapion gives the same account of their medicinal properties. They appear to have been principally used externally, as an anti-inflammatory application.

Ἀργεμώνη,

Argemone, Prickly Poppy, is possessed of detergent and discutient powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Of the two species described by Dioscorides, the former, which is the Papaver argemone, is recommended by him in nebulæ and albugo of the eye, and its leaves as a soothing cataplasm for inflammations. The other, which may be the Geum urbanum, or avens, he also recommends principally as an external application in sores and affections of the eyes; but adds of it, that when drunk with wine it is useful in the case of persons stung by venomous animals. (ii, 208.) Galen and the succeeding authorities treat of it more cursorily; and the Arabians would seem not to treat of it at all, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely gives translations of what Dioscorides and Galen had written of it. (i, 28.)

Ἀρίσαρον,

Arisarum, Friar’s Cowl, is smaller than the wakerobin, but much more acrid; and has a root of the size of an olive.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our herbalists give the name of Friar’s Cowl to this plant, which even they admit to be possessed of insignificant powers. It is the aris of Pliny. (H. N. xxiv, 16.) Its botanical name is Arum arisaron. Dioscorides calls it an acrid medicine, and recommends it solely in collyria. (ii, 198.) The Arabians appear to have confounded it with the arum, under the name of Luf. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 132); and Ebn Baithar (ii, 449.)

Ἀριστολοχία,

Aristolochia, Birthwort; all kinds of it are hot, consist of subtile particles, and are detergent, bitter and subacrid; and are most useful remedies. The round consists of more subtile particles, and is every way more drastic. The clematitis is fragrant but weaker. The long is, in other respects, intermediate between these, but no less hot than the round.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Three species of the Birthwort, the Aristolochia longa, rotunda, and clematis, have been described by the authorities from Dioscorides downwards. The first two still retain their places in our Pharmacopœias, but are seldom used. Dioscorides recommends them, especially as uterine medicines, for promoting menstruation, the lochial discharge, and the expulsion of the fœtus. He also says it is useful in affections of the chest, the spleen, and in other diseases. (iii, 4, 5.) The toxicologists from Nicander downwards recommend the birthwort as an antidote to poisons. See also Theophr. (H. P. ix, 15); and Apuleius (De Herbis.) Mesue describes it as being phlegmagogue, cholagogue, and emmenagogue. He also recommends it in a fumigation along with arsenic for asthma. (De Simpl. ii, 27.) Avicenna treats of it at great length, recommending it strongly as an uterine and alexipharmic medicine. (ii, 2, 49.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 77); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Serapion (c. 171); Ebn Baithar, pluries. Pliny describes a fourth species under the name of Pistolochia. Modern authorities confirm the birthwort’s character as to its being powerfully emmenagogue. See Quincy, Lewis, Pereira, and the other writers on the Materia Medica.

Ἄρκευθος,

Juniperus, the Juniper, heats and dries in the third degree. The fruit is equally calefacient, but desiccant only in the first degree.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species of it, the major and the minor, which probably are to be referred to the Juniperus macrocarpa, Sibth., and the J. oxycedrus. He calls them acrid, diuretic, and calefacient, and further recommends them in diseases of the chest, in the hysterical convulsion, and as being alexipharmic. (i, 103.) The other authorities, both Greek and Arabian, copy closely under this head from him. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 359); and Ebn Baithar (ii, 189.) The vernix is a resinous gum, which is procured from the juniper; it is called Sandarax by the Arabians, and is to be carefully distinguished from the sandaracha or sulphuret of arsenic. They recommend it in hæmoptysis. See Serapion, Rhases, and Avicenna. Of the juniper, see further under Κέδρος, and appendix under Sandaracha.

Ἄρκιον,

Arcium (called also Prosopites); its leaves are like those of the colocynth, but larger and harder. It is discutient and desiccant, and has some stypticity. Wherefore, its leaves cure old sores.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The ancient descriptions of this plant seem to point to the burdock, which, however, owing to a confusion of names, has been called the Arctium lappa. Dioscorides recommends it internally in diseases of the chest, and externally as a cataplasm to old ulcers. (iv, 105.) This is the same as the second arctium of Galen, who recommends it in the same cases as Dioscorides. Apuleius, like Dioscorides, says it is useful in cases of strangury. Our old herbalists treat of the virtues of the burdock in the same terms as the Greek and Roman authorities. The Arabians, as far as we can discover, do not treat either of the arcion or the arction, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen, and seems puzzled to distinguish the two plants from one another. (i, 25.) In the modern Greek Dispensatory both the Arctium bardana and the A. lappa are set down as corresponding to the ἄρκειον.

Ἄρκτιον,

Arctium, Lappa, is like the verbascum; its roots are tender, white, and sweet: it consists of subtile particles, and is possessed of desiccant and moderately detergent powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This, which is treated of under the same name by Dioscorides (iii, 104), and is the former arctium of Galen, is probably the Verbascum sanguineum. The description of it given by Galen, at all events, points to some species of the mullein. Both the authorities we have mentioned recommend it as an application to burns and chilblains.

Ἀρμενιακὸν,

Armeniacum, has detergent properties with a little acrimony, and a small degree of astringency. It is therefore mixed up with ophthalmic medicines, and promotes the growth of the hairs of the eyelids.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We shall not enter into the discussion of disputed points respecting this article, further than to state our own opinion, that in all probability it was a native ore of carbonate of copper; but which of the species or sub-species described by modern mineralists the armenium was, we cannot venture to decide. See Cleavland’s Mineralogy (p. 570, &c.) Dioscorides, who treats of it under the name of armenium, (v, 105), compares it to chrysocolla, which it is well ascertained is that species of native carbonate of copper now described under the names of copper green and mountain green. He merely recommends it as a cosmetic when applied to the eyelashes. Serapion confounds this substance with the Lapis armeniacus, (c. 404); but Avicenna accurately distinguishes between them. (ii, 2, 56, 415.)

Ἀρνάβω,

Arnabo, is one of the aromatics. Hence it is mostly mixed up with ointments, being possessed of hot and dry powers in the third degree, like cassia and carpesium. Hence Posidonius says, that it may be used instead of cinnamon when it is not at hand.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This article, which is treated of only by Aëtius (xvi, 113), besides our author, has never been accurately determined. It has been supposed to be the zerumbeth, of which we will have occasion to treat more fully in another place. See the Appendix.

Ἀρνόχλωσσον,

Plantago, Plantain, both cools and dries in the second degree, being composed of a watery and a terrene substance, and having a little astringency; therefore it agrees with malignant ulcers, defluxions, and mortifications; by the symmetry of its temperament it stops hemorrhages, and agrees with most of them. For it is desiccant without being stimulant, and cooling without being narcotic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The greater plantain of Dioscorides was probably the Plantago major, which, in all ages down to the present times, has been so celebrated as a vulnerary herb. Our author’s account of its virtues is taken either from Dioscorides or Galen, for, in the present instance, there is scarcely a shade of difference in opinion between these two authorities. The lesser plantain of Dioscorides is either the lanceolata or maritima, probably the former. (ii, 152.) See Macer Floridus. Avicenna and Serapion copy word for word from Dioscorides and Galen. None of the plantains are mentioned by Hippocrates. Celsus places the “plantago” in the list of substances which are both astringent and cooling. (ii, 33.) None of the species of plantago here described occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἄρον,

Arum, Wakerobin, is of the first order in heating and drying, being formed of a terrene substance that is hot and detergent. Its roots are hotter. But the dracunculus is stronger.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have all along assumed, with our older herbalists, that this is the wakerobin or cuckow-pent, namely, the Arum maculatum L. Pliny and Mesue are the only ancient authors who have noticed its purgative powers. Our author’s account of its faculties is much the same as that given by Dioscorides, Galen, and Oribasius, and its ancient character has been amply confirmed by modern authority. The Arabians treat of it fully, but rather confusedly, under the name of Luf. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 432); Serapion (c. 43); Ebn Baithar (ii, 246.) Even at the present day it is not wholly excluded from the Materia Medica. See Pereira (M. M. p. 811.) We have treated of its congener, the dragon herb, as an article of food, in another place. See Book I, 114.

Ἀρσενίκον,

Arsenic, is possessed of caustic powers. It is used also for depilatories, but if the application be allowed to remain long it affects the skin itself. When burnt its particles become attenuated.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no hesitation in deciding that this is the yellow sulphuret of arsenic, commonly called orpiment, the latter term being a corruption of auripigmentum, the Latin name of it. See Celsus (v, 5.) The ancients used this mineral very freely as an external application, and internally by the mouth, in clysters, and in fumigations. Avicenna recommends arsenic with the gum of pine, in the form of a pill, for asthma. He also speaks highly of a potion containing arsenic and honeyed water. He particularly commends arsenic as an application to herpes esthiomenos of the nose. (ii, 2, 48.) Cælius Aurelianus recommends an injection containing arsenic for ascarides. (Tard. Pass. iv, 7). It was freely used in injections for the cure of chronic dysentery. (See Book iii.) Serapion speaks favorably of it in complaints of the eyes. (§ 381.) Servitor says, that sublimed arsenic is a septic and pungent medicine, which removes the fungous flesh of ulcers, and is a depilatory. He describes minutely the process of subliming and whitening it. Avicenna likewise makes mention of white arsenic. Geber also treats of sublimed arsenic, by which it is clear he meant the factitious oxide with which we are now familiar. (iii, 29.)

Ἀρτεμισία,

Artemisia, Mugwort; both varieties are heating in the second degree, and desiccant in the first. They are composed of subtile particles, so that they break down stones in the kidneys, and suit with fumigations of the womb.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The three species of the artemisia described by Dioscorides are probably the arborescens, spicata, and campestris. He recommends the artemisia strongly as an emmenagogue, when given internally, in the form of a hip-bath, and as an injection into the vagina. He also makes it to be lithontriptic. (iii, 107, 118.) The same characters are given it by Galen and by Avicenna, whose berengfef it appears to be. (c. 83.) Aëtius and most of the authorities describe only the first two species of the artemisia. Serapion and Avicenna describe under this head an oriental species, which, it is probable, was the Artemisia Judaica. Honain (ap. Avicennam), also describes the A. Indica. The famous Moxa is prepared from the lanugo or downy substance which adheres to the under surface of the leaf of the artemisia. See Barrow’s ‘Travels in China,’ Woodville, Miller, and Pereira. That the artemisia long retained the character which Dioscorides gave it, of possessing powerful virtues as an emmenagogue and a lithontriptic, is evident from what is said of it in the work of Macer Floridus. Except as furnishing the moxa, (and it is now believed to be got from a particular species, the A. moxa) the species of artemisia here treated of are now wholly discarded from the practice of medicine.

Ἅρτος,

Panis, Bread; in a cataplasm it is more discutient than can be accounted for from the properties of wheat, owing to its containing salt and leaven. For the leaven is attractive of the deep-seated humours.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have given some account of the kinds of bread used by the ancients in the 78th sect. of the First Book. Oribasius gives an excellent description of the mode of preparing the bread poultice and its uses. He directs us to dissolve the bread in water until it acquires the consistence of gruel, and then, having added oil or butter to it, to boil it to the proper consistence. He adds, that it is the best of all applications with which he was acquainted for promoting suppuration. His account of the different kinds of cataplasms is most ample and interesting. (Med. Collect.)

Ἄσαρον,

Asarum, Asarabacca, has the same powers as the sweet flag, but more intense.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This plant, which is certainly the Asarum Europæum, or common Asarabacca, is said by Dioscorides to be diuretic, heating, and emetic, answering well with dropsical cases and chronic sciatica and promoting menstruation; its roots drunk with mulse to the amount of six drachms, he says, purge like white hellebore. (i, 9.) Galen seems to have overlooked the importance of this article, for he is nearly as brief as our author in treating of it; and Aëtius and Oribasius follow him. Serapion, Rhases, and Avicenna recommend it in the same cases as Dioscorides, and also in obstructions of the liver and spleen, and as a stimulant ingredient in collyria. Modern authorities confirm the character of this medicinal article given it by Dioscorides. See Lewis (Mat. Med. i, 178); Rutty (Mat. Med. 43); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 38.) Although not excluded from our Dispensatories, less attention is now bestowed on the asarabacca than it would seem to deserve. See Royle (M. M. p. 548.) Ipecacuanha has nearly superseded it as an emetic in this country. The asarum is still retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 22.)

Ἀσβόλη,

Fuligo, the Soot which painters use. It is taken from glassworks, and is possessed of discutient and acrid powers, so as to burn and occasion putrefaction. It cures burns, with rose-cerate.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and some of the other authorities mention the Fuligo, or soot of glassworks, in nearly the same terms as Paulus.

Ἀσκαλαβώτης,

Stellio, the Swift; this animal is useless for all other purposes, but they say that it is a good application to persons bitten by a scorpion. It is mixed also with venereal excitants.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of this reptile in the Fifth Book. It is the spotted lizard, Lacerta stellio L. Its aphrodisiacal faculty is alluded to by our author in another place. (B. III, 58.)

Ἀσκληπιάς,

Asclepias, Swallow-wort, being hot and dry as to its powers, and consisting of subtile particles, agrees well with tormina when drunk with wine, and in the form of a cataplasm it is a good application to the bites of venomous animals, and malignant ulcers in the uterus and breasts.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There appears little reason to doubt that it is the Asclepias vincetoxicum, or Swallow-wort. Our author borrows its medicinal characters from Dioscorides. (iii, 96.) Galen candidly admits, that he had no experience of it as a medicine. Pliny, like Dioscorides and our author, recommends it for the cure of tormina and the bites of serpents. (H. N. xxvii, 18.) Until lately it held a place in our modern Dispensatories, with the characters given it by the ancients. See Quincy (p. 59); Rutty (Mat. Med. p. 44); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 57.)

Ἄσκυρρον is treated of under Androsæmon.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have stated under ἀνδρόσαιμον the difficulty there is in distinguishing the different species of Hypericum described by the ancients. We cannot pretend to decide whether the present article be the androsæmum or the perforatum. Dioscorides recommends the ascyrron as an emmenagogue, in sciatica, and as an application to burns. (iii, 163.) The Arabians treat of it only as being identical either with the hypericum or the androsæmum. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 59); Avicenna (ii, 2. 354.)

Ἀσπάλαθος,

Aspalathus, Rose-wood, is composed of heterogeneous ingredients, having acrid and astringent powers, and hence it is desiccant. On this account it is useful for mortifications and defluxions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We must not enter into the discussion regarding this article; suffice to say, that we have now arrived at the conclusion that it was either the Lignum rhodium, or a substance so near to it in qualities, that the latter came to be substituted for it. We need scarcely say, that there is great difference of opinion among the botanical authorities what tree or shrub it is which produces the Lignum rhodium. Upon the whole the predominence of evidence is in favour of some species of Cytisus. Dioscorides recommends the aspalathus when boiled in wine as a gargle in aphthæ, as an injection in spreading and impure ulcers of the genital organs (chancres?), in dysuria, flatulence, and other complaints. (i, 19.) Now it will be observed that the distilled oil of Lignum rhodium has been recommended in similar cases by modern authorities. See Moses Charras (Royal Pharmacopœia, Chemical, iii, 1, 24.) The Arabians give the aspalathus the same characters as the Greeks. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 206); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 251.) The aspalathus of Celsus (v, 24) was, no doubt, the same as that of Dioscorides. It is probably the μέλαινα ῥίζα of Hippocrates.

Ἀσπάραγος,

Asparagus, the Rock Asparagus, or Myacanthinus, is detergent, but of a middle temperament as to heat and cold; it is deobstruent of the kidneys and liver, especially its roots and seed. It also cures toothache.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. See Book I, 75. The medicinal asparagus of the ancients would appear to have been different from our garden asparagus, from the description of its root given by Dioscorides (ii, 151), and yet there seems to have been very little difference between them in properties, since both are used for the same culinary and medicinal purposes; the ancient, we suppose, must have been the A. acutifolius. From Dioscorides down to the present time, the asparagus has been celebrated as being possessed of deobstruent and diuretic powers, and hence it has been given in jaundice, nephritis, and many other diseases of a like kind. Celsus recommends it as a pickle in affections of the spleen. (iv, 9.) It occurs in the Hippocratic collection, and is fully treated of by the Arabians. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 603); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 667.) Symeon Seth, after repeating from Galen that the asparagus acts upon the kidneys and imparts its odour to it, remarks that this need not surprise us, since, by holding a certain herb of a red colour in the hands, the urine is reddened. What herb he alludes to cannot be exactly ascertained. (V. Not. Bogdani.) At all events it is clear from this that the ancients believed in absorption by the cuticle. The Arabians held that it is antiseptic. Casiri (Bibl. Hist. Arab. 337.) The wild asparagus was called Corruda (Cato de R. R.)

Ἀσπλήνιον,

Asplenium, Spleenwort, or Ceterach, has the properties of a substance which consists of subtile particles, but is not hot. It therefore breaks down stones and dissolves indurated spleens.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The spleenwort, or Asplenium ceterach, held a place in the Materia Medica from the earliest times down to a very recent period. Dioscorides commends it in diseases of the spleen (whence it derives its name), in strangury, jaundice, and calculus. Galen briefly assigns it the same character, which is repeated by Aëtius and Oribasius, as well as by our author, and also by Avicenna (630.) We cannot find it mentioned by Serapion or Rhases. It held a place in our Dispensatory in the time of Lewis. (Materia Medica A.D. 1791.)

Ἀσταφὶς,

Uva passa, the Raisin; the cultivated is possessed of digestive, astringent, and slightly discutient powers; the wild is possessed of strongly acrid, so as to be strongly phlegmagogue and detergent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides treats much more fully of the medicinal powers of raisins than Galen and our author, recommending them in affections of the windpipe, chest, kidneys, and bladder; for dysentery when eaten with their stones by themselves, or when fried along with millet flour, barley-meal, and eggs; in masticatories with pepper; in inflammation of the testicles, when applied in a cataplasm with the flour of beans and cumin; for epinyctis, carbuncle, fevers, putrid and gangrenous sores about the joints, without their stones, when pounded with rue; for gout in a cataplasm with opoponax, and for the removal of loose nails. (v, 4.) Avicenna and Rhases briefly quote Dioscorides, and supply nothing additional. They hold, like the Greeks, that in particular cases raisins prove injurious to the urinary organs. Symeon Seth mentions that the Egyptians prepared a very sweet wine from raisins and honey. (De Alimentis.)

Ἀστὴρ Ἀττικὸς,

Aster atticus, Starwort, is also called bubonium, because it is believed to cure buboes, not only when applied for this purpose but even when appended as a periapt. It is possessed of mixed powers, being discutient and cooling.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the starwort, Aster amyllus, is taken from Galen, who in his turn copies from Dioscorides. In the common editions of Dioscorides there is a passage under this head (which although quoted by Serapion (§ 96), is scarcely considered genuine by Sprengel, seeing it is not alluded to by Galen or Pliny), in which the Aster atticus is recommended for ardour of the stomach, inflammations of the eyes, buboes, and quinsies. The Arabians in treating of the Aster atticus copy from Dioscorides. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 357); Serapion (De Simpl. 96); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 95.) It is not found in the works of Celsus. It held a place in our modern Dispensatory down to a late date. See Quincy (116.)

Ἀστράγαλος,

Astragalus, Wild Liquorice, is a small shrub, having astringent roots, and is desiccative in no contemptible degree. It promotes the cicatrization of old ulcers, and when drunk with wine stops the discharges of the bowels. It is mostly produced in Phæneum of Arcadia.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That the astragalus belongs to the vetch tribe can admit of no doubt, but the particular genus and species have never been determined. All the authorities, both ancient and modern, recommend it as an astringent both externally and internally. We cannot find it in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus. Our author manifestly borrows from Dioscorides. (iv, 62.) The Arabians do not appear to treat of it.

Ἄσφαλτος,

Bitumen; it is desiccant and calefacient in the second degree: it is therefore agglutinative of fresh wounds.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The asphaltus, or Bitumen judaicum, held a place in the Materia Medica from the days of Hippocrates down to a very recent period. It got the name of Jew’s pitch, from its having been principally procured from Judæa, where it is found floating on the surface of the Dead Sea, or Lacus Asphaltites. Some commentators have been puzzled by Dioscorides representing the colour of the finest asphaltus as purplish, but it is to be borne in mind that the ancients applied this term not to a scarlet red but to any rich dark-blue colour, such as that of the sea. All the authorities, ancient and modern, represent it as being emollient, discutient, and emmenagogue. Serapion gives a very interesting account of it. (§ 177.) See also Avicenna (ii, 2, 114); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 88); also Celsus (v, 6.)

Ἀσφόδελος,

Asphodelus, Kingspear; its root is possessed of detergent and discutient powers. When burnt its ashes become more calefacient, desiccative, and attenuate. It therefore cures alopecia.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the ancient authorities, including Hippocrates and Celsus, treat of the Aspodelus ramosus, or Kingspear, and in general are agreed in recommending it internally as being emmenagogue and diuretic, and externally as an application to alopecia or porrigo decalvans. The author who treats of it most elaborately is Dioscorides, who recommends it for the purposes we have mentioned, and as an alexipharmic, as a cure for toothache, and many other cases. (ii, 199.) Our author follows Galen. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 273); Serapion (c. 221); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 26.) They all copy from Dioscorides and Galen. It was sometimes used as a culinary herb. See Vol. I, p. 118. Our old herbalists repeat its ancient characters as a medicine. See Gerard (i, 70.) It has been discarded from the Pharmacopœia for some time past.

Ἀτρακτυλὶς,

Atractylis, Wild Cnicus, or Distaff-thistle; it is of the thorny tribe, being possessed of desiccative and moderately heating powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. In another place (Vol. I, p. 113) we have treated of the atractylis as a culinary herb, agreeing with Sprengel in referring it to the Carlina lanata. The commentators on Dioscorides, however, are greatly at variance with regard to it; most of the old herbalists agree with Belon and Fuchsius in holding it to be the Carduus benedictus, or blessed thistle. See Gerard’s Herbal (ii, 489.) We cannot help remarking, however, that the virtues of the Carduus benedictus as given by Quincy (English Dispensatory, i, 2) by no means agree with those assigned to the atractylis by Dioscorides; he holds it to be alexipharmical. (iii, 97.) Our author copies from Galen. The Arabians supply no additional information. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 159.)

Ἀτράφαξις,

Atriplex, Orache, moistens in the second degree and cools in the first. It therefore opens the belly. Its fruit is possessed of detergent powers, whence it is useful in jaundice and obstructions of the liver.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the orach (Atriplex Hortensis) as a culinary herb in Book I, § 74. It is still used as an article of food on the Continent. Our author copies from Dioscorides (ii, 145), whose account of it is amplified and explained by Galen. (De Simpl. v.) It is briefly treated of in like terms by Avicenna (ii, 2, 174); Serapion (c. 146); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 97.) Rhases, after quoting what Dioscorides and Paulus say of it, adds on his own authority that he had known the seed of it prove powerfully emetic and laxative.

Ἀφάκη,

Aphace, Wild Vetch, is possessed of astringent powers like the lentil; but when eaten it is more difficult to digest than the lentil, and is more strongly desiccative, with a moderate degree of heating properties.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is clearly a species of Vicia, but whether the bithynica, lutea, or hybrida cannot be satisfactorily determined. It is treated of by our older herbalists, who agree with the ancients in assigning to it astringent powers. The Arabian authorities would appear to have overlooked it. Our author is indebted to Dioscorides (ii, 177) and Galen (De Simpl. v.)

Αφρόνιτρον,

Aphronitrum is possessed of discutient and detergent powers, so as not only to cleanse those parts which are foul, but also to cure pruritus. But when drunk it is bad for the stomach.

Ἀφρὸς νίτρου,

Spuma nitri; it has powers like those of natron, but its substance is more attenuate, and therefore it is smooth like flour.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. As Dr. Coray’s account of the Nitrum, Aphronitrum, and Spuma nitri of the ancients is of high authority, we are induced to give it in his own language literally translated. “The nitrum of the ancients was not that substance which modern chemists call by the name (nitre or nitrate of potass), being a composition of nitric acid and a vegetable alkali, but that which is called natron, being a native combination of carbonic acid and an alkali (natron or native carbonate of soda.) And they called the harder and more stony lumps nitrum or litrum, and the more spongy and softer aphronitrum or aphrolitrum; and spuma nitri or litri, the superficial efflorescence of the nitrum and floury part, which was easily scraped off.” (Ad Xenoc. et Galen. de Al. ex Aquat.)—From this account it appears that the firmer and harder lumps of the native carbonate of soda were called nitrum; the softer and more spongy pieces aphronitrum, and those kinds which had a bright florid appearance externally and readily crumbled down into a powder, the spuma nitri. Dioscorides gives a more lengthy account of its medicinal properties than either Galen or our author, not only recommending it externally as a stimulant and discutient application to various cutaneous diseases and the bites of mad dogs, but also internally as an antidote to poisonous mushrooms, buprestis, bull’s blood, &c. (v, 129.) Serapion has a very interesting chapter on nitrum and aphronitrum, but it is in a great measure made up from Dioscorides and Galen (c. 411.) For a further account of the ancient nitrum, see under Litrum in this section. We may just mention in this place that the aphronitrum would appear to have been merely Afrum nitrum, that is to say, a variety of the nitrum or natron found in Africa.

Ἀχρὰς,

Pyrum silvestre, the Wild Pear; its properties are like those of the common pear, but more intense. It therefore agglutinates large wounds.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides mentions that it is a species of wild pear. He recommends it as an antidote to mushrooms. (i, 168.) Serapion and Mesue give it the same character.

Ἀψίνθιον,

Absinthium, Wormwood; it is heating in the first degree, but drying in the third, being possessed at the same time of astringent, bitter, and acrid qualities. It therefore evacuates bilious humours in the stomach by the bowels and by urine. But in collections of phlegm it is of no service, owing to its astringency. The juice of it is much hotter than the herb itself.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides also describes two other species, the one being clearly the Artemisia maritima, and the other not the santonica, although it bears that name, but rather the palmata, according to the best modern commentators. Dioscorides recommends the true wormwood (Artemisia abrotanum) in a great many cases, both externally and internally; as being diuretic and preventing surfeit when taken beforehand, relieving flatulence of the stomach and bowels; proving emmenagogue in a potion or pessary, removing the feeling of suffocation induced by mushrooms, when drunk with vinegar, and when with wine counteracting the poisonous effects of ixia and hemlock, the bites of the shrew mouse and sea dragon; its vapour removing toothache, and a cataplasm the intense pains of ophthalmy; as suiting in dropsical affections and diseases of the spleen, and in many other cases. He mentions a wine of wormwood made by the people about Propontis and Thrace, which they used for the aforesaid purposes in the absence of fever. (iii, 23.) Pliny enumerates fully the many medicinal properties which were ascribed to it. (H. N. xxvii, 28.) Galen says that it is less attenuant but as desiccative as southernwood. Apuleius calls it anthelminthic. The Arabians recommend it with the same intention. Casiri (Bibl. H. A. 336.) All the authorities hold that it is cholagogue. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 2), who is very full in describing the medicinal properties of wormwood, recommending it in infusion, in decoction, in the form of syrup, and in wine. See also Serapion (c. 14); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 9.) The last of these, after giving the opinions of Dioscorides, Galen, Ruffus, Pythagoras, and Oribasius, quotes Musy (Mesue?) as saying of it that it is stomachic, a whetter of the appetite, useful in jaundice, quinsy, inflammation of the eye and ear, hardness of the liver, spleen, and womb, and in dropsy. One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities commends it as a deobstruent, and in cases of jaundice. It occurs in the list of medicinal substances used both by Hippocrates and Celsus. The latter recommends it as being both stomachic and diuretic. Although its use as a febrifuge has been superseded by a more popular medicine of the same class, we need scarcely remark that it still holds a place in our Dispensatories. The modern Greek Pharmacopœia contains the two species which are described by the names of Artemisia Absinthium and Artemisia contra. The latter is the santonicum, its name being an abbreviation of contra vermes. See Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 705.)

Βάλανος Μυρεψικὴ,

Glans unguentaria, Nut Ben; its inner and, as it were, fleshy parts have detergent and incisive powers along with astringency: and therefore when drunk with honeyed water, to the amount of a drachm weight, it occasions vomiting and loosens the lower belly. But when taken with oxycrate it is of use for obstructions of the viscera. It proves detergent in affections of the skin when rubbed in with vinegar. Its bark is very astringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no dispute that this is the ben nut, the term ben being derived from the Arabians. The tree from which it is procured is said to be the Hyperanthera moringa Vahl. See Ainslie (Mat. Med. i, 197.) It is further called Myrobalanum, but the coincidence of name must not lead the reader to identify it with the myrobalans of the Arabians, of which we shall have occasion to give some account in another place. Pliny gives an interesting account of it, representing the Arabian as being the best oil in quality, and the Troglodytic or Ethiopian, as the worst. (H. N. xii, 47.) Being principally used in unguents, it has often got the name of glans unguentaria. Dioscorides writes fully of its medicinal properties, recommending it in particular inwardly, as an emetic and purgative, and externally, as an application to various cutaneous diseases, such as psora and leprosy (iv, 157.) Celsus recommends it in several places as an ingredient in emollient ointments, more especially for indurations of the spleen (iv, 9; v, 18, 4.) The Arabians, especially Avicenna and Serapion, treat of it at great length, but in nearly the same terms as Dioscorides and Galen. Of late years nut ben has been excluded from our Dispensatories; but our older authorities in modern times confirm the characters of it given above from Dioscorides, that is to say, that it acts both as an emetic and a purge, but in the latter capacity slowly and with pain. See Hill (Mat. Med. 4, 94); Rutty (Mat. Med. p. 52.)

Βάκχαρις,

Baccharis, Spikenard, is a fragrant herb, like cinnamon, used for garlands. It is acrid; and its root when boiled is deobstruent, diuretic, and emmenagogue. But its leaves being astringent are beneficial in fluxes.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Regarding this much disputed article, the predominance of authority, as we think, is in favour of its being some species of Conyza. Old Gerard gives it the English names of ploughman’s spikenard and cinnamon-root, and repeats the characters of it given by the ancient authorities. It has been long since expelled from our Dispensatories. Galen, in his Commentary on the Glossa Hippocratica, mentions that the name is applied both to a herb and a Lydian ointment. It does not occur in the works of Celsus nor in those of the Arabians. Our author draws his characters of it from Dioscorides, who recommends it, among other purposes, as being emmenagogue and promoting parturition (iii, 44.)

Βαλάυστιον,

Balaustium, the Flower of the Wild Pomegranate; it is powerfully astringent, having also desiccant and cold powers. It heals superficial sores, and stops defluxions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Balaustine, or the Flower of the double Wild Pomegranate, is an astringent medicine much used by the ancient physicians. Dioscorides recommends it principally as an anthelminthic to kill the broad ascaris, by which he meant the tænia. (See ii, 147.) Galen writes very elaborately on this article, contending that it is a good example of a plant possessed of an astringent quality, and stating that it was in general use with this intention externally in intertrigo and other ulcers, and internally in cases of hæmoptysis, dysentery, and in all defluxions from the stomach or womb. The Arabians give a similar account of it, and further recommend balaustine as a whetter of the appetite, and a restorative from the ill effects of intoxication, and a medicine calculated to stop vomiting. See in particular Serapion (129), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 109.) Although modern authority is not wanting to confirm what the ancients have stated regarding the efficacy of balaustine as an astringent in diarrhœa, dysentery, and menorrhagia, it has been excluded of late years from our British Dispensatories. Our continental brethren still make use of it. The modern Greek Pharmacopœia does not retain the leaves.

Βάλσαμον,

Balsamum, Balsam-tree; that part of it which is like its wood is desiccant and heating in the second degree. It is also composed of subtile particles, but the juice of it is much more so. Its fruit is possessed of similar powers, but its particles are less subtile.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This clearly is the Balsamum Gileadense, or Balm of Gilead, being procured, as Dr. Pereira states, from the Balsamo-dendron Gileadense, a middling-sized tree growing in Arabia. He says, it is rarely or never employed by Europeans; but is adapted to the same cases as the terebinthinates. The Asiatics use it for its odoriferous as well as its medicinal properties. Dioscorides certainly writes strongly in its favour, recommending it as a detergent application to sores and complaints of the eyes, and internally as an emmenagogue and diuretic, and as an antidote to poisons and venomous animals. Galen treats of it much more reservedly (i, 18.) The balsam occurs in Celsus’s list of articles which concoct and promote suppuration (v, 3.) The Arabians fully coincide with the character of it given by Dioscorides. See in particular Serapion (c. 160); Avicenna (ii, 2, 81.) Though this article has almost ceased to be employed in the practice of the scientific physician, it was the instrument by which one of the most successful pieces of empiricism was perpetrated in the beginning of this century. We allude to Dr. Solomon’s celebrated Balm of Gilead.

Βαλωτὴ,

Balote, by some called Black Horehound; it is possessed of acrid and detergent powers; therefore, when applied with salts, it relieves the bite of mad dogs.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There appears little reason to doubt that this is the Ballote nigra, or stinking horehound of our herbalists. Our author’s account of it is abridged from Dioscorides. It is not treated of by Galen, Aëtius, nor Oribasius, neither is it found in Celsus. Avicenna and Ebn Baithar we believe are the only Arabians who notice it, and they copy from Dioscorides (ii, 2, 553, and i, 166.)

Βάτος,

Rubus, the Bramble; its shrubby part is moderately astringent and desiccant, and therefore agglutinates wounds and stops defluxions. The root, in addition to its astringency, is attenuate in no small degree. It therefore breaks down renal calculi. Its ripe fruit is hotter, and has a moderate astringency. It is therefore edible; but the unripe is sour and powerfully desiccant, more especially if dried. In like manner also the flower.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The first species of bramble described by Dioscorides is probably that well-known one the Rubus fruticosus, the other is the Rubus Idæus, or raspberry bush. The Β. Ἰδᾶιος of Dioscorides was supposed by Ruellius and others to be the Fragaria or Strawberry, but with this supposition we cannot agree. Strawberries are not noticed by any Greek writer, but are first mentioned by Ovid (Met. i, 104); and then by Pliny (H. N. xxv, 62.) The μόρον βατῶδες, of which mention is occasionally made by our author, was the fruit of the bramble, being so called, according to Eustathius, from its resemblance to mulberries. (Ad Iliad. xiii, 121.) Our author abridges Galen, who is at great pains in defining the powers of the batos, which he makes out to be moderately astringent and desiccative; and hence he pronounces it to be useful in dysentery, fluxes of the bowels, atony, hæmoptysis, and in calculus as a lithrontriptic. Dioscorides indulges in a still more lengthened exposition of its virtues, recommending the decoction of it as an astringent in looseness of the bowels, and in fluor albus, as an antidote to the sting of the serpent Prester; its leaves when chewed, to strengthen the gums and cure the aphthæ of children, and externally, for the cure of herpes, achor, procidentia oculi, and many other diseases (iii, 36.) It is briefly alluded to by Celsus in treating of lientery (iv, 16.) The Arabians, as usual, copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See Serapion (De Simpl. 124); Avicenna (ii, 2, 572.) The rubi held their place and ancient characters in our Dispensatories down to a late date. See Quincy (p. 94.) Even yet several of the rubi are still kept in the shops for medicinal purposes. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 89.)

Βατράχιον,

Ranunculus, Crowsfoot, consists of four varieties, all of which are possessed of powerfully heating and desiccant powers, and also of acrid and caustic, so as to occasion ulceration with pain; but when moderately used, it proves only detergent of the skin. The dried root is a sternutatory.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. According to Sprengel, the first species is the Ranunculus Asiaticus; the second, the R. lanuginosus; the third, the R. muricatus; and the fourth, the R. aquatilis. Galen recommends it as a powerful escharotic, and our author evidently copies from him. Dioscorides gives a similar account of the ranunculi, recommending them for the removal of leprous nails, psora, stigmata, and other tumours, as a fomentation to chilblains, and as an application to remove toothache. The Arabians treat of the ranunculi in the same terms as the Greeks, copying their medicinal characters from Dioscorides and Galen. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 368), and Ebn Baithar (ii, 343.) Neither of them gives anything original of his own, nor from any Arabian authority. The ranunculi, we need scarcely mention, have now been discarded by the regular practitioner; but yet several of them are still kept in the shops, and have the reputation of being excellent vesicants. Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 122.) In like manner old Culpeper affirms that the crowsfoot is an effectual and a much safer blister than cantharides (p. 59.) The modern Greek Pharmacopœia does not contain it.

Βάτραχοι,

Ranæ, Frogs; they are eaten when made into a soup for the bites of venomous animals; when burnt, their ashes become very desiccant; and stop hemorrhages, and cure alopecia, along with liquid pitch.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, Galen, and Serapion recommend them in the cases mentioned by our author. The species with which they must have been most familiar is the green frog. We have stated in another place that the Greeks and Romans did not use the frog as an article of food. (Vol. I, 166.)

Βδέλλιον,

Bdellium; both the Scythian and Arabian are possessed of powers which prove emollient of indurated tumours, more especially the recent. The Arabian is also diuretic, lithontriptic, and digestive.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, as Dr. Ainslie remarks (Mat. Ind. i, 30), has sufficiently well described this article; and yet he adds afterwards, it is a lamentable fact that the actual tree from which bdellium is got has not hitherto been clearly ascertained by botanists. He rejects the conjecture of Sprengel, although supported by the high authority of Kæmpfer and Rumphius that it is procured from the Borassus flabelliformis, and also that of Matthiolus, who maintained that it is procured from the dwarf palm, or Chamœrops humilis. Upon the whole, the opinion of Virey, founded on the authority of Forskael, that it is got from some species of Amyris, seems to be the most probable. Dr. Pereira gives the following account of this article: “The term Bdellium is applied to two gummy resinous substances. One of these is Indian bdellium, or false myrrh, the bdellium of Scripture, which is obtained from Amyris (Balsamodendron?) Commiphora. See further Royle (Hindoos Med. p. 90.) The other kind is called African Bdellium, and is obtained from the Heudolotia Africana.” (Mat. Med. 1634.) On the Bdellium, see further what we have said in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Greek Lexicon. The ancients would appear to have been well acquainted with both these kinds of bdellium; at all events they were acquainted with the Indian, for Dioscorides has described it. He represents the bdellium to be calefacient, emollient, and dissolvent, and recommends it for dissolving hard tumours, for promoting menstruation in pessaries, and fumigations, and as an emetic, diuretic, and expectorant (i, 80.) The Arabians were evidently still more familiar with the bdellium than their Grecian masters; but have supplied little or no additional information respecting it. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 117), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 112.) Celsus recommends it frequently as an ingredient in external applications. As far as we have been able to discover, it does not occur in the works of Hippocrates.

Βεττονικὴ,

Bettonica, Bettony, is a herb having slender branches like those of the pennyroyal, but still more slender, and is possessed of scarcely any quality to the taste. It grows mostly in rocky situations, and is used for the composition of nephritic medicines. There is among the Romans another herb called bettonica, to which Dioscorides gives the name of cestrum; but others name it psychotrophon, because it delights in cold situations, having no resemblance to the aforementioned, except its medicinal powers. In addition to its action as a diuretic, it is useful for many other purposes; for its root in particular, when drunk with hydromel, occasions vomiting, and the leaves open the bowels.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dr. Alston says, “There is a Libellus (De Betonica) attributed commonly to Augustus’s physician, Antonius Musa, by some to L. Apuleius, of which there are said to be very ancient MSS.” We have seen the work mentioned by Alston. It is published Tiguri, A.D. 1537, with notes by Humelbergius. It is a small work, occupying scarcely four leaves in octavo. The author commences with a dedication to Augustus, in which he informs the emperor that the betony is useful for forty-seven complaints, which he proceeds to enumerate, after giving a short description of the herb. He says of it, “Cestron vocatur, etiam psychotrophon, siquidem frigidis reperitur in locis, radicibus tenuibus, thyrso tenui ultra cubitum quadrangulo, foliis quercui similibus, boni odoris, semine in summitate thyrsi spicato, modo thymbræ.” The following are some of the cases in which he recommends it: For fractures of the head, as an external application; for pains of the eyes in a fomentation; for pains in the teeth, boiled in old wine or vinegar; for consumption and difficulty of breathing; for complaints of the liver, spleen, and kidneys; as a purgative when given to the amount of four drachms in eight cyathi of hydromel; for calculus; for dropsy; to prevent intoxication; as an antidote to poisons and the bites of venomous reptiles and mad dogs; for gout, &c. Many different opinions, as stated by Sprengel, have been entertained respecting this herb. Perhaps, as he suggests, it may have been the Rumex Hydrolapathum or Aquaticus. The κεστρεὺς of Dioscorides he thinks is the B. alopecurus. But for the general literature of this subject, we must refer to our discussion on it in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Greek Lexicon. The betony held a place in the Materia Medica down to a very late period. Both Dioscorides and Pliny recommend it in hæmoptysis and purulent affections of the chest, and it enters as an ingredient into several of Myrepsus’s antidotes for dysentery and cæliac affection. Celsus mentions it only in one place, where he says of it, that it is an useful application to the stings of venomous snakes (v, 27, 10.) For the Arabians, see in particular Serapion (322), and Averrhoes (Coll. v, 42.) Our old herbalists and other modern authorities who treat of betony, praise it as a vulnerary herb, and as being possessed of diuretic and emmenagogue faculties.

Βηχίον,

Tussilago, Coltsfoot, it is also called Bechicon; it is so named from its proving useful for coughs, and orthopnœa in fumigations; and it is composed of a hot and watery substance.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Tussilago Farfara, or Coltsfoot. Both Dioscorides and Galen recommend it in fumigations for the cure of coughs, and this reputation it has retained down to the present day. Though now expelled from our Dispensatories, a patent medicine, prepared from coltsfoot, is still in considerable celebrity. It is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 67.)

Βλίτον,

Blitum, Blite, is an esculent potherb, which is humid and cold in the second degree.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The blite, or Amaranthus Blitum, has been long celebrated as a culinary and medicinal herb. (See vol. i, 114.) Galen and Dioscorides, like our author, treat of its medicinal powers in very brief terms. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 518); Serapion (De Simpl. 148); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 41); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 128); Ebn Baithar (i, 154.) These Arabian authorities commend it strongly as an application in diseases of the skin, and in phthiriasis, and also in alopecia and apostemes. Archigenes, as quoted by Rhases, says, the blite is more laxative than the mallow. It is treated of by our older herbalists; but has long since ceased to occupy a place in our Dispensatories.

Βολβὸς,

Bulbus; the esculent is possessed of a certain degree of bitterness, and at the same time of astringency, and is desiccative and agglutinative of wounds, and also detergent. The emetic is hotter in its properties.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have mentioned in the First Book that Harduin considers the esculent bulbus to have been a species of onion, but that Sprengel refers it to the Muscari comosum. In addition to the reasons there mentioned for preferring the conjecture of Harduin, we have to add the account of it given by the Scholiast on Theocritus: βολβὸς ἔιδος βοτἀνης ὀμοίας κρομμύῳ Κολχικῷ. (Idyll, xiv.) There is also a good deal of uncertainty with regard to the emetic bulbus; but the predominance of authority is in favour of its being the Hyacinthus comosus. The fact of the matter, however, we believe to be that various plants having bulbous roots are possessed of emetic powers, and that the name emetic bulbus was often applied in a loose manner. Dioscorides merely says of its medicinal properties, that when eaten by itself, and when its decoction is drunk, it cures diseases of the bladder and produces vomiting (ii, 200, 201.) Galen and the succeeding authorities, like our author, treat very succinctly of it. The Arabians, also, merely copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 85); Serapion (c. 355.)

Βότρυς,

Botrys, Goosefoot; some call it Ambrosia, and others Mugwort. It is a plant sufficiently fragrant, and when drunk with wine cures orthopnœa.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There seems no reason to doubt that this is the plant described by our old herbalists under the name of Oak of Jerusalem. It has now got the scientific name of Chenopodium Botrys. It is briefly recommended in orthopnœa by Dioscorides (iii, 120), and Pliny (N. H. xxvii, 31.) It is not noticed by Galen, Aëtius, Oribasius, Celsus, nor we believe by any of the Arabians, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, yet it held a place in our English Dispensatory as late as the time of Quincy.

Βουβώνιον,

Bubonium, has been described under Aster Atticus.

Βούγλωσσον,

Buglossum, Bugloss, is humid and hot in its temperament. Hence when added to wines it is said to produce hilarity.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Borage, or Anchusa Buglossum, long held a place in the Materia Medica. From Dioscorides down to Boerhaave, it had the reputation of being a good cordial. See Dioscorides (iv, 126); Avicenna (ii, 2, 375.) We believe it is not met with in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus.

Βούνειον,

Bunium (or Arctium), Rape; it is hot, diuretic, and emmenagogue; and the Pseudobunium in like manner.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We treated of this article, which, notwithstanding the disagreement of the commentators and herbalists, we are willing to believe to be the Bunium Bulbocastanum, or Earth-nut, as a culinary herb in the First Book. The pseudobunium may be the Pimpinella tenuis. Dioscorides represents it to be diuretic, calefacient, possessing powers to promote the lochial discharge, and useful in affections of the spleen, kidneys, and bladder (iv, 122.) Galen and the other authorities give the same account of it as our author. It long held a place in our modern Dispensatories.

Βόυπρηστις,

Buprestis, Burncow, is an insect resembling the Cantharis, and may therefore be prepared like it.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Whatever doubts others may have entertained respecting the Buprestis of the ancients, we are well satisfied that it was the Meloe vesicatoria. We have treated fully of it as a poison in the Fifth Book § 31. Occasional mention of it is made in the Hipprocratic treatises. (De Mulieb. i, et alibi.)

Βόυτυρον,

Butyrum, Butter, is possessed of digestive and moderately discutient properties when applied to soft bodies; it is therefore of use for buboes and parotis; it attenuates the gums, more especially of children during the time of dentition, and in a linctus it concocts humours lodged in the chest.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Though it certainly be true, as stated by Beckmann (History of Inventions), that the Greeks and Romans made very little use of butter as an article of food compared with the moderns, it is equally clear that they were well acquainted with various kinds of it, and their medicinal virtues. If, as he and Michaelis suppose, the Hebrew word, which, in the Septuagint Scripture, is rendered boutyron, signifies cream, or sour thick milk, the first mention of butter which occurs in ancient literature is in the following passage of Hippocrates: “These people (the Scythians) pour the milk of their mares into wooden vessels, cause it to be violently stirred or shaken by their blind slaves, and separate the part which arises to the surface, as they consider it more valuable and more delicious than that which is collected below it.” (De Aere, Aquis, etc.) The Hippace is also described in another of the Hippocratic treatises (De Morbis, iv.) Beckmann quotes a passage of the poet Anaxandrides, preserved by Athenæus (iv, 131, ed. Casaubon), to prove that butter is of Thracian origin. We having thus described the origin of butter, shall now give a description of its medicinal uses from the works of the medical authorities. In the Hippocratic treatises butter is several times mentioned as an external medicine. (De Natura Mulierum, v; De Morbis Mulierum, ii, 5.) But Dioscorides is the first author who gives a distinct account of its medicinal properties. Butter, he says, is possessed of emollient and oily powers, whence it loosens the bowels when drunk in large quantity, and is useful in the treatment of poisoning by deadly substances in the absence of oil; when mixed with honey, and rubbed in, it is useful for painful dentition, pruritus of the gums in children, and aphthæ; when rubbed in externally it preserves the body plump and free from watery pustules (psydracia); it is beneficial for inflammations and hardness of the womb, when not fetid or old; for dysentery and ulceration of the colon, in a clyster; it is mixed advantageously with suppurative applications, and more especially in wounds of the nerves, membranes of the brain, the bladder, and neck; it fills up, cleanses, incarnates, and proves useful as an application in cases of persons bitten by the asp. Fresh butter in cookery is used instead of oil, and in cakes instead of suet. His chapter on butter concludes with directions for preparing the sort of butter, which he represents as being desiccative and astringent in ophthalmic applications, and capable of stopping defluxions and cicatrizing ulcers. (ii, 81.) Pliny’s account of milk being mostly taken from Dioscorides, we shall not dwell upon it. He is original, however, in stating that most butter is got from cow’s milk. (H. N. xxviii, 35.) Celsus merely enumerates butter among the articles which incarnate and fill up sores. (v, 14.) Galen states that butter is contained in greatest quantity in the milk of cows, and hence it derives its name. That it has concoctive powers with a small portion of discutient, and is of intermediate powers with regard to softness and hardness of the body, by which he means that it has no powers to discuss preternatural tumours of very hard bodies, but that it concocts and discusses soft inflammations, such as parotis, bubo, boils in the mouth, and many others of a like nature. He recommends it also in dentition and inflammatory affections of the mouth in children. He also mentions it as a useful expectorant in pleurisy and pneumonia, both when drunk and in the form of a linctus. (De Simpl. ix.) Aëtius copies the description which he gives of butter from Galen. (ii, 104.) Oribasius borrows from Dioscorides. (xv, 2.) Rhases quotes Dioscorides, Galen, Oribasius, and Paulus, and gives nothing of his own. (l. ult. 133.) Avicenna also recommends butter in exactly the same cases as Dioscorides and Galen. (ii, 2, 110.) Serapion literally translates Dioscorides and Galen. (De Simpl. 457.)

Βούφθαλμον,

Buphthalmum, Oxeye, has a flower like that of the camomile, but much larger and more acrid. It is therefore discutient, so as to cure indurations when mixed with cerate.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The old herbalists were much puzzled what to make of the Buphthalmum, some contending for its being Helleborus niger, some a species of Consiligo, some a Chrysanthemum, and so forth. See Gerard (Herbal) and Sprengel (Ad Dioscor.) It would seem likely that it is the Anthemis Valentina. Our author borrows all that was worth copying in the chapter of Dioscorides (iii, 146.) Galen expresses himself respecting it in nearly the same terms as Dioscorides. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 97.) It is not mentioned in the Hippocratic collection.

Βράθυς,

Sabina, Savin, being like the Cypress, it is heating and desiccative in the third degree; and consisting of subtile particles, it is possessed of subtilizing and discutient powers if drunk. It is applied to mortifications like the Cypress.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The two species of savine described by Dioscorides are probably the Sabina cypressifolia and tamariscifolia. He recommends it principally as an external application to spreading sores and carbuncles. He says it produces bloody water and abortion when drunk in wine, and when applied externally, or in the form of fumigation. (i, 104.) All the ancient authorities, including Macer Floridus (but his works, we are well aware, are not generally reputed genuine), hold it to be an uterine medicine. Its medicinal and deleterious powers are given in like manner by the Arabians. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 6); Serapion (c. 255); Ebn Baithar (i, 5.) Apuleius praises it strongly in jaundice. We need scarcely mention that savin still retains its place in our Dispensatory, being, according to Pereira, “the most certain and powerful emmenagogue of the whole Materia Medica.” With regard to its action on the animal economy, “it operates,” according to Sundelin, as quoted by Pereira, “as a specific excitant and irritant on the kidneys, and yet more obviously on the uterus.” All this shows how correctly the ancient authorities had judged of its powers.

Βρεττανίκη,

Bretannica, Water-dock, is possessed of astringent and agglutinative powers, and in appearance resembles the Wild-dock. The juice of it cures mortifications in the mouth.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It would not be worth while, even if this were the proper place, to touch upon the lengthened controversy which has prevailed among the old herbalists and botanical authorities with regard to this plant. Whoever would wish to investigate the subject may consult Professor Munting’s elaborate work ‘De Vera Herba Britannica,’ (Amst. 1698,) and Sprengel’s ‘Annotations on Dioscorides’ (iv, 2.) Suffice it to say, that, in all probability, the plant in question was some species of water-dock. All the authorities who treat of it give it much the same character as our author. See particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 102); Serapion (c. 222.) It held a place in our English Dispensatory as late as Quincy, who represents it (“the hydrolopathum, supposed to be the Bretannica of the ancients”) as a specific for scurvy.

Βρόμος,

Avena, Oats, has powers resembling those of barley. It is desiccative, and moderately discutient without pungency. It has also some astringency, whence it cures diarrhœas.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is not well ascertained whether this be an Avena or Secale. The chapter of Dioscorides under this head is probably spurious. Our author abridges Galen. It is not treated of by Celsus nor the Arabians.

Βρύον,

Bryum; the sea-bryum or lichen is cooling and astringent, and is therefore useful when applied as a cataplasm to hot inflammations; that kind which is called splanchnon, being found on oaks, white poplars, and pitch-trees, is at the same time discutient and moderately emollient, more especially that upon cedars.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears evident that it is a species of Lichen or Usnea, but what species is not clear. The term usnea is borrowed from the Arabian authors. Our author copies closely from Galen. Dioscorides recommends it as an astringent principally in affections of the womb, in the form of a hip-bath or fumigation. Avicenna (ii, 2, 713) and Serapion (c. 247) briefly notice several species of usnea without appearing to identify it with the bryon of the Greeks. Rhases, however, is quite aware of their identity. (Contin. l. ult. i, 753.) Avicenna says it is emmenagogue, and procures the delivery of the fœtus either dead or alive. He adds that, in a dose of 10 drs. it acts as a deadly poison. Serapion recommends it principally as being diuretic and emmenagogue. Several species of the genera lichen and usnea are still to be found in the shops, and have the reputation of being powerful astringents. See Gray (Suppl. to the Pharmacop. pp. 11, 12.)

Βρυωνία,

Bryonia, Bryony; the White Vine is so named.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. See under ἄμπελος. Mesue recommends it as a phlegmagogue, deobstruent, and diuretic medicine; for epilepsy, vertigo, coldness of the nerves, coughs, asthmas, especially in a linctus, in pleurisy, and as an external application to hard aspostemes, inflammations of the spleen, in the form of a plaster, with figs and wine; for the removal of whitlow, spiculæ of bones, thorns, and the like. In a draught, he says, it proves emmenagogue and procures abortion. He also commends it as a cosmetic in diseases of the face. Both internally and externally he praises it in scrofula. He adds further, that it is useful in the cure of persons who have been bitten by venomous animals. In a word, no ancient author has bestowed so flattering an eulogium upon bryony as Mesue (De Simplicibus.) We need scarcely say that bryony (Bryonia dioica or alba) is now regarded in the light of a poison rather than a medicine. See Orfila (Toxicol. Gen. i, 679), and Christison on Poisons (p. 445, First edition.)

Γἀλα,

Lac, Milk; every sort of milk consists of three substances, a cheesy, a serous, and a fatty part, which last is contained in greatest abundance in the cow’s milk, and from it butter is formed. Whey is possessed of detergent properties, and hence it loosens the belly if separated by boiling. The cheesy and thick part is more compact, and on that account blunts acrid humours. When milk is boiled either by hot pebbles or any other way, it is an excellent remedy for dysenteries and other acrid defluxions on the bowels. The whole contents of milk are suitable applications for acrid humours of the eye, and all other acrimonies. The milk of a woman is of the best regulated temperament; after which the goat’s, and then that of the ass and sheep; and last of all the milk of cows.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the properties of milk so fully in the First Book that we need not enlarge on the subject in this place. Our author’s account of it is abridged from Galen. Dioscorides, Galen, Celsus, Serapion, and most of the authorities, recommend milk as a remedy when acrid substances, such as cantharides or arsenic, have been swallowed. Dioscorides says whey is beneficial in cases of melancholy, epilepsy, lepra, elephantiasis, and exanthemata in all parts of the body. He recommends new milk as a gargle in all ulcerations of the mouth, and in defluxions on the bowels with ulceration and tenesmus. He says, the milk of sheep, cows, or goats stops them, when boiled with pebbles, and injected either by itself or with ptisan, or the decoction of chondrus; it is also injected, he adds, in ulcerations of the womb. A woman’s milk, he says, when sucked from the breast, relieves erosion of the stomach and phthisis; it suits the cure of those who have drunk of the sea-hare, and is otherwise useful as an application to the eyes, and to the gout. All kinds of milk, he adds, are inapplicable in diseased spleen, diseased liver, vertigo, epilepsy, all nervous affections, fevers, and headaches, unless when the schiston is given to move the bowels. What the schiston was we have explained in the First Book (§ 88.) All the other authorities, whether Greek or Arabian, in treating of milk, follow Dioscorides and Galen. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 457.) Celsus entertained nearly the same views, with regard to milk, as the Greek authorities. Thus he recommends it in phthisis, and as an antidote to various poisons, but condemns it in headaches and acute fevers. Hippocrates prescribes milk in various instances, and seems to have been very partial to the use of it. He recommends the schiston, prepared with pebbles, in affections of the bowels. (Epidem. vii.)

Γαλὴ,

Mustella, the Weasel; when burnt, its ashes are discutient. Wherefore when rubbed in along with vinegar it relieves gout and rheumatism; when prepared and dried it answers with epilepsies.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. According to Sprengel, the Γαλη is a species of mustella, but neither the M. communis, called weasel in English, nor the M. Furo, or Ferret. Our author’s description of its medicinal virtues is taken from Dioscorides.

Γάλιον,

Galium, Yellow Ladies’ Bedstraw, or Cheese Rennet; it derives its name of Galium from its coagulating milk. It resembles the cleavers, and is desiccative and subacrid. The flower of it suits with hemorrhages and burns.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The very name, Galium verum, now generally given to the yellow bed-straw, implies that it is generally admitted to be the galium of the ancients. Dioscorides, besides assigning to it the virtues enumerated by our author, states, that it is aphrodisiacal (iv, 94.) It was principally celebrated, however, as a styptic, and this character it continued to hold as long as it obtained a place in the Dispensatory. See Quincy. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 317); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 327); Ebn Baithar (ii, 229.) They all merely copy from Dioscorides and Galen. We have not been able to find it in the works of either Hippocrates or Celsus.

Γαλίοψις,

Galiopsis (called also Galiobdolon), is like the nettle, but smoother and fetid, and acts as a discutient and emollient application to indurated tumours. It also agrees with spreading ulcers in the form of a cataplasm.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our old herbalists generally held the galiopsis of Dioscorides to be a species of Lamium. (See Gerard and Parkinson.) But whether it be that or a species of figwort (the Scrofularia peregrina) cannot be positively determined. Rutty says the Lamium maximum of C. Bauhin has all the marks which Dioscorides gives to the galiopsis. It was used only externally in applications to foul ulcers, and this character secured it a place in our Dispensatory until recent times. See particularly Dioscorides (iv, 94.) Few of the other authorities have noticed it.

Γάρος,

Garum, Brine of Pickled Fish, is powerfully calefacient and desiccative, and is therefore used as an external application to putrid ulcers, and is administered as an injection in dysentery and ischiatic diseases.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. “Garum est exquisiti liquoris genus, intestinis piscium cæterisque quæ abjicienda sunt sale maceratis.” Rendtorpi Notæ ap. Fabricii Bibl. Gr. iv, 333; Geopon. xx, 46; Pliny (H. N. xxxi, 43); Athenæus (Deipnos. ii); Apicius (c. vii.) Coray defines it, “the juice or brine of pickled fishes.” (Ad Xenocrat. Fragment.) Sauce prepared by macerating the intestines of the tunny was particularly esteemed. Cælius Aurelianus praises that from the silurus. (Tard. Pass. ii, 1.) Dioscorides recommends the sauce of pickled fishes as a cataplasm to persons bitten by dogs, and as an injection in dysentery and sciatica (ii, 34.) All the other authorities that treat of it give it the same character. See Aëtius (ii); Avicenna (ii, 2, 486); Serapion (c. 184.) It occurs in the works of Celsus (ii, 21), and also frequently in those of Hippocrates. Foës gives a learned dissertation on this article in ‘Œconom. Hippocrat.’

Γεντιανὴ,

Gentiana, Gentian; the root is sufficiently efficacious in subtilising and cleansing, and as a detergent and deobstruent medicine.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides states that the gentian (Gentiana lutea?) has a heating and astringent faculty; that it is a remedy in cases of persons bitten by venomous animals, with pepper and rue; that it is useful in hepatic and stomachic affections; that it procures abortion when applied in a collyrium; that it is a vulnerary herb, and is used for many ulcers and other cutaneous affections. (iii, 3.) Galen justly remarks that it owes its attenuant and deobstruent powers to its being intensely bitter. (De Simpl. v.) Apuleius, like Dioscorides, recommends it as an application for the bites of serpents. Hence it always obtained a place in the Theriac. See Celsus (v, 23.) Serapion says it is the best of all remedies in cases of hydrophobia, and this character it has obtained in modern times. Avicenna gives a very circumstantial account of it, enumerating all its virtues as stated by the Greek authorities, namely, its abstergent, attenuant, deobstruent, diuretic, and emmenagogue powers, and recommends it particularly as an application to parts stung by venomous animals. (ii, 2, 281.) Ebn Baithar gives very interesting extracts from Arabian authorities on this head. (i, 260.) It is found in the Hippocratic collection. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia it is stated that the G. lutea grows in the Alps of Switzerland. This would seem to imply that it is not a native of Greece.

Γεράνιον,

Geranium, Cranebill; that species, the leaves of which resemble those of the Anemone, and has edible roots, when drunk with wine to the amount of a drachm, removes inflation of the uterus. The other species is of no use in medicine.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and the other ancient authorities describe only two species of the Geranium, the former of which would certainly seem to be the tuberosum, and the other the rotundifolium. They were not acquainted with the Geranium Robertianum. Dioscorides merely says of the geranium that when drunk in wine, to the amount of a drachm, it cures inflation of the womb (iii, 121.) Few of the other authorities notice it. See Ebn Baithar (i, 10.) The geraniums held a place in our English Dispensatory until a recent period. See Quincy (p. 88.)

Γῆ,

Terra, Earth; all kinds are desiccants; that which is unmixed with any other substance is also free of pungency; but if any fiery quality is mixed with it, it lays the same aside when washed. The fatty part, then, of wrought earth is an useful application to all organs that require drying; they use therefore the clay of Egyptian earth to dropsical and splenitic affections, and to soft swellings, with manifest advantage. Of medicinal earths, the Lemnia rubrica, or Sigillum, as it is called, in addition to its being moderately desiccative and astringent, proves an antidote to deleterious medicines, cures malignant ulcers with wine or vinegar, stops all kinds of hemorrhage, and removes dysentery and spreading ulcers of the intestines, the gut being first washed out by an injection of honied water, and then of brine. The Rubrica Sinopica, or vermilion, being stronger than the Lemnian, is used as an ingredient in plasters, and when drunk it kills worms. The Samian is much more emollient than the Lemnian, as being glutinous and viscid. It is to be used then in all cases in which emollients are indicated; but it also cures spitting of blood from whatever part it proceed. The Selenusian and the Chian are more detergent, and are therefore used by some women in the cleansing applications to their faces. It also produces the incarnation and cicatrization of ulcers, more especially of burns. The unwashed Cimolian is possessed of mixed powers, being refrigerant and discutient; but the washed is more cooling, and cures burns with oxycrate. The Terra Ampelitis (it is the kind of earth which is rubbed upon vines to destroy the worms which breed in them) is powerfully desiccant and discutient, but not without pungency. The Cretan is full of air and detergent, without pungency. The Eretrian is decidedly astringent, but when burnt and washed it is desiccant without pungency; but the cineritious is preferable. The Pnigitis has powers resembling the Cimolian, but is black. The Armenian, called also Bole, is powerfully desiccative, and therefore agrees excellently with dysenteric cases, fluxes of the belly, spitting of blood, consumption, dyspnœa from humidity, humid ulcers, and pestilential affections. It is drunk with a thin diluted wine, or, if fever be present, with water. The Alanabolus is possessed of similar powers to the Armenian. Ochre is discutient and septic in its powers; it therefore restrains the fungous flesh of ulcers, and fills hollow ones when mixed with cerate.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We shall now give a brief explanation of the medicinal earths of the ancients, and for a fuller account of them we would beg to refer to the Appendix to Dunbar’s ‘English and Greek Lexicon,’ to Hill’s ‘Annotations on Theophrastus on Stones,’ and to Sprengel’s ‘Notes on Dioscorides.’ Of the ancient writers, Dioscorides and Galen give the fullest account of them. The Arabians, also, especially Rhases, Avicenna, and Serapion, treat of them in the most ample manner, but supply little additional information. Geoffroy says of the Lemnian earth, that it is “a fat, viscid, slippery clay, of a pale red colour.” The Lemnian ruddle (μίλτος) was the red Armenian bole, consisting of silex, alumine, oxyd of iron, &c. The Lemnium Sigillum was the Lemnian earth, made into cakes and stamped with a seal, as a guarantee of its purity. The Cretan earth is white chalk. The Samian earth, as Sprengel states, appears to have been pure argil; Kidd supposes it to have been pipeclay. The kind called aster was globose and thick. The Chian, Selenusian, and Pnigitid earths, are also argils, more or less pure. The Sinopic ruddle was a compact kind of ochre or marl, nearly resembling the Lemnian earth. Pliny ranks the Cimolian earth among the chalks or clays (cretæ.) Sprengel and Kidd suppose it an argil. The purple Cimolian earth of the ancients was our steatitis or soap-rock. From Dioscorides’s account of the Melian earth, it appears to have consisted principally of alum, and was different from the Terra Melia of Theophrastus. The Ampelites would seem to have been a bituminous earth, formed from stone-coal, probably resembling cannel coal. The Armenian earth, as Matthiolus remarks, was different from the Armenian bole now brought from the East. The ancient is described to be a very dry clay, having the appearance of stone, and very triturable, like lime. It was much celebrated as a remedy for the plague. See Galen, Aëtius, and Serapion. It was introduced into practice by Galen. It is clear, as Dr. Hill remarks, that it was the yellow Armenian bole which Galen used; the red being first used by the Arabians. Dr. Hill found it an excellent astringent and absorbent. The Eretrian earth was an impure argil, of a snow-white colour. Geber makes frequent mention of magnesia.

Γήρας ὄφεως,

Senecta Serpentis, the Slough of a Serpent, is decidedly desiccative: when boiled with vinegar it, therefore, cures toothache. That of the asp, when triturated with honey and rubbed in, sharpens the powers of vision.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen and Serapion likewise recommend the skin of a snake, when boiled in wine or vinegar, as a remedy for earache and toothache. See also Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 49, 530.) Dioscorides gives nearly the same account of it, only he recommends the cast skin of the viper as an ophthalmic remedy. (ii, 19.) The serpent’s slough is still used medicinally in the East. See Ainslie (Materia Medica, ii, 291.)

Γῆς ἔντερα,

Vermes terreni, Earthworms, when pounded and applied to wounded nerves, have immediately the most wonderful effects.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides says that earthworms, pounded and applied, agglutinate divided nerves, and stop tertians; that, when boiled with the grease of a goose, they cure affections of the ears when injected; that, in like manner, when boiled in oil and injected into the opposite ear, they relieve toothache; and that they promote the flow of urine when pounded and drunk in wine. (ii, 72.) Galen commends earthworms as being diuretic when drunk in must. He mentions further, that, according to the report of certain physicians, earthworms have been given internally and applied externally without burning or boiling. Of all the ancient authorities, Aëtius is the fullest on the medicinal virtues of earthworms. (ii, 168.) The Arabians do little more under this head than copy the descriptions of them given by Dioscorides, Galen, and Paulus. Avicenna recommends them, when pounded and drunk in wine, not only as being diuretic but also lithontriptic. (ii, 2, 198.) The Lumbrici terrestres, or earthworms, are described and very much commended for their medicinal virtues in Quincy’s ‘Dispensatory’ (p. 140), and Lewis’s ‘Materia Medica’ (ii, 76.)

Γίγαρτα,

Gigarta vinacea, Grape-stones, are desiccative in the second degree, but refrigerant in the first. Being, therefore, cooling, they agree with all defluxions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen mentions Grape-stones as sour and astringent remedies, and, therefore, applicable in all defluxions from the bowels. Avicenna recommends the ashes of grape-stones with vinegar in torsion of the nerves, and along with oil for contusion of the limbs and softening of the joints. (ii, 2, 723.) See also Rhases (l. ult. Cont. i, 745.)

Γιγγίδιον,

Gingidium, Toothpick Fennel, is possessed of no manifest heat, but is desiccative in the third degree, and astringent. It is, therefore, stomachic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides says of the Daucus gingidium, that it is a good potherb, and that as a medicine, when taken in a decoction with wine, it is diuretic and lithontriptic. (ii, 166.) Galen defines its virtues to be considerable astringency with slightly heating powers. The others treat of it in like terms. Few if any of the Arabians have noticed it.

Γλαύκιον,

Glaucium, Horned Poppy, is rather disagreeably astringent, but decidedly refrigerant, so that it cures erysipelas when the attack is not severe.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. In the Fifth Book we have treated of the different species of poppy used by the ancients. It appears from Dioscorides that it was its expressed juice which was used in practice. It was used principally in applications to the eyes. Our author borrows from Galen, and he follows Dioscorides (iii, 90.) The Arabians recommend it, not only in affections of the eyes, but also in boils and erysipelas. See particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 470); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 464.) As far as we can discover, it does not occur in the works of the Hippocratists, nor in those of Celsus. It has been scarcely known in the modern practice of medicine.

Γλαὺξ,

Glaux, Milkwort; the herb is hot and humid in temperament, and, therefore, promotes the formation of milk.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides gives a very circumstantial description of it, from which it has been concluded that the Glaux was a species of Astragalus. (iv, 139.) All the authorities mention it in the same light as our author, but few of them have described it. We are not aware of its having been used in modern practice.

Γλήχων,

Pulegium, Pennyroyal, is strongly calefacient and attenuant. Hence, when applied externally, it proves rubefacient. It also promotes the expectoration of thick and viscid humours lodged in the chest and lungs.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides commends the Mentha Pulegium as an emmenagogue, and for forwarding delivery; and the same character has descended to it down to recent times. See Gerard, Culpeper, Quincy, and Hill. Even at the present day it holds a place in our Dispensatories, but with a diminished reputation: stat magni nominis umbra! The Arabians generally treated of it along with the dittany. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 461); Serapion (De Simpl. 310.)

Γλοιὸς,

Sordes, that of baths, is moderately heating, emollient, and discutient. It, therefore, agrees with fissures and condylomata.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. See Dioscorides, with the commentaries of Matthiolus and Sprengel. Suffice it to say, that the Sordes balneorum was nothing but the sweat scraped from the bodies of persons who were shampooed, in an apartment of the bath for this purpose, namely, in the Laconicum. (See Book I, 68.) Of course it would consist of nothing but animal sweat, mixed up perhaps with either natron or the flower of beans, which was generally used during the process. The Sordes gymnasiorum is also in like manner treated of by Dioscorides, and it must have been the sweat collected from the statues and walls of the gymnasia. Dioscorides recommends it for crude boils (phymata), desquamated surfaces, and old sores. The Sordes palestræ must have been pretty much the same as the Sordes balneorum, and accordingly it was used in a similar manner. The Sordes ex gymnasio occurs in Celsus’s list of emollients (v, 15); and is treated of likewise by the Arabians. It appears singular that mankind should have so long retained a fancy for such an application, considering how easy it was to find a more agreeable substitute for it.

Γλυκυρρίζα,

Glycyrrhiza, Liquorice, is of a tepid and humid temperament, having also some astringency. Hence it smooths asperities, not only in the trachea but also in a scabious bladder. It also quenches thirst.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It would appear to have been rather the Glycyrrhiza glandulifera than the G. glabra. The latter, according to C. Bauhin, contains more saccharine matter than the G. of the ancients. Dioscorides, in his usual empirical style, enumerates with considerable judgment the cases in which it may be administered with advantage; such as asperities of the trachea (hoarseness) in the form of a linctus, for ardour of the stomach, ulcerations of the bladder and kidneys, and so forth (iii, 9.) All the ancient authorities, from Dioscorides downwards agree in stating that liquorice quenches thirst; and this we believe is still the popular opinion in this country, and was the professional, down to a late date. See Rutty (Mat. Med. p. 221.) The glycyrrhiza occurs in the works of Hippocrates, Celsus, and the Arabians. As they all give it the same characters, we need not occupy space with extracts from them. See particularly Serapion (De Simpl. 147); Ebn Baithar (ii, 66.) According to the Greek Pharmacopœia the G. glabra is the species now used in Greece.

Γλυκυσίδη,

Glycyside, Pæony, (called also Pentorobon and Pæonia); its root is acrid, somewhat bitter and desiccative, having also some astringency. Hence it excites the menstrual discharge, and cleanses the kidneys and liver when drunk, to the size of an almond, with wine; but if the wine be austere it restrains alvine defluxions. When appended as a periapt, it cures the epilepsy of children.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sprengel makes the two species described by Dioscorides to be the Pæonia officinalis and Corallina. We have mentioned in the Third Book that it has been much celebrated both in ancient and modern times as a cure for epilepsy when appended as an amulet. See Andreas Laurentius (De Mir. Strumar. Curat. pp. 40, 63), and Macer (De Viribus Herb.) Quincy, in his ‘Complete English Dispensatory’ (London 1769), says of the root of peony, “the good women highly esteem necklaces made of it to hang about their children’s necks for convulsions and difficult breeding of the teeth.” Considering the faith which many educated persons now repose in the virtues of galvanic rings and garters, the present generation has little ground for laughing at the credulity of our forefathers, with respect to amulets and other phylacteries. On the Pæonia, see particularly Dioscorides (iii, 147); Galen (De Simpl. v); Serapion (c. 61); Ebn Baithar (ii, 240.) The Pæonia officinalis is still retained in the Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 121.)

Γναφάλιον,

Gnaphalium, Cudweed, is so called because its soft leaves have been used in place of combed wool (gnaphalum.) They are white and moderately astringent, and are, therefore, drunk with austere wine for dysentery.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There has been a great shifting of names by botanical authorities of late, with regard to the Gnaphalia and the cognate genera. It seems now agreed that the medicinal cotton-weed of the ancients shall be called Otanthus maritimus, Link. Our author borrows from Dioscorides and Galen, who both give exactly the same character of this plant, and this it retained down to a very recent period. See Quincy.

Γογγυλὶς,

Rapum, Turnip; the root and seed are flatulent, promote the formation of semen, and rouse to venery.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The predominance of authority has determined us, after a good deal of consideration, to set this down as the Brassica Napo-brassica, the navew, or French turnip. All the authorities, in a word, from Dioscorides downwards, held it to be aphrodisiacal. Dioscorides holds it to be a sovereign remedy for chilblains in fomentation, cataplasm, or prepared thus: a turnip is to be scooped out in the middle and filled with rose-cerate, which is to be melted by placing the turnip in hot ashes, when it forms an excellent application to ulcerated chilblains. (ii, 134.) Pliny likewise says of the turnip, “Est et rapo vis medica. Perniones fervens impositum sanat.” (H. N. xx, 9.) A roasted turnip is still a popular remedy in Scotland for chilblains. Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius give brief descriptions of the gongylis, and from them our author copies. Celsus treats of the napus and rapum only as potherbs. The Arabians give a confused account of the matter; Avicenna under brassica, and Serapion under rapa. (De Simpl. 191.) Rhases, translating the 134th chapter of Dioscorides, renders gongyle by Rapa rotunda. (Cont. l. ult. 557.) Altogether it appears to us strange that some of our late authorities should have referred the gongylis to the Brassica oleracea. See Dierbach (Mat. Med. Hippocrat.) The introduction of the different varieties of the latter into gardening is a very curious but difficult subject. See Beckmann (Hist. of Invent.), and Loudon (Encyc. of Garden. 674.)

Γορδύλιον,

Gordylium (called also by some Seseli), is hot, diuretic, and emmenagogue. The root of it, when taken in a linctus, with honey, promotes expectoration.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Most probably it is a species of Seseli. Either our author or some copyist of his works has evidently been guilty of the mistake of writing gordylion for tordylion. See the chapter of Dioscorides on the tordylium (iii, 56.)

Γύρις,

Pollen, Fine Flour, resembles starch in its properties, but is weaker.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. On the medicinal properties of pollen, see Pliny (H. N. xxii, 60), who, however, borrows all his information from Dioscorides (ii, 107.) Both recommend the pollen used for glueing books, in hæmoptysis.

Γύψος,

Gypsum, Parget, or Mineral White, in addition to its desiccant, is possessed of obstruent powers. Hence it agrees with hemorrhages, along with pollen and the white of an egg. When burnt it has no longer its obstruent powers, but it is more desiccant and repellent, especially with oxycrate.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated pretty fully of this article in another place (Vol. II, 233.) It is the sulphate of lime, of which selenite or the foliated sulphate of lime is a sub-species. In the shops, when pulverized, it is known by the names of mineral white and stucco. Dioscorides merely says of its medicinal powers, that it is styptic and emplastic, and restrains bleeding and sweats. Galen is somewhat fuller in his account of it, recommending it, with the fine flour of wheat, which is found sticking about the walls of mills, and the down of a hare, for stopping bleeding. Aëtius and our author copy closely from Galen. Serapion borrows both from Dioscorides and Galen (c. 379.) Avicenna recommends it with Armenian bole, lentils, myrtle-water, and some vinegar, as an application to the forehead in bleeding from the nose. (ii, 2, 284.) Rhases copies verbatim from Galen, Dioscorides, and our author. (Cont. l. ult. i, 235.) Averrhoes recommends it in the manner described above from Galen as a styptic. (Collig. v, 43.) Celsus prescribes it for stopping colliquative sweating in cardiac disease (iii, 19.)

Δάδες,

Tedæ, Dead Pines, have certain acrid, concoctive, and detergent powers. Hence boiled in vinegar they cure toothache when the mouth is rinsed with the vinegar; but if a little honey is added, they bring away phlegm. When made into a linctus they promote the discharges from the breast.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This term properly signifies a small torch used in performing lustrations, but here it is used for a small slip taken from a pine-tree. The tree from which the tedæ were taken was the Pinus Cembro; this Matthiolus, Harduin, and our old herbalists have clearly made out. See in particular Parkinson (p. 1537.) Gerard calls it by the English name of torch-pine, and, evidently copying from Dioscorides, adds, “the torch-pine, cut into small pieces and boiled in vinegar, is a remedy against the toothache, if the teeth be washed with the decoction.” (p. 1361.) The other authorities treat of it in general terms, under the head of Pinus.

Δαμασκηνά,

Damascena, Damascenes, will be treated of with Plums.

Δαμασσώνιον,

Damasonium, Water-plantain, has certain detergent powers, and proves lithontriptic, and occasions a metastasis of the contents of the intestinal canal to the urine.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it is the Alisma of Dioscorides, and therefore probably the elegant water plant now called Alisma Plantago. On this point see Gerarde, Parkinson, Cordus, and Sprengel. Dioscorides recommends its root in cases of poisoning by the sea-hare, the red frog, and by opium; in tormina and dysentery when drunk by itself and with carrot; and in convulsions and hysterical complaints. He adds, that the herb binds the belly, is emmenagogue, and softens swellings when applied. (iii, 159.) Galen states that he had never any experience of it in the cases mentioned by Dioscorides; but that he had found it possessed of lithontriptic powers. The other Greek authorities follow him. The Arabians copy from both. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 244, 249); Ebn Baithar (ii, 513.)

Δαῦκος,

Daucus, Carrot (called also Staphylinus), consists of two varieties. The root of the cultivated carrot is flatulent and aphrodisiacal; the seed of the wild is wholly devoid of flatulent properties, is diuretic and emmenagogue; and so in like manner the stem.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Of the three species of Daucus described by Dioscorides (iii, 76), the leaves of the first are compared by him to those of the fennel; the leaves of the second to those of the wild parsley; and the leaves of the third to those of coriander. The first is the species which was long known in this country by the name of Candy carrots, and which has obtained various names of late years from our botanical authorities. It seems now settled that it should be called Athamanta Cretensis. “The second,” says our indefatigable herbalist, old Parkinson, whose practical acquaintance with all sorts of plants entitles his opinion to high consideration, “is acknowledged to be so like the first that the climate and country only make the difference.” It is now called Athamanta cervaria. The third, or coriander-leaved daucus, as the same authority clearly indicates, was probably a species of seseli. It, however, is not very certainly determined. The following description of their medicinal virtues by our Quincy may be said to embody the concurrent opinions of all the ancient authorities, Greek, Roman, and Arabian. “The seed is aperient and good in disorders of the kidneys; as also to hasten delivery, and bring away the after-birth. It is likewise accounted a good alexipharmic, and proper against the bites of venomous creatures.” See Avicenna (ii, 2, 214, 287); Ebn Baithar (ii, 462); Celsus (v, 23); Hippocrates (De Ratione Vict. in Acut.); also under Staphylinus.

Δάφνη,

Laurus, The Bay-tree; its leaves are powerfully desiccant and calefacient, but its fruit still more so. The bark of its root, being bitter and sub-astringent, proves lithontriptic and cures hepatic affections when drunk to the amount of three oboli with fragrant wine.

Δάφνη πόα,

Laurus herba (Ruscus? Butcher’s-broom?), called also Alexandrina, is hot, acrid, and somewhat bitter; it therefore promotes the menstrual and urinary discharges. The daphnoides and the chamædaphne are possessed of the same powers; but the latter is edible.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes the virtues of the bay-tree (Laurus nobilis) at considerable length, representing it to be heating and emollient, and hence he says, the decoction of it makes a good hip-bath in diseases of the womb and bladder; the green leaves, he adds, are sub-astringent, and hence prove useful when applied to the stings of wasps and bees. He recommends the berries in phthisis and other complaints of the chest, as alexipharmic, and as forming a good application to leprosy, and as an injection in earache and deafness. The bark, he says, is lithontriptic, kills the fœtus in utero, and proves useful in hepatic diseases. (i, 106.) Galen briefly calls it diuretic and emmenagogue. The Arabians follow Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 444.) The Laurus still holds a place in the Materia Medica, although now seldom used. See Pereira (p. 800.) The concurrent authority of the commentators and herbalists has settled that the Laurus Alexandrina was a species of Ruscus, probably the R. hypophyllum. The chamædaphne was also a species of Ruscus, perhaps the racemosus. The daphnoides is generally held to be the mountain laurel of Parkinson, i. e. the Daphne Alpina. All the other authorities treat of these plants in nearly the same terms as our author. They are all generally held to be emmenagogue and diuretic.

Δέρμα,

Pellis, Skin; that of a sheep newly taken off and still warm, when applied to those who have been scourged with rods, cures them wonderfully. The skin of the hippopotamus, when burnt and triturated with water and applied, disperses hard tubercles. That of the viper, when triturated and applied in cases of alopecia, promotes the growth of the hair in a wonderful degree. The leather of old shoes burnt has desiccative ashes; hence it cures sores in the feet from friction, if not in an inflamed state; and also burns, intertrigo, and protuberances.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have mentioned, in the Fourth Book, that the fresh skin of a newly-killed sheep was esteemed an excellent application to parts which had been bruised or cut by scourges. (See Vol. II, 46.) Dioscorides and most of the other authorities recommend the ashes of old shoes in the cases mentioned by our authors. Avicenna recommends the fresh skin of a goat as an application to poisoned wounds. (ii, 2, 539.)

Δίκταμνον,

Dictamnum, Dittany, consists of more subtile particles than pennyroyal, but resembles it in other respects. That variety called Pseudo dictamnum is weaker.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That the Dictamnus Creticus, so celebrated even in poetry (Virg. Æn. xii, 412) as a vulnerary herb, was a species of Origanum, has been long known and acknowledged. Until of late years it held a place in our Dispensatories under the name of dittany of Candy. It was always held to be alexipharmic, and as such it is commended by Dioscorides. Such, he adds, is the power of this herb that by the smell and touch it kills venomous reptiles; and the juice of it when poured into a wound inflicted by an iron instrument or the bite of a venomous animal immediately cures it. (iii, 34.) Galen would appear to have been sceptical as to the great medicinal powers said to be inherent in this plant, for he dismisses it with a brief notice to the effect that it is more attenuant than the pennyroyal, but like to it otherwise. See also Celsus (v, 25.) The Arabians follow Dioscorides, and represent it to be diuretic and emmenagogue. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 461) and Serapion (De Simpl. 310.) They describe it along with the pennyroyal. The bastard dittany has been pretty generally recognized as the Dictamnus Fraxinella. See Parkinson, Miller, and Pereira (ii, 1652, ed. sec.) The last of these authors remarks regarding it, that “it was formerly much used in medicine, but of late years has fallen into almost total disuse.” Not very many years ago, however, it was in great repute as being diuretic, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, anthelmintic, &c. See Alston’s Lectures (i, 434.) It is still esteemed by the Arabians and Persians as a tonic and stimulant. Ainslie (Mat. Med. 63.)

Διονυσίας,

Dionysias, is treated of under Androsæmum.

Διφρυγὲς,

Diphryges, Husk of Brass, is possessed of mixed powers, being somewhat astringent and moderately acrid. It is therefore a good application for malignant ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides gives a very circumstantial description of three varieties of this substance, which for many years has been lost sight of. Matthiolus calls it the Husk of Bronze, and Sprengel says it is called Kupfermulm in Germany. Rutty ranks it among the obsolete medicines of the ancients. (Mat. Med. pr. 27.) Rhases treats of it. (Cont. ult. 256.) See Serapion (c. 418.)

Διψακὸς,

Dipsacus, Teasel; the root of this thorn is desiccant in the second degree, and is also somewhat detergent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The root of the Dipsacus fullonum, or manured teasel, is praised by Dioscorides as an application to fissures and fistulæ of the anus, and it held a reputation in these cases down to a late period. See Rutty (Mat. Med. 168.) Dioscorides further mentions its use as an amulet in quartans, for which also it was long celebrated; for our Quincy speaks of “the superstition of some people of his day in using it as a charm against agues.” (Complete Dispensatory, 117.) For the Arabians, see particularly Serapion (c. 106) and Ebn Baithar. It is not noticed by Hippocrates nor Celsus.

Δορύκνιον,

Dorycnium, Shrub Trefoil (?), is of a similar temperament with the poppy and mandragora, that is, immoderately cold. When taken in a small quantity it occasions torpor, and in larger doses it proves fatal.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. In the Fifth Book we have stated the difficulty of determining what it was. Authorities are divided between the Convolvulus Dorycnium L. (Angl. Shrubby Bindweed), the Solanum Sodomæum, and Atropa Belladonna. Dioscorides says of it that it is soporific, and when taken in large doses proves fatal; he adds, some affirm that the seed of it is sought after for philtres, or love potions. (iv, 75.) Galen gives nearly the same account of it under the name of Dorycnidium. The Arabians would appear not to have admitted it into the Mat. Med., for the Doronicon of Serapion is a different plant. (c. 335.)

Δρακόντιον,

Dracontium, or Dracunculus, Dragon-herb, somewhat resembles the Wake-robin (Arum), but is more acrid and bitter than it, and also hotter, and consists of more subtile particles. It has also some astringency. The root of it, therefore, when taken in a potion cleanses the bowels, and is an excellent application to malignant ulcers; and the leaves in like manner. But the fruit of it is stronger.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the Dragon-herb (Arum Dracunculus) as an article of food in another place. (Vol. I, p. 114.) Dioscorides gives so circumstantial a description of its medicinal properties that we cannot find space for it. Suffice to say, he uses it internally in diseases of the chest, and as an aphrodisiac, externally, in various cutaneous diseases, in collyria, in injections into the ears, and as an alexipharmic. (ii, 195.) Galen embodies the substance of Dioscorides’s empirical description of its virtues agreeably to his own system, recommending it principally as a deobstruent internally, and an application to sores and cancerous tumours externally. Aëtius also gives an elaborate description of its powers. Oribasius merely states in general terms that it is calefacient and attenuant. Apuleius recommends it for the bite of the asp. Mesue ascribes to it powerfully cathartic and carminative powers. His account of it is very elaborate, and deserving of more attention than we can afford room to bestow upon it. He recommends it in the form of a suppository to relieve hemorrhoids and flatulence. (De Simpl. 24.) Avicenna borrows largely from Dioscorides. (ii, 2, 432.) Rhases copies from Dioscorides, Galen, and Oribasius. (Cont. l. ult. i, 257.) Serapion does the same. (De Simpl. 43.) It remains to be mentioned that Dioscorides, Oribasius, Mesue, and Avicenna, besides the species of dracunculus which we have been treating of, also describe another by the name of the Lesser. It is supposed to be the Arum Italicum. The dragon-herb held a place in the Dispensatory down to a very late date. Boerhaave calls it a powerful diuretic and promoter of the menses. Quincy says it is reckoned alexipharmic.

Δρυοπτερὶς,

Dryopteris, Oak-fern, is sweet, acrid, and bitterish, and its root has some sourness. It is septic, and hence it is depilatory.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. According to Dierbach, it comprehends both the Polypodium Dryopteris and the Asplenium Adiantum nigrum, and this opinion is supported by that of the older authorities. See Parkinson (1042) and Alston (§ 52.) Sprengel refers it to the former. Our author borrows from Dioscorides, and Avicenna does the same. (ii, 2, 219.) Our older herbalists, Parkinson and Gerard, treat of the oak-fern, but it has long ceased to hold a place in our Dispensatory.

Δρῦς,

Quercus, the Oak; its leaves and fruit are possessed of desiccant and tepid powers, so as to agglutinate recent wounds and cure incipient inflammations. The membrane under the bark of the acorn which surrounds the fleshy part of the fruit being much more astringent, is given for the female fluor and other diseases attended with discharges.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dierbach states that three species of the oak with edible roots grow in Greece, the Quercus Æsculus, the Q. Ilex, and the Q. Ballote. He adds, that the first species is generally meant by δρῦς in the Hippocratic writings. Eustathius remarks that the φηγὸς of Homer was a species of oak. (Ad Iliad. v, 691.) In fact, it was the Quercus æschylus, or rather comprehend it and the Q. Robur. See Parkinson (1389.) After all the illustration which the subject has received from the old herbalists, and more recent commentators on Dioscorides and Theophrastus, it must be admitted that there is still considerable difficulty in determining the various species of oak described by the ancients. Our author borrows his account of the medicinal powers of the oak from Dioscorides, whom all the other authorities also follow. The quercus occurs in the Mat. Med. of Hippocrates, and in those of all the Arabians. We need scarcely add that the Quercus Robur still maintains a place in our Dispensatory.

Ἔβενος,

Ebenus, Ebeny; the wood is calefacient, detergent, and consists of subtile particles. Hence it is believed to remove films which obstruct the pupil, and is an ingredient for other ophthalmic remedies.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Latin poet Virgil, who applies the term India both to the region of the East, which has always held that name, and to Abyssinia (Georg. iv, 293), says, that India is the only country that produces ebeny. (Georg. ii, 116.) This account of it will still be admitted to be pretty correct. Dr. Royle mentions that “Diospyros Ebenus yields the best kinds in the Mauritius, perhaps also in Madagascar; but D. ebenaster and D. melanoxylon, the ebeny trees of the Coromandel coast, yield it in the peninsula, of very good quality, as other species do in other parts of India.” (Hindoo Med. 89.) See Ainslie (Mat. Ind. ii, 48.) In medicine it was principally used in collyria for psorophthalmia and xerophthalmia as recommended by Dioscorides (i, 129), and in old ulcers and watery pustules as recommended by Aëtius (i) and Galen. (De Simpl. vi.) See also Celsus (v, 12.) The Arabians, who must have been still more familiar with it than the Greeks, say of it, in addition, that it is lithontriptic. Rhases (Contin. l. ult. 258), Avicenna (ii, 2, 226), and Serapion (c. 152.) It is still imported to this country, but has long ceased to occupy a place in our Dispensatory.

Ἐγκέφαλον,

Cerebrum, Brain; the boiled brains of a hare when rubbed in and eaten, are useful (it is said) for forwarding dentition in infants. Some write that brain when eaten proves useful for tremblings. Dioscorides says that the brain of a cock when drunk with wine relieves those who have been bitten by venomous animals, and that it stops hemorrhages from the meninges. Galen says that the brain of a camel when dried and drunk with vinegar cures epilepsy, and that of the weasel in like manner; that the brain of a swallow with honey is of use in suffusions; while that of sheep when prepared in like manner is an excellent remedy in the dentition of children.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen and Serapion treat of the medicinal properties of brains in much the same terms as our author. Indeed our author copies from Galen. Avicenna says brains prove emetic after food, and are useful in the case of a person who has swallowed any poison. (ii, 2, 125.)

Ἐλάια,

Olea, the Olive; the green shoots of it are possessed of the same degree of coldness as of astringency; the fruit when perfectly ripe is moderately hot, but the unripe is more astringent and cold. The tear of Ethiopian olive resembling the slender ammoniac, is possessed of detergent powers. It is used, therefore, for cicatrices, albugo, and dimness of vision, and for the pains of the teeth when put into the carious hole. But some say that it is the wild olive that does this. Oil from fully ripe olives is sweet and moderately hot, and rather of a moistening nature. But the unripe has just as much astringency as coldness. The washed is freer from pungency. As to the old, the older it is so much the hotter and more discutient is it, more especially if it consist of subtile particles at first. This is ascertained from its being pure and transparent, and from a small quantity of it being sufficient to anoint a large part of the body, and from its being readily drunk in by the skin. Such in particular is the Sabine. That from the wild olive is at the same time detergent, astringent, and drying, as an oil. Castor oil has the same powers as old oil. The other kinds, such as that of sesame, or of radish and the like, derive peculiar properties from the substance they are formed from.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the olive as an article of food in another place. (Vol. I, 135.) The Ethiopian or wild olive comprehended several species of the Elæagnus. The tears of it, mentioned by Dioscorides and our author, and likened to gum ammoniac, are now unknown. Some, as Parkinson remarks, have supposed it our gum elemi, but that is probably a mistake. All the authorities, Greek, Latin, and Arabian, mention it as a sour, astringent medicine. Samonicus calls it “succis oleaster acerbis.” Abu l’Fadli calls it a powerful astringent. (Apud Celsii Hierobot.) The leaves of the cultivated olive Dioscorides says have the same kind of powers as the wild, but in an inferior degree, and hence, from their greater mildness, they are more suitable for ophthalmic remedies; he also recommends the juice of the green olive in pityriasis, psora, and other cutaneous diseases. (i, 136.) We need not follow out what has been written by the others on this subject.

Ἔλαιον. For an account of the oils used by the ancients in the practice of medicine, see in particular Dioscorides (i, 29 et seq.), Galen (De Simpl. vi), and Mesue (De Oleis.) The Oleum Cicinum, i. e. oil of the palma christi, now called castor oil, is often mentioned by the ancient authors. Dioscorides states that it is purgative and anthelminthic. Aëtius states that linseed oil may often be used instead of it. Almond oil he particularly commends in complaints of the ears. The oil of Sesame, he says, resembles common oil, being a gentle purgative; it is the gingilie oil of the modern Hindoos. Serapion recommends the oil of olives as an astringent application to stop profuse perspiration, to remove scabies and other cutaneous complaints on the head, to cure aphthæ and ulcers of the mouth, and for various other complaints. He, however, merely copies from Dioscorides, (i, 136.) But of all the ancient authorities, Mesue is the one who gives the fullest account of the composition and medicinal powers of the oils. Some of them are not described by the Greeks before his time, as far as we know. We shall give a specimen of a few of his prescriptions. His oil of mandragora, which he recommends for extinguishing inflammation and procuring sleep, is prepared from equal parts of the juice of its berries and oil of sesame boiled in a double vessel until the juice be evaporated. Add, he says, a little juice and boil again, do so a third time, and lay it aside. For the oil of mandrake a much more complicated receipt is given by Myrepsus (xvi, 50), which held its place in our Pharmacopœia down to the days of Quincy. (Complete Dispensatory, 527.) The oil of eggs, which Mesue commends strongly from experience for cleansing the skin, curing cutaneous eruptions, making hair grow, and curing malignant ulcers, he directs to be prepared thus: about thirty yelks of eggs hardened by boiling, and broken down into pieces, are to be fried in an earthen fryingpan that has been leadened, stirring with a wooden or iron ladle until they grow red, and their oil is poured out, which they yield the more largely if compressed with the ladle. This oil of eggs is described in similar terms by Moses Charras, in the Royal Pharmacopœia (p. 200), and is a popular remedy in Scotland to this day. Mesue describes the composition of an oil of frogs, which he recommends much for soothing the pains of arthritis, and the burning heat of ardent fevers, also the oil of vipers, of wolves, and many others, which will be more properly treated of by us in section xx of this Book. The oils are also well described by Aëtius (i) and Myrepsus (De Oleis.)

Ἐλαιόμελι,

Elæomeli, Honeyed Oil. In Syria, an oil thicker and sweeter than honey, flows from a certain trunk; when drunk to the amount of two cyathi with a hemina of water, it produces a discharge of crude and bilious matters from the bowels. Those who have taken it become torpid; yet one need not be alarmed, but only rouse them.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Pliny describes it as a natural exudation from trees on the maritime coasts of Syria. He adds, it is fat, thicker than honey, thinner than resin, of a sweet taste, and is used in medicine: “Manat ex arboribus pingue, crassius melle, resina tenuius, sapore dulci, et hoc medicis.” (H. N. xxv, 7.) He states in another place that it is a nauseous purgative. (xxiii, 56.) Dioscorides gives the same account of it as our author, and describes an oil to be prepared from it. Avicenna and Rhases recommend it as an application to ulcerated scabies. It appears singular that this natural substance should have been entirely lost sight of in modern times, inasmuch that unless we adopt the conjecture of Alston, that it was some species of manna, we must admit ourselves entirely ignorant of it.

Ἐλατήριον,

Elaterium; the juice of the fruit of the wild cucumber is so called, being in the second order of calefacients. It promotes the menstrual discharge, and destroys the fœtus when applied in a pessary, by its extreme bitterness. When rubbed in with milk it evacuates by the nose. When administered in an injection, it occasions a discharge downwards of phlegm, and sometimes of blood.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It would appear that Hippocrates applied the term to all drastic purgatives. See Eustathius, Iliad. (xviii, 564.) By Dioscorides and all subsequent authorities, it is restricted to signify the fecula of the Momordica Elaterium, or wild cucumber. It was much used by the ancient physicians in the cure of dropsy, as we have stated in the Third Book. Dioscorides correctly states that it evacuates bile and phlegm, both upwards and downwards. He recommends it particularly in cases attended with difficulty of breathing. As an emetic, he directs us to administer it in oil, or with the ointment of iris. As a purgative, he recommends it to be given with double the quantity of salt and some mustard, in the form of a pill, of the size of a tare. Like our author, he states that it is emmenagogue, and proves fatal to the fœtus when applied in a pessary. Galen and the other authorities on the Materia Medica give it nearly the same characters. Theophrastus states that it is the most durable of all medicines, and that the oldest is the best. (H. P. ix, 14.) It is said by Hippocrates, that if a woman or she-goat, giving suck, partake of elaterium, it will affect her young. (Epid. vi, 5.) Galen in his commentary remarks, that other purgatives have the same effect when given similarly. (Op. t. v, 218, ed. Basil.) The Arabians also show a good practical acquaintance with this substance. Thus, for example, Avicenna praises it strongly in affections of the chest attended with difficulty of breathing, and more especially in cases of dropsy. He recommends it also in the form of a clyster for the cure of diseases of the joints and sciatica, and speaks of a plaster of it for the gout. He directs a pill to be prepared from it with double the quantity of salt. He states correctly that it occasions evacuations of phlegm and blood; that it is diuretic, and emmenagogue, and kills the child in a suppository. (ii, 2, 177.) Mesue also writes of the wild cucumber and elaterium with great precision, recommending the latter internally as an emetic, a phlegmagogue, and a hydragogue, more especially in dropsy. He also recommends it in jaundice, and engorgement of the liver and spleen; and states that it is most beneficial in sciatica when administered in a clyster or applied as a plaster. He speaks highly of the efficacy of the roots of the wild cucumber when applied to the head, in a cataplasm for hemicrania, and as an errhine in the same complaint. (De Simpl. ix.) Serapion also, in treating of the wild cucumber, gives interesting extracts, both from Greek and Arabian authorities, respecting the medicinal powers of elaterium. (De Simpl. 204.) Ebn Baithar gives a most ample account of it. (ii, 276.)

Ἐλάτη,

Abies, the Fir; this tree is calefacient and desiccative, like the black poplar. Its resin will be treated of among the resins.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without doubt it is the Pinus Abies, L. The other authorities in general do not treat of it, except under the resinæ. It does not otherwise occur in Dioscorides, Galen, Serapion, or Avicenna.

Ἐλατίνη,

Elatine, the Toadflax; this herb is like the Helxine, and is moderately refrigerant and astringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That the Fluellin or Female Speedwell (Linaria Elatine) is the elatine of the ancients has been long known and almost generally admitted. See Parkinson, Gerard, Rutty, &c. Dioscorides recommends the leaves with flour for inflammations and running of the eyes, and for dysentery. Pliny, evidently translating Dioscorides, says of the elatine, “eadem cum line semine cocta sorbitionis usu dysenteria liberat.” (H. N. xxvii, 50.) It would appear that it had been omitted by the Arabians. It held a place in our Dispensatory with its ancient character down to a late period. See Parkinson, Gerard, Quincy, Rutty, and Hill.

Ἐλαφόβοσκος,

Pabulum cervi (Parsnip?), is of heating and drying powers in the second degree, and consists of subtile particles.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our older herbalists and commentators are pretty well agreed in holding it to be the garden parsnip (Pastinaca sativa.) Dioscorides pronounces it to be alexipharmic, and Aëtius does the same. The other authorities treat very briefly of it. Avicenna calls the Pastinaca aphrodisiacal, and this reputation it maintained down to modern times. See Quincy.

Ἐλελίσφακος,

Salvia, Sage, is decidedly calefacient and subastringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The sage (Salvia officinalis) has held a place in the Materia Medica from the earliest ages down to our times. Dioscorides calls it diuretic, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, and vulnerary. The other Greek authorities, like our author, speak more moderately in its praise. The Arabians who treat of it follow Dioscorides. See Serapion (De Simpl. 153.) In modern times it was at one period held in much esteem. See Quincy. It is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 142.)

Ἑλένιον,

Inula, Elecampane (?); it is calefacient and desiccative with some recrementitious humidity. When mixed with linctuses it promotes expectoration, and it acts as a rubefacient to the parts it is applied to.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the other authorities give the elecampane (Inula Helenium) much the same characters as our author. Dioscorides says the root is calefacient, and proves diuretic and emmenagogue; that in a linctus, with honey, it is useful in coughs, orthopnœa, and the like; and, further, that it is carminative and alexipharmic. The leaves he recommends in a cataplasm with wine for ischiatic disease, and in powder for hæmoptysis. (i, 27, 28.) Galen’s character of it mainly agrees with that of Dioscorides, that is to say, he recommends elecampane, internally, in chest complaints, and externally as a rubefacient in sciatica, hemicrania, and a disposition of the joints to dislocation. The Arabians give it all the characters ascribed to it by the Greeks, namely, of being diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, carminative, alexipharmic, and rubefacient externally; and, further, hold of themselves that it is cordial. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 235), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 237.) Serapion gives us the following extract from Hunain’s ‘Translation of Hippocrates’ (Hunain ex verbo Hippocratis): “Elecampane drives away anger and sorrow, strengthens the mouth of the stomach, clears the chest, expels the superfluities in the veins by the menses and urine, and more especially a wine made from it.” (De Simpl. 138.) In fact, as we ought perhaps to have mentioned, the helenium is a Hippocratic herb. (Nat. Mul. 572, ed. Foës.) It was also well known to Celsus (v, 11 et alibi.) The elecampane still retains its place in our Dispensatory and also in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 76.) The other species described by Dioscorides as the Egyptian elecampane, and which he recommends solely as being alexipharmic, is held by Sprengel to be the Teucrium Marum. Parkinson, however, supported by high authority, seems to make out a strong case for the Cistus Helianthemum, or rock rose (p. 655.) Old Gerard, on the other hand, adopts the opinion of those commentators who referred it to the Marum. (p. 67.) The Teucrium Marum also holds a place in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἐλεοσέλινον,

Apium palustre, Marsh Parsley; being formed in wet places, it has the same properties as the cultivated parsley, and is larger than it.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The smallage (Apium graveolens) is briefly treated of by the other authorities. We need scarcely say that it is still retained in our Dispensatory. See Quincy.

Ἐλέφας,

Elephas, the Elephant; the parings from its hoof, when applied in a cataplasm, cure whitlow; and those of the bones and teeth of it, being of a drying and detergent nature, are mixed with similar medicines.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides in like manner recommends a cataplasm prepared with the shavings from the elephant’s hoofs in cases of paronychia. Most of the other authorities would appear not to have treated of it. Ivory shavings were retained in the Dispensatory until late years. See Quincy.

Ἑλκυσματα τοῦ ἀργύρου,

Recrementum argenti, the Dross of Silver, has the same powers as the molybdæna, for it is astringent and epispastic, hence it is mixed with the plasters called Fusca and Epulotic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. What the Scoriæ argenti are will be readily understood from the following description of the process of extracting silver from the ores of it: “These ores are extremely hard, and also mixed with bituminous, sulphureous, arsenical, or vitriolic substances, which carry off with them a considerable part of the silver, or burn it to scoriæ along with themselves.” Geoffroy, &c. (p. 272, Engl. ed.) Our author copies almost verbatim from Dioscorides, and the other Greek authorities supply nothing additional under this head. Aëtius treats of the scoriæ in general terms, as we shall see in the proper place, and merely says of the Scoriæ argenti that they are possessed of desiccative powers. Of the Arabians, Avicenna, in treating of this article, borrows every word from the Greeks. (ii, 2, 693.) Serapion quotes an Arabian authority, Adamasti, to the effect that the scoria argenti is of use in cardiac disease (c. 415.) Rhases, after quoting from Galen, Dioscorides, and Paulus, gives the opinions of two Arabian authorities, Damas (?) and Chuz, the former to the effect that it is useful in palpitation of the heart and fetor of the mouth, and the other, that it cures scabies and pruritus. (Cont. l. ult. i, 74.)

Ἐλλέβορος,

Helleborus, Hellebore; both kinds are calefacient and desiccative in the third degree. It (the white) is also acrid and detergent; and hence it agrees with leprous affections of the skin. The black, when introduced into fistulæ, makes the callus cast off in three days.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Those who wish to see the general literature of this interesting article may find our opinions briefly stated under the proper head in the Appendix to Dunbar’s ‘Lexicon.’ In this place it will be sufficient to mention that we have come to the conclusion that the Helleborus albus of the ancients was identical with our Veratrum album. Hippocrates makes mention of both species; when he simply uses the term helleborus, he means the white, as in Aphor. v, 1, and iv, 15, 16. He also recommends the niger as well as the albus in melancholy and quartans (Epist. 1288, ed. Foës.) Aretæus, at the conclusion of his work, as it has come down to us, pronounces a strong eulogy on hellebore, which he calls the great remedy in cases of elephantiasis. Dioscorides recommends it as an emetic, emmenagogue, and sternutatory. (iv, 148-9.) Mesue and Serapion mention it as an emetic, but concur with Hippocrates in stating that it sometimes induces convulsions if administered unguardedly. Haly Abbas gives exactly the same account of it. Averrhoes mentions that in his time the Lapis lazuli was used as a purgative in place of hellebore. (v, 42.) Rhases concurs with the Greek authorities in praising its effects for the cure of epilepsy, melancholy, arthritis, and mania. Macer Floridus praises it in the cure of epilepsy, mania, quartans, &c. We would now beg to be allowed to depart from our general rule, and to quote some modern opinions in illustration of the ancient on this important subject,—the more important from hellebore forming, as is supposed, one of the ingredients in the celebrated patent medicine eau médicinale. Conrad Gesner, an upright and learned physician, as Bergius calls him, had great confidence in the white hellebore, which he took himself, and administered freely to his patients with great success. He says of it, “recreat et roborat, et hilariorem facit, et acuit ingenium, quod in me et aliis sæpissime expertus scribo. Ego, si vixero, in ellebori historiâ multa proferam quæ medici admirentur.” The following is his formula for preparing it: ℞ Hell. alb. dr. ij, vini cretici oz. vj, stent in maceratione, per mensem, additis, si placet, aromatibus. Of this preparation, from 6 to 9 scr. were given according to circumstances. Baglivi calls hellebore the “Hercules remediorum, pluriumque domitor incurabilium morborum.” Platearius, treating of hellebore, says that the ancients used it as a purge, in like manner as scammony is now used, for that men’s bodies, in former times, were stronger than now; such a medicine would require to be given with great caution. He says of it, that it purges phlegm and black bile. The white, he adds, is a more violent medicine than the black. (De Simplici Medicina.) For a great many years past, with the exception of the partial administration of the eau médicinale in cases of gout, the internal use of the veratrum may be said to have been quite lost in the practice of medicine, and that, not only in this country, but also in the land of Hippocrates and Dioscorides. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia it is directed to be kept as a poison. (p. 76.) Mesue, Serapion, and many of the authorities recommend the black hellebore in melancholy. That it was either the Helleborus niger, or the species orientalis, Tournefort, and not the Veratrum album which was commonly administered in Anticyra, in cases of mania and melancholy, is clearly proved from Dioscorides (iv, 149.) He further states of it that, applied per vaginam, it procures menstruation, and kills the fœtus; he recommends it for the cure of scabies, alphos, lichen, and leprosy; he also speaks favorably of it as an external application to fistulæ, dropsies, toothache, and diseases of the ears. Galen recommends both species equally in nearly the same class of complaints. Notwithstanding the high authority of Pereira, who maintains the contrary, we do not see the least reason to doubt that the black hellebore of the ancients was our Helleborus niger, or Christmas rose. See Gerard (Paradisus, p. 386) and Parkinson (p. 211.) Without doubt it was introduced into this country by the Romans for their H. niger. The H. officinalis, Salisb., which Dr. Sibthorp brings forward in its place, is a distinct species. See Alston’s Lectures (42); also the Greek Pharmacopœia, Athens, 1837, (p. 77.)

Ἐλίχρυσον,

Elichrysum, Shrubby Everlasting or Eternal Flower (called also Chrysanthemon and Amarantum), is a plant used for garlands, having capillary leaves of a golden appearance. When drunk with wine it is suitable for dysuria, the bites of reptiles, ischiatic disease, and fractures. It also promotes menstruation, and dissolves coagula when drunk with wine and honey, and relieves catarrhs.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Linnæus makes the ancient Helichrysum identical with his Gnaphalium. (Gener. Plant. 946.) Accordingly Sprengel, in his R. H. H., refers it, with Cordus and Sibthorp, to the Gnaphalium Stæchas. But in his edition of Dioscorides he rather inclines to the Tanacetum annuum. Dr. Hill says of the tansy: “It has been greatly celebrated as an uterine, a vulnerary, and a diuretic. It is recommended in suppressions of the menses, and in cases of the gravel, and other nephritic complaints.” This agrees so well with the characters of the elechrysus as given by Dioscorides and Paulus, that we are inclined to identify this article with the Tanacetum annuum. It is proper to admit, however, that the virtues which Dioscorides ascribes to the elechrysus are ascribed by old Gerard to the cudweed. It is one of those articles in the ancient Materia Medica which can never be satisfactorily determined. See further, Parkinson (p. 695) and Lewis’s Dispensatory (i, 411.)

Ἑλξίνη,

Helxine, or Parietaria, Pellitory of the Wall (called also Perdicium, Parthenium, Sideritis, and Heraclea); its powers are detergent and slightly astringent, with a coldish humidity. The Helxine, called also Cissampelos, is possessed of discutient powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is evidently the second species of Dioscorides (iv, 86), who represents the leaves as being cooling and astringent, and consequently proving a suitable cataplasm in cases of erysipelas, burning, and other inflammations, and as proving useful in chronic coughs, inflammations of the tonsils, and so forth. That this plant is the pellitory of the wall (Parietaria officinalis) has been long pretty generally acknowledged. See Parkinson, Gerard, and Sprengel. Galen ascribes the same medicinal virtues to it as Dioscorides; and Aëtius and Oribasius treat of it in nearly the same terms. It is the muralis of Celsus, who recommends the juice of it, added to ceruse, as an application to the gout. (iv, 24.) It may be proper to mention that Dioscorides (l. c.), Pliny (H. N. xxii, 19), and Apuleius (81), also recommend it as an application in cases of gout. The Arabians give the pellitory exactly the same characters as the Greeks do. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 335) and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 536.) The Arabians call it herba vitri, because glass vessels were cleaned with it. It is now excluded from the Dispensatory, but held a place in it down to a late date. See Quincy, Hill, and Rutty. That the former species of helxine described by Dioscorides was a species of Convolvulus has long been known. See Matthiolus and Parkinson. Dodonæus makes it the niger, and Sprengel the arvensis. Dioscorides briefly states of its medicinal virtues, that it is laxative. (iv, 39.) It is not treated of, as far as we have discovered, by Galen, Aëtius, or Oribasius. The Arabians treat of it as a species of Volubilis, by the name of acfin. See Serapion (De Simpl. 41); Mesue (De Simpl. 24.) Both agree with Dioscorides in making it to be laxative. See further APP.

Ἔλυμος ἤ Μελίνη,

Panicum, Panic, is, like millet, desiccative and refrigerant in its powers when applied externally. It also dries up alvine fluxes.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Panic, as Miller remarks, is a plant of the millet kind. It is the Panicum Italicum. It is more an article of food than of medicine. We have treated of it accordingly in the part of this work devoted to Dietetics. See Vol. I, 124.

Ἔμπετρον ἤ Πρασσοδὲς,

Empetron, Black-berried Heath, is a medicine which purges phlegm and bile. It is also saltish and therefore, detergent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is not well determined whether it be a species of Crithmum, Herniaria, or Salsola. Dioscorides makes it to be a purger of phlegm, bile, and water; and all the other authorities, both Greek and Arabian, give it the same characters in the main. It does not appear that the Arabians have noticed it; neither do we find it in the works of Hippocrates or Celsus. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia it is set down as being the Pimpinella Saxifraga.

Ἐπίθυμον,

Epithymum (vel Cuscuta minor?) Dodder of Thyme, is desiccant and calefacient in the third degree, being more drastic than thyme.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides says of the Cuscuta Epithymus, or lesser dodder of thyme, that it purges phlegm and black bile, and agrees particularly with melancholic and flatulent cases. (iv, 176.) Aëtius, likewise, calls it a melanogogue medicine. Galen and Oribasius give exactly the same character of it as our author. Serapion gives a most graphic description of this singular parasitic plant, in the present instance quoting solely from Arabian authorities. They agree in general that it is deobstruent, cathartic, and emmenagogue, and join in recommending it particularly in jaundice, obstructions of the liver and spleen, and in the fevers of children. (De Simpl. 39.) Mesue, also, gives nearly the same characters of it; he mentions of it that it is a weak and slow purge, unless taken in a large dose, and, therefore, he recommends it to be given with Indian myrobalans, black hellebore, mulse, salts, or the like. (16.) See also Avicenna (ii, 2, 226) and Rhases (Cont. 270.) It held a place in our Dispensatory, with the character of being a cleanser, down to a late period. See Rutty (Materia Medica, p. 80.); Quincy (Complete Engl. Dispens. p. 117.)

Ἐπιμήδιον,

Epimedium, Barren Wort; its powers are moderately refrigerant, with a watery humidity. When applied in the form of a cataplasm it preserves the breasts in a right state. It is also said to prevent conception when taken in a draught.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author borrows his description of the Epimedium Alpinum, or Barren Wort, from Dioscorides; and none of the others supply any additional information respecting it.

Ἐπιμηλὶς,

Epimelis, Crab-tree, called also Unedo by the Italian husbandmen. It is a sort of wild apple, the fruit of which, being sour, is bad for the stomach, and occasions headache.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears, from Dioscorides (i, 170), that it is a species of Medlar. Probably, then, it was the Mespilus Germanica. Dioscorides, Galen, and all the other authorities that treat of it give it the same character as our author. As a medicine, it has the same characters as the other Medlars.

Ἐπιπακτὶς,

Epipactis (called also Helleborine, or Bastard Hellebore), is drunk as an antidote for deadly poisons, and for diseases of the liver.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The older herbalists, supported by the authority of Anguillara, incline to refer this article to the genus Herniaria, or Rupture Wort. The epipactis, it would seem, is still in great repute throughout Greece, as being alexipharmic, and curing complaints of the liver. Our author and all the others who notice it take its medicinal characters from Dioscorides. (iv, 107.) As far as we have been able to discover, it is not noticed by Hippocrates, Celsus, nor any of the Arabians.

Ἐρέβίνθος,

Cicer, Vetch or Chick-pea, a common kind of pulse; is flatulent, nutritious, a proper medicine for the bowels, diuretic, engenders milk and semen, and proves emmenagogue. The kind called Arietinum is more diuretic than the others. A decoction of them, more especially the black sort, breaks down stones in the kidneys. The species called Ervinum, is hotter than the others, and bitterish. The wild are in every respect stronger than the cultivated.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It comprehends several species of the Cicer. The κριὸς is undoubtedly the Cicer arietanum. The two other species cannot be so readily determined. Probably they are but varieties produced by cultivation. We have treated of them among the articles of food, in the 79th section of the First Book. As a medicine, Dioscorides recommends them especially in a cataplasm for inflammations of the testicles, scabies, achor, lichen, cancerous and ill-conditioned ulcers. All kinds of vetches, he says, are diuretic, and prove useful when given with rosemary, for jaundice and dropsy. (ii, 126.) Galen gives the chiches the same character, and further holds them to be lithontriptic. (De Simpl. v.) Aëtius follows him closely. (i.) The Arabians in addition say that chiches are anthelminthic, diuretic, and purgative, and that they are useful in arthritic diseases. See Serapion (80); Avicenna (ii, 2, 128); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 209.) Avicenna, in particular, gives a long list of their medicinal virtues. In addition to those already stated, he joins Hippocrates in holding chiches to be aphrodisiacal; and hence he says procreating animals, such as camels, are fed with them. He joins the others in holding them to be deobstruent, lithontriptic, cathartic, and diuretic. Chiches long held a place in our Dispensatory with the characters given to them by Dioscorides and Avicenna. See Quincy (111) and Rutty (122.) Three sorts were used in modern as in ancient times, namely, the white, the red, and the black, but, as Quincy remarks, their medicinal virtues are all pretty much the same.

Ἔρια,

Lana, Wool; that which is unscoured is useful for embrocations, for the Œsypum is digestive, like butter. That which is scoured is simply the vehicle for other applications. That which is burnt has acrid, hot, and desiccative powers, with some tenuity of parts so as to melt down the flaccid flesh of ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, Galen, Serapion, and the other authorities give nearly the same account of the medicinal properties of wool.

Ἐρίκη,

Erica, Heath, is possessed of discutient powers without pungency. Its flower and leaves are principally to be used.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sprengel and Schneider agree that it is the Erica arborea, but the description of it given by Dioscorides, namely, that “it is like the tamarisk but much smaller,” would rather seem to apply to one of the lesser species. Dioscorides commends it as an application to the bites of reptiles. (i, 116.) Our author copies from Galen. The Arabians, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, would appear not to have treated of it, and it has not held a place in our Dispensatory for a long time past. The old herbalists, copying from the ancient authorities, ascribe to the heath the virtues which Dioscorides and Galen held it to be possessed of.

Ἔρινος,

Erinos, Water-basil, is an aquatic herb, two drachms of the fruit of which with four drachms of honey, when rubbed in stops defluxions of the eyes. Its juice is also a remedy for earache.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That it is a species of Campanula has been long agreed upon. Columna held it to be the C. Rapunculus or Rampions, but Sprengel names it C. Erinus. It is the echinos of Galen, as is obvious from the similarity of the descriptions of the two articles. Few of the other authorities notice it. Our author merely abridges Dioscorides (iv, 29.) The rapunculus or rampion is still cultivated as a salad. See Loudon (Encycl. of Garden. 734.)

Ἑρμοδάκτυλος,

Hermodactylus, Hermodactyl; the root of it is possessed of purgative properties, and also the decoction. It is given for affections of the joints in rheumatism, but it is bad for the stomach.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We cannot afford room here to discuss fully the much agitated question respecting the ancient hermodactylus, and beg to refer to what we have said on the subject in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Lexicon. See also particularly the commentators on Mesue and Dioscorides. It is to be remarked that our author has entirely omitted to notice the Κολχικὸν of Dioscorides by name, and that the only article which he has in place of it is the Ἑρμ. This is a presumptive proof of the identity of these two medicines. Serapion moreover, in his chapter on Hermodactylus, gives the words of our author in this place along with Dioscorides’s account of the colchicum. Accordingly, Bergius, Tournefort, Humelbergius, and Geoffroy are decidedly of opinion that they were identical. Prosper Alpinus, in like manner, says of it “hermodactylus qui est radix colchici Græcorum.” (De Med. Meth. iii, 9.) See also Hill’s Mat. Med. On this side of the question we further beg to quote the authority of Dr. Paris: “The active ingredient of the Eau médicinale has been discovered to be the Colchicum Autumnale or meadow-saffron; upon investigating the properties of this medicine, it was observed that similar effects in the cure of the gout were ascribed to a certain plant called hermodactylus by Oribasius and Aëtius (Paulus Æg.?), but more particularly by Alexander of Tralles, a physician of Asia Minor, in the fourth century; an inquiry was accordingly instituted after this unknown plant, and upon procuring a specimen of it from Constantinople it was actually found to be a species of colchicum.” (Pharmacologia, 58.) We have already given a full account of the administration of hermodactylus in gout. (Book III, 78.) Alexander of Tralles, as far as we know, is the earliest authority that treats of the hermodactylus by name, and he recommends it for the cure of arthritic diseases. (xi.) Our author is the only one of the Greek writers who admits it into the Materia Medica. The Arabians treat of it fully, but some of them confusedly, by mixing up the ancient descriptions of the ephemeron and colchicum with it. Thus Serapion, after quoting, as already stated, Dioscorides’s account of the colchicum, gives the opinions of various Arabian authorities, all of whom concur in representing it to be a calefacient herb, and most of them in recommending it in diseases of the joints. (De Simpl. 194.) Mesue recommends it as a phlegmagogue in diseases of the joints, when given internally with cumin, ginger, pepper, myrobalans, &c.; and externally in the form of a cataplasm. He also states it to be a good application to foul ulcers. (De Simpl. vii.) Avicenna quotes no Greek authority in his chapter on Hermodactylus but Paulus, from which it may be inferred that he did not identify it with the colchicum of Dioscorides, like Serapion. He recommends it especially in gout, both internally and in the form of plaster. (ii, 2, 343.) Rhases refers to no other Greek authorities on this head except Paulus and Alexander, but quotes the opinions of several Arabians, all of whom agree in recommending hermodactylus in gout and foul ulcers. An anonymous authority makes it to be aphrodisiac. (Cont. l. ult. 362.) See also Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 43.) It is particularly to be remarked that the Arabian authorities all notice three varieties of the hermodactyl root, the white, the red, and the black; and restrict the medicinal use of the H. to the first of these, and condemn the two others as being deleterious. Nicholaus Myrepsus (i, 1) and Actuarius (De Compos. Med. i), however, prescribe also the red, which the learned Fuchsius, in his annotations on the former, sets down as being the behen rubrum. We know not what are his grounds for this opinion. It is the white variety which has been always used medicinally. See Boerhaave, Quincy, and Pereira. We would beg particularly to refer our readers who wish to obtain the modern literature of this subject, to the Materia Medica of Pereira (p. 949.)

Ἕρπυλλος,

Serpyllum, Wild Thyme, is heating, so as to promote the urinary and menstrual discharge.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All agree that the Thymus Serpyllum is possessed of diuretic and emmenagogue powers. Dioscorides recommends it in tormina, convulsions, &c., and as an alexipharmic. The others, like our author, treat more briefly of it in general terms. Serapion and Avicenna borrow freely from Dioscorides. The Serpyllum held a place in our Dispensatory with its ancient characters down to a very recent date. See Quincy and Rutty (Mat. Med.) The latter, however, questions its identity with the ancient Serpyllum.

Ἐρυθρόδανον,

Erythrodanum, Madder, is the Rubia Tinctorum. Being sour and bitter, it purges the spleen, liver, and kidneys, so as to occasion a discharge of bloody urine. It acts as an emmenagogue, and cleanses the sordes of the skin.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There seems scarcely any reason to hesitate in admitting it to be the Rubia Tinctorum, madder and dyer’s madder. Dioscorides holds it to be powerfully diuretic, insomuch as sometimes to occasion a discharge of blood in the urine. He recommends it in sciatica and paralysis; as an alexipharmic medicine, and as producing abortion, menstruation, and the lochial discharge when applied as a pessary. He adds, that it cures alphos (mild leprosy) in a cataplasm with vinegar. (iii, 150.) Our author borrows from Galen, who sets it down as being deobstruent, diuretic, and emmenagogue. Aëtius uses nearly the same words as our author in treating of it. All the Arabians follow the Greeks in giving madder the character of being diuretic and deobstruent when given internally, and emmenagogue and alexipharmic when applied externally. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 573), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 590.) The Arabian writers mention that a bread was sometimes prepared from madder in times of famine. (Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp., 336.) It is still sometimes given as an emmenagogue, notwithstanding that Dodonæus questioned the truth of Dioscorides’s opinion as to its possessing the powers of occasioning bloody urine and a discharge of the menses. (De Purgant. 97.) Our old herbalists, Parkinson and Gerard, dispute whether Dioscorides or Dodonæus is to be followed in this instance. The Rubia Tinctorum holds a place in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἐρύσιμον,

Erysimum, Hedge-mustard; its seed is fiery and heating, equally as cresses. Wherefore, when boiled in leaven and added to linctuses, it purges the chest. It also softens indurations, and in the form of a cataplasm is of use for latent cancers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We may pretty confidently set it down as the Erysimum officinale, Hedge-mustard. Our author abridges Galen, who, in the present case, borrows almost everything from Dioscorides. Aëtius copies from Galen even more closely than our author. The Arabians, in like manner, borrow everything from Dioscorides and Galen under this head. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 357.) It is worthy of remark that Dr. Hill gives the same medicinal character to the hedge-mustard which Dioscorides gives to the Erysimon, which it will be admitted forms a strong presumption of their identity; at all events, they were evidently congeners, a fact which is not disputed by those who question their identity. See Rutty (Mat. Med.) and Sprengel (ad Dioscor.)

Εὔζωμον,

Eruca, Rocket, being also like it in temperament, is flatulent. It therefore produces venereal incitement, and the seed of it is diuretic. The wild is stronger than the cultivated.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it is the Brassica Eruca, L. Dioscorides agrees with our author in setting it down as being aphrodisiacal and diuretic, and Aëtius does the same. The latter proposes to correct its tendency to induce headache by giving it with lettuce. (ii, 169.) Celsus ranks the “eruca” among the things “quæ contrahere semen videntur.” (iv, 21.) The Arabians agreed with the Greeks as to its aphrodisiacal properties. (Casiri, Bibl. Arab. Hisp. i, 336.) See also Serapion (224), Avicenna (ii, 2, 227.) Even down to a late date rocket retained this character. See Rutty (183), and Quincy (109.) It is still cultivated in gardens. See Loudon (Encycl. &c. 744.)

Ἐυπατώριον,

Eupatorium, Hemp-agrimony, consists of subtile particles, and is possessed of incisive powers without manifest heat. Hence it clears away obstructions of the liver, and has also some astringency.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That the Eupatorium of Dioscorides and the other Greek authorities is the Agrimonia Eupatorium, will hardly be questioned now by any competent judge who has investigated the question. Dioscorides recommends its leaves in ill-conditioned ulcers, and its seed and stalk in wine, for dysentery and the stings of reptiles. (iv, 41.) Galen makes it to be deobstruent and tonic. Serapion copies from Dioscorides and Galen, and merely adds, in the end, from Rhases, that southernwood is more suitable in complaints of the liver; and from Mesue, that it is good in protracted fevers. (De Simpl. 77.) Avicenna’s chapter on Eupatorium is entirely compiled from Dioscorides, Galen, and Serapion, without the slightest change or addition. (ii, 2, 239.) No one who has examined into the matter can therefore doubt that the Eu. of these two Arabians, was the same as that of the Greeks. The Eupatorium of Mesue, however, has been generally held to be a very different plant, namely, the Eupatorium Cannabinum, according to some, from his comparing the leaves to those of the lesser centaury. It is to be borne in mind, however, that the Latin translations of the Arabians are not to be trusted in small matters, and therefore this comparison may be all a mistake. And that the Eu. of Mesue was the same as that of the others, seems highly probable from his recommending it in the same complaints, namely, in obstructions of the liver, and chronic fevers. (De Simpl. 15.) Such is the conclusion to which an impartial examination of the question has brought us. It is but fair to mention, however, that all the old herbalists and writers on the Mat. Med. down to Rutty and Quincy, are against us, and hold that the Eupatorium of Mesue was different from that of the Greeks. See Matthiolus (in Dioscor.); Parkinson (Theatre of Plants); and the commentators on Mesue.

Ἐυφόρβιον,

Euphorbium, is possessed of caustic powers, and consists of subtile particles like the other juices.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. A gum-resin produced from some species of Euphorbia still holds its place in the Materia Medica. Alston remarks, “neither Dioscorides nor Galen take any notice of the cathartic quality of the Euphorbium, but Pliny does, as do also Aëtius, Paulus, and the Arabians; but all make it excessively acrid, upon account of which its internal use is now generally condemned.” Mesue particularly commends it in diseases of the joints. It was formerly supposed that Euphorbium is procured from a species called the E. antiquorum, but it is now admitted that the species is still undetermined. See Pereira (1127.) Probably, as stated in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, it is procured from several species of the Euphorbia. (66.)

Ἐφήμερον,

Ephemerum (or Colchicum Autumnale?), not the poisonous species but that which is called the Wild Iris. It is possessed of mixed powers, repellent, and discutient.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. See Ἑρμοδάκτυλος, and Book V (48.) The E., here said to be the same as the wild iris, is the Convallaria verticillata. Dioscorides recommends its root in toothache, and its leaves as possessing discutient powers when applied to swellings and tumours. (iv, 75.) Galen is at great pains to explain its modus operandi agreeably to his theory of the action of medicines.

Ἐχίδνα,

Vipera, the Viper; its flesh is decidedly hot and dry in temperament, so that it cleanses the whole body by the skin. Wherefore many persons affected with elephantiasis, by eating or drinking of it have been cured. Those which live by the sea-side, or in other dry situations, rather occasion thirst.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. As stated by us in the Fifth Book, the Echidna Asiatica of Nicander is the Coluber Ægyptius, and the E. Europæa the C. Berus. The ἔχις, probably is the C. Amodytes. Dioscorides recommends vipers, having their head and tail cut off, and the entrails taken out, boiled with oil, wine, a little salts and dill, for nervous affections and scrofula. He gives no credit, however, to the vulgar belief of his time, that living upon vipers prolonged life, or that they prevented lice from forming on the body. He describes distinctly the process of preparing salts from vipers, but says they have not the same efficacy as the flesh. (ii, 18.) The Arabians display much more credulity than Dioscorides, in describing the medicinal virtues of vipers, ascribing to them wonderful powers, not only of preserving life, but even of restoring youth. See in particular, Avicenna (ii, 2, 608), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 731.) Galen gives a very lengthened disquisition on the medicinal virtues of vipers. (De Simpl. xi.) Aëtius abridges the same. (ii, 160.) See Oribasius (Med. Collect. xv, 2.) We shall have occasion, however, to treat further of the medicinal properties of the viper when describing the composition of the theriac; and, instead of collecting the sentiments of the ancient authorities on this head, we shall in this place merely subjoin the opinion of a modern author, who appears to have been familiar with the use of it: “The powder of vipers is very much enlivened with the volatile salt wherewith the vipers abound, which enables it to force its virtues through the pores, though never so close shut, to the more remote parts of the body. It is a singular medicine to cure scabs, itches, and erysipelas, and particularly the leprosy. It restores plumpness of body to persons wasted with long agues and tedious diseases. It is to be taken fasting, in broths, wine, or any other cordial liquor, or else incorporated with some syrup, or in some confection like a bolus.” (Moses Charras.) In Scotland the adder (which is a variety of the Coluber Berus) is a popular remedy for malignant diseases of the skin. It is taken in the form of soup, as described by Dioscorides. The viper broth is described in Quince’s Dispensatory (400) in nearly the same terms as by Dioscorides, and recommended “as doing good service in leprous and other obstinate cutaneous complaints.”

Ἐχίνος,

Echinus; the herb is austere, repellent, and desiccant. Of the Land Echinus, or Hedgehog, the flesh when strongly dried is discutient and desiccant; when taken in a draught, therefore, it is beneficial in elephantiasis, cachexia, and many other complaints. Its skin, when burnt, becomes more desiccant and discutient. It therefore cures alopecia when rubbed in with liquid pitch. Of the Sea Echinus, the edible part is diuretic, and agrees with the bowels. Its shell, when burnt, resembles that of the land echinus.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The herb is not described by Dioscorides, Theophrastus, or Pliny. It would appear to be the same as the Erinus, which see. The Ἐ. χερσᾶιος is undoubtedly the Hystrix Cristata, and the Ἐ. θαλάττιος the Echinus Esculentus. Dioscorides and Galen give the same account of their medicinal properties as our author. Serapion, after giving the description by Dioscorides and Galen, adds, from an Arabian authority, that the flesh of the land echinus is beneficial in protracted fevers. (De Simpl. 435.) Avicenna (ii, 2, 234,) treats of the two echini at greater length than any other ancient author, recommending the flesh of the land, in phthisis, dropsy, elephantia, scabies, scrofula, and other complaints of a formidable nature. Upon the whole, however, his account of it is mostly made up of extracts from Dioscorides and Galen. See in like manner Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 273.) He recommends the land echinus in the irretention of urine to which children are subject, adding that when frequently administered, it brings on dysuria. He and Avicenna quote Serapion as an authority for its use in protracted fevers. Both the echini disappeared from our Dispensatory a considerable time ago.

Ἔχιον,

Echium, Viper’s Bugloss, (some call it also Dorias, and others Alcibiadium,) is a prickly herb, which not only relieves those who have been bitten by reptiles when drunk in wine, but, if taken beforehand, it preserves them from being injured.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears to us quite clear that this article is the Echium vulgare or Viper’s Bugloss, which we have no doubt was introduced into Britain with other medicinal herbs by the Romans, for it is never found remote from cultivated places, and therefore we believe it not to be truly indigenous. Some have taken it for the Echium rubrum, from Dioscorides having described the flowers as being purplish, whereas, purplish signifies a bright blue, and not red as is supposed. Parkinson thus describes the colour of the flowers of the Echium vulgare: “The flowers are of a purplish violet colour, in them that are fully blown, but more reddish while they are in bud; but in some places of a paler purple colour,” &c. (p. 413.) We, then, have no hesitation in acknowledging it as the Echium vulgare. Our author borrows his account of its medicinal powers from Dioscorides. (iv, 27.) The Arabians would seem to confound it with the Anchusæ, to which it is closely allied. Our old herbalists, in treating of the viper’s bugloss, follow Dioscorides; but it has long ceased to hold a place in our Dispensatory. It still, however, is known in the shops, where its root retains the character of being aperient and slightly astringent. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 54.)

Ἕψημα ἢ σίραιον,

Defrutum, Boiled Must; it is moderately heating and digestive, and is also emplastic and free from pungency.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Pliny gives the following account of it: “Siræum quod alii hepsema, nostri sapam appellant, ingenii, non naturæ opus est, musto usque ad tertiam partem mensuræ decocto: quod ubi factum ad dimidiam est, defrutum vocamus.” (H. N. xiv, 11.) Harduin states that the Hepsema is called Rob or Sapa semplex. (l. c.) Moses Charras gives the following directions for preparing it: “℞. Of the new juice of white grapes perfectly ripe, lb. xxx; boil it over a gentle fire in an earthen glazed vessel, or a copper vessel tinned within, until a third part of the juice only remains. But if you desire a defrutum, boil it only to the consumption of the third part.” (Roy. Phar. p. 70.) The following prescription, taken from a still later writer, will further be useful in illustrating the meaning of a term which often occurs in the course of this work, but which has now fallen into disuse. “The Simple Rob or Sapa. Take of juice newly expressed from generous and white grapes any quantity, and boil it over a slow fire, until one pint of it only remains out of three, or it becomes of a honey consistence.” Quincy’s Dispensatory (432.) Few of the other authorities treat of this article at all, and those that do, despatch their notice of it in few words. Thus, for example, Avicenna says of rob, that it is expectorant, and hence it is made an ingredient in the syrup of poppies; and that it is useful in pain of the kidneys and bladder. (ii, 2, 570.)

Ζέια,

Far, Spelt, has powers like the kinds of wheat, holding an intermediate place as to heating and cooling; it is also gently desiccative and emplastic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This, as we have explained elsewhere (Vol. I, 123), is the Triticum Spelta, to which our older herbalists give the names Greek Wheat, Spelt Wheat, or Spelt Corn. That the Zeia of the Greeks was identical with the Far of the Romans, is proved beyond all dispute from a passage of Asclepiades preserved by Galen. (De Locis Affectis, ix.) The term spelta is derived from the latino-barbarous translations of the Arabians. See Serapion (122), who quotes under this head the chapter of Dioscorides on tragus, which was spelt deprived of its hull. The other authorities say little of spelt as a medicine; but commend it highly as an article of food. (See Vol. I, l. c.) Avicenna describes it by the name of harcoman (ii, 2, 323); and Rhases by that of haratinam (Cont. l. ult. i, 352.)

Ζιγγιβὲρ,

Zingiber, Ginger; its root is powerfully heating, but not on its first application, as it contains some crude and thick juice, on which account it readily becomes carious, but it preserves the heat.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without doubt the Amomum Zingiber. Dioscorides after describing the country of the ginger, and the characters of the best kinds of it, states its medicinal powers to be heating, digestive, mildly aperient of the bowels, and stomachic; and recommends it in nebulæ of the cornea, and adds of it, that as an ingredient in antidotes and otherwise it resembles pepper (ii, 189.) Galen writes very elaborately in explanation of the action of ginger on the animal frame; and, in accounting for the difference between it and pepper and other articles of the same class practically, his conclusions regarding it are the same as our author’s. Aëtius and Oribasius copy from him. Serapion, after quoting the opinions of Dioscorides and Galen, gives a very sensible account of the virtues of ginger from Mesue and another unknown authority. Mesue says it is beneficial in obstructions of the liver, arising from coldness and humidity; that it softens the belly, heats the stomach and the whole body; promotes digestion; is alexipharmic and aphrodisiacal; removes phlegm (water brash?) and is beneficial in obscurity of vision. The unknown authority says it improves the memory, and removes the humidity in the stomach, arising from the eating of fruit, such as melons and the like (De Simpl. 336.) In the works of Mesue, now extant, ginger is not treated of. Rhases gives very interesting extracts from Dioscorides, Galen, and various Arabian authors. Of the latter, one says of ginger, that it softens the belly, and another that it binds it. (Cont. l. ult. i, 762.) Avicenna quotes Dioscorides as stating that it is aperient, and Alcanzi as holding that it is astringent. He agrees with the latter, that ginger binds the bowels, when their loose state arises from indigestion and viscid humours. He agrees also with the other authorities, that it is stomachic and aphrodisiac. (ii, 2, 735.)

Ζύθος,

Zythus, Ale, is of a compound nature; for it is acrid, as being formed by a putrefaction (“fermentation?”), and cold, as being possessed of an acid quality. It therefore produces bad chyle.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The plan of our present work prohibits us from entering into an exposition of the general literature of this subject, but we think this the less necessary as in another work, to which we have often referred in this part of our Commentary, we have given an elaborate disquisition on the ancient Ales, into which we have condensed all the information which we could procure respecting them. We would also beg leave to refer to Gruner’s learned annotations on Zozimus Panopolita (De Zythorum Compositione); to Ludovicus Nonnius (De re Cibaria, iv, 15); Eustathius (Comment. in Iliad. xiii, 640); and Athenæus (Deipnos. x, 67, ed. Schweigh.) Our proper business now is to state the opinions of the medical authorities with regard to their medicinal powers. Dioscorides mentions two kinds of ale or beer, in his Mat. Med., both of them prepared from barley, but does not state wherein the difference between them consisted. The Zythus, he says, is diuretic, apt to affect the kidneys and nerves; peculiarly calculated to prove prejudicial to the membranes of the brain; is flatulent; engenders depraved humours, and occasions elephantiasis. Of the Courmi, he also says, that it occasions headache, forms bad humours, and is hurtful to the nerves; he adds, that drinks of this nature are also formed from wheat, in Spain and Britain (ii, 109, 110.) See further, Pliny (H. N. xxii, 82.) Aëtius, Oribasius, and our author, copy almost verbatim from Galen. Rhases treats of the Zythus, by the name of foca, first quoting the chapter of Dioscorides on the Zythus, and then adding, upon the authority of an Arabian writer, Bimasuy (Mesue the elder?), that ale prepared from barley, cloves, and rue, is prejudicial to the head; but that prepared from fine bread (similago?) mint, and parsley, forms good chyle, and is good for the stomach (Cont. l. ult. i, 306.) Avicenna’s account of Zythus, which he also describes by the name of foca, is entirely made up of extracts from Dioscorides and Rhases. (ii, 2, 272.) Serapion, as far as we can discover, does not treat of this article. A liquor is treated of pretty copiously by Symeon Seth, under the head of Fucas, which, as his editors remark, is probably a corruption of Posca. In his account of it, he introduces a short sentence from Dioscorides’s chapter on Zythus, to the effect that “ivory steeped in it becomes as ductile as wax.” It was not, strictly speaking, an ale or beer, being merely a mixture of vinegar and water, rendered more agreeable to the palate by some aromatics. See Harduin ad Plinii (H. N. xix, 29.) Respecting this beverage Seth states, as his own opinion, that it is wholesome, especially when used by persons of a hot temperature of stomach; that it quenches thirst; whets the appetite; increases the alvine and frequently the renal discharge.

Ζύμη,

Fermentum, Leaven; it also is composed of opposite ingredients; for it is possessed of a cold acidity and putrefactive (“fermentative?”) heat, and moreover of salts and flour. It is, therefore, heating and discutient in no ordinary degree.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. On the ancient modes of preparing Fermentum or Leaven, see ‘Geopon.’ (ii, 31); and Pliny (H. N. xviii, 26.) The kind in most common use was prepared from millet and must, or the fresh juice of the grape. Our author’s description of its medicinal powers is taken from Galen. Aëtius treats of it in nearly the same words. Dioscorides praises the leaven of wheat as being heating and epispastic, and suiting with complaints of the heels, phymata, and furunculi. (ii, 107.) Serapion under this head gives two extracts from Dioscorides and Galen, followed by one from Abenmesuai (the elder Mesue?), who recommends it in the fevers of children for quenching thirst. (De Simpl. 29.) Rhases gives a formula for a draught to be prepared from leaven, which he in like manner praises as being wonderfully efficacious in the fevers of children. (Cont. l. ult. i, 306.)

Ζωμὸς,

Jusculum, Broth, loosens the belly if drunk by itself or with wine, when made from fresh fish; but particularly that which is simply prepared from hakes, scorpion-fishes, rainbows, perches, and other tender fishes which dwell among rocks, with water, oil, dill, and salts. In like manner, also, the broth of the Crustacea, especially of the Tellinæ (limpets), the Chamæ (cockles), and Conchylæ (oysters). The broth of an old cock, boiled with salt to a great degree, is laxative; but that of a hen, on the other hand, is astringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The account here given of the broth of fishes is taken from Dioscorides (ii, 35.) Galen directs the broth of fish to be prepared in the following manner: first pour in plenty of water, then add of oil q. s. with a little dill and leek; then, when the fish are half boiled, sprinkle a little salt. (De Alim. Facult. iii); (Meth. Med. ix.) Apicius in the tenth chapter of his work, gives fourteen different receipts for preparing soups from fishes. Most of them contain wine, honey, vinegar, and oil, with pepper, lovage, cumin, rue, &c., among the ingredients which enter into their composition. On the fishes mentioned under this head, see Book I (90.) The Arabians generally condense the substance of Dioscorides’s two chapters on Garum and Jus into one, under the title of Muria. See Serapion (184), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 486.) Serapion’s Arabian authorities recommend it as a gentle purgative and phlegmagogue in sciatica, both when given by the mouth and in clysters. One of them says of it, that it makes the pustules of smallpox come out, when the eruption is slow in taking place.

Ἡδύσμον,

Mentha, Mint, is hot, consists of subtile particles; its powers are acrid in the third order, with some half-concocted fluids; it therefore provokes to venery. It has, likewise, some bitterness, by which means it kills intestinal worms; and by its sourness its restrains recent discharges of blood.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We need have no hesitation in referring it with all the best commentators to the Mentha sativa, L. Dioscorides says it has calefacient, astringent, and desiccative powers; and hence, he adds, it stops the discharge of blood when drunk with vinegar, and kills the round worms. (iii, 36.) According to him, it stimulates the male to venery, but prevents conception in the female when applied on a pessary before coition. He further says of it, that it stops hiccup, vomiting, and cholera, when taken in a draught along with the juice of an acid pomegranate. He also recommends it, in the form of an external application, for headache, complaints of the breast, and other cases. Galen pronounces mint to be one of the most attenuate articles in the Mat. Med. He agrees with Dioscorides that it is useful in hæmoptysis; and that it is anthelminthic and aphrodisiac. The author of the Hippocratic treatise ‘De Diætâ,’ while, like Dioscorides, he gives mint the credit of promoting the urinary discharge and stopping vomiting, says, that taken in great quantity it weakens the semen and stops erections. Aristotle likewise holds the opinion that mint is anaphrodisiac. (Bibl. ii, 20.) Aëtius, seemingly with the desire of reconciling these great authorities, maintains that mint indeed generates much semen, but of a feeble nature. (Tetr. iv, 4, 26.) Ludovicus Nonnius, by the way, also attempts to account for the difference among the professional authorities on this point. (De re Cib. i, 15.) See also Rutty, (Mat. Med. 323), and Parkinson (35.) The Arabians in treating of it follow Dioscorides and Galen closely, and add little or nothing of their own. They all agree with Dioscorides, that it is aphrodisiac and stops vomiting. See in particular Serapion (290), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 188.) We need scarcely mention that this species of Mentha is now rejected from our Mat. Med., but that three other species of it are still retained.

Ἡδύσαρον ἢ Πελέκινος,

Hedysarum, French Honeysuckle, is bitter and subastringent. It is therefore stomachic, when taken in a liquid form, and clears away visceral obstructions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There has been great difference of opinion among the commentators and herbalists respecting this herb; but we are inclined to decide, with considerable confidence, that it was the Hatchet Vetch, or Coronilla securidaca. Dioscorides says of it that it is stomachic and alexipharmic, and that, in a pessary, it prevents conception. Our author abridges Galen, and Aëtius does the same; and so likewise Oribasius. We have been unable to find it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely copies from Dioscorides (i, 80.)

Ἡλιοτρόπιον,

Heliotropium, Sunflower; the large one (called also Scorpiurus) is possessed of calefacient, desiccant, and detergent powers. Its decoction when drunk brings away phlegm and bile. Its fruit in a cataplasm dries myrmecia and such like cutaneous complaints. The small Sunflower also removes these complaints and kills worms if drunk with the fruit along with natron, hyssop, and cardamom.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides calls the great Sunflower (Heliotropium Europæum) phlegmagogue and cholagogue, and says it is useful in the bites of scorpions, both internally and externally. He adds, that it was used as an amulet to produce sterility. He also recommends it in intermittent fevers, and as a cataplasm and fomentation to various tumours, sprains, &c. He adds, that it is emmenagogue, and procures abortion when powdered and applied on a pessary. (iv, 190.) None of the other Greek authorities, as far as we have been able to discover, have treated of either of the heliotropes; and if the Arabians describe them, we have not been able to discover under what name it is. The lesser heliotrope is probably the Croton tinctorius.

Ἤλεκτρον,

Electrum, Amber; they say that it is the tears of the poplar, which are discharged into the river Po, and get concreted into a golden-coloured substance. This, being pulverized and drunk, stops defluxions of the stomach and bowels and discharges of blood.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is well known that the ancient authors in general represent amber as an exudation from the poplar tree, commonly found on the banks of the Po. Some of them, however, such as Lucian (De Electro), held that it is a bituminous substance. See also Theophrastus (De Lapidibus, with the annotations of Hill.) Serapion says of it, that it is formed in the sea as mushrooms are formed on land; and when the sea is troubled it casts forth large stones, and with them are cast out crusts of amber. He also gives an account, which is not very intelligible in the Latin translation, of its being swallowed up by a fish, from which, when killed, amber was procured. What is of a citrine colour, he says, is good; but what is white, like an ostrich’s egg, is bad. Upon the authority of Aben Mesuai (Mesue the elder?), he calls it a hot and dry medicine, and says it strengthens the brain, all the senses, and the heart, and is useful to old persons and men of a cold temperament. (De Simpl. 196.) Avicenna’s account of it is mostly made up from Serapion. Amber, he says, in my opinion, is an emanation from a fountain in the sea. He also repeats the account from Serapion, of its being procured from the belly of a fish which has swallowed it and dies. He must allude to the ambergris which is procured from the sperm-whale. He determines it to be hot in the second and dry in the first degree. He recommends it in exactly the same cases as Serapion. He makes mention of a species used for dyeing the hair black. (ii, 2, 62, and 364.) Rhases merely gives its medicinal character, which is the same as that quoted above from Serapion. (Cont. l. ult. 44.) But no ancient writer has given so full and correct an account of amber as Symeon Seth. He says it abounds in various places, and that there are fountains of it as of pitch, bitumen, and the like; that the best kind is of a grayish colour (grisea ambra?) and fat, which is sold in a certain city of India, called Silachetum. The ambergris or ambra-grisea, is found in a city of Arabia Felix, called Syachria. The worst kind, he says, is black, and is collected from fishes that have swallowed amber at its fountains. It has, he adds, calefacient and incisive powers, and therefore some add it to stomachic remedies. It strengthens the head and heart; and when smelled to in drinking accelerates intoxication, and still more so if added to the wine. (De Alimentis, xiii.) Psellus says, it cures dysury when appended as an amulet, removes fever, stops defluxions of the stomach, and sharpens the sight. (De Lapidibus.) Having been led along in the present instance by the ancient authorities who have given the most correct description of amber, we omitted to mention at the commencement, that Dioscorides describes the electrum under the head of populus, as being said to be the tears of poplars which have dropped into the Po, and become coagulated. He adds, it is of a fragrant smell when rubbed, and of a golden colour; and when triturated and drunk, it stops defluxions of the stomach and belly. (i, 110.) See also Pliny (H. N. xxxvii, 11), who supposes amber an exudation from pines, and gives otherwise a very authentic and interesting account of its origin. He makes mention of amber being used as an amulet in diseases of children, a practice which, like other superstitions of the like kind, has been transmitted to modern times. We need scarcely remark that the ancient opinions regarding the origin of amber, are now looked upon as being not far removed from the truth. Amber, although now in a fossil state, is supposed to have been an exudation from some tree of the genus Pinus. See Pereira (Mat. Med. 223); and the Appendix to this section.

Ἡμεροκαλλὶς,

Hemerocallis, Lily of the Valley; its root has powers like those of the lily, and, like it, is useful for burns.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is undoubtedly a plant of the lily tribe; probably the Lilium bulbiferum. Dioscorides, besides recommending it in burns, like our author, says of it that when drunk and applied in a pessary of wool it produces discharges of water and blood; and that its leaves form an excellent application to the inflammations of the breasts after parturition, and to those of the eyes. Our author follows Galen. Serapion treats of it under the head of Lilium. (189.)

Ἡμιονίτις,

Hemionitis, Moon Fern, is possessed at the same time of astringency and bitterness. It therefore relieves affections of the spleen when taken with vinegar.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Galen calls it also by the names of Scolopendrium and Asplenium. (ii, 292, ed. Basil.) Dioscorides describes it so as to leave no doubt of its being a cryptogamous plant. It is a species of the Scolopendrium. The other authorities praise it in enlarged spleen.

Ἧπαρ,

Hepar, the Liver; if that of a mad dog be roasted and eaten, it is said to relieve those who have been bitten by him. The sanies of a boiled goat’s liver relieves nyctalopia when injected into the eye. They also direct the vapour of it when boiling to be received into the eyes, and also to be eaten. They say that it rests epileptics if eaten, and that the liver of the buck-goat does the same. The liver of a lizard when put into carious teeth relieves the pain. That of the wolf is added to the hepatic medicine prepared from eupatorium. The liver of an ass when roasted is of use to epileptics when eaten fasting. That of a bear when dried in its fresh state and triturated with wine is drunk for the bites of reptiles. The liver of the cormorant, when dried and taken in a draught, makes calculi be discharged.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the livers of animals in the dietetical part of the First Book. See also in particular Galen and Serapion. Our author copies from the former, who in his turn follows closely in the footsteps of Dioscorides.

Ἠριγέρων,

Senecio, Groundsel, has mixed powers, being refrigerant and moderately discutient.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides recommends it (Senecio vulgaris) in inflammatory complaints, and also says of it that when drunk with must it relieves the pains of the stomach proceeding from bile. Galen and the other authorities, like Paulus, treat of it in general terms as an antiphlogistic application. Apuleius recommends it in sciatica (75, 5.) In modern times it had the character of being emetic, but the ancient authorities do not say that it has this property.

Ἠρύγγιον,

Eryngium, Eryngo, is calefacient in no imperceptible degree, and has no little heat and subtility of parts.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That it is a species of Eryngium or sea holly seems indisputable. It may either be the maritimum, the planum, or the campestre, all of which are brought into view and figured by our careful herbalist Parkinson. (Theatre of Plants, 986.) Dioscorides’s description of its localities would seem to agree best with the campestre; he calls it calefacient, and says it is diuretic and emmenagogue, removing tormina and flatulences, and proving serviceable in hepatic diseases, and as an alexipharmic. He adds, that it is related of it that it discusses hard tumours, both when appended as an amulet and in a cataplasm; and that the root of it cures opisthotonos and epilepsy when drunk with hydromel. (iii, 21.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in general terms like Paulus. The secacul of the Arabians has been taken for this article, but erroneously, as Matthiolus has well remarked. (Ad Dioscor. iii, 21.) But Serapion treats of it under the name of Iringi, as being a white variety of the Aster Atticus. He merely translates the words of Dioscorides and Galen. (De Simpl. 96.) We cannot find any mention of it in the works of the other Arabians, except Ebn Baithar, who also does little more than copy from Dioscorides and Galen. The eryngo long retained its place in our Dispensatory, indeed it can scarcely be said to be yet formally expelled from it. Pereira briefly notices the Eryngium campestre. It is the Eryngium maritimum, however, which is described in the Edinburgh Mat. Med. Quincy, by the way, in imitation of Serapion, confounds the Eryngo with the Aster Atticus. (Complete Engl. Disp. 113.) Boerhaave gave the candied root and decoction of eryngo as an attenuant and deobstruent in obstructions of the viscera, and for coughs; and Tournefort makes mention of the same as being in common use in his days. (Mat. Med. 98. Engl. edition.)

Θάλάσσιον ὕδωρ,

Aqua Marina, Sea Water, is acrid, moderately calefacient, and desiccant; it is bad for the stomach when taken in a draught, disorders the bowels, and proves phlegmagogue. If poured hot on a part it attracts and discusses.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The ancient authorities who have written most learnedly on this important, although common-place article of the Mat. Med., are Dioscorides, Avicenna, and Rhases. Sea water, says Dioscorides, is heating, acrid, and bad for the stomach, for it disorders the belly, bringing away phlegm and bile. When poured hot on a part it attracts and discusses, suiting with affections of the nerves and chilblains before they become ulcerated. It is proper for mixing with raw barley-meal, and is suitable for plasters and discutient malagmata. For evacuating the bowels it is injected in a tepid state, and for tormina in a hot. It is a suitable fomentation in cases of scabies, pruritus, lichen, enlarged tonsils, and turgid mammæ. In hot fomentations it dispels lividities, and is useful in the bites of venomous animals, such at least as induce tremblings and rigors, but especially of scorpions, phalangia, and asps, and if, in such cases, one go into a hot bath, it proves useful; and in chronic cachexiæ of the body and nerves the bath of it is useful. Its hot vapours soothe dropsies, headaches, and dullness of hearing. It is given as a purge either alone or with oxycrate, wine, or honey; and after the purging takes place the broth of a hen or of fishes is exhibited to dilute its acrimony and pungency. (v, 19.) Avicenna borrows largely from Dioscorides, but supplies some additional remarks of his own by no means devoid of interest and importance. He recommends sea water for chilblains, for killing lice, and discussing extravasated blood. He also, copying from Dioscorides, praises it in pruritus, scabies, and impetigo. Epileptics, he says, are benefited by tepid salt water, but injured by hot. The vapour of salt water, he adds, is beneficial in vertigo and dropsies. (ii, 2, 58.) From Rhases’s very lengthened dissertation on this subject we can only find room for a few extracts. Upon the authority of Johannitius (Serapion?), he states that the use of salt water to one unaccustomed to it proves laxative and pinches the belly, but to one accustomed to it, it proves astringent. Another of his authorities, Judæus, says salt water proves beneficial in pain of the head and chest, in dropsy, and a watery stomach. He also states of salt water, that although at first it proves laxative, the continued use of it brings on constipation, because, he says, its salt dries, astringes, and strengthens the belly. (Cont. l. ult. i, 70.)

Θαλίκτρον,

Thalictrum, Meadow Rue, has desiccant powers, without pungency. It therefore heals chronic ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sprengel confidently pronounces it to be the Thalictrum minus, L., that is to say, the lesser meadow rue of our herbalists. See Parkinson (265.) Dioscorides and Galen state its medicinal properties in the same terms as our author. It is the Thalitruum of Pliny, who likewise praises it as an application to ulcers. (H. N. xxvii, 112.) We have not been able to find it described by any of the Arabian authorities on the Mat. Med. except Ebn Baithar, and it has had no place in our English Dispensatory for many ages past.

Θαψία,

Thapsia, Deadly Carrot, is acrid and strongly calefacient, with some humidity. It therefore attracts strongly the deep-seated fluids, and dispels them when attracted.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The authorities are divided between the Thapsia Garganica and the Thapsia Asclepium. Old Gerard gives it the name of deadly carrot, but Parkinson that of scorching fennel. Theophrastus mentions that it purges upwards and downwards. (P. ix, 10, 24.) Pliny describes it as a very acrid poison. (H. N. xxiii, 43.) See Dioscorides (iv, 154.) Serapion states that it is a violent emetic and cathartic, and operates powerfully as an external application. The thapsia has long ceased to be employed in medicine; even old Culpeper calls it “a venomous foreign root, and therefore no more of it.”

Θεῖον,

Sulphur; it likewise is possessed of attractive powers, is hot, and consists of subtile particles, so as to be an antidote against many poisonous animals, more especially the sea-turtle and dragon, either sprinkled dry or mixed with saliva, or with the urine of a child, or oil, or honey. It is also a wonderful remedy for scabious complaints.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sulphur was extensively used in medicine from the earliest times. Pliny gives a very full and interesting account of it. (H. N. xxxv, 50.) The sulphur vivum, of which mention is so often made in this work, was evidently native sulphur, that is to say, the prismatic sulphur of Jameson. The sulphur ignem expertum was clearly the factitious sulphur or brimstone, namely, that which is procured from pyrites by sublimation. We need scarcely mention that sulphur was extensively used as an application in cutaneous diseases, and more especially scabies. It was also given internally in catarrhs and other complaints of the chest. See Dioscorides and Pliny. The words of the latter are well worth quoting in the present instance. “Natura ejus calfacit, concoquit, sed et discutit collectiones corporum: ob hoc talibus emplastris malagmatisque miscetur. Renibus quoque et lumbis in dolore cum adipe mire prodest impositum. Aufert et lichenas a facie cum terebinthi resina et lepras. Harpacticon vocatur a celeritate avellendi, avelli enim subinde debet. Prodest et suspiriosis linctum. Purulenta quoque extussientibus, et contra scorpionum ictus. Vitiligines vivum nitro mixtum atque ex aceto tritum et illitum tollit, item lendes in palpebris, aceto sandarachato admixto.” We have not found the acetum sandarachatum mentioned by any other writer; from its name, it was no doubt composed of vinegar and arsenic, that is to say, realgar. Serapion, in treating of sulphur, confines himself entirely to Greek authorities (407); and so in like manner Avicenna (ii, 2, 612), and Rhases (Cont. ult. 694.)

Θέρμος,

Lupinus, Lupine; that which is edible is possessed of emplastic powers; but the bitter is detergent, discutient, and desiccative, without pungency. It kills worms, both when applied externally and when taken in infusion, and it cleanses the bowels when drunk with rue and pepper. It also cleanses the skin, and discusses tumours when applied with oxymel. The wild is more bitter and stronger than the cultivated in all respects.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Two varieties of the lupine, the sativus and sylvestris, were used in medicine from the days of Dioscorides down to our Quincy. Though the former of these, which was the one principally used, be well known, there is some doubt as to the species; whether it was the pilosus, or the hirsutus, or, what is more probable, whether it comprehended both. Dioscorides and Galen agree in enumerating a long list of cases to which the lupine is applicable, but as our author’s account embraces the sum of what they have written on it, we need not enter here into an exposition of their opinions. Suffice it to say, that as an emmenagogue and deobstruent it was much relied upon internally, and applied in a great variety of external complaints in fomentations. The same virtues are ascribed to it by the Arabians, who, however, supply no additional observations of any importance. Avicenna’s account of its medicinal powers is particularly full. (ii, 2, 440.) Rhases derives almost all his information from the Greeks. (Cont. l. ult. i, 435.) Serapion copies altogether from Dioscorides and Galen (De Simpl. 74.)

Θηλύπτερον,

Which some call Nymphæa or Filix, Female Fern, is like the fern in all its properties. When drunk with wine it kills the broad and round worms. It also destroys the fœtus in utero. Its leaves, when eaten, soften the belly.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There seems every reason to refer it to the Asplenium Filix fœmina, Bernh., or Polypodium, L. Theophrastus recommends it as a vermifuge medicine. (H. P. ix, 20.) Galen, Avicenna, and all the authorities that treat of it, concur in assigning to it this faculty. Dioscorides also sets it down as a medicine calculated to induce sterility and occasion abortion. The powder of it is recommended as an application to ill-conditioned sores. In the days of Quincy it still held an equivocal place in the Dispensatory.

Θλάσπι,

Bursa Pastoris, Shepherd’s Purse, is possessed of acrid powers, so that when drunk it breaks internal abscesses, and occasions a flow of the menses; and if injected by the anus it relieves ischiatic disease by occasioning a bloody discharge. It otherwise purges bile upwards and downwards when drunk to the amount of an acetabulum.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sprengel holds that the Θ. of Dioscorides is the Thlaspi Bursa Pastoris. Dioscorides describes another species, which is either the Iberis umbellata, or the Viola latifolia. Pliny recommends the Thlaspi as a phlegmagogue and cholagogue. (H. N. xxvii, 113.) Dioscorides assigns it the same character, and also holds that it is emmenagogue. Our author copies closely from Galen. Avicenna dwells at considerable length upon the virtues of Thlaspi, calling it emetic and purgative, and also anthelminthic, emmenagogue, and carminative. The Thlaspi arvense held a place in the Dispensatory, with all the characters of the ancient T., down to a late date. See Quincy (Compl. Engl. Dispens. 66.)

Θρίδαξ,

Lactuca, Lettuce, is a juicy and cold potherb, yet not extremely so, but of the temperament of spring water. It therefore suits with hot inflammations, and also quenches thirst. When taken in an infusion it stops gonorrhœa and libidinous dreams. The wild lettuce is less cooling and diluent than the other, and is also more juicy.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The cultivated kind is certainly the Lactuca sativa: the wild the L. virosa. The ancients, as we have stated in another place, were well acquainted with the hypnotic powers of lettuce. See Celsus (ii, 32); Dioscorides (ii, 164); Athen. (Deipnos, ii, 80, ed. Schweig.); Pliny (xix, 38); Galen (De Alim. Facul. ii, 40); Geopon. (xii, 13); Aëtius (i, 168); Symeon Seth (De Alimentis); Macer Floridus (De Herb. vir.); Serapion (De Simpl. ex Plant.) According to Dioscorides, it is also anaphrodisiac, and removes the pollutio nocturni somni. One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities commends it in jaundice; and another of them says that it dispels the unpleasant effects produced by intoxication. (De Simpl. 240.) Avicenna’s account of its medicinal virtues is very interesting, but is in the main derived from Dioscorides and Galen. He represents it to be an eminently cold, that is to say, a sedative plant, and recommends it in all complaints of a hot nature, in watchfulness, alienation of mind, and in coup de soleil. He also speaks highly of its milk in hot affections of the eyes. (ii, 2, 441.) Rhases likewise gives an excellent description of its powers, but in nearly the same terms as Avicenna. He makes it to be soporific, anaphrodisiac, and alexipharmic. (Cont. l. ult. i, 386.) Dioscorides states that the wild lettuce is a hydragogue purgative, and we may mention that the late Dr. Collin, of Vienna, gave it with great success in dropsies. Avicenna says the wild, in virtue, resembles the black poppy. We need scarcely say that both the L. sativa and virosa have, of late years, been restored to the Materia Medica. Upon reference to the works of Orfila, Paris, Pereira, and other authorities of the day, it will be seen that the ancients had correctly stated the medicinal virtues of both species.

Θύμος,

Thymus, Thyme, heats and dries in the third degree. It also incides viscid and thick humours.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have little hesitation in describing it to be the Thymus vulgaris. Dioscorides states that thyme is expectorant, diuretic, emmenagogue, and discutient; and all the authorities, down even to modern times, confirm this character of it. Galen says it is to be placed in the third order of desiccants and calefacients. He recommends it as being diuretic and emmenagogue, and says that it destroys the fœtus in utero, clears out the viscera, and is useful in discharges from the chest and lungs. Oribasius gives it the same character. Aëtius, from personal experience, as he says, writes of its virtues more elaborately than any other ancient author. Thus he gives a prescription for a draught composed of oxymel and finely powdered thyme, which he says proves beneficial in arthritic diseases by purging bile and the acrid humours, both by the belly and by the bladder. He recommends similar compositions in sciatica, pleuritic pains, meteorism of the hypochondria, and tympanitis. He prescribes, in like manner, thyme and oxymel to melancholic persons, to those disordered in mind, and possessed with morbid apprehension; and in gout, when given with undiluted wine. He also recommends it to be given in swellings of the testicles, to the patient fasting, in undiluted wine. The Arabians write fully on this head, but borrow almost all their information from Dioscorides and Galen, and make no reference to Aëtius. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 328), and Serapion (De Simpl. 281.) They all agree in giving it the character of being diuretic, emmenagogue, anthelminthic, and phlegmagogue.

Θύμβρα,

Thymbra, Savory; the wild has the same powers as thyme. The garden is in all respects weaker, but is better for food.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The ancients made use of Savory (Satureia Thymbra) as a condiment. Aristophanes (Nubes, 420.) Dioscorides recommends it in the same cases as thyme, and all the others write of it in much the same terms. Symeon Seth says it promotes digestion, is emmenagogue, diaphoretic, and carminative. Macer Floridus affirms that it is aphrodisiacal, and produces abortion in pregnant women when applied on a pessary. It long held a place in the Dispensatory with the character of being “warm and discussive.” See Quincy (127.)

Θυμελάια,

Thymelæa, Spurge-flax; from it the Granum Gnidium is produced, which has similar powers to it.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The confusion about the Thymelæa and Chamelæa of the ancients may be partly removed by the following account of the matter given by Alston. There are three species of Laureola, 1st, the L. officinalis, or L. Mas, Dwarf Laurel, or Spurge Laurel, which grows in hedges and woods in England; 2d, the Chamelæa, or Laureola femina namely, the true Mezereon, or Spurge Olive, which grows plentifully in Germany; 3d, the Thymelæa, Spurge Flax, or Mountain Widow Wail, which grows in the south of France. We will treat further of the Chamelæa, or Mezerion, in its proper place. Sprengel is decidedly of opinion that the Thymelæa of the ancients is Daphne Gnidium, L., or flax-leaved daphne, and one of the latest and best authorities on the Mat. Med. comes to the same conclusion respecting it. Dr. Pereira says, “Daphne Gnidium is the Θυμελάια, or Thymelæa of Dioscorides, whose fruit is the κόκκος κνίδιος, or Gnidium berry, used by Hippocrates. Its properties are similar to those of the D. Mezereon.” (Elements of Mat. Med. 807.) For an account of its effects on the animal economy, see Orfila (Toxicol. ii, 3.) We will treat of its medicinal virtues under Coccus gnidius.

Ἰδαῖα ρίζα,

Idæa Radix, Idæan Root; being sour as to taste and powers, it agrees with hemorrhages and rheumatic affections when drunk or applied externally.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. As may be seen upon referring to Bauhin, Woodville, Sprengel, and Pereira, several of the authorities have been disposed to hold this plant for the Arbutus Uva Ursi; but the probability is that it was the Laurus Alexandrina, or Uvularia amplexifolia. Dioscorides recommends it in fluxes from the bowels and womb, and in all kinds of hemorrhage. (iv, 44.) Pliny translates the chapter of Dioscorides. (H. N. xxvii, 69.) Our author copies from Galen; and Oribasius, in like manner, borrows his description of the plant from him. As far as we can discover the Idæa Radix is not treated of by the Arabians; and even in the days of Matthiolus it had disappeared from the Mat. Med.

Ἰδρῶς.

Sudor, Sweat; it is troublesome to collect by itself; but is mixed with the powder of those who exercise themselves in the palestra, which powder, being only repellent before, thus becomes altogether discutient. It is, therefore, a powerful remedy for inflamed nipples, and for extinguishing the heat in them. It also answers with buboes; but if too dry it must be softened with oil of privet or oil of roses.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sweat, or the matter of Perspiration. “Sweat,” says Galen, “is one of the fluids formed in the animal body, consisting of the same materials, and having the same mode of formation, as the urine, for both are formed from the liquids drunk, these being heated, and acquiring also some bilious property. But the sweat is more elaborated, as having passed through so many intervening bodies to the skin.” (De Med. Simpl. x.) This is a very ingenious account of the nature of the sweat and urine, which, it is certain, bear a close analogy to one another, and are often vicarious discharges. Thus, in cases of suppression of urine, the perspiration has often an urinous taste and smell. But this is not the place for enlarging further upon this subject. Our author’s account of the medicinal properties of sweat is taken from Galen. (l. c.) All the other authorities, in like manner, copy from him. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 466), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 648.)

Ἰξὸς,

Viscum, Birdlime, is heating with acrimony. It attracts, therefore, the deep-seated humours powerfully, and is discutient, like the Thapsia, but is much more inefficacious than it.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Viscum, or Birdlime, is got from the Loranthus Europæus, or Misseltoe. The Viscum quercinum held a place in the Materia Medica from the earliest times down to a very late date. Dioscorides mentions that birdlime is also got from the apple tree, the pear tree, and other trees, and is found upon the roots of certain shrubs. Pliny describes the ordinary mode of preparing it. (H. N. xvi, 94.) Dioscorides recommends it principally as an agglutinative and attractive application to indolent tumours and sores. When mixed with the caustic ley (quicklime and potass) he says birdlime increases its efficacy. With orpiment and sandarach, and applied in a cataplasm, it draws off diseased nails. (iii, 93.) Galen remarks that, like Thapsia, its calefacient powers do not come into immediate operation. The other authorities, in treating of this substance, follow Dioscorides and Galen. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 717), and Ebn Baithar (i, 410.) The Viscum album is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. (Athens, 1837, 167.)

Ἰὸν,

Viola, the Violet; its leaves have a watery and coldish substance for their prevailing ingredient.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be little or no doubt that the purple violet of Dioscorides is the Viola Odorata. On the violet, see a most interesting disquisition by Celsius (Hierobotanicon in voce Dudaim); also Sprengel (R. H. H.) Dioscorides calls it refrigerant, and recommends it as an external application in ardor of the stomach, inflammation of the eyes, and prolapsus ani; and mentions, that it had been taken internally in quinsy and epilepsy of children. (iv, 120.) Galen merely recommends it externally in the same cases as Dioscorides. The Arabian authorities extend the use of this article. Thus, Avicenna recommends it in heat of the stomach, both internally and externally; in a syrup for coughs, pleurisies, and other affections of the lungs; in pains of the kidneys as a diuretic, and as a cholagogue. (ii, 2, 715.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 3, 21), and Ebn Baithar (i, 170.) Serapion, on the authority of Aben Mesuai, says further of it that it is laxative in doses of from three to seven drachms. (De Simpl. 141.)

Ἰὸς,

Ærugo, Verdigris, has a bitter quality to the taste, being discutient, cathartic, and corrosive, not only of soft but also of hard flesh; but by mixing a little of it with much cerate, one may render the medicine detergent without pungency.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That it was the Ærugo Æris, or Verdigris, seems indisputable. The scraped verdigris (ἰὸς ζυστὸς) was the common kind, and the name is still retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (61.) Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen recommend verdigris in complaints of the eyes. Dioscorides describes very minutely the process for preparing verdigris, which is not very unlike that which is now practised in France. He also makes mention of another species, namely, the Ærugo Scolecia, with which we are now unacquainted. He gives an interesting account of the cases in which it is applicable. (v, 92.) Galen also writes of it with great precision. He says, when lightly applied it relieves fungated sores; and when diluted with cerates, it cleanses them. (De Simpl. ix.) The other Greek authorities give much the same account of it. The Arabians treat fully of the two kinds, which they call Ærugo rasilis and subtilis, but borrow almost all their information from Dioscorides and Galen. Like the Greek authorities, they apply it principally in intractable ulcers and in diseases of the eyelids. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 739), and Serapion (De Simpl. 383); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 44); Ebn Baithar (i, 540.)

Ἱππόκαμπος,

Hippocampus, is a sea animal, the ashes of which when burnt thicken the hair in alopecia, along with liquid pitch.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is, indisputably, our Syngnathus Hippocampus. Ælian relates that it has proved useful in cases of hydrophobia. (Hist. Anim. xiv, 20.) Our author borrows from Dioscorides (ii, 3.) The Arabians do not treat of it.

Ἱππολάπαθον,

Hippolapathum, Horse Burdock, grows in marshes, being like the Burdock.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This article, which would seem to be the Rumex Hydrolapathum, is treated of in the same brief terms by the other authorities. See Dioscorides (i, 141.)

Ἱππομάραθρον,

Hippomarathrum, Horse Fennel; that variety which resembles the Cachrys is more desiccant than the common Fennel. It is, therefore, astringent, lithontriptic, and emmenagogue; but that species which has seed like coriander seed, is also like it in other respects, but weaker.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There is little doubt that the former species is the Cachrys Sicula. The other is undetermined. Our author copies closely from Dioscorides (iii, 76); and the others follow his example. The modern herbalists, in like manner, borrow from Dioscorides. See Parkinson (884.)

Ἱπποπόταμος,

Hippopotamus, Sea-horse; its testicle, when dried and drunk, is a remedy for the bites of reptiles.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This brief notice of the Hippopotamus amphibius, or Water-horse, is taken from Dioscorides (ii, 25.) Most of the other authorities have omitted it.

Ἱπποσέλινον,

Hipposelinum, Horse Parsley, has properties resembling those of parsley, but weaker.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Smyrnium Olusatrum, according to Dierbach, Stackhouse, Sprengel, and all the best authorities. Dioscorides represents it to be emmenagogue and diuretic, and as proving beneficial in rigors. (iii, 71.) Galen and the others treat of it briefly like our author. The Arabians treat of it under Selinum (Apium.)

Ἱππουρὶς,

Hippouris, Horse-tail, has astringent qualities with bitterness, and on that account it is at the same time powerfully desiccant, without pungency. It is agglutinant, therefore, of the largest wounds, and is useful in intestinal hernia, and cures defluxions when drunk with wine.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The first species of Dioscorides corresponds to our author’s, and is marked as the Equisetum Fluviatile by Sprengel, which is called in English the Horse-tail. The other is the E. Limosum. Apuleius recommends it in dysentery and spitting of blood. Aëtius recommends it in the same complaints. But both, in fact, only borrow from Dioscorides and Galen, especially the latter, who treats of it more fully than Dioscorides. The Arabians give exactly the same account of the Equisetum; indeed they profess to borrow everything from Dioscorides and Galen. See in particular Serapion (137), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 200.)

Ἱπποφαὲς ἤ Ἱπποφαῖος,

Hippophaes, used for scouring clothes. It is a branchy shrub, the root of which contains juices which are extracted like those of Thapsia. One obolus of the juice mixed with the flour of tares, purges phlegm and bile; and the whole plant, when dried, becomes purgative.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without entering into the discussion regarding this plant, we shall merely observe that we are disposed to agree with those who refer it to a species of spurge, namely, Euphorbia spinosa. Dioscorides describes it as being cholagogue, hydragogue, and phlegmagogue. (iii, 159.) It does not appear that it is treated of by Galen, nor by the Arabian authorities.

Ἰρίς.

Iris, Fleur-de-lys, is calefacient, consists of very subtile particles, and is detergent and digestive. It therefore agrees with coughs, renders expectoration easy, cures tormina, and cleanses foul ulcers. When drunk with honeyed water it evacuates the bowels.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Probably it comprehends the Iris Germanica and I. Florentina. It is the first article treated of by Dioscorides, who gives a full account of it, and concludes by saying that the different species of it are useful for many purposes. He recommends them as an external application in cutaneous diseases and ulcers, and as being soporific and alexipharmic; when drunk with wine as proving emmenagogue, and also applied in pessaries, malagmata, and acopa. The others treat of its virtues less copiously, with the exception of Serapion and Avicenna. One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities, Aben Mesuai, says it purges yellow bile and black bile, and is deobstruent in obstructions of the liver. He also mentions it as a sternutatory and masticatory. (De Simpl. 189.) Avicenna’s characters of the Iris are in the main derived from Dioscorides, but altogether his description of it is very interesting. He recommends it very particularly in diseases of the rectum and uterus, both when administered internally and in a hip-bath. He also represents it as proving useful in gonorrhœa, and in the pollutio nocturni somni. He concludes by calling it a general alexipharmic (ii, 2, 349.) The root of the Florentine Iris or Flower de Luce, was used in the practice of medicine down to a late date. See Quincy and Boerhaave. It is still kept in the shops, and has the character of being a drastic hydragogue. Gray, Suppl. to Pharmacop. (251.) It retains a place in the Modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἰσάτις.

Isatis, Woad; the garden species which dyers use, is of a desiccative nature, having also some astringency. By means of these powers it agglutinates even the large wounds of hard bodies, is of use in hemorrhages, discusses œdematous swellings, and opposes the progress of all malignant diseases. The wild is more pungent, and on that account being more desiccant, it the more strongly resists all humid gangrene, but for all other purposes it is worse as being pungent. Owing to its strong powers, it is useful in affections of the spleen.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dr. Martyn says, “The Woad is called Isatis and Glastum, and affords a blue tincture.” (Ad Virg. Ec. iv, 43.) See also Miller, Parkinson, and Gerard. It is the Isatis Tinctoria. The second species of Dioscorides, or Sylvestris, is the Saponaria Vaccaria, L., but the passage is probably spurious. Our author’s account of the Isatis is abridged from Galen, who has an elaborate article under this head. Aëtius copies still more closely from Galen. Both these authorities direct bread or barleymeal to be mixed with its pounded leaves when they are otherwise too strong. Of the Arabians, Avicenna gives the most accurate account of it under the head of Nil seu Glastum sativum et sylvestre. In its external use he follows Dioscorides and Galen, and joins Rhases in recommending it internally as an emetic for the cough of children, ulcers of the lungs, and pleurisy arising from black bile. He further commends the wild species in affections of the spleen. (ii, 2, 505, 290, 299.) Serapion and Rhases give a confused account of the Isatis, under the head of Indicum. (De Simpl. 47); (Cont. l. ult. 370.) The Woad held a place in our Dispensatory down to a recent date. See Quincy (91.) Woad and indigo were long used together in dyeing, which probably is the reason of these two articles being confounded together by certain of the ancient authorities.

Ἰσόπυρον ἢ φυσίολον,

Isopyrum or Faseolus, (Bog Bean?); its seed is bitter and somewhat sour. It is, therefore, detergent, and exudes the thick and viscid humours at the same time that it contracts bodies, and is astringent. It therefore purges deep-seated humours, and is not against persons affected with vomiting of blood.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. From our author’s account of it, it would seem to be the same as the fasil, or kidney-bean; but Dioscorides clearly distinguishes between them. (iv, 119.) Dodonæus had referred it to the Menyanthes trifoliata, or bog-bean; but this opinion is rejected by Sprengel. He inclines to the Corydalis claviculata, Pers., but is not decided. We rather incline to the opinion of Dodonæus, on the ground that its medicinal character, as given by Galen and our author, applies very well to the Menyanthes trifoliata. It is not treated of by Aëtius, nor can we find it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians.

Ἰτέα,

Salix, the Willow; the leaves and flower are possessed of desiccant powers without pungency. It has also some astringency; but the bark is drier, and when burnt, the ashes of it are powerfully desiccant, for they remove clavi and myrmecia with vinegar.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Several species of the Salix are described by Theophrastus and other ancient authors. Milligan refers that of Celsus to S. alba, fragilis, and purpurea; but to define the species, which are so numerous in this genus, is futile. But that the Alba was one of the medicinal willows of the ancients, can admit of no doubt. See Parkinson (1430.) Dioscorides says the fruit and leaves, and bark and juice of the willow tree are possessed of an astringent power, and accordingly he recommends them both externally and internally in various complaints for which astringents are indicated, such as hæmoptysis, and as a fomentation in arthritic complaints. He also mentions the ley of it when prepared with vinegar for the removal of callus and corns. (i, 35.) Galen also gives a very elaborate statement of its medicinal virtues; he says it is desiccative without pungency, and has some astringency; and he recommends it strongly in the same cases as Dioscorides and our author; indeed, the latter merely abridges Galen. Aëtius copies from Galen almost word for word. The Arabians treat fully of it; but in the same terms as their Grecian masters. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 2, 250); Avicenna (ii, 2, 319, 677); Serapion (De Simpl. 136); Ebn Baithar (i, 122.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia both the Salix fragilis and alba stand for the ancient ἰτέα.

Ἰχθυοκόλλα,

Ichthyocolla, Fish-glue; its powers are emplastic and desiccant. It answers well for the composition of cephalic and agglutinative plasters, and of those which are prepared for leprosy; also for removing wrinkles from the face.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That described by Dioscorides and our author was got from the Acipenser Huso. The large fish described by Herodotus, and Eustathius, in his commentary on the work of Dionysius the geographer, under the name of Antacæus, was, most probably, nearly the same as the Huso. See the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (83.) Artedi makes the Huso, Ichthyocolla and Antacæus to be varieties of the species of Acipenser, which he calls Acipenser tuberculis carens. It would appear to be the ὀξυρύγχος of Ælian. (H. A. xvii, 32.) He makes mention of its gluten or isinglass. Our author’s account of its medicinal virtues is mostly copied from Dioscorides. The others supply no additional information. The Arabians treat of it under the general head of gluten, and recommend it in the same cases as the Greeks, quoting Dioscorides, Galen, and Paulus. Serapion and Rhases recommend it in hæmoptysis. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 202); Serapion (c. 138); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 336.)

Κάκανος,

Cacanus; its root is moderately desiccative and not pungent, also emplastic, and hence it relieves roughness of the windpipe in a linctus with wine, and when chewed like tragacanth and liquorice.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is not mentioned by Dioscorides, Pliny, Theophrastus, Aëtius, or any other ancient author but Galen and Paulus; nor has any one of the commentators noticed it. We are unable, therefore, to determine anything for certain respecting it. But as Dioscorides and Pliny ascribe nearly the same medicinal powers to the Cacalia as our author does to the Cacanus, it seems not improbable that they may have been identical. Our author evidently borrows from Galen.

Κάγκαμον,

Cancamum; it is the tear of an Arabian wood, resembling myrrh, fragrant, and hence used in perfumes. It has the power of extenuating fat bodies, and is detergent and deobstruent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides treats of it in the portion of his work devoted to aromatics, calling it the tear of an Arabian wood, having some resemblance to myrrh, which was used in fumigations with myrrh and storax. He calls it emmenagogue; mentions that it is given in asthmatic, epileptic, and splenetic cases; says it is useful as a cleanser in diseases of the eye; but that it is most particularly applicable for fungous gums and toothache. (i, 23.) Galen has omitted it from his Mat. Med. Of the Arabians, Avicenna is the authority who has treated of it most distinctly. He calls it a gum of a bad taste which is brought from the region of the west. (This account of the country which produces it may warrant suspicion that he had confounded it with some other gum, the production of Italy or Spain.) He says of it, that some had confounded it with sandaracha (gum vernix?). In giving its medicinal virtues, he copies closely from Dioscorides (ii, 2, 382.) It is doubtful, from this imperfect description of the Cancamum, what substance it applies to; probably either to Gum anime or to Gum elemi. There seems no good ground for referring it, as some have done, to Lacca; nor to some nondescript species of the Amyris Katef, as Sprengel does. (Ad Dioscor. l. c.)

Καδμία,

Cadmia, Calamine; both kinds of it are desiccant, but that which is called Botryitis, consists of the more subtile particles, and the Placitis, of the grosser. When calamine is burnt, it becomes desiccant and detergent, without pungency, and is also useful for sores requiring to be filled up, about the eyes and in the whole body, more particularly those on softer bodies, which are more humid, for those upon harder bodies require stronger means.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Under this head we cannot do better than in the first place copy the account of the ancient cadmia given by the learned and accurate Geoffroy. “The name Cadmia has been applied to several things. Dioscorides understood by καδμέια the recrements which arise from brass while melting in the furnace. Galen applied it to two substances, one which comes from brass (chalcos?), which is the same with the cadmia of Dioscorides; the other a native substance found in the island of Cyprus, which he terms λιθῶδης or stony. Pliny, besides the factitious cadmia of Dioscorides and Galen, mentions another by the name of Lapis ærosus, which he says was an ore out of which copper was made, and this perhaps is the same with the Cadmia lapidosa of Galen.” (ii, 2, 6.) The botryital or clustered cadmia was Tutty, or the Cadmia fornacis seu factitia. It is the Zinci Oxydum impurum. The Capnitis and Placitis were merely varieties of the same, the former being in the shape of a fine powder, collected at the mouths of the furnaces, and the latter consisting of coarser and heavier grains. The minerals from which all these preparations of cadmia were prepared, are the two varieties of calamine, now called by mineralogists “the siliceous oxide of zinc” and “the carbonate of zinc.” See Cleavland’s ‘Mineralogy’ (656, 657.) Dioscorides gives a very distinct description of the cadmia, which he recommends principally in the composition of ophthalmic remedies (v, 84.) Galen’s account of it is to the same effect, and is couched in his peculiar logical language. (De Simpl. ix.) The Arabians give a confused description of cadmia and the other mineral substances used by the Greeks in medical practice. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 163, 164); Serapion (418); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 150.) For an elaborate disquisition on the cadmia of the ancients, we beg to refer to Beckmann’s ‘History of Inventions.’

Κακκαλία,

Caccalia; its powers and use are like the Cacanus.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. See under Cacanus.

Καλαμαγρώστις,

Calamagrostis, is desiccative; wherefore, its juice and the decoction of the roots of it are mixed up as ingredients with ophthalmic remedies; but its seed is diuretic and stomachic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is decidedly the Calamagrostis Epigeios Roth. or Small Reed. Dioscorides says it proves destructive to cattle when eaten by them, especially the variety which grows in Babylon by the wayside. Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 1181) figures and describes a species of reed-grass, bearing a considerable resemblance to our Epigeios, but of more luxuriant growth; which, he says, Lobel calls Calamagrostis forte Babylonica. Neither Galen nor Aëtius treat of it. The Arabians briefly notice it under the head of Theil or Gramen, but merely copy from the Greeks. See Serapion (De Simpl. 119), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 704.)

Καλαμίνθη,

Calamintha, Calamint, is of a hot and drying temperament in the third degree, consists of subtile particles, is acrid, and much stronger than mint; for it is a sort of wild mint. It, therefore, attracts readily the deep-seated fluids to itself, and hence evacuates dropsies, and discusses swelling of the whole body, and stops periodical rigors, when strongly rubbed in externally with oil, and when taken internally in a draught. When applied in a clyster it removes pains of the hip-joint, and clears away impurities from the skin.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Apuleius says, “Græci calaminthen Latini mentham vocant, alii nepetam,” (De Herbis.) R. Stephens says, “Calaminthæ Dioscoridi tria sunt genera, quorum primum nihil aliud quam vulgare Calamenthum; secundum Latine Nepeta appellatur; tertium est nostra herba Cataria, l’herbe du chat.” Sprengel makes the first species of Dioscorides to be the Melissa Cretica, L.; the second, the Thymus Nepeta, Scop.; and the third, the Melissa altissima. Our author’s calamint is evidently the first species. Galen, Dioscorides, Aëtius, and Serapion, like Paulus, describe it as a hot and acrid medicine, which proves useful in diseases of the joints. They all, also, say that it is emmenagogue; and recommend it as a discutient and expectorant medicine. Dioscorides and Aëtius recommend it in elephantiasis, for attenuating and cutting the gross humours which give rise to the disease. All agree in praising calamint in the cure of intermittent fevers. Dioscorides recommends it as a vermifuge when given with salts and honey. Dioscorides, and, after him, Aëtius and other of the authorities, say that calamint-water, when injected into the ear, kills worms in it. Galen and Dioscorides both affirm that when taken internally and applied on a pessary, it procures abortion. All agree that it is also beneficial in asthmatic complaints. Avicenna gives a lengthy and very elaborate account of the three species of calamint; but it can hardly be said that he adds anything of importance to the information which he drew from his Grecian masters. He agrees with them that it is diuretic and emmenagogue, and holds that it is anaphrodisiacal, and removes the pollutio nocturni somni. He also, like them, commends it as a deobstruent in jaundice and other obstructions of the viscera. He praises it as a stomachic. (ii, 2, 154.) None of the other Arabian authorities treat so fully of this article as Avicenna. Rhases, however, is worth consulting. (Contin. l. ult. i, 466.) The calamint, that is to say, the first species of Dioscorides, would appear to be the “mentastrum” of Celsus, who recommends it as a remedy in the bites of venomous animals. (v, 277.) It also occurs in the ‘Flora Hippocratica.’ See Dierbach. The three kinds of calaminth were long retained in the Materia Medica of the moderns. See Tournefort’s Materia Medica (i, 6, 4.) More recently only one kind was used. See Quincy. Of late all the kinds have been nearly discarded from our Dispensatories, but are still to be found in the shops of apothecaries. See Gray’s Supplement to the Pharmacopœia (p. 47.)

Κάλαμος ἀρωματικὸς,

Calamus Aromaticus, Sweet-cane, is heating and desiccant in the second order. It also consists of subtile particles, and has some astringency. It is, therefore, diuretic, and is mixed up with stomachic remedies, and those prepared for the liver and womb. The species called phragmitis is detergent, but the leaves of it are green and moderately cooling, and the bark of it, when burnt, is heating and desiccant in the third degree. The root of it, when applied with bulbi, is said to extract darts and thorns.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Having shown above that the acorus of the ancients is the Acorus Pseudacorus, we need have little hesitation in stating that we agree with the older authorities, who refer the present article to the Acorus Calamus. Dr. Royle, however, holds that it was the Andropogon Calamus aromaticus. See Hindoo Med. (34) and Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 133.) The φραγμίτης of Dioscorides and our author is decidedly the Arundo Phragmites, or Common Reed. Our author follows the description of them given by Dioscorides and Galen, and more especially the latter. Galen says of the aromaticus that it is more desiccative than calefacient, and that it has some volatility, like all the aromatics. Aëtius, in like manner, copies mostly from Galen. The Arabians, in treating of these reeds, borrow closely from Dioscorides. Thus Avicenna, among other virtues which he holds that they possess, commends them as being diuretic, emmenagogue, and alexipharmic. (ii, 2, 64.) The calami do not occur as articles of medicine in the Hippocratic collection. The Calamus Alexandrinus of Celsus (v, 24), was no doubt the C. aromaticus. Although a native of India, as Dioscorides states, it is likely that the Romans would get it through Alexandria. It occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, and is now found growing in Laconia.

Κάμπαι,

Erucæ, Caterpillar; those upon potherbs, when rubbed in with oil, are said to preserve from the bites of venomous animals.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The metamorphosis of Caterpillar is accurately described by Theophrastus (C. Pl. v.) See also Aristotle (H. A. v, 20), and Pliny (H. N. xi, 32.) Our author’s account of these erucæ is taken word for word from Dioscorides (ii, 64.) Few of the other authorities treat of them.

Κανθαρίδες,

Cantharides; those found among wheat, have pale, transverse zones, and being suffocated by the steam of hot vinegar, are used for many purposes. For, with cerate, they cast off scabious nails, and relieve clavi and scabious affections. They are also corrosive and caustic. Some mix a small quantity of them with diuretic remedies, and give them in this form.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and Galen direct the species which is found among corn to be used medicinally. As the Meloe vesicatorius is commonly found upon trees, such as the fraxinus, sambuchus, and ligustrum, it is evidently different from the ancient cantharis, and yet their effects upon the human frame would appear to have been very much alike. It appears to be now agreed upon by all competent judges that the medicinal cantharis of the ancients is the Mylabris Cichorii or M. Füsselini, which is still used for forming blistering plasters by the profession in Constantinople and by the native practitioners in Hindostan. See Ainslie (Mat. Ind., i, 622), Royle (Antiq. of Hindoo Med.), and Pereira (1834.) The Buprestis, however, which also is included by Dioscorides in his Materia Medica, can have been no other than the Meloe vesicatorius. See Book V of this work. It is the tellini fly of the Hindoos. See Ainslie (Mat. Ind. ii, 417.) The ancients prepared the cantharides for medicinal use in the same manner as the Spanish fly is now prepared, namely, by killing them with the fumes of vinegar. Dioscorides says cantharides are septic, ulcerative, and calefacient, and hence are mixed up with the medicines that cure cancerous diseases, leprosy, and lichen agrius; they are also emmenagogue when applied in a pessary; and some, he adds, relate that cantharides are beneficial in dropsies, by acting as diuretics. Their wings and feet are further said to be antidotal, that is to say, we suppose, to counteract the operation of the body of the insect. (ii, 65, 66.) Galen treats of the cantharis and buprestis in very nearly the same terms as Dioscorides. Instead of using only the wings and feet, as mentioned by Dioscorides, he says that he used the whole insect. (De Simpl. xi.) In moderate doses he held it to be a safe diuretic. (ii, 463, ed. Basil.) Aëtius and Oribasius give nearly the same account of the cantharis as Galen. Cantharides are frequently mentioned in the Hippocratic treatises (De Nat. Mulier. 565, ed. Föes; De Intern. Affect. 552), and in the works of Celsus. (199, ed. Milligan.) Aretæus is the first author, as far as we know, who notices the external use of cantharides as a rubefacient. (De Curat. Morb. Chron. i, 4.) The Arabians, in treating of cantharides, borrow nearly all the information they give from Dioscorides and Galen. See Serapion (c. 441), Avicenna (ii, 2, 201), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 162.) Rhases on his own authority, affirms, that administered in small doses cantharides cleanse the kidneys. We are rather surprised to find that the Mylabris does not occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κάνναβις,

Cannabis, Hemp; the fruit is carminative and desiccative, so as to dry up even the semen. The juice of it when green is useful for pains of the ears and obstructions of them.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears evidently to be the Cannabis sativa, or Hemp. The species sylvestris of Dioscorides, is the Althæa Cannabina. See Sprengel (ad Dioscorid. iii, 155), and Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 307.) Dioscorides recommends the latter in the form of a cataplasm to soothe inflammations and discuss tumours. Our author copies from Galen, who, like him, only describes the sativa. The Arabians describe both species with more accuracy than the Greeks. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 170, 656), Serapion (207.) Avicenna calls them carminative and desiccative; and hence he holds that they dry up the semen. He says a middling dose proves laxative of the bowels.

Κάνωπον,

Canopum, the Flower of the Elder-tree, which has been already treated of.

Κάπνιον,

Fumaria, Fumitory (called also Capnos), and is so named because the juice of it provokes a great discharge of tears; and it sharpens the vision. It is also acrid and bitter; hence it occasions a discharge of much bilious urine, and cures obstructions and atony of the liver. It also strengthens the stomach and softens the belly.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the commentators seem agreed that it is the Fumaria officinalis, except Sibthorp, who prefers the F. parviflora, Lam. Our author’s account of it is mostly taken from Dioscorides and Galen. The others give nearly the same description of its medicinal virtues. See particularly Serapion (c. 71), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 275.) They represent it as being a stomachic and hepatic medicine, gently purgative and diuretic. Fumitory is described as a medicinal herb by all our old herbalists, and held a place in the Dispensatory down to a late date. See Quincy (125.) The F. officinalis is still retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κάππαρις,

Caparis, Caper-tree; its root deterges, purges, incides, and discusses by its bitterness and acrimony. It also contracts, astringes, and condenses by its sourness. It therefore cures indurated spleens when drunk and when applied externally. It is also emmenagogue, and occasions a discharge of phlegm. It cures ill-conditioned ulcers, and relieves pains of the teeth, dispels tumours and alphos, and kills vermin in the ear. The leaves and fruit of it are possessed of similar powers, but weaker.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Capparis spinosa, namely, the plant which produces our officinal capers. Dioscorides and Serapion mention that pickled capers act as a gentle laxative, but say that they are bad for the stomach. The Arabians held that they are good whetters of the appetite. Casiri (Bibl. A. H. i, 337.) Galen gives a very elaborate article on the virtues of capers, which, he says, are the best medicine which we possess in scirrhous enlargement of the spleen. He says it clears away the humours by the belly and by urine, and also acts as an emmenagogue. Their taste, he says, is a combination of bitterness, acrimony, and sourness. He concludes by stating that capers produced in very warm climates, such as Arabia, are much more acrid than in his country. (De Simpl. vii.) The Arabians held that capers are aphrodisiacal and alexipharmic. See Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 164), Avicenna (ii, 2, 138), and Serapion (c. 291.)

Κάρδαμος,

Nasturtium, Cress; the seed of it is caustic like mustard. When applied externally, therefore, it proves rubefacient, incides also the thick humours when drunk with other things. And the dried herb is possessed of similar powers, but the juicy one is more moderate; it therefore is eaten raw.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It was indisputably a species of cress, probably the Lepidium sativum. We have treated of it as an article of food in Book I. Our author’s account of it is mostly derived from Galen. Symeon Seth, with most of the authorities, calls it aphrodisiacal. Macer says, on the contrary, that its powers are equal to those of rue for repressing venereal desires. Dioscorides calls it alexipharmic, and says of it, that in fumigations it drives away venomous reptiles. It occurs in the Flora Hippocratica. See Dierbach. The Arabians treat of it very elaborately. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 472), Avicenna (ii, 2, 502), and Serapion (c. 359.) They agree that it evacuates bile both upwards and downwards, that it is aphrodisiac and alexipharmic. The cress (Nasturtium), until very lately, was admitted into our Dispensatory. See Gerard, Parkinson, Culpeper, and Quincy.

Καρδάμωμον,

Cardamomum, Cardamum, is also acrid, but weaker than the Cardamus. It has also some bitterness, by which it destroys intestinal worms, and with vinegar clears away scabies.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The officinal cardamom of the present time has now got the scientific name of Elettaria Cardamomum, and as far as we can see there is no reason to doubt its being identical with the cardamomum of the ancients. There are, however, several varieties of the cardamom which are not satisfactorily defined, any more than the four species mentioned by Pliny. (H. N. xii, 29.) See Ainslie (Mat. Ind. 32), and Pereira (Mat. Med. 694.) Dioscorides recommends it for various purposes, both externally and internally; for epilepsy, coughs, ischiatic disease, nephritis, and as an alexipharmic and lithontriptic medicine. (i, 5.) Galen is more guarded in enumerating its virtues, and all the other Greek authorities follow him. The Arabians rather imitate Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 156), and Serapion (c. 64.) One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities, Isaac eben Amram, describes two species, the greater and the lesser, a distinction still recognized. We need scarcely add that it is well known at the present day, and is used for various purposes both in this country and in the East.

Καρὶς,

Squilla, a Legless Lobster, when triturated and drunk with the root of bryony it kills lumbrici.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The squilla belongs to the order of μαλακόστρακα. (See Book I, 91.) The present article we suppose is the Cancer Squilla, L. It is treated of very cursorily by the other authorities.

Καρκίνος,

Cancer, Crab; of the ashes of burnt crabs, that of river-crabs is equally desiccative with those of the sea urchins and cockles. By the peculiarity of its whole substance it proves wonderfully efficacious when applied to persons bitten by mad dogs, as mentioned in another place. The ashes of the sea-crabs being extremely desiccative, do not indeed agree with them, but rather relieve those who stand in need of desiccative remedies. The river-crab when pulverised and applied, ejects thorns and the points of darts.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Cancer Pagurus, a large edible crab, would appear to be the sea animal treated of under this head. The river-crab, we suppose, is the Astacus fluviatilis, or crawfish. Dioscorides recommends the ashes of the river-crab most especially in hydrophobia, and as an application to fissures in the feet and anus, chilblains, and cancers, and also as an antidote to the bites of venomous animals. Galen also gives an interesting account of the use of them in hydrophobia, and Serapion repeats Galen’s account of them. See further, Book V, 3, of this work. Galen speaks with great confidence of their efficacy in this case, indeed he affirms that he had never known them fail when they had got a fair trial. The other authorities supply no additional information of interest under this head. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 147), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. iii, 42.) These two agree that the flesh of the river-crab with the milk of asses is beneficial in phthisis.

Κάρον,

Carum, Caraway; the seed is desiccant and heating in the third degree; and not only the seed, but also the whole plant is carminative and diuretic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it is the Carum Carui. It is evidently the careum of Pliny, and derives its name from Caria. (H. N. xxix, 49.) Our author copies closely from Galen. Dioscorides calls it diuretic, stomachic, pleasant to the taste, digestive, &c. The Arabians further give it the character of being a cordial and anthelminthic medicine. (See Serapion (c. 279), Avicenna (ii, 2, 137), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 178.)

Καρπήσιον,

Carpesium, is aromatic, and consists of subtile particles. It therefore clears away visceral obstructions, proves diuretic, and removes calculi of the kidneys.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Arabians identified this substance with their own Cubebæ. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 242), Avicenna (ii, 2, 134), and Serapion (c. 188.) But we will show in another place that this was a mistake on their part. Nothing satisfactory has been ascertained regarding it, and we have no pleasure in dwelling upon the conjectures of the commentators on Dioscorides and of the herbalists.

Καρύον,

Nux Juglans, Walnut; the tree has some astringency in the shoots, but more in the bark of the nuts. The juice of them, therefore, when boiled with honey, becomes a stomachic medicine. The rind of it, when burnt, consists of subtile particles, and becomes desiccant without pungency; but the edible part of it being oily, is readily converted into bile. The oil formed from them consists of subtile particles, and discusses swellings and gangrenes. Walnuts which are rancid from age prove detergent of cutaneous affections. But the Pontic, called the slender nut, is colder and austere, but in other respects is like the large.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of this article in the portion of our work devoted to dietetics. See Book I. We shall merely repeat that the two species of nuts described by Paulus and other ancient authorities are evidently the Nux Juglans, or walnut, and the Nux Avellana, or filbert. This is very evident from Galen’s description of them. (Opera. ed. Basil, ii, 88.) Our author copies closely from him. Dioscorides treats of the nuces still more circumstantially, recommending them both internally and externally as being vermifuge, and curing ill-conditioned ulcers, and many other diseases. The filbert, when triturated with axunge or bear’s grease, he recommends for the cure of baldness. (i, 178, 179.) The Arabians, under this head, do little more than condense the information supplied to them by their Grecian masters. See in particular Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 505), Avicenna (ii, 2, 42, 494), and Serapion (c. 162.) Serapion states that the nux avellana is useful in catarrhs, and as an application in cases of alopecia. Here, however, he professes to borrow from Dioscorides. Avicenna and Rhases recommend the oil of the hazel-nut in herpes esthiomenos, erysipelas, and fistula lachrymalis. They speak favorably of both as a remedy for the bites of venomous animals. They also are agreed that the walnut is expectorant.

Καρυόφυλλον,

Caryophyllum, Cloves; they are not the substance which their name might imply, but, as it were, the flowers of a tree which are brought from India; like chaff, black, nearly a finger’s length, aromatic, acrid, bitterish, hot, and desiccative in about the third degree. They serve many useful purposes for condiments and other medicines.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. From our author’s description there cannot be the least hesitation on our part in acknowledging it to be the Caryophyllus aromaticus, L. (i. q.), Eugenia Caryophyllata, Thunberg, that is to say, the Clove-tree. We are equally well convinced that no mention of this article is to be found in the works of Dioscorides, Pliny, Theophrastus, Galen, Aëtius, Oribasius, nor, in short, in those of any preceding author. Whence Paulus drew his knowledge of it cannot now be ascertained. The Arabians display a very correct acquaintance with it. Avicenna, in treating of it, refers to no other Greek authority but Paulus. After describing it in much the same terms as our author, he states it to be hot and dry in the third degree, says it renders the breath fragrant, improves the sight, and is useful in pterygium; is stomachic and hepatic, and removes vomiting and nausea. (ii, 2, 311.) Serapion, in treating of the Gariofilus, first quotes from a translation of Galen the description of the Garyophyllon given by Paulus, which he affirms is taken line for line from Galen. This is evidently a mistake, founded on some erroneous translation of Galen into Arabic. He then gives its characters from several Arabian authorities to the effect that it is stomachic, hepatic, cordial, aphrodisiacal, and digestive; and says that it is brought from India. (c. 319.) Rhases says cloves are hot and dry, and are both stomachic and cordial. (Ad Mansor. iii, 22.) We have not been able to find the passage in the ‘Continens’ where they are treated of, there being some mistake in the marginal reference of Avicenna. Symeon Seth says of the caryophyllon that it is hot and dry in the second, or, perhaps, in the third degree; is the fruit of a tree, and is stomachic, hepatic, and cordial; removes nausea connected with humidity, but is bad for the bowels. (c. 15.) The caryophyllon also occurs in one of the antidotes of Myrepsus. (c. 22.) Ebn Baithar, however, is the ancient authority who gives the fullest account of cloves, which he represents as being useful in diabetes and strangury, in black bile, diarrhœa, and chronic coughs. He says in particular that they are uterine and aphrodisiac, and hence warm the uterus and promote impregnation. He also holds that they are stomachic, carminative, and hepatic. (ii, 281.)

Κάσσαμον,

Cassamum; some say that it is the fruit of the balsam-tree, of which we have treated under that word.

Κασσία,

Cassia, is heating and desiccative in the third order, consists of sufficiently subtile particles, is acrid, and moderately astringent. It is therefore incisive and discutient, imparts strength to the organs, and is also emmenagogue.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Salmasius contends that the ancient Cassia was the same as our cinnamon. See Needham (ad Geopon. vii, 13), and Celsus (Hierobot. in voce Kiddah.) Stackhouse affirms, however, that the ancients were unacquainted with the Laurus Cinnamomum. He refers it to the Laurus gracilis. (Comment. in Theophrast.) Sprengel, in his R. H. H., makes it to be the Laurus Cassia, which has now got the scientific name Cinnamomum Cassia. The close connexion between the cinnamon and cassia has occasioned difficulty in distinguishing them from one another, down even to the present times. They are often sold for one another in the Indian bazaars. The Cassia lignea of the ancients would appear to have been the same thing as the Cassia bark of the moderns. According to Ainslie, the odour of it is very like cinnamon, but fainter. (Mat. Ind. 35.) The Cassia Fistula was merely the bark rolled up into fistulæ, or pipes. The Greeks, as we shall show in another place, were unacquainted with the true Cassia Fistula. Dioscorides describes several varieties of it which cannot now be readily recognized. He calls it heating, diuretic, desiccant, and mildly astringent, and recommends it as an emmenagogue, and for various other medicinal purposes. He concludes by saying it may be used in place of cinnamon, and that it is useful for many purposes. (i, 12.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it briefly, in nearly the same terms as Paulus. All the Arabians treat of it fully. See in particular Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 183), Serapion (c. 301), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 151.) Avicenna describes circumstantially several kinds of cassia, which he says is closely allied to cinnamon in nature and in virtues. He recommends it in diseases of the eyes and uterus, and joins Serapion in holding it to be alexipharmic. The only Arabian authority quoted by Rhases under this head (namely, Misib) calls it stomachic, hepatic, and attenuant. The same authority is quoted by Serapion. Another of Serapion’s authorities says it has strong powers for procuring abortion. The cassia occurs in the works of Hippocrates, and in those of Celsus. The latter ranks it in his list of discutients. (v, 11.) Galen states that, in the absence of cinnamon, a double dose of cassia or of carpesium may be used in place of it. (ii, 434, ed. Basil.) It is described by Theophrastus (H. P. ix, 5), and Pliny (xi, 43).

Καστόριον,

Castorium, Castor, is heating and desiccative, with excessive tenuity of parts, by which, in addition to its other actions, it is rendered a suitable remedy for affections of the nerves proceeding from a collection of humours. It also readily warms parts which are immoderately cooled, both when applied externally and when drunk, without at all injuring any other part, even if they should be in a state of moderate fever, as in cataphora and lethargy. It is likewise emmenagogue, and expels the secundines. In affections of the brain and lungs it is a very efficacious remedy, even when inhaled in respiration.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the ancient authorities describe the Castor as being the testicles of the beaver (Castor Fiber, L.) Matthiolus, we believe, was the first to rectify this error. It is a substance contained in follicles situated between the anus and genital organs. The use of castor in hysteria is mentioned by Herodotus. (iv.) Dioscorides, Galen, Rhases, and Serapion, like our author, recommend it as an emmenagogue; Celsus prescribes castor with pepper in cases of tetanus. (iv. 3.) He also recommends it in lethargy and deafness. (vi.) Pliny also mentions its being used in tetanus and other cases where soporifics are indicated. (H. N. xxxii, 3, 8.) Of all the ancient authorities Avicenna treats of it most fully, recommending it particularly in nervous affections, stupor, and paralysis, also in hiccough when drunk with vinegar, and as a carminative in flatulence of the bowels. The best counter-agents to it are acid citrons, vinegar with wine and asses’ milk. He says of it, that it is alexipharmic, and proves beneficial in the suffocation induced by hellebore. (ii, 2, 122.) Serapion copies literally from Dioscorides and Galen (c. 445.) Rhases recommends it as a calefacient medicine for warming the nerves, promoting menstruation, and dissolving swellings. (Ad Mansor. iii, 30.) The account which he gives of it in his ‘Continens’ is made up of extracts from Dioscorides, Galen, and our author. (l. ult. 188.) Ebn Baithar gives a very lengthy and not uninteresting account of this substance. (i, 263.)

Καυκαλὶς,

Caucalis, Wild Carrot; it is heating, like the carrot, desiccant, diuretic, and is pickled as a preserve.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sibthorp supposed it to be the Tordylium officinale; but perhaps we may venture to refer it rather to the Caucalis maritima, Lam. R. Stephens calls it Persil batard, i. e. Bastard parsley. It is more properly an article of food than a medicine. Our author borrows his account of it from Dioscorides and Galen, and none of the other authorities supply any additional information of interest respecting it. In modern times its application in medicine has been extended. See Matthiolus (in Dioscorid.) and Parkinson (922.)

Κέγχρος,

Milium, Millet, is cooling in the first degree, and desiccant in the second. It also, to a certain degree, consists of subtile particles. When used then for a fomentation in small bags, and in the form of a cataplasm, it is of a desiccant nature.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dierbach inclines to the Holcus Sorghum, a species of millet called Sorgo or Guinea corn. Most of the other authorities refer it to the Panicum Italicum. (See Sprengel, Schneider, and Parkinson.) We have treated of it among the articles of food in Book I. As a medicine, it is principally in the form of a fomentation that it is prescribed by Dioscorides and the other authorities. Galen does not speak very favorably of the cataplasm prepared from it. The Arabians treat of it in much the same terms as the Greeks. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 532), Avicenna (ii, 2, 288), and Serapion (c. 102.) They all speak of it as being a very inferior article of food; and as a medicine, recommend it only in a fomentation. It was retained in our English Dispensatory down to a late date. See Quincy. To this day it is much prized by the native practitioners of Hindostan. See Ainslie (Mat. Ind. 124.)

Κέδρος,

Cedrus, Cedar (?), or Juniper; the shrub, which resembles juniper, and the tree are calefacient and desiccative in the third degree; but the oil prepared from them, which they call cedræa, touches upon the fourth, being composed of sufficiently subtile particles. It therefore corrodes soft flesh readily, and without pain; and the hard flesh, more particularly of dead bodies, it dries and preserves from putrefaction. It kills lice, nits, ascarides, worms in the ears, and has many other powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species, the larger being probably the Juniperus Phœnicea, and the smaller the Juniperus communis. The ἄρκευθος was a species of the same genus. Pliny calls the pitch of the tree by the name of Cedria, and the oil by that of Pisselæon. Is the cedria the gum vernix, called sandarax by the Arabians? We will discuss this question in the Appendix to this Book, when we come to treat of the substances introduced into the Materia Medica by the Arabians. Dioscorides says of the fruit of the cedar or juniper, that it is calefacient and bad for the stomach, that it is useful in coughs, as an emmenagogue, and alexipharmic. (i, 105.) Galen says the fruit is edible, but apt to occasion headache and pain of the stomach. (De Simpl. vii.) The Arabians treat fully of it. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 160, 668.) He and the other Arabians borrow nearly all their information from the Greeks. Even Ebn Baithar contains little that is original under this head. (ii, 94.) We observe, by the way, that his translator, Dr. Sontheimer, marks it as the Pinus Cedrus, but this it clearly cannot be.

Κεντάυριον,

Centaurium, Centaury; the root of the great centaury is acrid and heating, with a terrene astringency. It therefore promotes menstruation, kills and expels the fœtus, agglutinates wounds, relieves hæmoptysis, and other affections of the chest. The root of the small centaury is possessed of no powers, but the branches are strongly desiccative, and without pungency. Hence they are applicable in those cases in which the great centaury was mentioned as being useful; and in ischiatic complaints the decoction of it given in an injection evacuates bile and sometimes blood, which affords great relief.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Centaurea Centaurium, L., and the Erythræa Centaurium, Pers., would appear to be the greater and less centaury of the ancients. See Parkinson, Sprengel, and the other commentators on Dioscorides. Pliny describes three sorts, but would seem to have fallen into a mistake as to the meaning of a passage in Theophrastus. See Harduin ad Plinii H. N. xxv, 32, and Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 273.) Dioscorides recommends the greater centaury in the same cases as our author, who abridges him and Galen under this head. He says very particularly of it, that it produces menstruation, and expels the fœtus when applied in the form of a collyrium (tent) to the vagina. (iii, 6.) The Arabians give it the same characters as their Grecian masters. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 158), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 176), and Serapion (c. 202.) Serapion and Mesue likewise recommend the lesser centaury in sciatica, either in a potion to the amount of two drachms, or in a clyster to the amount of three ounces, with oil of sesame. Galen has a whole book on the virtues of the lesser centaury, in which there is a prescription for an extract of it. The ancients had great faith in it for the cure of hydrophobia. According to Galen, (who it may well be supposed had devoted great attention to the study of its virtues), it is possessed of bitterness with some astringency, and is most especially excellent as a deobstruent in obstructions of the liver and scirrhus of the spleen. He mentions that some gave it in a potion for nervous affections, and that in a clyster it relieves sciatica by occasioning evacuations of bile. He also recommends it strongly in the form of a fomentation to ill-conditioned and obstinate ulcers. The lesser centaury (Erythræa Centaurium, Persoon) still continues to hold a place in our Dispensatory, but, as Dr. Pereira remarks, “is rarely used by medical practitioners; yet it might be used as an indigenous substitute for gentian.” (Materia Medica, 809.) In the days of Quincy it retained all its ancient characters. (Engl. Dispens. 103.) Galen’s tract on it must have been in great repute anciently, since Serapion has given a translation of the whole of it. It is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κέρας ἀιγὸς,

Cornu Capri, Goatshorn, and Κ. ἐλάφου, Cornu Cervi, Hartshorn, cleanse the teeth when burnt, and restrain the progress of foul ulcers. The hart’s horn, when pulverised and then applied, fastens loose teeth; when washed after burning, it relieves dysentery, cæliac affection, spitting of blood, and jaundice, when given to the amount of two spoonfuls. It is also mixed up with ophthalmic remedies. The horn of a bull, when taken in water, restrains hemorrhages.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, Galen, and Serapion speak of the medicinal properties of horn in nearly the same terms as our author. We need scarcely say that the stag’s or hart’s horn has been much used in modern times for the preparation of ammonia, which is hence called the spirit of hartshorn. Dioscorides recommends hartshorn when burnt until it become white, and cleaned like calamine, in affections of the eyes. It will now be readily understood, that when so treated it is reduced to a phosphate of lime. Avicenna further prescribes it for removing the swelling of dropsy; and, like Dioscorides, he recommends it in jaundice. (ii, 2, 178.) We would remark, in conclusion, that it was the red deer which furnished the medicinal hartshorn of the ancients, but that the moderns have commonly used the horns of the fallow-deer instead. See Hill’s Materia Medica (835.)

Κεράσια,

Cerasia, Cherries; the sweet are more laxative, the austere more stomachic, but the acid agree best with pituitous and foul stomachs, owing to their being incisive. The gum of the tree smoothes asperities of the trachea, and relieves calculous affections when drunk with wine.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This unquestionably is the Prunus Cerasus, L. We have given some account of cherries in the portion of our work devoted to ancient dietetics. Galen, in his work on Simples, treats of them with great precision; he remarks that in some the austere quality, in some the sweet, and in others the acid prevails, and that when unripe the sour is predominant. In fact, our author’s account of them is manifestly abridged from Galen. Aëtius and the other authorities, in like manner, copy from Galen. See also Serapion (c. 145.)

Κερατωνία,

Ceratonia, Carob-tree, and the fruit of it (siliquæ) are possessed of desiccant and astringent powers, with a certain share of sweetness.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is unquestionably the Ceratonia Siliqua, L., or Carob-tree. We have given some account of it among the articles of food in Book I. All the other authorities on the Materia Medica give it nearly the same characters as our author. The writer who is fullest on this head is Avicenna, who treats of it under the name of Carob, i. e. Siliqua. (ii, 2, 193.) See also Serapion (c. 135), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 366.) Our modern herbalists treat of it in nearly the same terms as the ancients. See Parkinson (236.) It is still used on the Continent and in Asia as an inferior article of food, and holds a place in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κεφαλαὶ,

Capita, Heads; those of pickled herrings, when burnt, acquire a desiccative power without being very acrid. They therefore relieve fissures about the anus, and chronic cases of indurated uvula. The entire head of the anchovy (smaris), when burnt, is useful in alopecia when applied with bear’s grease. The burnt head of a mouse when applied with honey does the same thing. The dried head of the kite without its feathers, when drunk in water to as great an amount as can be lifted with three fingers, relieves gouty affections. They say that the head of a lizard extracts sharp-pointed things, and removes myrmecia, acrochordon, and clavus.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the medicinal properties of Heads is taken from Galen. See also Aëtius and Serapion. Dioscorides treats of the different articles separately, and not under a general head like Galen and his successors. (See ii, 31, 32, &c.) The Arabians merely copy from Dioscorides and Galen, especially the latter. See in particular Serapion (c. 571.)

Κηκὶς,

Galla, Gall; that sort called Omphacitis is a very sour medicine, and hence it proves desiccant, repels defluxions, contracts and astringes relaxed and debilitated parts. It agrees also with all cases of defluxion. It is to be placed in the third rank of desiccants, and the second of refrigerants. The other sort, which is yellow, porous, and large, is desiccant indeed, but less so than the other, inasmuch as it is deficient in astringency. In a decoction it relieves inflammations of the fundament and prolapsus ani when burnt. Extinguished in vinegar they become styptic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species of galls, of which the better kind, called omphacitis, consisted of small, hard, and solid pieces without perforations, and is not to be confounded with the ὄμφακις, or cupula of the acorn, mentioned by Paulus. (iii, 62.) See also Theophrastus (Hist. Plant. iii, 9), Pliny (H. N. xvi, 9), and Serapion (De Simpl. c. 237.) Galls were much used by the ancient physicians in all cases requiring powerful astringents. According to Dr. Hill, the Gallæ omphacitæ of the ancients were the same as the Aleppo galls now in use, and the other kind, sometimes called Onocicæ, the same as the European. Dioscorides describes the gall as the fruit of the oak, an error which is to be found, as Dr. Pereira remarks, in the works of comparatively recent writers. We need scarcely say that the excrescence is now well ascertained to be the production of a hymenopterous insect on the Quercus infectoria. Dioscorides treats largely of the cases in which galls are applicable, concluding with the remark that their use is indicated whenever it is wished to astringe, restrain, or dry. (ii, 146.) Our author’s description of their medicinal properties is mostly taken from Galen. Nearly the same may be said of Aëtius and Oribasius. The Arabians, in treating of them, borrow all the information which they give from the Greeks. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 308), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 234), Serapion (c. 98.)

Κηπέα,

Cepea, resembles the Purslain. The leaves of it in an infusion relieve scabious bladder when drunk; and the root of it, when taken in a draught with rock asparagus, relieves strangury from obstruction.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Little is known for certain of this herb; but the most probable conjecture that has been made regarding it is, that it is the Sedum Cepæa, L. Our author’s account of it is taken literally from Dioscorides. Galen does not treat of it, nor have we been able to trace it out in the Materia Medica of the Arabians. Our old herbalists treat of it very hesitatingly under the head of brooklime. See Gerard and Parkinson.

Κηρὸς,

Cera, Wax, being of a moderate temperament, forms the basis of many other medicines. By itself it is slightly detergent, and has some discutient and calefacient powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This article is so well known that it requires no illustration. Dioscorides describes very circumstantially the process for bleaching wax and making it white. It was done with salt water and natron in a manner quite different from the process now pursued for this purpose. (ii, 105.) The Arabians treat fully of it, but without making any addition of much importance. See in particular Serapion (c. 10) and Avicenna (ii, 2, 462.) Avicenna says that wax, when applied to the wound inflicted by a poisoned arrow, prevents it from being followed by any bad effects. He recommends it as an expectorant in diseases of the chest, both in a liniment and in a potion. One of Serapion’s authorities, Abugerig, in like manner, recommends it in diseases of the chest.

Κήρυκες,

Buccinæ (a species of shell-fish); their shell when burnt is possessed of sufficiently desiccative powers without pungency, they therefore agree with malignant ulcers, and are to be used for putrid ulcers with vinegar, wine, or oxymel. That part of them which is as it were their flesh when alive, if boiled in oil, renders the oil an useful injection for relieving earache.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sprengel makes them to be the Buccina Harpa and Lapillus. They are noticed among the articles of food in the ninety-first section of the First Book. Dioscorides correctly remarks that a species of quicklime is got from their shells. He recommends it as a dentifrice, and as an application to burns. (ii, 5.) Galen very properly inculcates the necessity of getting them finely levigated before applying them to sores. Avicenna treats of the buccina along with other crustacea under one head. His information is almost entirely borrowed from Dioscorides and Galen. (ii, 2, 529.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 224.)

Κίκι,

Ricinus, Palma Christi; its fruit, which is also purgative, has detergent and discutient properties, and so also has its leaf, but weaker. We have already spoken of its oil.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that the κίκι or κρότων was the Ricinus communis, the Castor-oil plant, or Palma Christi. It is mentioned by Herodotus (Euterpe, 94) and in several passages of the Hippocratic treatises. See Œconom. Hippocrat. (218.) It does not occur, however, in the works of Celsus. Dioscorides informs us that it is called croton, from its resemblance to the dog-tick, and it is worthy of observation that both the plant and the dog-tick bear the name of Ricinus in Latin. See Pliny (H. N. xi, 34, and xv, 7.) Dioscorides says that the oil is used for lamps and plasters, and also as a purgative and emetic; but that it is a very loathsome and harsh medicine when administered internally. He further mentions the seeds as being used in cutaneous diseases, and the leaves in diseases of the eyes (iv, 141.) Galen notices it but very briefly as a purgative having detergent and discutient powers. Aëtius and Oribasius appear to have overlooked it. Mesue commends it as a purgative in cases of colic attended with flatulence. He says it produces vomiting and painful dejection of the bowels, but that its operation occasions a discharge of phlegm and bile, which often proves effectual in diseases of the joints. (De Simpl. 28.) He calls it by the names of Albemesuch, Granum regum, and Kerva. Avicenna says of the oil, that it is laxative, and is a good application to scabies and other cutaneous diseases. (ii, 2, 523.) It is deserving of remark that the Grana regia of Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 339), are applicable to the Lathyris, and not to the Cici. Indeed Mesue jumbles together his description of these two substances. (l. c.) We have mentioned already that the Oleum Cicinum or Castor-oil, was used as a purgative by the ancient physicians. Dr. Hill says of it, “the ancients obtained an oil by expression, and also by boiling, from the seeds; they called it Oleum Cicinum; they used it, for burning in their lamps, and in some of their ointments and plasters. Dioscorides commends it internally against worms; and Piso tells us that it is sometimes used in the same manner in the Brazils, with success.”

Κιννάβαρις,

Cinnabaris, Sanguis Draconis, is possessed of moderately acrid powers with some astringency.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We must refer to what we have stated in another work, which we have already often quoted, for the general literature of this subject. It will be sufficient in this place to state that the substance here treated of under the name of Cinnabaris is indisputably the Sanguis Draconis, or concrete juice of the Dracœna Draco. This is obvious from Dioscorides’s description of it, who says that it is of a deep colour, and hence some had thought it the blood of the dragon. (v, 109.) See further, Pliny (H. N. xxxiii, 38), and the very interesting note of Harduin, in which the origin of the confusion of the dragon’s blood with cinnabar is fully explained. Serapion treats of the Sanguis Draconis as the production of a tree, and quotes a description of it from Dioscorides and Galen. What vegetable substance in their Mat. Med. Serapion refers to, we are at a loss to decide. One of his authorities, Constantinus, calls it the juice of a plant, possessed of styptic powers, and therefore used as an astringent both internally as a suppository, and externally when so applied. (De Simpl. 341.) Avicenna recommends it similarly, but gives no description of it. (ii, 2, 627.) It is to be borne in mind that besides the vegetable cinnabar, the ancients described two other substances under this name, viz., the native mineral cinnabar or sulphuret of quicksilver, and a factitious cinnabar, which was their Sal Atticum. See Hill (Mat. Med. 60), and Geoffroy (215.) The dragon’s blood is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, where it is set down as the product of the Calamus Draco.

Κιννάμωνον,

Cinnamomum, Cinnamon, is composed of extremely subtile parts, yet is not extremely heating, but only in the third degree. But of those in the same rank of calefacients none is so desiccative owing to the tenuity of its parts. The cinnamomis is a sort of weak cinnamon; but some call it pseudo-cinnamomum.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Sprengel and Dierbach acknowledge it as the Laurus Cinnamomus. We have stated, however, under Cassia that Stackhouse is of opinion that the ancients were unacquainted with our Laurus Cinnamomus; but we see no good grounds for this opinion. We shall give the words of Sprengel: “Cassia lignea nostratum et cassia cinnamomea eadem esse videntur, unde et cassiam ipsam ex eadem arbore provenire, quæ cinnamomum largiatur, veteres jam statuerunt.” (ad Dioscor. i, 13.) Dioscorides recommends cinnamon in uterine affections, that is to say, for promoting the flow of the menses and for the expulsion of the fœtus. We need scarcely mention that this use of it has been revived of late. He also holds it to be alexipharmic, recommends it in coughs, dropsies, and diseases of the kidneys and bladder; in complaints of the eyes, and in the formation of elegant ointments; in short, he adds, it is a medicine much in use. (i, 13.) Galen and the other Greek authorities give its medicinal characters in more general terms. The Arabians treat of it at great length, and more especially Avicenna, who recommends it in the same cases as Dioscorides, namely, as a diuretic, emmenagogue, and alexipharmic medicine, and also as a stomachic and deobstruent in congestion of the liver. He also holds it to be cordial and expectorant. (ii, 2, 124.) Serapion professes to borrow his account of cinnamon from Dioscorides and Galen; but the extract which he gives from the latter, is not to be found in his works as they now exist. In it cinnamon is commended as being an aromatic medicine, applicable in complaints of the stomach and liver, in affections of the eyes, and as an emmenagogue and diuretic. (De Simpl. 266.) Rhases copies from Dioscorides, Galen, and our author. (Cont. l. ult. i, 213.)

Κιρκέα,

Circea, Enchanter’s Nightshade; its root, which is desiccative and fragrant, when drunk with wine, cleanses the uterus. Its fruit, when taken in gruel, promotes the formation of milk.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The commentators are much divided respecting it. Sprengel inclines to the Cynanchus niger. Lobelius took it to be the Solanum Dulcamara. One thing is certain, that it was quite different from any known species of the modern genus Circæa. See Parkinson (351.) Both Galen and our author, in treating of it, borrow from Dioscorides, the former of these professedly. We have not been able to detect it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians.

Κίσσηρις,

Pumex, the Pumice-stone, is detergent, and more particularly of the teeth, not only in power, but also by its asperity. It is also joined to the medicines used for the incarnation of ulcers, and to the abstergent plasters applied to the skin. If burnt, its parts became finer, but it is then pungent; but if washed it lays aside its pungency.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it was Pumice. Pumice, according to the latest analysis, is found to contain silica, argil, magnesia, soda, oxyd of manganese, and some water. For an account of it, see Pliny (H. N. xxxvi, 42.) He recommends it in diseases of the eyes. It appears evident, however, that he had copied from his contemporary, to whom he is so frequently indebted, we mean Dioscorides, who gives a similar description of pumice, and also recommends it in diseases of the eyes, more especially in opacity of the cornea, and likewise as an ingredient in applications to sores, and as a dentifrice. (v, 124.) Galen, after some preliminary discussion whether pumice be a metal, a stone, or an earth, proceeds to state its medicinal properties, in which he agrees with Dioscorides, most especially commending it as a dentifrice. (De Simpl. ix.) We may just mention in this place that modern authorities do not think so highly of this substance as a dentifrice. See Jameson’s ‘Mineral.’ (i, 333.) The Arabians under this head merely copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 417.) Pumice anciently was used for polishing the leather with which books were bound. (Catullus, Epig. i.) Theophrastus (De Lapidibus), states that pumice is formed by the action of fire; and M. Dolomieu suspects that it is a vitrified granite or gneiss. The pumice, for some time past, has ceased to hold a place in our Dispensatory. Neither is it to be found in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κιστὸς ἤ Κίσσαρος,

Cistus, Rock-rose; it is an astringent shrub, and of gently cooling powers. Its leaves and shoots are so desiccative as to agglutinate wounds; but the flowers are of a more drying nature, being about the second degree, and hence when drunk they cure dysenteries and all kind of fluxes. Externally they relieve putrid ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Stackhouse marks it simply as the Cistus, L., called by Miller the Rock-rose (Index to Theophrastus.) Woodville calls it the C. Creticus (Medical Botany.) Dioscorides describes two species of it, which probably are the C. salvifolius and C. villosus. Galen particularly commends the former in uterine diseases. He also treats under this name of a much more celebrated species of the cistus, namely, the Ladaniferus, of which we will have to give some account under Λάδανον. Aëtius and Oribasius are the copyists of Galen. The Arabians treat separately of the Cistus and Ladanum, recommending the former as a powerful astringent, both in external ulcers and in those of the intestines and womb. Avicenna speaks favorably of it in deafness and other affections of the ear. (ii, 2, 111.) Serapion would appear to have confounded it with the κισσὸς (ivy); or at least he has given a very confused account of it in his chapter on the Ivy. (De Simpl. 41, 42.) Rhases does not appear to notice it separately from the Landanum (Ladanum) (Cont. l. ult. iii, 67.) The two species of cistus treated of under this head have long ceased to hold a place in our modern Dispensatories.

Κισσὸς,

Hedera, Ivy, is composed of opposite powers, for it is astringent and cooling, and acrid and hot; consisting of a watery and tepid ingredient when green. Its leaves, when boiled with wine, are agglutinative of wounds and relieve burns and splenic affections. Its juice is an errhine, and cures chronic defluxions from the ear. Its tears, being more acrid, kill lice and act as a depilatory.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We need have no hesitation in referring it with the best authorities to the Hedera Helix, L. Dioscorides describes three varieties of it, the white, the black, and the helix; but it is easy to see that they are all varieties of the same species. His distinctions, however, occasioned great trouble and confusion both to his Arabian copyists and to the modern herbalists. See Serapion (De Simpl. 41), and Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 680), and Gerard (History of Plants, 857.) Our author’s account of its medicinal properties is taken from Galen. The tears of it, mentioned by Dioscorides and our author, were evidently its resin, now generally known by the name of gum ivy. All the ancient writers recommend it for thinning the hair and killing lice.

Κίτριον,

Citrium, Citron, called also Malum Medicum; its middle part is acid or devoid of qualities; but the part in which the seed is contained belongs to the third rank of cooling and desiccative medicines. The bark is desiccative in the second degree, but not cooling, for it is acrid. Its flesh engenders thick chyme, is phlegmatic and cold. Its seed is discutient and desiccative in the second degree; and the leaves of the tree are possessed of desiccative and discutient powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without doubt, as Sprengel states, it is the Malus Medica, L., or Citron. Most of the commentators on Virgil agree that it is his “felix malum” (Georg, ii, 127.) Dr. Paris remarks that it probably deserves the praises bestowed on it by him as an antidote to poisons (Pharmacol. 254); and on this head there is a very interesting dispute between the celebrated Fr. Hoffmann and Moses Charras, the famous French authority on the Pharmacopœia. See Pharm. (ii, 39.) According to Macrobius, it is the θύον of Homer, who mentions it in the following line:

θύον ἄνα νῆσον ὀδώδει.—Odyss. v.

Pliny, however, is not of this opinion (H. N. xiii, 16.) Our author copies closely from Galen. Dioscorides’s account of its medicinal properties is far more precise and interesting. Citrons, he says, when drunk with wine, counteract the operation of deadly poisons, and loosen the belly; the decoction is a gargle for occasioning sweetness of the breath; its juice is much used by women labouring under pica (see Book I, 1, of this work), and their seeds seem to preserve clothes in a chest from being moth-eaten. (i, 166.) The Arabians treat very fully of the medicinal properties of the citron. See Serapion (De Simpl. i, 1), Avicenna (ii, 2, 116), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 219.) They all agree that its seed is alexipharmic, both when taken in hot water, and when the juice is applied to a poisoned wound. See particularly Avicenna (De Med. Cord. ii.) They also hold that it is an excellent cordial and stomachic; that it stops bilious purgings, fluxes, and vomiting; and that it dispels sorrow. They hold, however, that it is prejudicial to the lungs and nerves. They speak highly of the oil of citrons in paralysis and other affections of the nerves. We need scarcely remark that this preparation has been much celebrated in modern times (see Charras, l. c.), and is still retained in our Pharmacopœia. See Pereira, 1235.

Κιχόριον ἤ πικρὶς,

Cichorium, Succory, is, as it were, a wild endive, being cooling and desiccant in the first degree. It has also some astringency, and hence it agrees with hepatic dysenteries.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Cichorium Intybus. We have treated of it among the pot-herbs in the First Book. It occurs in the Flora Hippocratica. Dioscorides recommends both the garden and the wild succory as being astringent, cooling, and stomachic, in various cases, both internally and externally, for binding the bowels in dysentery, as a cataplasm in cardiac affection, and as a remedy for gout and ophthalmy. (ii, 159.) Celsus also ranks the intybus and ambubeia, which are the wild and garden succory, with astringents. (ii, 30.) Galen and the other Greek authorities give it the same general characters. The Arabians treat of the seris and intybus at greater length, and seem to confound the latter, or endive, with the taraxacon (Leontodon taraxacum?). See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 229, 683.) He recommends the latter most particularly as a deobstruent in obstructions of the liver and other viscera; he speaks favorably of it as a plaster in palpitations of the heart, and as a gargle along with Cassia fistula in inflammations of the throat. All the Arabians recommend both species as antidotes to the bites of venomous animals. See Avicenna (l. c.), Serapion (c. 143), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 266.) The wild succory (Cichorium Intybus) is still sometimes employed in medicine. Dr. Pereira says, “the medicinal properties of Cichorium Intybus are analogous to those of Taraxacum Densleonis.” (Mat. Med. 698.) It occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κλήματις,

Clematis, Virgin’s-bower, (called also Myrsonöides, Daphnöides, and Polygonöides,) has twigs as long as the thickness of a May-rush, (holoschænus,) and petals like the bay, and is of a desiccant nature; it, therefore, stops diarrhœas, dysenteries, and pains of the teeth, and is useful for the bites of venomous animals. The other species of clematis twines around trees like ivy, being of an acrid and caustic nature. Its fruit, when drunk with water, evacuates bile and phlegm downwards; and its leaves in a cataplasm, remove leprosy.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The former species, distinguished by the synonyme of Daphnöides, is the clematis described by Dioscorides (iv, 179), and is the second species of Galen, who expresses himself contemptuously of Pamphilus for confounding the two species together. It is clearly a species of Clematis, either the vitalba or cirrhosa. All agree in recommending it as a safe astringent. The other species described by Dioscorides (iv, 7), and which is the former species of Galen, may be decidedly determined to be either the Vinca major or minor. It, according to Galen, is possessed of acrid and caustic powers. The Arabians would appear not to distinguish properly the clematis from the hedera. See Serapion (c. 41), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 169.) The modern Greek Pharmacopœia contains the C. erecta.

Κλινοπόδιον,

Clinopodium, Field Basil, is possessed of heating and desiccative powers, not caustic however, but of the third degree.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It may with considerable confidence be set down as being the Clinopodium vulgare, although doubts have been started on this head. See Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 23), and Sprengel (Ad Dioscorid.) Our author follows Galen very closely. Dioscorides represents it to be diuretic and emmenagogue (iii, 99.) We have not been able to discover any traces of it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians, nor in Hippocrates.

Κνίκος,

Cnicus, Bastard Saffron; its seed is used only for purgings, but if applied externally it belongs to the third order of calefacients.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The preponderance of authority is decidedly in favour of its being the Carthamus tinctorius, a plant which held a place in our Dispensatory with its ancient characters down to recent date. (See Quincy, 167.) Dioscorides mentions of it that it is used as a potherb, and as a medicine for opening the bowels. Galen gives it exactly the same character as our author. The Arabians give rather a confused account of it by treating of it along with Atractylis, which they held to be the wild cnicus. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 159.) All the Arabians hold that it is not only laxative, but also powerfully alexipharmic. They call it Kartam or Cartamus. See further Serapion (c. 202), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. iii, 46.)

Κογχύλια,

Conchylia; their powers resemble those of the buccinæ.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This name was applied to various Testacea, or Shell-fish. See Harduin (Ad Plinii H. N. ix, 60); Athenæi Deipnos, iii; Aristotle, H. A. v, 14; and Gesner, De Aquat. Oysters are frequently called by this name, as in the following lines of Petronius Arbiter:

Lucrinis Eruta littoribus vendunt Conchylia, cænis Ut renovent per damna famem.—Satyricon.

Dioscorides does not treat of this article, at least, under this name. The Arabians would appear to have identified them with the Cochleæ. See in particular Serapion (c. 434.)

Κοιλία,

Venter, the Belly of the cormorant, either when boiled, fresh, or dried, is said to be stomachic if eaten; and in like manner, the inner coat of the stomach of hens when dried and taken in a draught. But Galen says, that he found upon trial both these statements false. Dioscorides relates that the stomach of a wood-pigeon, if drunk, gradually makes stones be expelled by urine. The stomach of a weasel, when drunk, is a preservative against all poisonous animals.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Properly speaking the Stomach. Our author, as he acknowledges, borrows from Galen and Dioscorides. Serapion repeats the same characters of this article upon the authority of Dioscorides. (c. 469.) We may be allowed to mention that the inner membrane of the crop of a fowl is still a popular remedy for indigestion in the north of Scotland.

Κόκκος κνίδιος,

Granum Gnidium, is the fruit of the Thymelæa and not of the Chamelæa as some have supposed. Being possessed of acrid and caustic powers, when drunk, it purges water downwards.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. See under Θυμέλαια. All the authorities, from Hipprocrates downwards, describe it as an acrid purgative. Dr. Pereira says, “Daphne Gnidium is the Thymelæa of Dioscorides, whose fruit is the κόκκος κνίδιος, or Gnidian-berry, used by Hippocrates. Its properties are similar to those of D. Mezereum.” (Mat. Med. 807.) Dioscorides gives a full description of the thymelæa, and states, with excellent precision, its operation on the animal economy. He says it purges, bringing away a watery discharge, and kills the fœtus in utero when applied on a pessary. (iv, 170.) Galen and Aëtius and Oribasius state its characters in brief terms, like our author. It would appear, in fact, to have been little used in medicine. The Arabians confound the thymelæa, chamelæa, and chamæleon together, so that there is great difficulty in making out what were their exact views on the Thymelaceæ. Indeed, the genera of this tribe of plants are still with difficulty distinguished from one another. See Lindley’s Vegetable Kingdom, 530.

Κόκκος βαφικὸς,

Granum tinctorium, is desiccative without pungency. It agrees, therefore, with large wounds and wounds of the nerves when triturated with vinegar or oxymel.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is Vermilion or Scarlet grain, being the product of a little hemopterous insect called kermes or Coccus ilicis. See Theophrastus (H. P. iii, 16), and Pliny (H. N. xvi, 12.) It was anciently used in dyeing, but is now superseded by the cochineal. An interesting account of kermes and cochineal is given by Beckmann. (History of Inventions.) Dioscorides and the other authorities, like Paulus, commend it as a vulnerary medicine, especially in wounds of the nerves. The Arabians, in treating of the kermes, merely repeat what Dioscorides and Galen had written on this head. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 321); Avicenna (ii, 2, 718); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 740.)

Κοκκομηλέα,

Prunus, the Plum; its fruit loosens the belly, if fresh, in a greater degree, or if dried, in a smaller. The decoction of it in gargles, cures inflammations about the uvula. The gum of the tree has the powers of an incisive and attenuate substance, so that some relate that when drunk with wine it proves lithontriptic. With vinegar it is said to cure the lichen of children. The fruit of the wild plums is manifestly astringent, and constipates the belly. This plant in Asia is called Prumnum. The dried garden plums, now called damascenes, appear to be similar, as Galen says.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without doubt it is the Prunus insiticia or Bullace tree, a well known species of plum. The Damask-plums are much celebrated by ancient authors. We have treated of plums as an article of food in the First Book. Pliny and Marcellus Empiricus recommend them particularly in diseases of the tonsils and gums; but, indeed, all the ancient authorities prescribe them as astringents in such cases. There is a slight difference of opinion between Dioscorides and Galen regarding the virtues of the plum. Dioscorides says, “the fruit is esculent, but bad for the stomach, and loosens the bowels. But the dried fruit of the Syrian plums, and more especially those which grow about Damascus (damascenes?), are stomachic and astringent of the bowels.” Galen says, “the fruit of the plum tree loosens the bowels, the fresh in a greater degree and the dried in a less. I know not how it is that Dioscorides says that the dried damask-plums bind the bowels, for even these manifestly loosen, but in a less degree than the Spanish; for the damask are more astringent, and the Spanish more sweet, &c.” (De Simpl. vii.) This slight difference created a keen controversy in modern times between Brasavolus, who impugns, and Matthiolus, who defends the strictures of Galen. To us it appears that the only mistake committed by Dioscorides consists in stating his views too succinctly. He, no doubt, never meant to deny that the damask-plums have a certain purgative faculty mixed up with astringency, like plums in general. Galen’s language is more precise, but we do not see that there is much real difference between his views and those of Dioscorides. The Arabians gravely state this mighty controversy between the two ancient sages, but scarcely pretend “tantas componere lites.” See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 565); Avicenna (ii, 2, 532); and Serapion (c. 139.) One of Rhases’s authorities says of plums, that they moisten the stomach and loosen the belly, purging yellow bile. Another of them, named Chuz, says the water of them is emmenagogue, and their gum, mixed with sugar, cures impetigo. Avicenna quotes this opinion with approbation. All agree that they are lithontriptic.

Κόλλα,

Gluten, Glue; that prepared from the similago and pollen is of an emplastic and digestive nature.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Gluten or Paste. Dioscorides mentions that the best kind is prepared from the hides of bulls in Rhodes. Galen makes mention of another kind prepared from flour, and used in binding books. (De Simpl. vii.) See further, Pliny (H. N. xiii, 26.) The Arabians, in treating of it, derive most of their information from the Greeks. See Serapion (c. 138); Avicenna (ii, 2, 202); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 336.) They treat of the ichthyocolla under this head.

Κολοκύνθη,

Cucurbita, the Gourd, is of a humid and cold temperament in the second degree. Hence, when applied entire in a cataplasm, it cools hot inflammations.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have stated the difficulty of determining this article in the chapter of the First Book on the summer fruits. It would appear to be sometimes put for the Cucumis sativus or Cucumber, and sometimes for the Cucurbita or Gourd. About the species, however, there is some doubt. On its medicinal properties, besides the medical authorities, see Geopon. (xii, 19.) Dioscorides recommends it raw, as a cooling application for various swellings and apostemes; also for the siriasis of infancy (See Book I, 13), for inflammations of the eyes, and those of gout in like manner. He also speaks of it as being useful in earache and heat of the stomach. He states that it is laxative of the bowels; and for this purpose directs a raw gourd to be hollowed out, and wine having been poured into it, it is to be exposed for a time to the heat of the sun, when it will become gently laxative. (ii, 161.) Galen, Aëtius, and others give it much the same characters as our author. The Arabians, as usual, borrow freely from the Greeks without making any addition of much consequence. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 175); Serapion (c. 248); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 1, 344.) One of Serapion’s authorities, called Masarugie, says of the gourd, that when it is surrounded with paste and roasted, the water thus squeezed out of it is beneficial in acute diseases and cough, that it quenches thirst, and when taken with sugar gently opens the bowels. Another of them, Habix, gives nearly the same account of it. Another of them says of its seed, that it is diuretic, and softens the belly. In modern times the seeds of gourd were formerly held as one of the four greater cold seeds. See Charras (Roy. Pharm. 66) and Quincy (p. 197.)

Κολοκινθίς,

Cucurbita sylvestris, Colocynth, is possessed of a strong purgative power. If the juice of it, while in a green state, be rubbed into the part, it relieves ischiatic disease.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it is the Cucumis Colocynthis, Coloquintida, or Bitter Gourd. It was used in medicine from the earliest times, being the κολοκύνθη ἀγρία of Hippocrates (De Mulieb. 621, ed. Föes), as Galen has explained. It does not occur, however, in the works of Celsus. Dioscorides gives an excellent account of it, recommending it as a powerful phlegmagogue and cholagogue, both when given by the mouth and in clysters; and as a gargle in toothache. He says it kills the fœtus in utero when applied on a pessary. (iv, 175.) Our author’s account of it is copied from Galen. The Arabians treat of it more fully. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 127); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 222); Serapion (c. 272); Mesue (De Simpl. 4); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 421); and Ebn Baithar (i, 331.) Avicenna is very precise in giving directions for the preparation of the medicine. His statement of its medicinal properties is so long that we cannot find room for it. He says it evacuates phlegm, bile, and perhaps blood from the intestines; that it is useful in dropsy, and that it is alexipharmic, in proof of which he refers to the report of a case of a person who had been stung by scorpions, and was immediately cured by it. But of all the authorities, Mesue is, perhaps, the one who treats of it most elaborately: he recommends it as purging phlegm and yellow bile, in cephalæa, hemicrania, epilepsy, apoplexy, vertigo, defluxion in the eyes, cold gout, and other affections of the joints; asthma, chronic cough, dyspnœa, &c. But, he adds, it is more especially useful in pituitous and flatulent colic, and in dropsy. For this purpose it may be administered by the mouth, in clysters and in suppositories. Applied per vaginam it kills the fœtus. He directs its bad effects to be corrected by means of mastich, tragacanth, &c. He forbids it to be administered either in great heat or cold. Averrhoes ranks it with the strongest phlegmagogues, and recommends that its activity should be abated by almonds, tragacanth, fistics, &c. Ebn Baithar treats of it at very great length. Serapion says that, being a drastic purgative, it ought not to be given during the heat of summer, or cold of winter; for that, at these seasons, Hippocrates had forbid to administer purgatives. Pliny recommends it in injections for diseases of the intestines, kidneys, and loins. He says that an embrocation of it with oil cures pains of the spine and hip-joint, and is useful in jaundice when followed by oxymel. (H. N. xx, 7, 8.) Marcellus, the Empiric, says of it that it purges phlegm, yellow and black bile, when given with oxymel. (c. 30.) Ruffus Ephesius says of colocynth, that it purges phlegm and pure bile: in a word, he adds, it is useful in asthma, pleurisy, chronic headache, vertigo, and dimness of vision. (De Med. Purg.)

Κόμαρος,

Arbutus, the Arbute Tree, is of a sour quality, both the tree and its fruit, which is called memycœlon. It is hurtful to the stomach, and occasions headache.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Apuleius says “Comaron Græci, Romani fragum vocant.” It is the Arbutus Unedo or Wild Strawberry Tree, which must not be confounded with the Fragaria vesca, L., Angl., Wood Strawberry. It seems difficult to account for its holding a place in the ancient Materia Medica, since all the authorities, like Paulus, speak unfavorably of its medicinal powers. See Dioscorides and Galen.

Κόμμι,

Gummi, Gum, is of a desiccative and emplastic nature, and manifestly cures asperities (hoarseness?).

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. For an account of the ancient gums see Pliny (H. N. xiii, 20.) He says the best kind is got from the Egyptian thorn or Acacia; this must have been either the Acacia vera, L., or Acacia Senegal. Galen delivers the medicinal character of gum in the same terms as our author, and the other Greek authorities do the same. Dioscorides recommends the gum of the acacia (gum-arabic?) as possessing emplastic powers, and for blunting acrid medicines when mixed with them. He adds that, when mixed with the white of an egg, it prevents blisters from rising on burnt parts. (i, 133.) The Arabians concur in recommending gum-arabic as being beneficial in hot coughs, in ulcers of the lungs, and for clearing the voice; they also held it to be stomachic and theriacal. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 310); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 345); and Serapion (c. 229.)

Κονία,

Lixivium, Lye; the washings, as it were, of ashes are so named. The most detergent and desiccative of all are those made from the ashes of figs and of the spurges, so that they are possessed of almost septic powers. If a little quicklime be added to the ashes it renders the lye caustic, which is then called protostactos, being mixed up principally with medicines administered by injection. But the strongest of all is that prepared from quicklime alone.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have given some account of the Lixivial Ashes or Lyes of the ancients in the 9th section of Book VI. They were all of them preparations of potass mixed up with various impurities. The term was applied not only to the solution, but also to the dried cineres of the same. Even quicklime is sometimes called by this name: κονία ἢ ἄσβεστος. (Scholiastes in Theocrit. Idyll. i.) The Cinis lixivius of the fig-tree is the one most frequently mentioned of them. See Pliny (H. N. xv, 18); Geopon. (v, 33); Dioscorides (i, 186); Serapion (183); and Avicenna (ii, 2, 188.) Avicenna recommends the lye of the mezerion in quinsy and affections of the eye. See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 214.) The protostactos was a composition of potass and lime. (See Book VI, s. 9.) On the alkalies or Cineres lixivii of the ancients, see further, Dutens (Découvertes attrib. aux Modern. 187.)

Κόνυζα,

Conyza, Fleabane; both species of it are desiccant and calefacient in the third degree. Hence, even the oil in which it is boiled stops periodical rigors; and the flowers have similar powers. The decoction of them promotes menstruation, and expels the fœtus. That which grows in moist situations is more fetid and has weaker powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There is considerable difficulty in determining exactly the conyzæ of the ancients. See Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, i, 44), and Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. iii, 126.) The preponderance of authority seems to lead to the conclusion that they all were species of Inula, namely, the greater I. viscosa, Act., the lesser Inula saxatilis, and the third, I. oculus Christi. The conyzæ were employed in medicine at a very early period, being frequently mentioned in the Hippocratic treatises. See Dierbach, who, however, has decided differently from us as to the plants to which the conyzæ are referable. He marks the fetid conyza as being Ambrosia maritima, and the fragrant as Inula bifrons. The greater conyza of Dioscorides would appear to be the cunilago of Pliny (H. N., xx, 63), where see the note of Harduin. Our author follows Dioscorides and Galen, who agree in the main as to the medicinal properties of these plants. All the authorities concur in opinion that the greater conyza is emmenagogue, and procures abortion in pessaries. Ebn Baithar seems to treat of it rather confusedly under the head of Thuback. (ii, 150.) Few, if any, of the other Arabians have noticed it; and it is not contained in the Greek Pharmacopœia.

Κόπρος,

Stercus, Dung; all kinds of it are of a heating, desiccative, and discutient nature, but they differ from one another according to the temperament and diet of the animal which voids it. The dung, then, of dogs fed on bones, when dried, cures dysenteric affections if taken in a draught with divided milk (lac scissum), and old ulcers, if mixed with suitable medicines. In cynanche and inflammations about the tonsils, it is rubbed into the parts mixed with honey. These complaints are greatly relieved by the dung of children who have not been permitted to take too much food. The dung of wolves and the whiter sort which is found upon certain shrubs, is an admirable remedy for colics, and that, not only in a draught, but also when appended as an amulet. It may be fastened either with the wool of a sheep recently killed by a wolf, or the skin of a stag. Goat’s dung, being more acrid and discutient, discusses scirrhous tumours when applied externally, more especially upon hard flesh. When burnt it is more detergent and attenuate. The dung of oxen has some attractive powers, and, therefore, cures the stings of wasps and bees. And if the whole body of persons affected with dropsy be rubbed with cow’s dung in the sun they will be much relieved thereby. Sheep’s dung with vinegar cures myrmecia, acrochordon, furunculus, and clavus. That of wild pigeons, being much more acrid than the other kinds, proves rubefacient when applied with the seed of cardamus. That of domestic fowls, when drunk with oxymel, vinegar, or wine and honey, causes the suffocative mushrooms to be vomited, and proves a preservative from them. Some have given it to drink also in colics. They say also that the dung of storks, when drunk, is useful in orthopnœa. That of mice, being more detergent than all others, agrees with alopecia, and when applied to the anus of children provokes evacuation. The dung of starlings, when they feed on rice, becomes detergent so as to clear away freckles. That of land crocodiles removes alphos, as that of the crocodiles of the Nile is believed to attenuate leucoma (white films on the eyes).

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the medicinal properties of Dung is abridged from Galen. As we have no wish to see this article restored to the Materia Medica, we shall not enlarge upon the subject. Those who wish to improve their knowledge of the medicinal articles mentioned under this head by our author, may find them treated of usque ad nauseam by Dioscorides, Galen, Serapion, and Avicenna. Many of them were retained in the Dispensatory down to a comparatively recent date. For example, the white dung of dogs, usually called Album Græcum, was long used in the cure of quinsies. See Quincy (140, 206.)

Κοράλλιον,

Corallium, Coral, is a sort of petrified arboret, not growing on dry land, but among the mud of the sea, being of a red colour, and like stone. Its powers are decidedly desiccant and moderately astringent. It answers, therefore, with cases of hæmoptysis and dysentery.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Coral of the ancients is the Isis nobilis, Pall.; the name Isis being borrowed from Pliny. (H. N. xiii, 52.) Pliny mentions, in another place, that corals, burnt and pulverised, and drunk in water, are useful in some pains of the bowels and bladder, and in calculus. He adds that they are also soporific. Corals were much used as amulets or phylacteries. (H. N. xxxii, 5.) See also Solinus (ii), and Geopon. (xv, 1.) Celsus ranks the corallium with those substances which burn: “Veratrum, album et nigrum, corallium, cantharides, pyrethrum, adurunt.” (v, 208.) This article does not occur in the Hippocratic treatises, nor in Galen’s work ‘On the Faculties of Simples.’ The latter, however, prescribes it for spitting of blood in another place. (De Comp. Med. sec. loc. vii.) Dioscorides and Serapion, likewise, recommend it as an astringent in hæmoptysis and in dysentery. It appears from the Royal Pharmacopœia of Moses Charras, that it was used for the cure of these complaints in his time. He prefers the red coral, and directs us to give it in the form of an impalpable powder. The red coral held a place in our English Dispensatory until a recent date. See Quincy (101.) It was much used in infantile convulsions. It is still admitted to be a good antacid. See Gray (Pharmacol. 146.) According to Dr. Ainslie, the Tamool practitioners prescribe it, when calcined, in cases of diabetes and bleeding piles. The Arabians place it among their astringents and cordials. (Mat. Ind. 52.) The sea-coralline is retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, under the title of Helminthochortos, which, however, as is there stated, comprehends several species of the Ceramium helminthochortum, mixed up with ulvæ, confervæ, but especially red corallines. (77.) On the use of it by the Arabians, see the commentators on Mesue. (De Electariis, 89.) The Electarium de Gemmis, in which it occurs as an ingredient, is said to be most efficacious in cold affections of the brain, heart, stomach, liver, and womb; an excellent exhilarant and cordial; and restorative in palpitation of the heart, and in syncope.

Κόρεις,

Cimices, Bugs; these animals are of an acrid nature. Some write that when drunk with vinegar they eject leeches.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides recommends Bugs in quartan intermittents, uterine suffocation, and as an antidote to the bite of the asp. (ii, 36.) Galen properly recommends garlic as a substitute for them in the case of leeches which have been swallowed. Pliny, apparently deriving his information from Dioscorides, ascribes to bugs alexipharmic properties of the most general nature; and more especially commends them as being a remedy against the bite of asps. (H. N. xxix, 17.) The Arabians copy all that the Greeks had recorded respecting the medicinal virtues of bugs, without making any addition. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 270.)

Κορὶς,

Coris, the herb; some call it Hypericum (St. John’s Wort). It is acrid and fragrant; but the fruit of it, in a draught, promotes the urinary and menstrual discharges. It is also a remedy for the bites of venomous spiders; and in cases of opisthotonos it is rubbed in with oil.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is Hypericum Coris. This name is taken from Pliny, who recommends it in strangury and pleurisy. (xxvi, 54.) Our author’s statement of its medicinal powers is abridged from Dioscorides. (iii, 164.) Galen does not treat of it by name, but ascribes nearly similar powers to hypericum. We cannot find it described in the works of the Arabians.

Κορριαννὸν ἢ κόριον,

Coriandrum, Coriander, is composed of opposite powers. For it consists of a terrene part formed of subtile particles, which is bitter, and of a watery juice, which is tepid (mild?). It has also a small degree of astringency, so as to accord with inflammations and cases of erysipelas, which are not of too hot a nature; and it also discusses the softer tumours with some of the other subtile remedies. The seed, when drunk in small quantity with sweet wine, expels worms; but when taken in larger doses it disturbs the understanding.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It certainly is the Coriandrum sativum. Dioscorides says that its action is refrigerant, but Galen insists that it is calefacient. Symeon Seth, Mesue, as quoted by Serapion, and most of the ancient authorities adopt the opinion of Dioscorides. Our modern views would seem to correspond better with those of Galen; coriander-seed being now generally looked upon as an aromatic stimulant, and as being carminative and stomachic. Galen’s remarks under this head are highly interesting. The coriander was used in the age of Hippocrates. (359, etc. ed. Föes.) Celsus, like Dioscorides, holds it to be refrigerant. (84, ed. Milligan.) He also calls it diuretic. (Ibid.) The Arabians say that when the juice is taken to the extent of four ounces, it proves destructive of life. Avicenna (ii, 2, 143); Serapion (c. 44); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 229.) They also hold that it is possessed of soporific powers. They prescribe it for the cure of epilepsy, in which case they say it checks the aura which ascends from the stomach to the brain. The Coriandrum sativum holds a place in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. (58.) It is also still retained in our Materia Medica. See Pereira (1073.)

Κόρυδος ἢ Κορύδαλλος,

Alauda, the Lark; this bird when boiled with plain broth is of use in colic affections. But one must eat it perseveringly and frequently with the broth.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. No one can doubt, from the ancient descriptions of it, that it was the Alauda cristata. Galen remarks, that it is correctly described by Aristophanes, in his ‘Birds;’ and that it is noticed by Theocritus. (Idyll. vii.) It is also mentioned by Aristotle and Ælian in their works on Natural History. Pliny calls it Galerita. Galen says there is a herb of the same name. Like our author, he praises it when given in broth, for the cure of colic. Both, however, copy from Dioscorides. (ii, 59.) It is not noticed in the works of Hippocrates and Celsus. It would appear that it is the hanabroch of Serapion, who, in describing it, merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen. (436.) It is also briefly noticed by Ebn Baithar in nearly the same terms as Serapion. (ii, 329.)

Κορωνόπους,

Coronopus, Buck’s-horn Plantain; the root of it is believed to be useful in colic affections when eaten.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Plantago Coronopus, called in English Buckshorn Plantain. See Parkinson, Gerard, and Quincy. Dioscorides says it is used as a potherb, and that it is given as a medicine in colic. (ii, 157.) None of the others supply any additional information regarding it worth quoting.

Κόστος,

Costos, is possessed of a small degree of a bitter, but a greater degree of an acrid and hot quality. Wherefore, when a part requires to be heated, or a deep-seated humour attracted to the surface, one has recourse to the costus. It is therefore diuretic, emmenagogue, and anthelminthic. It has also some flatulent powers, so that it excites to venery when drunk with wine and honey. It suits with ischiatic and paralytic affections, and with periodical rigors when rubbed in with oil.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We should occupy more space than we can afford to devote to it if we were to enter into a disquisition on the general literature of this article. Those who feel curious to know our opinions on this subject, are referred to the Appendix to Dunbar’s Lexicon, already frequently quoted by us. Much interesting information respecting the costus has been supplied by very recent writers. See Royle (Ant. of Hindoo Medicine, 88), Ainslie (Mat. Ind. 152), and Pereira (Mat. Med. 699.) Dr. Lindley says of it, “Dr. Falconer has ascertained that the costus of the ancients is the root of his Auklandia Costus, a plant inhabiting the moist open slopes surrounding the vale of Cashmere. In Cashmere the plant is not held in repute as a medicine, but is chiefly employed for protecting bales of shawls from the attacks of moths.” (Vegetable Kingdom, 708.) We may add, that although the zeduary be not the same as the costus, as has been supposed, there can be no doubt that it was often used in place of the costus. (See M. Charras’ Pharm.) More recently, we have reason to think, our costmary, Balsamita vulgaris, was used as a succedaneum for the ancient costus. Compare Parkinson (80) with Hill (M. M. 624.) The three kinds of costus described by Dioscorides, namely, the Arabian, the Indian, and the Syrian, would appear to have been only varieties of the same substance. He says it is possessed of calefacient, diuretic, and emmenagogue powers, and is useful in uterine affections, in pessaries, fomentations, and fumigations. He recommends it as being alexipharmic, expectorant, aphrodisiacal, vermifuge, a good application externally in paralytic cases; and, in short, he gives it nearly the same characters as our author, who evidently copies from him and Galen. Aëtius and Oribasius do the same. The Arabian authorities on the Mat. Med. in like manner, do little more than quote what Dioscorides, Galen, and our author have written on the subject. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 236); Avicenna (ii, 2, 161); Serapion (c. 318.) Avicenna and Rhases agree that it dries up humid ulcers when sprinkled over them. One of Rhases’s authorities states that the oil of costus is useful in relaxation and coldness of the nerves, and in sciatica; and that a fumigation made with it by means of an instrument for the purpose (per embotum), kills the fœtus, and promotes menstruation. All join in giving it the character of being alexipharmic. The costus, as far as we have been able to discover, does not occur in the works of Hippocrates. Celsus mentions it along with other aromatics (iv, 14, et alibi). It is often noticed as a precious ointment and aromatic by the classic authors. See Pliny (H. N. xii, 24); Columella (xii, 20); Propertius (iv, 6, 5); Lucan (ix, 917); Horace (Carm. iii, 1, 44); Ovid (Met. x, 308.)

Κοτυληδὼν,

Cotyledon, Navel-wort, is cooling, repellent, detergent, and discutient. It is believed that when the leaves of it are eaten along with the root, they prove lithontriptic and diuretic.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species, which are the Cotyledon umbilicus, and the C. serrata. Our author’s description applies to the former of these, and is abridged from Galen. Galen further recommends it strongly as an application to inflammatory erysipelas and erysipelatous inflammation, the nice distinction between which he has stated under coriander, and in his work Therap. ad Glauc. (ii.) See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 138.)

Κοχλίαι,

Cochleæ, Snails, when burnt are of a moderately desiccative nature, and somewhat heating. They are useful in dysenteries when mortification has not yet taken place, if to four parts of them, one part of white pepper, and two parts of galls be added. Unburnt, they are triturated and applied whole to the belly in dropsical complaints, and to the joints in arthritic, with advantage, being allowed to remain until they drop off spontaneously; and upon the whole they dry strongly deep-seated humours.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The κ. χἔρσᾶιος is the Helix Pomatia, Escargot, or Vinegar Snail. The snail was esteemed a delicacy by the Roman gourmands. See Varro (de R. R. iii, 14) and Pliny (H. N. ix, 25.) The use of it, however, was forbidden by the Mosaic law. In one of the Hippocratic treatises, the cochleæ are recommended for procidentia ani. (De fistul.) Pliny, in like manner, recommends them in dysentery. (H. N. vii, 30.) Dioscorides and Galen give nearly the same account of their medicinal properties as our author. The latter says that they are difficult to digest, but very nutritious when digested. Celsus, on the other hand, ranks them among the weak articles of food. Horace seems to say that they whet the appetite.

Tostis marcentem squillis recreabis et Afrâ Potorem cochleâ.—Satir.

Κρανέα,

Cornus, the Cornel; the fruit of the tree being sour, proves strongly astringent of the belly when eaten. The leaves and shoots, by their sourness, are strongly desiccative, so as to agglutinate the largest wounds of hard bodies.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Cornus Mas. Dioscorides recommends it as an application to lichen. (ii, 72.) Our author abridges Galen’s account of it. The Arabians speak favorably of it in the same cases as the Greeks, and also recommend it for cholera, diabetes, and vomiting. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 315), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 357.)

Κράμβη,

Brassica, Cabbage; that sort which is esculent has desiccative powers both when eaten and when applied externally, but it is not sensibly acrid. It therefore agglutinates wounds and ill-conditioned ulcers, and cures tumours which are difficult to discuss. It is also somewhat detergent, by which property it cures leprosy. Its seed when drunk kills worms, and especially the seed of the Egyptian cabbage does this. The ashes of its stalks when burnt are possessed of caustic powers, and with grease are applicable in chronic pains of the sides. The wild is stronger than the garden cabbage in all respects; hence it cannot be taken internally without inconvenience. The sea-cabbage being saltish and bitterish loosens the belly.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The Brassica sativa of the ancients no doubt comprehended several species of cabbage. Dioscorides dwells largely on its medicinal properties, but in nearly the same terms as our author. He calls it laxative and alexipharmic, and recommends it as an application to erysipelas, epinyctis, and leprosy; with salts, he says, it breaks anthrax, and when boiled and mixed with milk, it is a good application to spreading gangrene. The Brassica sylvestris (which Sprengel inclines to set down as being the Brassica incana, Zenor.), he says, is agglutinative of wounds, and discutient of swellings and inflammations. Its cyme, he says, is not unpleasant to the taste. To the sea-cabbage (Convolvulus soldanella) he assigns the same characters as our author. (ii, 146, 147, 148.) Galen gives nearly the same account of the three species of brassica. In the Hippocratic treatises, the decoction of cabbage is recommended as an injection to the womb. (De Mulieb. ii.) According to Celsus, the brassica when half raw is laxative, but when twice boiled, astringent. (ii, 29, 30.) The Arabians treat of the different kinds of brassica at great length; as usual, drawing largely from the stores of the Greeks. One of the Arabian authorities quoted by Rhases, says its seed, if applied per vaginam post coitum, will prevent impregnation, and that the decoction of it expels the tape-worm. Another of the same authorities recommends a decoction of it as an application to the joints in gout, and to blistered surfaces after burning, more especially when its ashes are mixed up with the white of an egg. (Contin. l. ult. i, 198.) See in like manner, Serapion (c. 32) and Avicenna (ii, 2, 139.) As we have stated in our commentary on the 95th section of the First Book, all the ancient authorities held that the cabbage counteracts the intoxicating powers of wine. The brassicæ held a place in our Dispensatory, and retained their ancient character down to a comparatively recent date. See Parkinson, Culpeper, and still more recently Quincy. (116.) They are still much prized as medicines by the Arabians and Persians. See Ainslie (M. Ind.)

Κραταιόγονον,

Cratæogonon; the fruit of this herb is acrid to the taste and cold like millet.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides assigns it wonderful powers in promoting procreation, and hence its name. He calls it intensely acrid. Galen and the other Greek authorities, treat of it very succinctly like Paulus. We have not been able to find any traces of it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians. What plant it was seems a puzzle. Both Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 858) and Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. l. c.) incline to the Polygonum Persicaria, but the medicinal virtues of it, as given by our older herbalists, do by no means agree with the characters of the cratæogonon as given by the ancients.

Κρῆθμον,

Crethmum, Samphire, is somewhat saltish with a little bitterness, and therefore its powers are detergent and desiccative.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Crithmum maritimum, Samphire, or Sea-fennel. Dioscorides recommends its fruit, root, and leaves, when boiled in wine, for dysuria and jaundice. He further mentions it as a potherb and pickle. (ii, 156.) Galen and the other Greek authorities state its characters briefly like our author. Pliny, like Dioscorides, mentions it as a potherb and pickle, but says nothing of it as a medicine. (H. N. xxvi.) We do not find it noticed by Celsus nor by the Arabians, with the exception of Ebn Baithar. (ii, 280.)

Κριθὴ,

Hordeum, Barley, is of the first order of cooling and desiccative medicines, and is also somewhat detergent. It is more desiccative than the flour of beans, and less flatulent. The polenta of barley is more desiccative than barley itself. Its ptisan is not only more diluent, but is also more detergent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Hordeum vulgare, comprehending no doubt several species. We have treated of it among the Cerealia in the First Book (Vol. I, p. 123.) The ἄλφιτον, or polenta, was a sort of malt. See Pliny (H. N. xviii, 14.) We have treated of it in the same place; and also of the mode of preparing ptisan. It was a favorite remedy with Hippocrates (de victu acut. et alibi.) Dioscorides calls it suitable to the acrimony, roughness, and ulceration of the windpipe, and says it attracts milk when taken boiled with the seed of fennel, and is diuretic, detergent, flatulent, bad for the stomach, and digestive of swellings. He further recommends the flour of barley for discussing boils and inflammations, when boiled with figs and honeyed water. See further (ii, 108.) Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius, treat of it in nearly the same terms as our author. The Arabians give nearly the same statement of its virtues as a medicine. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 530.) He recommends barley-water very much as a drink in fevers, being, as he says, diluent and cooling; in hot fevers it is to be given pure, and in cold, with parsley and fennel. Ebn Baithar treats of it at great length, (ii, 97.)

Κρίμνον,

Crimnon, Bran; the thick part of the flour of wheat and of spelt is so named, being more nutritious than polenta, but more indigestible.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is, properly speaking, groats or coarse meal; it was also applied to spelt and other species of grain coarsely ground. See Dioscorides, from whom our author’s account of it is principally taken. Both Dioscorides and Galen recommend the coarse meal of spelt which has been toasted for binding the belly. From the coarse meal of wheat, pap or porridge, they add, is prepared.

Κρίνον,

Lilium, the Lily; its flower is of a mixed temperament, being composed of a subtile part, a terrene, and a certain water substance of a moderate temperament. Hence the oil composed from it being of a discutient and emollient nature agrees well with inflammations of the uterus. The root of it and its leaves are desiccative, detergent, and moderately discutient, and hence are useful for burns. The juice of it is serviceable for wounded nerves, with oxymel.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without doubt it is the Lilium candidum. Dioscorides praises the seed of the lily, given in wine, as an antidote to poisonous serpents; and, by the way, the same character is given of it by Walafridus Strabo in the ninth century, and by Macer Floridus in the tenth. Dioscorides further recommends it as an application to burns, ulcers, erysipelas, and so forth. He further describes a species of lilium with purple flowers, which grows in Syria and Pisidia of Pamphylia, and was famous for the composition of unguents. This might be the Lilium Martagon. Galen writes elaborately on this article, but in the main agrees with Dioscorides as to the medicinal virtues of the lily, of which he mentions only the former species. He recommends it principally in external applications to wounds, ulcers, and diseases of the skin, such as scabies, leprosy, and achores, and also very particularly to diseases of the uterus. Aëtius and Oribasius briefly give it the same characters. Celsus mentions a decoction of the leaves of the lily boiled in old wine and oil, as an application to burns. (v, 17, 18.) For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 436); Serapion (c. 189); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 422); Ebn Baithar (ii, 68.) They commend it as a general alexipharmic, both when applied to the bites of venomous animals, and as an antidote to hyoscyamus, coriander, and mushrooms. They all agree that it is one of the best applications to burning with hot water. Avicenna says the oil of lilies given internally, is useful in ileos. Ebn Baithar treats of the lily at very great length.

Κροκοδείλιον,

Crocodilium; the seed and juice of it are possessed of desiccative, heating, and discutient powers, and are, therefore, diuretic and emmenagogue; the root is of great use as an expectorant, and occasions a discharge of blood by the nose.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes it immediately after the black chamæleon to which he compares it. We therefore are inclined to join the modern commentators and herbalists, who hold it to have been the Carlina vulgaris, rather than those who refer it to the Eryngium maritimum. See Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 971, 988) and Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. iii, 10.) Galen calls its seed aromatic and acrid, and says it is diuretic and emmenagogue. The juice of the seed and stalk being possessed, he says, of similar powers, is useful in nephritic diseases. The root is expectorant, and produces a discharge of blood from the nostrils. (De Simpl. vii.) We have not been able to discover any traces of it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians, except in Ebn Baithar. (ii, 253.) His German translator holds it to be the Eryngium maritimum.

Κρόκος,

Crocus, Saffron, is of the second order of heating and of the first of desiccative medicines. It is also astringent and digestive.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Without doubt it is the Crocus sativus. Dioscorides gives an interesting account of the different varieties of it which were used in his time. Suffice it to say, that the best decidedly was the Cicilian, from Mount Corycus, which is often alluded to by classical authors. See Pliny (xxi, 6); Celsus (v, 22); Statius (Silv. v, 3, 41); Galen (De Antid. i.) With regard to its action on the animal economy, he mentions that Thessalus held that it is merely fragrant, while some, on the other hand, maintained that it is a deadly poison in doses of dr. iij, but that in truth it is diuretic and sub-astringent, and therefore applicable to erysipelas and defluxions of the eyes, as a cure for surfeit, and for producing a discharge of urine (i, 25.) See, in like manner, Pliny (l. c.) It occurs in the Hippocratic treatises, and in the works of Celsus, who calls it purgative, emollient, and discutient. (196.) By the way, we may mention that by purgative, Celsus evidently means cleansing in external applications, as is evident from the substances with which it is enumerated, namely, verdigris, orpiment, &c. His editor, Dr. Milligan, therefore evidently mistakes the meaning of his author. (l. c.) Galen and his followers call it heating in the second degree, and drying in the first, with some astringency. The Arabians adopt the views of the Greeks as to its virtues, but prescribe it in a great many more cases than their predecessors. See Serapion (c. 173); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 241); Avicenna (ii, 2, 126.) Thus they held that it is both aphrodisiacal and cordial, and recommend it accordingly. They also used it in cases of difficult labour, and as a deobstruent in obstructions of the liver and spleen. One of Rhases’s authorities says that in doses of three drachms it proves fatal. Another of them says of it, that it improves the breathing and appetite. Symeon Seth says that it is stomachic and improves the colour. He, Serapion, and other of the ancient authorities, affirm that in large doses it occasions involuntary laughter, immoderate mirth, and the other effects which result from intoxicating liquors. From late experiments, it would appear that its powers had been overrated. See Pereira (Mat. Med. 696.) It was much used by the ancients as a perfume. See Beckmann’s ‘Hist. of Inventions,’ Joh. Bodæus a Stapel (Ad Theophrast. H. P. vi, 6), and Hertodt’s ‘Crocologia,’ as quoted by him. Its medical use, he adds, has always continued among the Orientals.

Κρόμμυον,

Cepa, Onion, is of the fourth order of heating medicines, its substance consisting of thick matter, and hence when applied to hemorrhoids it opens them. It is also sufficiently detergent, and removes alphos with vinegar; and in alopecia it occasions a more rapid growth of hair than alcyonium. Its juice is useful in suffusion and dimness of vision from thick humours.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the Allium Cepa, or onion. Galen, Dioscorides, and Serapion recommend it as an application in cases of alopecia or Porrigo decalvans. Dioscorides says that some applied it as a suppository to promote the discharge of blind piles, and he mentions its being introduced into the nose to promote the discharge from it. As a cataplasm with salt, rue, and honey, he recommends it for the bites of rabid dogs. He says it concocts and breaks hard tumours. Upon the whole, Galen, Aëtius, Oribasius, and our author, do little more under this head than abridge the more ample account of it given by Dioscorides. Celsus calls it an aperient of the bowels (ii, 29) and a diuretic (ii, 31.) He recommends it to be chewed in paralysis of the tongue. (iv, 2.) The Arabians treat of it at great length. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 119); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. iii, 18); Serapion (c. 354.) They speak favorably of it as a rubefacient, and all ascribe great powers to it as an alexipharmical medicine.

Κύαμος,

Faba, the Bean, is not far removed from a middle temperament as to cooling and drying. Its flesh is also somewhat detergent. It agrees, therefore, with expectorations from the chest and lungs. Its outer skin having also some astringency renders the whole bean, when boiled in oxycrate, a suitable remedy for cæliac and dysenteric affections. In a cataplasm it cures inflammations and swellings, and dispels the milk in the breasts.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have stated in the First Book the difficulty of determining exactly the nature of the ancient faba. See Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 1054) and Dickson (Husbandry of the Ancients.) Dioscorides describes two species, the Egyptian and the Greek, of which the former, there can be little doubt, is the Nelumbium speciosum. See Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. ii, 128), and Lindley (Veget. King. 414.) The other, as we formerly stated, was probably a variety of our small bean. The characters of both are fully stated by Dioscorides, from whom Galen and our author borrow largely under this head. They treat, however, only of the Greek bean. Dioscorides says the Egyptian is astringent and stomachic; that the flour of it made into a poultice, answers in dysenteric and colic affections, and in earache. The Arabians give a very full account of the two species of bean, both as articles of food and as medicines. See in particular, Avicenna (ii, 2, 241); Serapion (c. 97); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 279.) Avicenna and Rhases agree in commending beans for spitting of blood, and other affections of the chest.

Κύανος,

Cyanus, is possessed of acrid, purgative, and discutient powers, greater than those of the cinnabar. It has also some astringency.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Matthiolus determines it to be the Lapis Lazuli, and Sprengel agrees with him that it was a mineral containing copper and some impurities, and nearly allied to the L. Laz. Serapion describes the ἀρμένιον by the name of Lapis Lazuli, and, in fact, the ἀρμένιον and κύανος seem to have been nearly the same thing. He recommends it as a purgative which evacuates black bile. Rhases, in his chapter on the Lapis Lazuli, gives the observations of Dioscorides and Galen on the ἀρμένιον, and in his chapter on the Lapis Armenus, he compares it to the Lapis Lazuli (Cont. l. ult. i, 393, 404.) The following is Sprengel’s account of the armenium and cyanus: “Armenium est cuprum carbonicum terreum, lapidi Lazuli simile. Id in australibus petris arenosis, has ipsas penetrans mineram æris arenosam format. Ea vocatur κύανος.” (Ad Dioscor. v, 105.) From what has been stated, any person acquainted with mineralogy can have no difficulty in deciding that the cyanus and armenium were varieties of the mineral called “blue copper” by Jameson, that is to say, the “blue carbonate of copper” of Cleaveland (566.) For further information regarding it, we would refer to Matthiolus and Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. l. c.), Beckmann (Hist. of Invent.), and our article under this head in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Greek Lexicon. Our author copies his account of it from Galen. Dioscorides recommends it only as an external application, possessed of repressing, moderately septic, escharotic, and ulcerative powers. (v, 106.) The Arabians, who, however, evidently do not distinguish properly this mineral from the lapis lazuli, recommend it as an emmenagogue and purgative. When boiled with lentils, Avicenna says, it acts as an emetic in the case of a person who has swallowed any poison. He also prescribes it in asthma and pain of the kidneys. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 56); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 692); Serapion (c. 389.) The later Greek writers on medicine, like the Arabians, confound this substance with the lapis lazuli. See Theophanes Nonnus (c. 125, 143); Myrepsus (i, 30.) The former of these prescribes it as a specific in the plague. In modern times also the cyanus or blue copper has been confounded with the lapis lazuli. See Lewis (M. M. ii, 50.)

Κύκλάμινος,

Cyclaminus, Sow-bread, is possessed of various powers; for it cleanses, incides, opens the mouths of vessels, and discusses; the juice of it, therefore, when applied to hemorrhoids opens them, and it discusses hardness along with other things. Along with honey it agrees with suffusions and purges by the nose. When rubbed into the epigastrium, it loosens the belly and kills the fœtus. The whole root, though weaker than the juice, is also strong, so that when drunk with honeyed water to the amount of three drachms, it purges the internal parts. To the skin it also proves detergent. The root of the other species of sow-bread (called Cissanthemon) is of no medicinal use, but its fruit is drastic, so that when drunk it acts like the former.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides treats at considerable length of the medicinal virtues of the former species, which was the Cyclamen Europæum, recommending it as being phlegmagogue, hydragogue, emmenagogue, and alexipharmic; as an errhine in diseases of the head, and a suppository per vaginam. His other species, which he describes as having leaves like the ivy, and which some of the commentators set down as being the Lonicera Periclymenum, and others as the Solanum Dulcamara he recommends in splenic affections, in orthopnœa, and retention of the lochial discharge. (ii, 193, 194.) Pliny recommends also the second species as a remedy for coughs (H. N. xxv, 68.) Harduin agrees with Dodonæus in holding it to be the Dulcamara. The scholiast on Theocritus recommends the cyclaminus as an application to chilblains. (Ad Idyll, v.) Galen writes of it in such terms as shows that he looked upon it as a very important article. He says it promotes menstruation, both when taken internally and when applied per vaginam; and that it cures jaundice, not only by purging the viscus, but by evacuating the whole body with sweats; he also recommends it as an external application in hardness of the spleen. The other species he praises in asthma. The other Greek authorities supply nothing of much interest under this head. The Arabians treat of it largely, but somewhat confusedly. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 6, 61, 271); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 281); Mesue (De Simpl. 26); Serapion (c. 259.) Avicenna directs it to be given to the extent of three drachms with wine or mulse in cases of jaundice, and the patient is to be then covered up with many clothes, when he will sweat out the bile from his body. He says it purges the body, not only when given by the mouth, but in a suppository, and when rubbed into the skin. Rhases (l. c.) describes it under the names of Falamios, or Panis porcinus, whence the English name Sow-bread. His extracts from Dioscorides, Galen, Oribasius, and Bimasay comprise all the information on the subject possessed by his Grecian masters and his countrymen. Mesue gives a very elaborate article on the Sow-bread, which, like Avicenna, he praises as a general purger of bile, when taken by the mouth, in a suppository, and as a liniment rubbed into the belly; he also praises it as an emmenagogue, both when taken by the mouth and when applied as a pessary, and as a tried remedy in jaundice and induration of the spleen. Even as late as the days of Quincy, the cyclaminus held a place in the Dispensatory, and retained all its ancient characters. (i, 4, 293.) Orfila ranks it with the acrid poisons (iii, 3.) See further (ii, 242.)

Κύμινον,

Cuminum, Cumin, belongs to the third order of heating medicines, and is diuretic and carminative.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The C. of our author is no doubt the Cyminum sativum of Dioscorides, i. e. Cuminum Cyminum L. The two varieties of the wild cumin of Dioscorides have never been satisfactorily determined. See Parkinson, Matthiolus, and Sprengel. Dioscorides represents it as being calefacient, astringent, desiccative, and relieving tormina and flatulence, and describes a variety of cases in which he calls it applicable. (iii, 61.) Galen says it is diuretic and carminative, being calefacient in the third degree. Aëtius and Oribasius give it much the same character. Celsus assigns to it diuretic powers. (iv, 9.) The Arabians treat of it at so great length, that we can scarcely do justice to their views on this head. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 212); Serapion (c. 287); Avicenna (ii, 2, 136); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Ebn Baithar (ii, 394.) Avicenna says the immoderate use of it renders the face pale. This property of cumin is alluded to by the poets as well as the medical authors. See Horace (Epist. i, 19, 18); Persius (Sat. v.) This character of it is confirmed by modern authority. See Matthiolus (Ad Dioscor. l. c.); Bodæus a Stapel (in Theophrast.) Cumin now barely holds a very undistinguished place in our Mat. Med. (See Pereira, 1057.)

Κυνόσβατος,

Rubus caninus, Hip-tree or Dog-rose; the fruit is no bad astringent; the leaves are moderately astringent; but we must guard against the woolly part of the fruit, as it is injurious to the trachea.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides’s description is not so precise as to enable us to pronounce decidedly what it was; but we incline with several of the best authorities to refer it to the Rosa canina, or Hip-tree. Galen, our author, and the other Greek authorities, follow Dioscorides.

Κυπάρισσος,

Cupressus, Cypress; the spherical fruit and shoots of it are possessed of desiccative powers, having no sensible heat, so that they agglutinate large wounds in hard bodies. In moist gangrene it consumes deep-seated humours without trouble, and is useful in intestinal hernia.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears unquestionably to be the Cupressus sempervirens. See Stackhouse (Tab. Syst. in Theophrast.) Its fruit, being of a globular shape, was called σφάιρια by the Greeks and Pilulæ by the Latins. Pliny (H. N. xvii, 14.) Pliny recommends this as a cure for the stings of serpents, and in cases of hæmoptysis. (H. N. xxiv, 10.) Dioscorides and Serapion recommend it in these and various other cases. The cypress-nut is powerfully astringent and balsamic: hence it proves an excellent remedy in diarrhœas and dysenteries, and, as such, it is celebrated by many authors ancient and modern. Dioscorides in particular recommends it for stopping bleeding, for agglutinating wounds, and as an application to erysipelas and anthrax. Galen writes fully of it, but borrows largely from Dioscorides. Serapion does little more than give the notices of it by Dioscorides and Galen. (c. 55.) Avicenna recommends the cypress, and more especially the nut, in various cases requiring astringents, and among others as an application to polypus of the nose; he also speaks favorably of it in cases of hæmoptysis and dysuria. Like the others, he says it is a good application in ruptures. (ii, 2, 146.) See further Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 216.) The cypress is found in the ‘Flora Hippocratica,’ and in that of Celsus. The cypress-nuts are commended as astringents by all our older herbalists, and held a place in our Dispensatory as late as the time of Quincy. (93.)

Κύπερος,

Cyperus, is heating and desiccative, without pungency. Hence it promotes the cicatrization of the more humid ulcers in a wonderful manner, and relieves those in the mouth. It has also some incisive quality, and is lithontriptic, diuretic, and emmenagogue.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is undoubtedly the Cyperus rotundus. Our author’s account of its medicinal uses is taken from Galen, and is confirmed by Serapion, Avicenna, and Rhases. All of them, however, are indebted to Dioscorides, who gives it the character of being calefacient, anastomotic, and diuretic, recommends it in uterine complaints as an emmenagogue, in ulcers of the mouth, and as an ingredient in emollient plasters. (i, 4.) A modern author, Dr. Hill, gives it nearly the same character as the ancients; he calls it stomachic, deobstruent, emmenagogue, and diuretic. It likewise occurs in the Materia Medica of Tournefort, who also calls it deobstruent and emmenagogue. Quincy gives a confused account of it under the name of Cyprus (Engl. Dispens. i, l, 69); see also Lewis. Dioscorides describes also an Indian species having a root resembling ginger. Both Matthiolus and Sprengel are inclined to refer to the Curcuma. We shall have occasion to notice it afterwards, when describing the substances introduced into the Mat. Med. by the Arabians.

Κύπρος,

Ligustrum, Privet; its leaves and tops are possessed of mixed powers, being discutient and astringent, and desiccative without pain or pungency. Hence the decoction of it, when poured on a part, is useful for burns, and agrees with inflammations of a hot nature. When chewed it also relieves aphthæ, and is mixed up with splenic remedies.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We must decline entering upon the general literature of this subject, which has created a good deal of discussion. Suffice it to say, that we have now no hesitation in deciding it to be the Lawsonia inermis, namely, the plant from which the henna of Egypt is obtained. See Lindley’s Veg. King. (575.) It is used by females for staining their hands and feet of an orange colour. Dioscorides mentions that an infusion of its leaves in the juice of saponaria, or soapwort, was used for painting the hairs yellow. He says of the ointment prepared from it (unguentum cyprinum), that it is calefacient, emollient, and fragrant. (i, 124.) Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius give it the same characters as our author. The Arabians describe it under the name of alcanna, which seems to be henna with an Arabic prefix. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 110), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 50.) Both copy freely from Dioscorides and Galen. They say its virtues in female complaints are similar to those of the Sanguis Draconis. All praise it as a vulnerary herb, and a good application in cases of burning. They further commend it in pleurisy and quinsy as a plaster. Ebn Baithar treats of it at very great length. (i, 338.) It would appear that the privet is still used as a medicine and dye by the native physicians of Hindostan. See a very interesting account of it in Ainslie’s Mat. Indica (ii, 190.)

Κύτισος,

Cytisus; its leaves are of a gently discutient and tepid nature, like those of melons.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. After maturely weighing the opinions which have been held respecting this classical herb, we have no hesitation in agreeing with those who refer it to the Tree-medick (Medicago arborea L.) Dioscorides says its leaves are cooling and discutient when applied externally, and diuretic when taken in decoction. (iv, iii.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it very succinctly, like our author. Avicenna briefly recommends it as a diuretic medicine, and one which is applicable in diseases of the spleen. (ii, 2, 24.)

Κώνειον,

Cicuta, Hemlock; that it is possessed of extremely cold powers is obvious.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears unquestionably to be the Conium maculatum. Stoerck and Bergius, contrary to the opinions of the ancient physicians, affirm that it is aphrodisiacal. This, however, seems doubtful. We have treated of its effects as a poison in the Fifth Book. As a medicine it does not appear to have been much used latterly, although Dioscorides says that its inspissated juice is of great use in the healing art, being mixed with wine in anodyne collyria, and used as a cataplasm for the cure of erysipelas and herpes. He also speaks of its being applied as a cataplasm to the testicles for the removal of the pollutio nocturni somni, and with the view of inducing impotence; and to the breasts, in order to dispel milk and render them atrophied. (iv, 79.) Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius, like our author, merely state of it, in their works in the Mat. Med., that it is possessed of intensely refrigerant powers. It would appear that Galen was in the practice of administering it internally. (T. ii, 451, ed. Basil.) Of the Arabians, Avicenna gives the fullest exposition of its remedial powers, but he copies closely from Dioscorides, recommending it as a cold and narcotic application in the same cases as Dioscorides. He says it stops bleeding, congeals the blood, and induces torpor. (ii, 2, 662.) See also Serapion (c. 347.) It is, most probably, the cicuta of Celsus, who places it in his list of emollients. (v, 15.) It occurs also in the Hippocratic Collection, where both its leaves and seeds are recommended in fomentations. (De Steril.; de Fistulis, &c.)

Κῶνος,

Strobilus, the Wild Pine; the bark and leaves have powers like the pine, but more acrid and drastic. As to the fruit, which is called strobilus, the green has some bitterness and acrimony, with humidity, and hence it is applicable for promoting expectoration from the chest. The esculent kind, when soaked in water, so as to lay aside its acrimony, becomes of a good temperament, being free from pungency and emplastic, and hence it smooths asperities.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It here signifies the Pinus sylvestris, or Wild-pine; but it is commonly put for the Nux Pinea, or the cones of the Pinus Pinea, called in the shops Pignoli pines, and the seeds pine-nuts. Athenæus says that Theophrastus called the tree πέυκη and the fruit κῶνος. Diphilus, as quoted by the same, calls the pine-nuts nutritious, and says that they lubricate the trachea, and promote expectoration. (Deip. ii.) Galen, Serapion, and the other authorities also commend them in similar cases. Dioscorides treats of this subject in the 86th, 87th, and 88th chapters in the First Book, but not under the same head as our author. He recommends the different articles in nearly the same cases as Paulus and the other authorities. The fruit of the wild pine he commends as a demulcent in affections of the bladder and kidneys, and as a sedative in pains of the stomach. Celsus prescribes “nuclei ex pinu silvestri duodecim,” among his remedies for ulcerated kidneys. (iv, 10.) Avicenna treats of the subject under different heads, like Dioscorides, whom he closely follows. (ii, 2, 280, 301, 555, 693.) He recommends these articles in diseases of the chest and kidneys. He calls the fruit aphrodisiacal. See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 3, 20); Serapion (c. 63); Averrhoes (Coll. v, 42.) All speak favorably of these medicines in diseases of the kidneys and bladder.

Λαγώπους,

Lagopus, is possessed of desiccative powers and dries up fluxes of the belly.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This plant, the description of which is passed over by Dioscorides as being well known, may be set down among the articles of the ancient Materia Medica, which are least known to us. We may just mention regarding it, that some take it for Trifolium arvense, and others for Lagurus ovatus. Dioscorides calls it an astringent of the bowels, and mentions that it was used as an amulet in buboes. (iv, 17.) Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius briefly notice it as a desiccative medicine. We have not been able to find this article in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians, but are aware that it may be concealed under some of their odd corruptions of the Greek terms. It seems probable that this is the lagopyrus of Hippocrates. (De Ulcer.)

Λάδανον,

Ladanum; it is formed from the Cistus called Ladanus; the goats feeding upon it bring away upon their beard and thighs the fatter and more juicy part of the herb. Ladanum, when collected, is an excellent medicine, hot in about the second degree, and consisting of subtile particles. It is moderately emollient, discutient, and digestive; it therefore agrees with uterine affections in particular. It has also some astringency, and hence it strengthens hairs which are falling out.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dierbach and Sprengel agree with the elder commentators in calling it the Cistus Creticus. See also Royal Pharm. (i, c. 20.) Dr. Lindley says of the ladanum, that it is a resinous balsamic substance obtained from Cistus Creticus, and other species of the genus; he adds, that it has been esteemed as a stimulant and emmenagogue, and recommended in chronic catarrh. (Veg. King. 350.) Dioscorides mentions that it was procured either from the beards of goats which had browsed upon it, or by scraping the tree with thongs. Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen deliver its medicinal characters in much the same terms as our author. Dioscorides recommends it not only in uterine diseases, but also as a diuretic. He also speaks favorably of it as an ingredient in anodyne and expectorant plasters. (i, 128.) See Galen (ii, 160 ed. Basil.) The Arabians treat fully of it, but borrow almost every word they say respecting it from Dioscorides and Galen. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 422); Serapion (c. 43); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 361); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) The labdanum was retained in the Dispensatory as late as the time of Quincy, who has given an accurate account of it. (70.) It is also very correctly described by Tournefort, both in his voyage to the Levant and in his Mat. Med. (363.) Its use, however, is now obsolete. See Pereira (1263.) In Pemberton’s edition of the Dispensatory, there is given a formula for the composition of a “stomach plaster,” one of the ingredients of which is labdanum. (359.) We would vote for its being restored to the Pharmacopœia.

Λαθυρὶς,

Lathyris, is a species of spurge, and some say that its juice purges in a similar manner. Its seed in particular has purgative powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt, from our author’s brief notice of it, that it is the Euphorbia Lathyris, L. Dioscorides says of it that it evacuates phlegm, bile, and water. He mentions that its leaves were boiled along with a fowl or pot-herbs to loosen the bowels. Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in brief terms, like our author. The Arabians treat of it at greater length, recommending it strongly in diseases of the joints, gout, and sciatica. They also mention its being a remedy for dropsy. They say it acts as an emetic. They direct its seeds to be boiled in the broth of an old cock, and taken. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 473); Serapion (c. 354.) It is not met with in the works either of Hippocrates or of Celsus. It does not occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, but is briefly noticed in Dr. Pereira’s Materia Medica (777.)

Λαμψάνη,

Lampsana, Nipplewort, when eaten supplies bad juices to the body. In a cataplasm it is detergent and discutient.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears pretty certain that it is the Charlock, that is to say, either the Raphanus Raphanistrum or Sinapi Arvense. Both are known by the English name of Charlock. It is rather a potherb than a medicine.

Λάπαθον,

Lapathum, Dock, is possessed of moderately discutient powers; but the oxylapathum is also somewhat repellent. The seed, particularly of the oxylapathum, being astringent, cures diarrhœas and dysenteries. The leaves, in so far, have opposite qualities to the seed; for they, when eaten, loosen the belly, whereas it, when drunk, proves astringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Of the Rumices, the Oxylapathum, or Rumex acutus, was the species most used in medicine, and is the only one particularized by our author, with the exception of the hippolopathum already described. Of the four other species described by Dioscorides, the ὀξαλὶς is pretty generally acknowledged as the Rumex acetosa. The others cannot be determined with any degree of accuracy. See Sprengel, Sibthorp, Matthiolus, Parkinson, Gerard, and Rutty. Dioscorides gives the first of his species much the same characters as our author, recommending it most especially as a discutient application to leprosies and scrofulous tumours. He also speaks favorably of it as applied on a pessary in the fluor albus. The roots, he adds, boiled in wine, cure jaundice, and act as lithontriptics, emmenagogues, and alexipharmics. He further speaks of the dock as being appended in the form of an amulet for scrofulous swellings. (ii, 140, 141.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat cursorily of the lapatha, like our author. They occur in the works of Hippocrates and of Celsus; the latter ranks the lapathum among the articles of food which contain bad juices (ii, 21), are bad for the stomach (ii, 25), and are laxative of the bowels (ii, 29.) Pliny’s account of the lapatha is mostly taken from Dioscorides. (H. N. xx, 85.) The term rumex, now generally applied to the genus dock, is taken from Pliny (xix, 60.) The dock is recommended by Africanus in jaundice, dropsy, and for the cure of leprosy, lichen, and alphos. (Geopon. xii, 38.) Macer, in the tenth century, describes it under the name of paratella, and, like the more ancient authorities, commends it externally for the cure of cutaneous diseases, and internally as an astringent. The Arabians, in like manner, prescribe it in these cases, and in general copy from Dioscorides in treating of the different species of dock. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 53); Serapion (c. 3); Ebn Baithar (i, 324.) The last of these treats fully of the rumices, but does not seem to describe any species not noticed by the Greeks.

Λειμώνιον,

Limonium, Sea Lavender; its fruit being austere, is given to the amount of an acetabulum, with wine, in cæliac and dysenteric affections, in hæmoptysis, and for the uterine discharge.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the limonium is borrowed from Dioscorides, who describes the plant as having leaves like beet, but more slender and longer, a slender straight stem, like that of the lily, filled with red fruit of an astringent taste. Like our author, he recommends it in cases requiring astringents. As far as we can judge, the characters here given it by Dioscorides apply very well to the plant called sea lavender or red behen, namely, the Statice Limonium, L. Compare Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 1234) and Gray (Suppl. to the Pharmac.) with Dioscorides (iv, 16.) There seems no necessity, therefore, for following Gesner in transferring it to the Polygonum Bistorta. The other authorities, both Greek and Arabian, follow Dioscorides closely in treating of the limonium. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 423); Avicenna (ii, 2, 433); Ebn Baithar (ii, 452.) The German editor of the last of these, we are glad to find, agrees with us in referring this article to the Statice Limonium.

Λειχὴν,

Lichen; that upon rocks, which is like moss, being possessed of detergent and, at the same time, moderately refrigerant and desiccative powers, cures lichen, and is anti-inflammatory; and, as Dioscorides says, also stops hemorrhages. The lichens of horses, when triturated with vinegar, are said to cure epilepsy and the bite of every venomous animal.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the vegetable is abridged from Dioscorides, who, as stated by him, recommends it for stopping hemorrhages, and also for dispelling phlegmons and curing lichens: he adds, that it cures jaundice and removes defluxions of the mouth when rubbed in with honey. (iv, 53.) To which of the Lichenales of modern botanists it is applicable is somewhat doubtful: whether to the Sticta pulmonacea, as Matthiolus held; to the Peltidea aphthosa; or to the Peltigera canina. Compare Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. l. c.) with Lindley (Veg. King. 48), and Parkinson (1315.) This is also evidently identical with the second species of lichen described by Pliny. (H. N. xxvi, 10.) His former species is the Marchantia conica, L. (Ibid.) See Harduin (apud l. c.)

The λέιχηνες ἱππῶν are the well-known callosities forming at the knees of horses, called spavins in English. See further, Harduin ad Plin. H. N. xxviii, 49. They are thus described by Cælius Aurelianus: “Sunt autem squamulæ anteriorum crurum sub armorum partibus in ipsis animalibus (equis) nata; has Græci lichenas vocant, sive chelidonas, nos vero impetigines vel hirundines.” (Tard. Pass. i, 4.) The Empirics gave them for the cure of epilepsy. (Ibid.) See Avicenna (ii, 233) and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 271.)

Λεοντοπέταλον,

Leontopetalum, Lion’s-leaf; its root is heating and desiccative in the third degree, and is possessed of discutient powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Although Dioscorides has described this plant with more than his wonted accuracy, there is still some uncertainty regarding it, some holding it to be the Leontice Leontopetalon, and others the Corydalis bulbosa. The latter would appear to agree better in character with the description of Dioscorides than the other. See Lindley (Veg. King. 436.) The other authorities treat of it in very general terms, like our author, except Oribasius, who gives a pretty minute description of it, like Dioscorides. It is noticed by Ebn Baithar (ii, 186), who, however, does not supply much additional information. Dr. Sontheimer sets it down for the Leontice Leontopetalon.

Λεπίδιον,

Lepidium, Pepperwort (by some called Iberis), belongs to the fourth order of calefacients, being like the cress in powers, but less desiccative.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of this plant (which is Lepidium latifolium, Pepperwort) is mostly taken from Galen. Dioscorides says it is made into a pickle with milk, and that the power of its leaves is acrid and ulcerative, and hence it is used in a cataplasm for sciatica. He says further of it, that it is also applicable in diseases of the spleen, removes leprosy, and that its root would seem to soothe pains of the teeth when appended to the neck as an amulet. (ii, 205.) It is to be remarked that Dioscorides always speaks of the virtues of amulets in ambiguous terms. It is described by the Arabians under the name of Sitarig or Scitaragi. See Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 655) and Avicenna (ii, 2, 657.) Avicenna’s description of it is somewhat confused, and cannot be easily reconciled with that of Dioscorides, but with regard to its medicinal virtues, they are quite agreed. Bimasuy, one of Rhases’s authorities, says of it, that its seed is like the seed of nasturtium, but not so heating. Beckmann mentions that the Lepidium latifolium was at one time used as a kitchen vegetable, and was called, in England, poor man’s pepper. (Hist. of Invent.)

Λεπὶς,

Squama, Flake; all kinds are strongly desiccative and astringent, and pungent in no inconsiderable degree. But the squama æris (Flakes of copper) is more desiccative, consists of more subtile particles, and has also some verdigris, more especially that from Cyprian nails, which is hence called clavaris. The squama ferri is possessed of more astringency, and still more that which is formed from the edge of sharp instruments, called stomoma, hence it is better for ill-conditioned ulcers. But the squama æris cleanses and melts down flesh more.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The squama æris was a black per-oxyd of copper. The squama ferri, a black oxyd of iron. The stomoma was the chalybs or steel. See Dioscorides (v, 89), with the Commentaries of Matthiolus and Sprengel, and also the Appendix to Dunbar’s Lexicon. Geoffroy says of the squama æris, that it is little different from the æs astum being only the particles of burnt copper that fly off when hammered. Dioscorides calls it astringent and epulotic: when drunk with honeyed water, he says, it is phlegmagogue; some give it in flour as a pill; it is mixed, he adds, with ophthalmic remedies, drying defluxions, and removing asperities of the eyelids. The stomoma, he says, is inferior to the squama æris as a purgative. (v, 89, 90.) Our author’s account of these substances is borrowed from Galen. Aëtius also copies from Galen. Oribasius gives a fuller description of them, differing very little from that of Dioscorides. The Arabians treat of all these substances, as usual, borrowing freely from Dioscorides, and not adding much of their own. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 231); Serapion (c. 404); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. vi, 48); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 43.) They prescribe the squama æris internally as a purge, and say of it that when the palate is smeared with it vomiting is excited. These substances occur in the Hippocratic treatises and in the works of Celsus. They have not been used medicinally in this country for some time past. The Hindoos use the preparations of copper both internally and externally, according to Dr. Royle. (Hindoo Med. 90.)

Λευκάκανθον,

Leucacanthon, White Acanthus (called also Polygonaton and Ischias); its root is of a cutting nature and desiccative in the third degree, and it is heating in the first.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We can only determine for certain that it belonged to the Carduineæ, but can scarcely venture to fix the genus, so loose is the description which the ancient authors have given of it, and so various the conjectures of modern commentators and herbalists respecting it. Upon the whole, the preponderance of the authorities is in favour of the Cirsium tuberosum. Dioscorides says of it, that its root is intensely bitter, and that the decoction of it with wine relieves chronic pleurisy and sciatica, ruptures and sprains, and further, that it relieves toothache. (iii, 19.) Galen recommends it in cæliac and stomach affections and hemoptysis; as a cataplasm to swellings, and a cure to toothache when used as a gargle. Aëtius gives the same character of it. The Arabians ascribe the same virtues to it, and also hold it to he alexipharmic. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 80, 671) and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 118.) The use of it in medicine is as old as the Hippocratic age. See Dierbach’s Materia Medica Hippocr.

Λευκὰς,

Leucas, is heating and desiccative in the third degree, but its prevailing property is acrimony.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears certainly to be a species of Lamium, either the album or the maculatum. See Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 672) and Sprengel (Ad Dioscor.) Dioscorides commends it as an application to venomous animals, especially those of the sea. (iii, 103.) The other authorities treat of it in general terms, like our author, who copies almost word for word from Galen.

Λευκοΐον,

Viola alba, Stock Gillyflower; the whole plant is detergent and attenuating, especially its flowers, and those in particular which are drier, so that it promotes menstruation, kills and ejects the fœtus; and if their powers are blunted by a mixture with water, they will answer with inflammations, particularly those of the uterus. The roots being possessed of similar powers, are composed of more gross matter, and are more terrene. But with vinegar they relieve indurated phlegmons.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. That the plant here described was stock, i. e. Cheiranthus Cheiri, is unquestionable. Dioscorides evidently included also another plant of the same order under this head, which, as stated by Sprengel, may probably be a variety of the Matthiola incana. He gives nearly the same account of its medicinal virtues as our author. Dioscorides says it kills the fœtus in utero when applied on a pessary; and Galen and Aëtius ascribe the same powers to it when taken in a draught. By the Arabians it is obscurely treated of, their authorities in general seeming to confound it with the violet. See Rhases (Ad Mansor. iii, 21); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 37, 226); Ebn Baithar (i, 403.) The last of these does little more than copy from Galen and Dioscorides. It is not contained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. It is the Viola lutea of our herbalist Gerard, and held a place in our Dispensatory as late as Quincy.

Λέυκη,

Populus alba, the White Poplar; the tree being composed of a watery, tepid, and terrene substance, has detergent properties.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt of its being the Populus alba, L. Dioscorides says of it, that its bark, when taken in a draught, cures sciatica and strangury; that it is said to prevent conception; and that it is a remedy for earache and other complaints. (i, 109.) Our author copies from Galen. The Arabians, under this head, are servile copyists from the Greeks. See Serapion (c. 30); Avicenna (ii, 2, 333); and Ebn Baithar (i, 340.)

Λιβανωτὶς,

Rosmarinus, Rosemary; there are three varieties of it, one of which is sterile, and the other two bear fruit. They are possessed of detergent, incisive, discutient, and emollient powers. The juice of them, with honey, cures dimness of sight occasioned by thick humours. A decoction of that variety, which is used for garlands, proves serviceable in jaundice.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, like our author, describes three species, of which the first bears a fruit called cachrys, a term previously used by Theophrastus and Nicander, and from which the plant has now got the scientific appellation of Cachrys Libanotis. The root of this plant is still kept by our apothecaries, although it has long ceased to hold a place in our Dispensatory. See Gray’s Suppl. to the Pharmacop. (80.) The second species is probably the Ferula nodiflora. The third cannot be satisfactorily determined. Our old English herbalists give the libanotis the name of “herb frankincense.” (See Parkinson and Gerard.) These libanotides, however, must be distinguished from “the libanotis, called rosmarinus by the Romans,” which was the well-known Rosmarinus officinalis, and of which the flower, known by the name of anthos, was in frequent use as a medicine in the age of Sydenham, and still retains a place in our Dispensatory. We have been obliged to enter with more length than usual into the general literature of this subject, to prevent the mistake of confounding the cachrys with the rosmarinus, which might be readily done, if the distinction now adverted to had not been clearly pointed out. Dioscorides recommends the libanotides for various medicinal purposes, as being emmenagogue, diuretic, and discutient. Our author’s character of them is mostly taken from Galen. The Arabians treat obscurely and confusedly of this subject. See particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 67); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 71); Serapion (c. 327.) Rhases says of the rosemary, that it is calefacient and attenuant, and hence proves carminative, diuretic, and emmenagogue. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia the Rosmarinus officinalis stands as the representative of the λιβανωτὶς. (Athens, 1837.)

Λιβανωτὸς,

Thus, Frankincense is heating in the second order, and desiccative in the first. It has also a slight sub-astringency. The bark of it is perceptibly astringent. It is, therefore, desiccative in the second degree complete. Consisting of thicker matter than the frankincense, and being less acrid, it cures hæmoptysis, dysentery, cæliac and stomachic affections, both externally and when taken internally. The green shoot of it is heating and desiccative in the third degree. It is also somewhat detergent, by which property it cleanses and fills ulcers in the eyes.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is still by no means satisfactorily determined what tree it is which produces the frankincense; but the best authorities are now inclined to think that it is the Boswellia turifera. See Pereira (Mat. Med., 1185); Ainslie (Mat. Ind. 78); and Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 459.) Dioscorides says the best kind of incense is “the male,” by which the ancients meant the purest kind of it, or that consisting of the larger grains. See Gray (Pharmacop. 200.) The Indian is of an inferior quality. He calls it heating, astringent, and cleansing; and recommends it in hemorrhages, recent wounds, burns, chilblains, and other diseases of a like nature. He gives minute directions for the use of it in fumigations. The bark of the frankincense tree he recommends in fluxes and hemorrhages, and in ulcers of the eyes. The manna of frankincense will be explained by us under that head. (Mat. Med. i, 81-3.) Oribasius gives a perfectly similar account of the frankincense; indeed, he avowedly copies from Dioscorides. (Med. Collect. xi.) Our author’s account is mostly taken from Galen. On the Thus see further Pliny (H. N. xii, 30) and Rhases (Contin. xxxvii, § 716.) Most of the ancient authorities affirm that it acts beneficially in mental disease, that it sharpens perception, and improves the memory. They also recommend it in fumigations for removing the pestilential constitution of the atmosphere, as we have stated in the Second Book. Symeon Seth, mostly borrowing from Galen and our author, says, under the head of frankincense, that it is of a drying nature, with a certain astringent quality; that it binds the bowels; in fumigations helps coughs and defluxions; is emmenagogue both when drunk and applied per vaginam; that in fumigations it is possessed of powers for averting the pestilence; and hence in a pestilential season that houses should be diligently fumigated with it, in order to correct the pernicious quality of the air. The Arabians used it very freely as an ingredient in their applications to ulcers, including those of the eyes. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 525) and Serapion (c. 278.) Averrhoes, like preceding authorities, recommends the bark in fluxes, hæmoptysis, and ulceration of the intestines. (Collig. v. 42.) The frankincense occurs frequently in the treatises contained in the Hippocratic collection, and in the works of Celsus. The latter used all the kinds mentioned by the Greeks, such as, “thus masculum,” “fuligo thuris,” and “cortex thuris.” These he uses for the same purposes as the Greeks, that is to say, for suppressing bleeding, concocting pus, cleansing sores, and so forth.

Λιγνὺς,

Fuligo, the Soot arising from certain kinds of substances when they are burnt, such as frankincense, myrrh, turpentine, storax, liquid pitch, and cedar, is desiccative, terrene, and attenuate: but there are varieties of it agreeably to the material that is burnt. It is used for ophthalmic remedies and those for adorning the eyebrows. That which is most used is the soot from frankincense, as being the mildest; and again, that from the pine, wild pine and pitch tree, as being the strongest. It is applied, therefore, for baldness of the eyebrows, and for watery and ulcerated canthi of the eyelids, and weeping eyes.

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COMMENTARY. Little need be said under this head. Pliny recommends it along with vinegar as an application to erysipelas. Galen recommends it in the same cases as our author. He defines the soot to be the remains of the fire which consumed the materiel. Serapion’s account of it is entirely taken from Galen. Dioscorides (i, 84) and Oribasius (Med. Collect. xi) describe more minutely than any of the others the process for preparing the Fuligo Thuris. It was used principally in ulcers of the eyes. The soot of storax and myrrh, as Serapion says, is prepared agreeably to the same process as that of frankincense.

Λιγυστικὸν,

Ligusticum, Lovage; the root and seed of it are heating to such a degree as to promote menstruation. It is also very carminative.

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COMMENTARY. We have always thought that the Ligusticum Levisticum had been introduced into this country by the Romans, in order to supply them with an article frequently used by them at home, as a condiment. See the works of Apicius (pluries.) Dioscorides describes it minutely, and recommends it in a great variety of complaints, as an emmenagogue and diuretic, to promote digestion and dispel flatulence. He also mentions that it was often used as a condiment in place of pepper. (iii, 51.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it very succinctly. The Arabians ascribe to it anthelminthic and alexipharmic powers. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 377); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. iii, 17.) It is not met with in the works of Celsus, nor, as far as we can discover, in those of Hippocrates. Lovage held a place in the Materia Medica with all its ancient characters down to a late date. See the works of Parkinson, Gerard, Culpeper, Rutty, and Quincy. It holds a place in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (97.)

Λιθάργυρος,

Spuma Argenti, Litharge, is of the middle order among metallic substances; we therefore often use it as the vehicle for other remedial powers. It is moderately desiccative, detergent, and astringent; hence it is used for excoriations of the thighs from friction.

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COMMENTARY. The ancient Litharge was nowise different from the modern, being a secondary product in the cupellation of argentiferous lead. It was, therefore, a protoxide of lead. The varieties of it known to the ancients, and their modes of preparing it, are circumstantially described by Pliny (H. N. xxxiii, 35), Dioscorides (v, 72), and Oribasius (Med. Collect. xiii.) It was used by the Hippocratists in the practice of medicine. (De Morb. Mulier. ii.) It is the “Spuma Argenti” of Celsus, who notices it in various parts of his works as a cooling and cleansing medicine. (v, 290.) Dioscorides merely says of it, that washed litharge seems to suit ophthalmic remedies, unseemly cicatrices, wrinkled faces, and maculæ. (v, 102.) Our author condenses what Galen says under this head. The Arabian authorities treat of it fully, but supply little or no additional information respecting it. See Serapion (De Simpl. 410); Avicenna (ii, 2, 460); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 43); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 428.) They recommend it generally as an astringent in fetor of the armpits, to restrain copious perspiration, to dispel extravasated blood, and remove unseemly cicatrices, and especially the marks of variolæ and morbilli. It does not appear that any of the physicians administered it internally; but Avicenna mentions that he had known women give it in fluxes and ulceration of the intestines. Ebn Baithar is very full on this head (ii, 513.) One of his Arabian authorities, Ibn Ben Amram, recommends it in diarrhœa, as a clyster to stop the discharge; and mixed up with vinegar and rose-oil, it is said to be useful in congenital hernia and other complaints about the scrotum.

Λίθοι,

Lapides, Stones; all kinds are desiccative like earth; but the Hæmatites, or Blood-stone, is astringent and desiccative in a considerable degree, so that it agrees with trachoma of the eyelids, and if they are free from inflammation it is to be used with water; but if inflamed, with an egg. It is drunk also with advantage for spitting of blood; and it restrains the fungous flesh of ulcers. The Schistos or Scissilis has similar properties, but is weaker: and after it the Galactites, or Milk-stone. The Melititis, or Honey-stone, has also a certain degree of heat. The Moroxus (called also Leucographis), being so much softer than the others, and possessing no active quality, is much more mild, and occasions less pain; it is, therefore, used as an application to the soft parts of the body with cerate for the cicatrization of ulcers. The greenish Jasper, being possessed of stronger powers, attenuates cicatrices and pterygia. The Green Jasper is useful in stomach complaints, when appended as an amulet, and when worn in a ring. That called the Judaic-stone breaks renal calculi, and hence the moderns have called it Tecolithos. The Pyrites acts as a powerful discutient of tumours and coagula; and when it is not at hand, the Molaris may be used instead. The Phrygian, in addition to being powerfully desiccative, has also some astringency and pungency; hence it is repellent and discutient, and is therefore mixed up with ophthalmic remedies. The Ageratus, being possessed of astringent and discutient powers, is of use in inflammations of the uvula. The flower of the Asian-stone is composed of so subtile parts that it corrodes flabby flesh without pungency. The Gagate-stone, being considerably desiccative, agrees principally with chronic cases of emphysema. The Magnet (called also the Heraclean-stone) has similar powers to the Hæmatites. The Arabian-stone is like ivory, desiccative and detergent. Some give those affected with stomach complaints a draught composed of burnt Alabaster. The Smeris, Emery, having detergent powers, cleanses the teeth. The stones found in Sponges break down renal calculi; and those formed on the Argæan mountain of Cappadocia are possessed of similar powers, and in like manner the stone called Ophites, which is appended as an amulet with advantage to those bitten by the viper. The Ostracites and Geodes are said to be considerably desiccative so as to cure inflammatory swellings. The Retrimentum Naxiæ cotis, filings of the Naxian Whetstone, is said to be refrigerant, so as to repress the breasts of virgins, and the testicles of children. The filings of the Cos oleraria, being detergent, suit with alopecia. It is said that the Hieracites and Indian-stone, when appended as amulets, stop the discharge of blood from hemorrhoids, and that the Sapphire, when drunk, relieves persons bitten by the scorpion, and the Aphroselinum, epileptics. The Armenian-stone purges the belly downwards, but is prejudicial to the stomach.

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COMMENTARY. The following account of the stones used by the ancients in the practice of medicine is derived from a careful study of the ancient writers on this subject, especially Theophrastus, Pliny, Orpheus, and Psellus. We have also availed ourselves freely of the labours of the modern commentators who have written on these ancient authors, namely, De Laet, De Boet, Marbodeus, Hill, and others. For a fuller description of some of the articles, we would beg to refer to our Appendix to Dunbar’s English and Greek Lexicon.

The Hæmatites or Blood-stone was so called from its colour, or because it was used as a styptic for stopping hemorrhages, as stated by Galen. It consists principally of the oxide of iron. Professor Cleaveland says it contains from 60 to 80 per cent. of iron of excellent quality. It was used for the cure of ophthalmy. See Dioscorides (v, 143); Galen (De Simpl. ix); Serapion (De Simpl. 421.) They also recommend it in menorrhagia. Alexander praises it in hæmoptysis. Averrhoes recommends it in diseases of the eyelids and eyes. (Collig. iv, 43.) Dr. Hill says it is accounted astringent and desiccative. He adds, “it is given from 10 to 25 grains in hemorrhages and in distemperatures of the eyes.” Besides this, the ancients were acquainted with another Blood-stone which they call Heliotrope.

The Schistos is only a variety of the hæmatites, having a fibrous appearance and ochre colour. Pliny says it is used in diseases of the eyes.

The Lapis Melitites of Pliny is supposed by Dr. Kidd to have been borax, or the borate of soda. Pliny recommends it mixed with wax for ulcers of the throat. (H. N. xxxvi, 33.) See Isidorus (Orig. xvi, 4.) It seems likely that it was the same as the tincar of the Arabians, although on this point we do not venture to pronounce a decided opinion. One of Serapion’s authorities speaks highly of it in caries of the teeth, and says it kills the worms in them. Is this the original of the popular belief, that toothache is connected with worms in the teeth? (De Simpl. 423.)

The Galactites most probably consisted principally of chalk. Matthiolus and Sprengel mention that it is found in Saxony. Dr. Hill remarks that it is, properly speaking, a species of indurated clay, and not a stone. Dr. Jameson conjectures that it may have been Fuller’s earth. Dioscorides recommends it as a liniment in defluxions of the eyes. (v, 149.)

The Morochthus, according to Sprengel, is called Speckstein and Seifenstein in German. It consists of talc, argil, and silica, with a small proportion of iron and manganese. Dr. Hill says it is an indurated clay, and is now known by the name of French chalk. Dioscorides recommends it in hæmoptysis, cæliac affections, and pains of the bladder; and for the cure of fluor albus on pessaries. (v, 151.) Avicenna speaks favorably of it also in fistula lachrymalis. (ii, 2, 431.)

The Achates, or Agate, is well described by Orpheus, and recommended as a remedy for fever and various other complaints. It does not seem to be noticed by the medical authorities.

The ancients were acquainted with several varieties of Jasper. See Pliny (H. N. xxxvii, 37.) They contained talc and various other ingredients. Dioscorides recommends it solely as a phylactery or amulet to expedite delivery. (v, 159.) Galen and Avicenna speak of its being useful as an amulet in affections of the stomach and bowels. The latter calls it Lapis aneseb. (ii, 2, 408.) Even in modern times the Jasper has been celebrated as an amulet. See Andreas Laurentius (De Mirab. Strum. Sanat. 69), and Hill (Mat. Med. 276.)

The Judaic-stone appears to be the Tecolithos of Pliny. It is now ascertained that it is formed from the quills of the Echinus Marinus, impregnated with calcareous earth, silica, and perhaps some magnesia. Most of the ancient authorities commend it as a lithontriptic. V. Harduin in Plin. H. N. xxxvii, 68. Dioscorides recommends it not only as a lithontriptic medicine, but a remedy for dysuria in general. (v, 154.) Galen and Serapion also affirm that they had experienced good effects from it when given in calculus of the kidneys or bladder. See in particular Serapion (c. 390.) Rhases, however, affirms that he had tried the lapis vesicæ, by which he probably means this article, but had not found it to be lithontriptic. (Cont. l. ult. 414.) Dr. Hill says it is, undoubtedly, diuretic, but it is not so certain that it is lithontriptic.

The Pyrites, when burnt, forms an oxide of copper with sulphur. From our author’s account, it is evident that the Molaris nearly resembled it, and the same may be understood from Pliny. It will, of course, be understood that it is the copper pyrites, and not the iron. This is very obvious from the description of it given by Dioscorides. He calls it heating, detergent, and a cleanser of obscurities of the eyes, and recommends it for repressing fungated ulcers. When burnt, he adds, some call it diphryges. It is described under the name of marchasita by Serapion (c. 395), Phases (Cont. l. ult. i, 449), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 464.) They all recommend it with vinegar in leprosy and other obstinate diseases of the skin.

The Phrygian-stone was a pumice with alum and some other ingredients. Dioscorides says it has astringent, cleansing, and moderately escharotic powers, and proves a remedy for burns. (v, 140.) Galen professes to have had great experience of it in diseases of the eyes. (Ed. Basil. t. ii, 122, 208.) See also Avicenna (ii, 2, 405.)

The Ageratus does not occur we believe in Dioscorides or Pliny. Galen calls it a stone which the curriers of leather use. He says it is astringent and acrid, and recommends it particularly in inflamed uvula. Avicenna copies from him. (ii, 2, 409.)

The Anthrax or Carbuncle of the ancients comprehended the ruby and a multitude of other gems of the same colour. It was scarcely used in medicine.

De Boet says that the Asian-stone is light and spongy, and contains alum, nitre, and salt. Dioscorides calls it slightly septic and discutient, and recommends it as an application to old, and more especially fungated, ulcers, and those of a malignant nature. The flower of it, by which was meant an efflorescence on the surface of it, he says does good in phthisis. He further says of it, that a hip-bath prepared with it is highly beneficial in the cure of gout. (v, 141.) Galen and the other authorities treat of it in more general terms. (De Simpl. ix.) See also Serapion, who merely copies from Dioscorides and Galen. (c. 393.)

The Amethyst of our times is the same gem that the ancients knew by this name. Except that it was suspended from the neck as an amulet to prevent drunkenness, we are not aware that it was used in medicine. See Pliny (H. N. xxxvii, 40); Marbodeus (De Lapid. 4.)

The Gagate is a fossil, bituminous substance, containing carbon and ethereal oil. It is jet. The Thracian-stone was similar to it; indeed, we suppose, a variety of it. The Gagate was used by the ancients as a test of epilepsy, and a restorative from hysterical fits. Galen gives an interesting account of his experience in the medicinal use of gagate and Thracian-stone, the result of which is, that he found gagate rather to weaken than increase the powers of the bitumen which he had picked up upon the shores of the Dead Sea; but that as a desiccant, it operated beneficially in the cure of sores, and that not only of recent, but also of sinuous ulcers. (De Simpl. ix.) He mentions that he could not discover the river Gagas in Lycia, from which, according to Dioscorides, this stone derives its name. (Ibid.) There is an interesting description of the Thracian-stone in a passage of Nicander quoted by Galen, under this head, Theriac. (45.) The Arabians who treat of it merely copy from the Greeks. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 399, 400), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 107.) Mesue gives a formula for an oil of gagate. (De Oleis, i.)

Aristotle suggests that perhaps the Magnet is animated. (De Anima.) To comprehend his reasons for maintaining this singular opinion, it would be necessary to understand his theory of motion, as fully exposed in his ‘Auscultationes Naturales.’ Lucretius, with considerable ingenuity, attempts to explain the manner in which the magnet attracts iron. (vi, 1000.) Plato (in Timæo) and Hippocrates (De Sterilibus) also allude to its attractive property. Galen recommends it in dropsies. Dioscorides, Galen, and the other Greek authorities treat of it in a very cursory manner, merely stating of it that it has the same virtues as the hæmatite. The Arabians, more especially Serapion, give a much fuller description of it, which at all events identifies the Magnetis or Heraclean-stone of the ancients with our loadstone, that is to say, the magnetic oxide of iron. It was used by the Arabians as an application to poisoned wounds. See Serapion (De Simpl. 394); Avicenna (ii, 2, 463.) It was used in the practice of medicine from the earliest date. See Hippocrates (De Sterilibus.) Ebn Baithar recommends it in pains of the head and feet, if taken hold of, and in cramps. He copies Aëtius. (ii, 25.)

The Arabian-stone is a species of white marble. It is recommended by Dioscorides for hemorrhoids and as a dentifrice. (v, 145.)

The Alabastrites is a thick concrete gypsum. See Kidd’s ‘Mineral.’ (i, 63.) Galen says of it, that when burned it is adapted for medicinal use, and that it is sometimes administered in a draught to persons affected with stomach complaints. Dioscorides speaks of its being applied externally in such cases along with wax; calls it discutient, and says it represses the gums. (v, 152.) It would appear that this article is the Lapis eburneus of Rhases, who calls it an astringent and dentifrice. (Cont. l. ult. i, 395.)

Geoffroy says that the Smiris is the Emery of the shops. It is held by the mineralogists to be a variety of Corundam. See Cleaveland’s ‘Mineral.’ (278.) A specimen of it, from the Isle of Naxos (which may be supposed a good representation of the ancient Smiris), was found by Tennant to consist principally of alumine, with small proportions of silex and oxide of iron. Dioscorides recommends it in looseness of the gums, and as a dentifrice; he ranks it with septic and caustic substances. (v, 165.)

The Stones in Sponges consist principally of the muriate of lime. They were much commended as lithontriptics. See Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen, and Avicenna.

The Ophites is a pellucid stone, so called from its serpentine streaks. It was that variety of serpentine called verde antico. See Jameson’s ‘Mineralogy.’ According to Dioscorides, it was useful as an amulet in the case of persons stung by snakes, and was also reported to be useful in lethargy and headache. (v, 161.) Galen holds it to be lithontriptic. (De Simpl. viii.) The Arabians copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 406.)

The Ostracites appears to have been petrified oysters. Dioscorides recommends it in menorrhagia, in inflamed breasts, and spreading sores. (v, 164.) Galen also recommends it for clearing the cornea. (De Simpl. viii.) See in like manner Avicenna (ii, 2, 393.)

The Geodes contains iron, argil, and silica. It is nearly allied to the Eagle-stone, and hence it is often called the Bastard Eagle-stone. See Hill’s ‘Theophrastus.’ Dioscorides recommends it as an ophthalmic remedy, and as a liniment for inflammations of the mammæ and testicles. (v, 168.) Avicenna says the vapour of vinegar in which it is dissolved checks the flow of blood and cures hot aspostemes. (ii, 2, 398.)

Matthiolus confesses himself quite unacquainted with the Naxian Whetstone. Sprengel reckons it allied to the Smiris. Galen would rather seem to make it a variety of the Ostracites.

The Lapis Lyncurius of the ancients was our Jacinth or Hyacinth. See Beckmann, and De Laet, ‘de gemmis.’ Dioscorides recommends it in affections of the stomach and bowels. (ii, 100.) Serapion describes minutely the Lapis iacinctus, or hyacinth, but merely mentions of it that it was used as a seal to avert the thunderbolt. (c. 398.) The stone which he describes in the following chapter, would appear decidedly to be the Tourmaline. He calls it Lapis rubeus, seu, hager albuzedi. Used as a seal, he says it dispels bad dreams.

The Cos is composed of a schistose argil. The Cos Olearia would appear to have derived its name from requiring the use of oil to answer the purpose of whetstone. See Pliny (H. N. xxxvi, 47.)

It is impossible to determine accurately the nature of the Hieracites. Aëtius, who has given the fullest account of it, describes it as a darkish green stone.

The Indian-stone would seem to be identical with the Arabian-stone. Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 401.)

The Lydian-stone is ranked by Dr. Thomson as a sub-species of Flint-slate. He remarks that it was used as a touchstone by the ancients.

The Ætites, or Eagle-stone, is a species of oxide of iron. Dr. Hill remarks that custom has given the name of ætites to every fossil that has a loose nucleus within it. The ancients used it very frequently as an amulet and incantation. See particularly Dioscorides and Aëtius. The Arabians also confirm, in the strongest terms, the imaginary efficacy of the Eagle-stone when used as an amulet. That it accelerated the delivery of woman in tedious labours, Serapion and Rhases declare, from ample experience, and that it would produce this beneficial effect on those who had faith in it we can readily believe. Indeed, we have often regretted that such innocent modes of working upon the imagination of women in labour had given place to more dangerous methods of practice in such cases. The Eagle-stone was retained in the English Dispensatory with all its ancient characters as late as Quincy. (165.)

The Thyites, according to Fuchsius, was a Turquoise; but Matthiolus is of a different opinion. Sprengel thinks it may have been a species of turquoise, although not the common one. Dr. Hill says it contains a small quantity of copper, which rendered it a valuable ingredient in collyria. It is prescribed for this purpose by Dioscorides. (v, 153.)

The Amiantus is composed of talc, calcareous and siliceous earth, clay, and a small proportion of iron. It is often confounded with the Alumen plumosum of the ancients, to which it is compared by Dioscorides. He does not mention any medicinal use to which it was applied, but merely states of it that it was used for forming the linum asbestinum. (v, 155.) See further Harduin in Plin. H. N. (xxxvi, 31.)

The Sapphirus of the ancients is supposed by Beckmann to have been the Lapis lazuli. (History of Inventions.) This opinion is now pretty generally established, and yet there is a difficulty attending it; for the Arabians, in treating of the Lapis lazuli, do not quote the descriptions of the sapphirus given by Dioscorides and Galen, but apparently refer to the cyanus. Dioscorides recommends the sapphirus as an alexipharmic, and a remedy for internal ulcerations and diseases of the eyes. (v, 156.) Galen merely recommends it as an antidote to the stings of scorpions. Rhases, under the head of “Lapis lazuli,” quotes Dioscorides as saying of it that it promotes the growth of the eyelashes, that it restrains fungous flesh, is septic, caustic, and ulcerative; and Galen, as saying of it, that it has abstergent powers, with a moderate degree of attenuating and styptic virtues; that it may be mixed in collyria for the eyes, and especially for the eyelids when affected with sharp humours, which it represses, and also prevents the growth of the hairs. (Cont. l. ult. i, 404.) See also Serapion (c. 389); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 43); and Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 45.)

The Calais of Pliny and the ancients is said by Dr. Hill to be the Turquoise, or Gemma Turcica, which consists principally of lime and iron. See the Thyites.

The Memphites contains bitumen and ethereal oil. It is the retinasphaltum of Mr. Hatchett, or retinite of Jameson. (Mineral, iii, 478.) According to Dioscorides, when rubbed smoothly upon places about to be burnt or cut, it renders them insensible without danger. (v, 157.)

The Selenites consists principally of a compact lamellated gypsum. According to Eustathius, it is the same as the Lychnitis, which Dionysius the geographer describes as resembling fire in lustre. (Orbis. Descrip. 328.) It is soft, pellucid, and colourless. Dioscorides describes it minutely, and mentions of it that it was given as a draught to epileptics, and used as a phylactery by women. He adds, that it was also appended to trees in order to make them keep their fruit. (v, 158.) Rhases, under the head of “lapis lunaris,” copies this chapter of Dioscorides. (Cont. l. ult. i, 405.)

The Lapis Specularis was the same as the Moscovy talc. It was much used by the ancients for windows in place of glass. It is a variety of selenite, or sparry gypsum. See Kidd and Jameson. We have treated of it under the head of Gypsum in the Fifth Book.

The Smaragdus of the ancients is unquestionably referable to our emerald, but there is every reason to believe, also comprehended coloured crystals and certain stones of the jasper kind. It does not occur in the works of Dioscorides or Galen; and, as far as we know, Aëtius is the first medical author who describes it. He says of it, that when roasted and levigated with Attic honey, it cures dimness of vision; that it is most useful in elephantiasis, both externally and internally; and that as an amulet it restrains bleeding. (ii, 39.) We are not aware that any other ancient authority, whether Greek, Roman, or Arabian, has noticed it.

We will treat of the Bezoar-stone and Gall-stone of the bull in the Appendix to this section.

Λιθόσπερμον (called also λειόσπορμον ἢ ἡράκλειον),

Lithospermon, Gromwel, is the seed of the herb called Aegonychus, of a stony hardness, and white, which, when drunk with white wine, proves lithontriptic and diuretic.

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COMMENTARY. Without doubt it is the Lithospermum officinale, or Gromwel. Pliny expresses himself respecting it in the following terms: “Nec quidquam inter herbas majore quidem miraculo aspexi. Tantus est decor, velut aurificum arte alternis inter folia candicantibus margaritis: tam exquisita difficultas lapidis ex herba nascentis.” (H. N. xxvii, 74.) Dioscorides describes it minutely, and, like our author, calls it lithontriptic and diuretic. (iii, 148.) Serapion and Avicenna give it the same characters, which it maintained in modern times, as long as it held a place in the Dispensatory. See the works of Parkinson, Culpeper, and Quincy.

Λινόσπερμον,

Lini Semen, Linseed, is heating in the first order, and holds the middle rank of diluents and desiccants. When eaten, it is flatulent, even although roasted.

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COMMENTARY. It is the seed of the Linum usitatissimum, Angl. Linseed. Dioscorides gives a long account of its medicinal virtues, recommending it externally for ephelides, vari, and other complaints, and internally as an expectorant and aphrodisiacal medicine. He further commends it as an enema in pains of the bowels and womb, and as a hip-bath in inflammations of the uterus. (ii, 125.) Galen, like our author, treats of it in very general terms. The Arabians, and especially Avicenna, give a more circumstantial account of it. (ii, 2, 598.) See Serapion (c. 21); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 426.) Like Dioscorides, they recommend it as an external application to apostemes of a hard character, and internally for the cure of diseases of the chest and intestines.

Λινόζωστις,

Mercurialis, the herb Mercury, is considerably laxative of the belly, and applied in cataplasms it is discutient. It ought to be known that when its seed is rubbed upon those preternatural excrescences of the body, which the vulgar call narphia, it is found to make them disappear. But the seed must be green, and they must be often rubbed with it.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Most of the botanical authorities agree that it is the Mercurialis annua, L. It occurs frequently in the Hippocratic treatises as an article of diet and gentle laxative. Dioscorides, who describes it in two separate places of his Materia Medica, (iii, 130 and iv, 188), speaks of it as being a laxative pot-herb, and a medicine of which the decoction in water proves cholagogue and hydragogue. He also alludes to the popular notion that the leaves of the female plant, when applied to a woman’s parts of generation after her menstrual period, will promote conception of a female, while those of the male plant will promote conception of a male. It does not occur in the works of Celsus, nor, as far as we can discover, in those of any of the Arabians, with the exception of Averrhoes, who calls it a gentle purgative of the same class as Cassia fistula, tamarinds, and the like, and says it evacuates yellow bile and phlegm; and boiled in wine proves an excellent application to large sores, and in particular to the ulcers produced by burns. He further recommends its leaves boiled in vinegar for diseases of the spleen, and its flower in a masticatory and errhine. (Collig. v, 42.) What our author says of its virtues in the diseases called narphia, by the vulgar, is taken from Aëtius (i), where, however, the reading is carphia. Galen says of it, “everybody uses the herb mercury for purging the belly.” (De Simpl. Med.) Notwithstanding this testimony, which is, in fact, confirmed by that of all the ancient writers who have treated of it, Bergius says, “Virtus suspecta: vis emolliens nondum ritè nobis constat.” However, Moses Charras, who appears to have written from experience, affirms of it that “it loosens the belly, and provokes the menstruums. The dose is from oz. j to iij.” (Roy. Pharm. 106.) Alston likewise acknowledges its laxative powers. Dr. Hill says of it, “This plant is of an emollient nature, and is eaten by many people in the manner of spinach, which, when cultivated in the garden, it greatly excels. If eaten largely it gently opens the bowels.” (Mat. Med.) It held a place in our Dispensatory as late as Quincy. (106.)

Λίτρον,

Nitrum, Nitre (or Soda?), is possessed of intermediate powers between the aphronitrum and salts. When burnt it becomes more attenuate and discutient. If taken internally it cuts and attenuates the thick and viscid humours more than any other. The Chalestræan (so called from Chalestra, a place in Thessalonica) is more acrid and desiccative, so that it is used for defluxions from the head, and for arthritic complaints.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The following extract from Pliny’s description of the nitrum clearly indicates the substance to which he applies it: “Non est differenda et nitri natura, non multum a sale distans. Exiguum fit apud Medos, canescentibus siccitate convallibus, quod vocant halmyrhaga. Optimum copiosumque in Litis Macedoniæ quod vocant Chalestricum, candidum, purumque, proximum sali. Lacus est nitrosus, exsiliente e medio dulci fonticulo. In Ægypto autem conficitur multo abundantius, sed deterius. Fit pæne eodem modo quo sol, nisi quod salinis mare infundunt, Nilum autem nitrariis.” (H. N. xxxi, 46.) Compare the above with the following account of the native carbonate of soda: “In Egypt it is plentifully found in what are called the Lakes of Natron. These lakes, six in number, are westward of the Nile, not far from Terrana, in a valley surrounded by limestone. The carbonate and muriate of soda exist together in these waters; but when the water is diminished by natural evaporation, these salts are deposited in distinct layers.” (Brogniart, in Cleaveland’s Mineral., 133.) It would be superfluous to bring any further proof that the ancient nitrum generally applies to our natron or the native carbonate of soda. Were the Greeks, Romans, and Arabians then entirely ignorant of saltpetre or the nitrate of potash? This seems incredible, considering how largely it is distributed in Europe, Asia, and Africa; and, therefore, we cannot bring ourselves to think that this mineral can have entirely escaped the observation of the ancients; and if this were the proper place for such a disquisition, we believe that we could state satisfactory reasons for drawing the conclusion, that “nitrum” was applied to it as well as to the other mineral. But at the same time, as mentioned above, we are quite satisfied that by litrum and nitrum the medical authors generally, if not universally, meant the native carbonate of soda. Dioscorides, with regard to its medicinal powers, merely states of it that it has alterative or metasyncritic powers. (v, 129.) We have given his views respecting the Aphronitrum under that head. Our author abridges Galen’s account of it, but omits to mention, as stated by Galen, and also by Aëtius, that the different kinds of nitre were popularly used as counter-agents in cases of poisoning by mushrooms. All the Arabians treat largely of this substance generally under the name of baurach. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 84); Rhases (Cont. l. ult, iii, 115); Mesue (De Simpl. xvii); Serapion (c. 401); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 46, 487); Ebn Baithar (i, 187.) Rhases marks what it is: “Nitrum appellatur Arabicè natrum et est simile sali gemmæ.” (Cont. l. ult. ii, 508.) They used it externally for the cure of prurigo and scabies, and as an application to diseased joints, and along with figs to remove dropsical swellings. They recommend an injection of it into the ear for the cure of deafness. The aphronitrum, or African nitrum, is said by Avicenna to be possessed of emetic powers, and that it was more incisive of gross humours than the other varieties of it. It was used by them in cases of poisoning with mushrooms, cantharides, and bull’s blood; and as an application to the bites of mad dogs. Mesue, with his wonted precision, states its powers very distinctly, recommending it, when given by the mouth, in clysters, and in suppositories as an evacuant of crude and viscid phlegm, for colic and affections of the stomach. Like Avicenna, he says that it will sometimes occasion vomiting. His commentator, Costa, has many ingenious observations on the ancient nitrum, which will be found very interesting to those who desire to become better acquainted with this subject. Haly Abbas states that friction with it before the hour of invasion will prevent an attack of ague.

Λόγχιτις,

Lonchitis, Rough Spleenwort; the root of that species which has triangular seed, like a spear, resembles that of the carrot, and is diuretic. But the green leaves of that species which resembles the scolopendrium, are agglutinative of wounds; and when dried, and drunk with vinegar, they cure indurated spleens.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the two species of Lonchitis is taken from Dioscorides. Of these, the former, which has been conjectured to be the Serapias Lingua, he says is diuretic. The other, which would seem to be the species of aspidium, to which the name is still appropriated, he calls vulnerary and anti-inflammatory, and recommends for reducing the size of the spleen. Galen and the other authorities give a similar account of it. Such of the Arabians as treat of it follow Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 336.)

Λύκοψις,

Lycopsis, Hound’s-tongue; having an astringent root, Dioscorides says, that when applied with polenta in a cataplasm, it agrees with erysipelas, and that if rubbed in with oil it is sudorific.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is either the Echium Italicum, L., or the Lycopsis echioides, L., probably the former. Our author, as he acknowledges, borrows from Dioscorides. Galen, Aëtius, and Oribasius, as well as Hippocrates and Celsus, do not treat of it at all. If the Arabians notice it, they do so under the head of Anchusa.

Λύκιον,

Lycium, Buckthorn, is composed of heterogeneous powers, one part of its ingredients being heating, attenuate, and discutient, and the other, or terrene part, being cooling and gently astringent; so that it is desiccative in the second degree, and calefacient and refrigerant in an intermediate degree. They use it, therefore, as a detergent in obstructions of the pupil, and as an astringent in cæliac and dysenteric cases and ill-conditioned ulcers; and in inflammations as a discutient. The Indian is the best.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides gives a sufficiently distinct description of the tree which produces the lycium, so as to leave no doubt that he points to the Rhamnus infectorius. The Lycium Indicum of the same author, is now satisfactorily determined to be the product of the Berberis Lycium. See Royle (Antiq. of Hind. Med. 32), and ‘Linn. Transact.’ (xvii, 83); also Pereira (Materia Medica, 1152.) Dioscorides recommends the former of these as an astringent for the cure of various complaints, such as obscurities of the cornea, psoriasis, and pruritus of the eyelids, purulent ears and tonsils, ulcers of the gums, chapped lips, fissure of the anus; in cæliac and dysenteric affections, both in draughts and clysters; in hæmoptysis and coughs; in female fluxes, hydrophobia, and so forth. The Indian, he states, cures inflammation of the spleen and jaundice, prevents menstruation, purges water, and is a counter-agent to deadly poisons. (i, 132.) Galen’s account of it being nearly the same as our author’s, we need not expound at any length. He holds that the Indian species is far stronger than the other. (De Simpl. ix.) Oribasius and Aëtius in like manner follow Galen. Celsus recommends lycium strongly in ulceration of the throat. (iv, 4, 3.) As far as we have been able to discover, it does not occur in the works of Hippocrates. The Arabians treat fully of this article. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 429); Avicenna (ii, 2, 390); Serapion (c. 7); Averrhoes (v, 42.) We do not find that they supply any new views regarding its medicinal virtues. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia the extract of catechu is set down as being the Lycium Indicum. We agree, however, with the authorities quoted above regarding it.

Λυσιμάχιον,

Lysimachium, Moneywort; its prevailing power is astringency; hence it agglutinates wounds, and is styptic, both itself and its juice. It also relieves dysentery when drunk and injected.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The L. of Dioscorides and our author is most probably the Yellow Loose-strife of our English herbalists, namely, Lysimachia vulgaris, L. Our author abridges Dioscorides, who recommends it as an astringent in various cases, such as hæmoptysis, dysentery, fluor albus, hemorrhage from the nose, and as a vulnerary and styptic herb. (iv, 3.) Galen and Aëtius treat of it in nearly the same words as our author. We have not been able to find it in the works of the Arabians, except Ebn Baithar, and yet we do not assert that it may not be treated of under some name which we have not been able to interpret. Ebn Baithar merely quotes Dioscorides and Galen. The lysimachia, although not now included in our Dispensatories, still holds a place in the shops of the apothecaries, with the character of being astringent. See Gray’s Supplement, &c. (48.)

Λυχνὶς,

Lychnis, Campion; the seed of that species which is used for garlands is hot and desiccative, according to the second order complete.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This plant is the Lychnis coronaria of Dioscorides, and still retains this name. Dioscorides recommends it in the case of persons stung by scorpions. The wild lychnis of Dioscorides may be either the Lychnis dioica or Agrostemma githago; it is said by Dioscorides to be a cholagogue, and a remedy in the case of persons stung by scorpions. (iii, 104-5.) Galen and the other authorities merely state the characters of the Lychnis coronaria in general terms. We have not found this article in any of the Arabians, not even in Ebn Baithar.

Λωτὸς,

Lotus, Bird’s-foot Trefoil (?); the cultivated species is by some called trifolium. It is possessed of detergent and moderately desiccative powers, and is of a proper temperament as to heat. The seed of the wild lotus belongs to the second order of calefacients, and is also somewhat detergent. The seed of the Egyptian lotus is also made into bread. The Lote, or Nettle-tree, consists of subtile particles, and is moderately desiccative and astringent. Hence it is applicable for the female fluor, and for fluxes of the bowels, both when drunk with wine or water, or when used in an injection. It also strengthens the hairs that are falling out.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We need not enter further into the literary history of this interesting subject, which we have given at some length in the Appendix, already so often referred to, than to mention that the Lotus, called also Trifolium, is referable to the Melilotus officinalis, and probably some of its congeners, and the Lotus Arbor to the Zizyphus Lotus, with perhaps some other trees of the same tribe. Dr. Lindley says of it, “The Lote-bush, which gave its name to the ancient Lotophagi, is to this day collected for food by the Arabs of Barbary, who call it sadar, and its berries nabk.” (Veg. Kingd. 582.) The wild lotus of Dioscorides and the other authorities has never been satisfactorily determined. Perhaps it was the species of melilotus named cærulea. The Egyptian lotus, there can be no doubt, was the Nymphæa Lotus, L. Dioscorides gives a striking description of this last, which, he says, the inhabitants of Egypt use for making bread; and it is deserving of remark that the rhizomes of the nymphæa are still roasted and eaten by the Negroes of Senegal. See further under Nymphæa in this section. Our author’s characters of the other loti are copied from Dioscorides or Galen, who agree, in the main, under this head. See, in like manner, Aëtius and Oribasius. The Arabians treat at great length of the different loti, and more especially of the L. Arbor, with which they must have been familiarly acquainted. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 298, 513); Serapion (c. 120); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 487); Ebn Baithar (ii, 539.) They all recommend it as a powerful astringent in looseness of the bowels, bloody flux, menorrhagia, ulcers of the bowels, and in asthma and affections of the chest. One of Serapion’s authorities calls it stomachic and a whetter of the appetite. The lotus occurs in the Hippocratic treatises; indeed, from the fable of the Lotophagi, contained in the Odyssey of Homer, there can be no doubt that the lotus had been known and used as an article of food long before the time of Hippocrates.

Μάκερ,

Macer is a bark brought from India, being desiccative in the third order, and intermediate as to heating and cooling properties. It consists of subtile particles, and is astringent; hence it agrees with cæliac and dysenteric complaints.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Under this head we cannot do better than quote the words of an excellent living authority: “Macer, a bark from the Barbaric region, has been thought to be Wrightia antidysenterica, supposing this to be the macre described by Crist. d’Acosta. (Clus. Exot. 266.) Though macer is always described as a bark, I had given me as such the highly aromatic leaves of Rhododendron lepidotum under the name of talisfur. Mafur and mafurbooz are in Persian works assigned as the Greek names of talisafar, under which name the macer of Dioscorides is alluded to by Avicenna.” (Antiq. of Hindoo Med. 91, by Dr. Royle). Though the macer of the Greeks, then, was different from mace, there can be no doubt that the Arabians confounded the two substances together. Thus Avicenna, in his chapter on mace, quotes the words of Paulus on the macer. (ii, 2, 448.) Serapion in like manner, under mace, which he correctly describes as the rind or membrane of the nutmeg, gives the characters of macer from Dioscorides. (De Simpl. 2.)

Μαλάβαθρον,

Malabathrum; the leaf of it has powers like the spikenard.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dr. Ainslie, treating of the Cassia Lignea, or Cassia bark, says, “the narrow-pointed leaves of the Laurus Cassia, as well as the oblong, ovate, shining leaves of the Cinnamon-tree, are sold in the Indian bazaars under the names of lawangapatery and tejpat, from a notion that they are the leaves of the Laurus Cassia. In commerce these leaves are called Folia Indica, or Malabathra, a name which more especially applies to the leaves of the Laurus Cassia.” (Med. Ind. § 35.) Geoffroy, Sprengel, and Royle also agree in holding the Cassia, or Cinnamon-leaf, to be the Folium Indicum. Dr. Sontheimer, then, in his translation of Ibn Baithar, makes it to be a peculiar species of Laurus, calling it Laurus Malabathrum, and Dr. Pereira does the same. In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia, the query is put whether the Cassia-buds be the product of Laurus Cassia, or L. Malabathrum. Isidorus says of it, “Folium dictum quod sine ulla radice innatans in Indiæ littoribus colligitur.” (Orig. xviii, 9.) It is always simply called Folium by Apicius. Horace applies the word to an ointment. “Malabathro Syrio capillos,” (Od. ii, 7); on which passage his commentator, Porphyrion, remarks, “Malabathrum unguenti speciem esse scimus.” This is the Unguentum Malabathrinum of Dioscorides. (i, 76.) The ancients, as Dr. Hill remarks, have said much of the virtues of Malabathrum. They call it stomachic, sudorific, and cephalic. Dioscorides ascribes to it all the virtues of the Indian spikenard; but he says it possesses them in a superior degree. He also mentions it as a scent. (i, 11.) Galen and the other Greek authorities, like our author, dismiss it with a brief notice, comparing it to spikenard. The Arabians treat of it at greater length, but do little more, after all, than copy the characters of it given by Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 253); Serapion (c. 53.) It occurs only once in the works of Celsus (v, 23), as an ingredient, in one of his antidotes; and does not occur at all, we believe, in the Hippocratic Collection.

Μαλάχη,

Malva, Mallows; the wild is moderately discutient and emollient; but the garden, as being more moistening, is also weaker. Its fruit, however, is as much stronger as it is drier.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There seems no reason to doubt that it applies to Malva sylvestris, but probably comprehended other species. Dioscorides describes minutely the cases to which it is applicable, namely, as a cataplasm in incipient fistula lachrymalis, with oil for achores and furfures, and also so prepared for burns and erysipelas; its decoction as a hip-bath in diseases of the uterus; and as a suitable enema in pains of the bowels, womb, and anus; its broth he praises in cases of poisoning, as producing evacuation of the stomach, and says it is beneficial to persons stung by phalangia, and attracts milk to the breasts; its fruit, when the reed of the wild lotus is mixed with it, allays pains about the bladder. (ii, 144.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it as a medicine in more general terms, representing it to be gently discutient and demulcent. It occurs in the works of Hippocrates and Celsus; the latter praises it as a pot-herb, and recommends it as a gentle laxative. (vii, 27.) The Arabians treat of it fully; but have little to add to the excellent description of its medicinal powers given by Dioscorides, whom they all copy. One of Serapion’s authorities briefly commends it as a demulcent in affections of the chest and bladder, and as a cataplasm in hot apostemes. (c. 149.) Avicenna’s account of it is highly interesting, but too lengthy for our purpose. He recommends it internally in complaints of the lungs and liver, and externally as an emollient application in a variety of cases. (ii, 2, 194.)

Μαμιρὰς,

Mamiras, is a sort of radicle of a herb, having, as it were, thick knots, which are believed to attenuate cicatrices and leucomata, being of a decidedly detergent power.

COMMENTARY. This article is not mentioned by Dioscorides, Pliny, Galen, Oribasius, nor, we believe, by any of the Arabian writers, with the exception of Avicenna, who calls it abstergent and cleansing, and recommends it for clearing away albugo of the eye, and for cleaning the nails; he adds of it that it is useful in jaundice and pungent pain of the belly. (ii, 2, 479.) It further occurs in one of the antidotes of Nicholas Myrepsus (c. 138), where, his commentator says, the description of it given by Paulus applies very well to the root known officinally by the name of Doronicum.

Μανδραγόρας,

Mandragora, Mandrake, belongs to the third order of cold medicines. But its apples have a certain share of heat and humidity, and hence they are possessed of a soporific power. The bark of the root of it being stronger is not only cooling, but also desiccant; but the inner part of it is weak.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Waiving disputed points regarding the ancient Mandragora, we shall merely mention in this place that we believe the M. Mas of Dioscorides to have been Mandragoras vernalis, Bertolin, and the M. Femina M. autumnalis. The ancient authors make frequent mention of its narcotic and soporific powers. Celsus directs its apples to be placed below the patient’s pillow in cases of obstinate insomnolency. (iii, 18.) Dioscorides, in like manner, says, its apples are narcotic when smelled to, and also their juice; that if persisted in, they will deprive the person of his speech. He mentions mandrake as an ingredient in anodyne collyria and pessaries, and says that in an enema it induces sleep. He recommends the wine of mandragora to be given to patients before they are subjected to the operation of cutting or burning. He gives minute directions for making the various preparations of mandragora. He concludes his chapter on it by giving from information an account of another species of mandragora, called morion, which he represents as being powerfully narcotic; and hence as being administered by medical men when about to operate by cutting or burning. This plant we agree with Dodonæus and Cordus in thinking must have been the M. of Theophrastus, namely, the Atropa Belladonna. Considering the diligence of the ancient herbalists, it is not likely that they should have wholly overlooked so prominent and important an article as the Belladonna. The objections stated to this opinion by Parkinson (Theatre of Plants, 344) do not appear to us of much force. The account of mandragora given by Pliny is mostly taken from Dioscorides. (H. N. xxv, 94.) Our author and Aëtius borrow almost word for word from Galen. Isidorus says of it, “Cujus cortex vino mixtus ad bibendum iis datur quorum corpus propter curam secandum est, ut soporati dolorem non sentiant.” Serapion in like manner describes it as a powerful narcotic, and says that it was administered before the performance of amputation to diminish sensibility. (c. 333.) Avicenna particularly commends the narcotic and soporific powers of this medicine. He says that it exerts its action in a suppository. The milky juice of it, he adds, evacuates phlegm and yellow bile. He states that if a young person, by mistake, partake of its berries, they bring on vomiting, purging, and perhaps death. The seed mixed with sulphur vivum, is said by him to stop menorrhagia. Like Dioscorides, he says, that mandrake evacuates the stomach and bowels like hellebore. (ii, 2, 357.) Averrhoes briefly says of its apples, that they are soporific, and that its bark is desiccative, but its root weaker. (v. 42.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 446.) Servitor describes both a concrete and an expressed juice of mandragora. The former, which he calls lachryma, he says could not be procured everywhere. Even the non-professional writers allude to its soporific powers. Thus Lucian speaks of ὕπο μαδραγόρας καθεύδειν. (Timon.) Pollux says that it produces heaviness of the head, that is to say, stupor. Our old herbalists, Turner, Gerard, Parkinson, and Culpeper, mention the soporific powers of the mandrake, but in such a way as implies that they had not much practical acquaintance with it. By the days of Boerhaave and Quincy, its internal use had been abandoned, both in this country and on the continent. Although it has now disappeared from our Dispensatories, we see no good reason why its well-regulated use might not be revived. That the ancients have described its operation on the animal economy correctly, is admitted by our latest writers on Toxicology and the Materia Medica. See the works of Orfila, Christison, and Pereira. In conclusion it may be proper to state, that the modern Arabians and Persians still use the mandragora as a narcotic and antispasmodic. See Ainslie (Mat. Ind. i, 1, 116.) It is not contained in the Greek Pharmacopœia of the present day.

Μάννα λιβάνου,

Manna Thuris, has similar powers to frankincense, but enfeebled and gently astringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Gesner says of it, “Manna thuris est fragmina minora corticis ramentis permista.” (Lexicon Rusticum.) Dr. Hill calls it the fragments of the cluster frankincense broke off in the carriage. It is singular that the Greek and Roman writers make no mention of the manna now in use, namely, the concrete juice of the Fraxinus Ornus. Actuarius had, no doubt, learned the use of it from the Arabians. (Meth. M. v, 8.) We will treat of the true manna more properly in the Appendix to this section, among the medicinal substances introduced by the Arabians.

Μάραθρον,

Fœniculum, Fennel, is heating in the third degree, but desiccative in the first; it therefore forms milk and relieves suffusions of the eye.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides gives a fuller exposition of the medicinal properties of this substance (Anethum Fœniculum) than any of the other authorities on the Mat. Med., representing it as being possessed of powers to promote the secretion of milk; as being useful in complaints of the kidneys and bladder as a diuretic, and in those of the uterus as an emmenagogue; as being alexipharmic, and as a suitable application to the bites of mad dogs; and an excellent ingredient in collyria, and more especially the gum of it, which is produced on the plant in Spain. (iii, 74.) Galen, in the main, gives it the same characters, holding it to be diuretic, emmenagogue, and a suitable ingredient in collyria. Aëtius and our author follow Galen. It occurs frequently in the Hippocratic treatises. (551, &c. ed. Foës.) Celsus ranks it among his diuretics (ii, 31), and among the articles which at the same time repress and mollify (ii, 33.) The Arabians treat fully of the fennel in nearly the same terms as the Greeks. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 274); Serapion (c. 324); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 293.) They all represent it as being diuretic, emmenagogue, alexipharmic, and an excellent application in diseases of the eyes. They quote Democritus (?) as stating that vipers and other venomous creatures rub their eyes upon fennel to improve their sight. This species of fennel, namely, the Fœniculum vulgare, is not now employed as a medicine in this country. The other species, Fœniculum dulce, or Sweet Fennel, although Matthiolus takes it for the ancient Marathron, would seem to have been unknown to the ancients. The former species, however, held a place in our Dispensatory down to a recent period. See Quincy (77.) It still holds a place in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (68.)

Μαστίχη,

Mastiche, Mastich; the Chian is heating and dessicant in the second degree; but it is possessed of complicated powers, being at the same time astringent and emollient; hence it agrees with inflammations of the œsophagus and stomach, and those of the intestines and liver; but the Egyptian, being darker, is more desiccant and discutient, and less astringent; wherefore it discusses furunculi.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Mastich is correctly described as the resin of the lentiscus by Dioscorides (i, 90), and Pliny (H. N. xxiv, 28.) Both mention that it is used in the formation of agglutinative plasters for the cure of trichiasis. Serapion joins the Greek authorities in recommending it for hæmoptysis. Its use in medicine is as old as the time of Hippocrates. The “resina ex lentisco” is an ingredient in one of the discutient plasters recommended by Celsus for the cure of phymata. (v, 18, 22.) Honain, one of Serapion’s authorities, recommends it in inflammations of the stomach, and in cough. Another of them says of it, that when mixed with aloes it forms a good masticatory. (c. 183.)

Μέλαν,

Atramentum; the Indian, as Dioscorides says, is of the class of slightly refrigerating medicines, and of those which occasion the rupture of phlegmons and swellings, and cleanse ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two distinct substances by the name of Ἰνδικόν. The one is the vegetable pigment, still called Indigo; the other was probably a red mineral of copper, some variety, we suppose, of the mineral called “tetrahedral red copper ore” by Jameson, or “red oxide of copper” of Philips. Dioscorides recommends it in much the same cases as our author. (v, 107.) The other Greek authorities scarcely treat of it. Our author seems evidently to refer to Indian ink. The Arabians confound together the dye-producing plants, and accordingly treat of the woad (Isatis tinctoria) along with the plant which produces indigo. See Serapion (c. 47), and under Isatis in this section. Averrhoes’s description is very indistinct, so that it is difficult to know what to make of his Indicum. (Collig. v, 42.) Avicenna in one place alludes to the mineral pinguent of our author, which he calls Tinctura Inda. (ii, 2, 689.) We beg to refer our readers to Beckmann’s ‘History of Inventions’ for much curious information under the head of Indigo.

Μελαντηρία,

Atramentum metallicum, is powerfully astringent with subtilty of parts.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides gives a pretty circumstantial description of three or four varieties of it, and yet none of them can be recognized with any degree of certainty. One thing only is certain, that they must all have contained more or less of copper, being found in mines of copper. As far as we can judge, the mineral named “ferruginous arseniate of copper” by Cleaveland, is the most likely to be the melanteria of Dioscorides. He says it has the same caustic powers as misy. (v, 117.) Galen calls it only powerfully astringent and of subtile parts; and hence Sprengel inclines to set down his melanteria as being different from that of Dioscorides; but between the action of a strong astringent and a weak caustic, the distinction is not great. In describing the melanteria, Aëtius follows Galen, and Oribasius Dioscorides. There is no mention of it in the works of Hippocrates, Celsus, and Pliny. The Arabians confuse their description of it by mixing together those of misy, chalcitis, and sori along with it, under the head of Atramentum sutorium. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 47.) Serapion also fails to give any distinct account of it. (De Miner.)

Μέλαν ᾧ γράφομεν,

Atramentum scriptorium, Writing Ink; this, too, is decidedly desiccant; but when dissolved in oxycrate and rubbed in, it straightway relieves burns.

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COMMENTARY. Writing Ink. Dioscorides describes the composition of two different kinds of ink; the former consisting of the soot of pines with gum, and the other containing the soot of rosin, bull’s glue, and copperas. For a fuller account of the inks used by the ancients, see Pliny (H. N. xxxv, 6), Oribasius (Med. Collect, xiii), Isidorus (Orig. xix), and Montfauçon (Palæog. Græca, c. i.) Dioscorides says of it that it is adapted to the healing of putrid ulcers and burns, when rubbed in thick with water and allowed to remain, until cicatrization takes place; for, he adds, when the application falls off the ulcers are healed. (v, 182.) Celsus alludes to the same principle of treating aphthous sores in the throat, but directs the crusts to be formed with alum, chalcitis, or the Atramentum sutorium. The Atramentum scriptorium he only notices once, in describing the operation of trephining the skull. (viii, 4.) Avicenna alludes also to the practice of Dioscorides. (ii, 2, 689.)

Μελάνθιον,

Nigella sativa, Gith, is calefacient and desiccant in the third degree. It is also distinguished for tenuity of parts; and hence when smelled to it cures catarrhs, and is most carminative when taken internally. It is also bitter, and hence it is anthelminthic. It is also detergent and incisive, and hence it agrees with orthopnœa, cleanses leprosies, ejects myrmecia, and promotes menstruation.

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COMMENTARY. It is the Nigella sativa, or Gith. Dioscorides, with great precision, and in his usual empirical style, enumerates all the cases in which this substance is applicable. As these in the main are the same as those in which our author recommends it, we need not enter much into an exposition of the views of Dioscorides on this head. He says it promotes the secretion of urine, menses, and milk; removes dyspnœa when drunk with wine; remedies persons stung by venomous spiders; drives away reptiles, in the form of a fumigation; and that it is reported to prove fatal when drunk in large quantity. (iii, 83.) Galen explains its medicinal virtues most scientifically, upon the principles laid down by him in his preliminary dissertation to the Materia Medica, of which we have given an exposition in an extract from Aëtius. Gith, he says, is heating and drying according to the third order, and seems to be attenuant, or of subtile parts; wherefore it cures catarrhs when applied hot in a linen cloth, so as to be constantly smelled to. And it is most carminative, when taken into the body, as is obvious from its being of subtile parts, and of a substance fine-wrought by the heat, wherefore, also, it is bitter; for it was shown in the Fourth Book of these Commentaries, that when a terrene substance arrives at an extreme tenuity and elaboration, the bitter quality is formed. No wonder, then, if it proves vermifuge, not only when eaten, but when applied externally to the belly; for it was formerly shown that a bitter juice does this. Nor that it removes leprosy, clavus, and myrmecia, need it seem wonderful to one who remembers what was formerly said. And thus it relieves orthopnœa, and promotes menstruation, when it is restrained by the thickness and viscidity of the humours; and, in a word, when we wish to incide, cleanse, dry, and heat, it is a most useful medicine. (De Simpl. viii.) Having given so full an exposition of Galen’s views, we must be brief on those of the other authorities. The gith occurs in the Mat. Med. of Hippocrates, but is not to be met with in the works of Celsus. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 516); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 496); Serapion (c. 328.) They all follow closely in the footsteps of Dioscorides and Galen. Though the gith has ceased for some time past to be used in medicine, it is still sometimes sought after as a spice. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 123.)

Μέλι,

Mel, Honey, is heating and desiccant in the second order, and is also considerably detergent. When boiled it becomes less acrid, detergent and cathartic, but more nutritious. But bitter honey, like that in Sardonia, is of mixed powers, being terrene and hot. The Sacchar (Sugar) which is brought from Araby the Blessed is less sweet than that with us, but is possessed of equal powers, with the additional advantage of not injuring the stomach and occasioning thirst like it.

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COMMENTARY. On the use of honey, see Book I, s. 69. “The honey of reeds” is mentioned in a fragment of Theophrastus. (ed. Heinsius.) It is distinctly noticed by Dioscorides (i, 104), Strabo (Geogr. xv), Pliny (H. N. xii, 17), Galen (Med. Simpl. vii), Oribasius (Med. Collect. xi), Isidorus (Orig. xvii, 7), Alexander Aphrodisiensis (Probl.), and Symeon Seth (in voce Sacchar.) It is alluded to by Statius in the following line:

“Et quas præcoquit Æbusita cannas.”—Silv. i, 6, 15.

Lucan also mentions it. (Pharsal. iii, 237.) All the Arabian medical authors, in a word, make frequent mention of it. It is obvious, however, as is remarked by Harduin, Salmasius, Freind, Millward, and Sprengel, that the ancient sugar was a concretion formed upon the surface of reeds by the heat of the sun, and consequently it was different from the sugar of the moderns, which is formed by boiling. Symeon Seth says of sugar that it is heating and humid in the first degree, detergent, and diaphoretic like honey. Mesue recommends it for the composition of electuaries. Dr. Hill states that although the Bambu be the sugar-cane with which the ancients were most familiar, it would appear that the “tenera arundo” of Lucan was rather the common sugar-reed of our times.

Μελία,

Fraxinus, the Ash, is a well-known tree, the leaves of which, when taken in a draught, agree with the bites of vipers. Its bark, when burnt and rubbed in with water, removes leprosies. The sawdust of the wood when drunk is said to be deadly.

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COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt of its being a species of Fraxinus, or perhaps both the F. Ornus and F. rotundifolia. Our author’s account of it is taken literally from Dioscorides. (i, 108.) Avicenna mentions it as a vulnerary herb, and recommends it in the same cases as Dioscorides does. (i, 108.)

Μελίλωτον,

Melilotum, Melilot, is possessed of mixed powers, being astringent, discutient, and digestive.

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COMMENTARY. It is the Melilotus officinalis, L. Dioscorides says of it, that it has some styptic power, and is an emollient of all kinds of inflammations, especially about the eyes, womb, anus, and testicles, when boiled with must and applied, or along with albumen of an egg, flour of fenugreek, &c.; that it cures meliceris when recent, achores, and pain of the stomach, and earache when injected into the ear, and headache when used as an embrocation with vinegar and oil of roses. (iii, 41.) Galen and the other Greek authorities state its application in general terms like our author. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 445); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 465); Serapion (De Simpl. 18.) They scarcely suggest any new cases for its administration, but borrow what they say of its medicinal powers from Dioscorides and Galen. The melilot was used in medicine, and held a place in our English Dispensatory even as late as the time of Quincy. (118, 204.)

Μελισσόφυλλον,

Apiastrum, Baum; its action is in every respect like that of horehound.

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COMMENTARY. According to Dioscorides, Baum (Melissa officinalis), when its leaves are taken in a draught with wine, or when applied as a cataplasm, is alexipharmic in the case of persons stung by scorpions or venomous spiders, and of those who have been bitten by mad dogs; the decoction in the form of a fomentation (or effusion) does the same; it makes a good hip-bath for promoting menstruation; is a gargle for toothache and a clyster for dysentery; its leaves, in a draught, cure those who have taken poisonous mushrooms, and those suffering from tormina; it forms a linctus in orthopnœa, and along with salts a discutient application to scrofula and ulcers; and as a cataplasm it soothes pains of the joints. (iii, 108.) Our author borrows from Galen, who, like him, gives its characters in general terms. Aëtius, under this head, copies from Galen, and Oribasius from Dioscorides. We believe it is not to be found either in the works of Hippocrates, or those of Celsus. Serapion gives a full account of it, first quoting from Dioscorides and Galen, and then from Abenmesuai and Isaak ebn Amran; the former of whom says it is exhilarating, and the other that it is useful in a cold and humid intemperament of the stomach, promotes digestion, proves cordial, &c. (c. 23.)

Μεμάικυλος,

Memæcylus, being the Fruit of the Arbute, has been treated of under the letter Κ.

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COMMENTARY. It is, as here stated, the fruit of the wild Strawberry-tree, that is to say of the Arbutus Unedo, L.

Μέσπιλα,

Mespila, Medlars (called also Tricocca); their fruit being decidedly sour and scarcely edible, proves astringent of the bowels: and its shoots and leaves are also decidedly sour.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes the two species of Medlar in such distinct terms as leaves no doubt that they are the Mespilus Azarolus and Germanica. He represents their fruit as being esculent and slightly astringent. (i, 169, 170.) Galen says of the medlar, that it is acid and austere, and barely esculent, and that it restrains fluxes. (De Simpl. vii.) The other Greek and Arabian authorities give the same account of it. See in particular, Avicenna (ii, 2, 742) and Ebn Baithar (i, 532.) The Arabians prepared an ointment from it for making the hair black and curled. Casiri (Bibl. Arab. Hisp. 330.) The term azarolus is borrowed from the Arabic. See Avicenna (l. c.)

Μήδιον,

Medium; the powers of the root are contrary to those of the fruit, for the former is austere and astringent of fluxes, so as to restrain the female fluor. But the seed even promotes menstruation, being possessed of attenuating and incisive powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The description of this article given by Dioscorides is sufficiently precise to decide its belonging to the genus Campanula. It was at one time generally referred to the species called Medium, but, as Sprengel remarks, the appearance of the leaves does not agree with those of the medium. Sibthorp, therefore, in his ‘Flora Græca,’ has decided that it is the C. laciniata. (i, 141.) Dioscorides and Galen agree in giving it the same medicinal powers as our author. We are at a loss to determine whether or not it occurs in the Materia Medica of the Arabians, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely gives the descriptions of it by Dioscorides and Galen. (ii, 541.)

Μήκωνες,

Papavera, Poppies; there are several species, but of the garden poppy, which they call Thylacitis, the seed is edible, and when eaten with bread is moderately soporific. That species which is called Rhæas, because its seed soon falls off, is stronger than the garden. It is therefore not eaten by itself, but a small quantity of it is mixed with much honey. That which has a sessile head has seeds which are black and strongly medicinal, being considerably cold. That the top of which is longer and more contracted, is the most strongly medicinal of all, so as to induce torpor even to mortification. For it and its juice, which is called, per excellentiam, opium, belong to the fourth order of congealing medicines. But that variety which is called Cornutum is possessed of detergent powers, so that the decoction of it when drunk is serviceable in hepatic complaints. Its leaves and flowers cleanse foul ulcers and remove eschars. That species which is called Heraclium and Spumosum, has seeds which purge phlegm.

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COMMENTARY. In the Fifth Book we have treated fully of the different species of poppy known to the ancients. See also Schulze (Toxicol. Vet.) The Rhæas would seem to be the Papaver dubium, the sativum is the P. Rhæas. The Papaver cornutum appears to be the Glaucium luteum, Scop. The P. spumeum may be the Gratiola officinalis, Angl. Hedge Hyssop. The ancients distinguished two kinds of the inspissated juice of the poppy: the one was the juice obtained by wounding the poppy-heads, and was called μήκωνος ὄπος, and ὄπιον; the other was an expressed juice, much weaker than this, called μηκώνιον. The second sort is not known at present. We will treat more fully of opium under that head, and therefore we shall dismiss the present subject with a briefer notice than we should otherwise have thought it necessary to bestow upon it. The views of the Arabians regarding the different kinds of poppy may be best learned from Avicenna (ii, 2, 563.) He copies, however, almost all his information from Dioscorides. He recommends the application of the Papaver cornutum in diseases of the eye, with certain cautions, explained under opium. He follows Dioscorides in strongly commending the leaves of the same as an application to foul ulcers, when he says they have the effect of removing all the eschars upon the sores. Dioscorides, by the way, mentions that the veterinarians used the horned poppy for removing the albugo and nebulæ on the eyes of cattle. He speaks favorably of the effects of the poppy in general for the cure of hot catarrhs, defluxions on the breast, and hæmoptysis. See further Serapion (c. 72); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 533); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) The last of these joins Avicenna in approving of the poppy for affections of the chest. Ebn Baithar, in different parts of his great work, treats of the several species of poppy noticed under this head.

Μῆλα,

Mala, Apples; a common property of all apples is that of an excrementitious and cold juice, but those which are dissolved and watery are colder and more humid than the others. The sweet are watery, but not sensibly cold. Those which are austere are colder than the sweet, but less humid. Those which are acid are also cold, and cut the thick humours in the stomach. The sour, such as Quinces, and that species of them called Struthia, are of a cold and terrene temperament, and, on that account, prove astringent of the belly, and agglutinative of wounds. Thus the leaves, juices, and barks of trees differ from one another.

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