The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia, Volume 1 of 28 (part 11 of 14)

The Project Gutenberg Encyclopedia, Volume 1 of 28 (part 11 of 14)

In numerous documents from the 12th to the 15th century the almucium is mentioned, occasionally as identical with the hood, but more often as a sort of cap distinct from it, e.g. in the decrees of the council of Sens (1485)---non caputia, sed almucia vel bireta tenentes in capito. By the 14th century two types of almucium were distinguished: (1) a cap coming down just over the ears; (2) a hood-like cap falling over the back and shoulders. This latter was reserved for the more important canons, and was worn over surplice or rochet in choir. The introduction. of the biretta (q.v.) in the 15th century tended to replace the use of the almuce as a head-covering, and the hood now became smaller, while the cape was enlarged till in some cases it fell below the elbows. Another form of almuce at this period covered the back. but was cut away at the shoulders so as to leave the arms free, while in front it was elongated into two stole-like ends. Almuces were occasionally made of silk or wool, but from the 13th century onward usually of fur, the hem being sometimes fringed with tails. Hence they were known in England as ``grey amices'' (from the ordinary colour of the fur), to distinguish them from the liturgical amice (q.v..) By the 16th century the almuce had become definitely established as the distinctive choir vestment Of canons; but it had ceased to have any practical use, and was often only carried over the left arm as a symbol of office. The almuce has now been almost entirely superseded by the mozzetta, but it is still worn at some cathedrals in France, e.g. Amiens and Chartres, at three churches in Rome, and in certain cathedrals elsewhere in Italy. The ``grey amice'' of the canons of St Paul's at London was put down in 1549, the academic hood being substituted. It was again put down in 1559, and was finally forbidden to the clergy of the English Church by the unratified canons of 1571 (Report of the sub-committee of Convocation, 1908).

See du Cauge, Glossarium, s. ``Almucia''; Joseph Braun, Die liturgische Gewandung, p. 359, &c. (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1907); also the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.

ALNACE, or AULNAGE (from Fr. aune, ell), the official supervision of the shape and quality of manufactured woollen cloth. It was first ordered in the reign of Richard I. that ``woollen cloths, wherever they are made, shall be of the same width, to wit, of two ells within the lists, and of the same goodness in the middle and sides.'' This ordinance is usually known as the Assize of Measures or the Assize of Cloth. Article 35 of Magna Carta re-enacted the Assize of Cloth, and in the reign of Edward I. an oflicial called an ``alnager'' was appointed to enforce it. His duty was to measure each piece of cloth, and to affix a stamp to show that it was of the necessary size and quality. As, however, the diversity of the wool and the importation of cloths of various sizes from abroad made it impossible to maintain any specific standard of width, the rules as to size were repealed in 1353. The increased growth of the woollen trade, and the introduction of new and lighter drapery in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, compelled a revision of the old standards. A statute was passed in 1665 creating the office of alnager of the new drapery, and defining the sizes to which cloth should be woven. The object of the statute was to prevent people being deceived by buying spurious woollen cloth, and to provide against fraud and imposition. Owing to the introduction of the alternative standard, a distinction arose between ``broadcloth'' (cloth of two yards) and ``streit'' or ``strait'' (narrowcloth of one yard). The meaning now attached to broadcloth, however, is merely that of material of superior quality. Alnage duties and the office of alnager were abolished in 1699.

See W. J. Ashley, Economic History; and W. Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce.

ALNWICK, a market-town and the county-town of Northumberland, England, in the Berwick-upon-Tweed parliamentary division, 309 m. N. by W. from London, on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6716. It is beautifully situated on the small river Aln, in a hilly district. Its history has left many marks. Dominating the town from an eminence above the south bank of the river stands the castle, held by the Percys since 1309, and long before this an important border stronghold. A gateway of c. 1350, a fine Norman arch of the middle of the 12th century, and the ancient well in the keep, are among noteworthy ancient portions; but the castle was extensively renovated and altered in the second half of the 18th century, while in 1854, when the lofty Prudhoe tower was built, a scheme of decoration in Italian style was adopted in the interior; so that the castle, though magnificent, has largely lost its historic character. It contains numerous fine examples of the works of Italian and other artists, and collections of British and Roman and Egyptian antiquities. In the beautiful park are a monument commemorating the capture of William the Lion of Scotland when besieging the town in 1174, two memorial towers, and a British stone chamber. Remains of the wall which formerly surrounded Alnwick are visible, and one of the four gates, the Bondgate, stands, dating from the early part of the 15th century. The church of St Michael has Norman remains, but is principally perpendicular; it contains several ancient monuments and incised slabs. The modern church of St Paul has a fine east window of German stained glass. Within the confines of the park are ruins of two abbeys. Alnwick Abbey was a Premonstratensian foundation of 1147; only a gateway tower stands, but the ground-plan was excavated in 1884 and is ourlined on the surface. At 3 m. from the town are more extensive remains of Hulne Abbey (1240), an early Carmelite monastery. The long narrow church remains unroofed; there are also a gateway tower, and portions of the chapter-house and cloisters. The Norman chapel of the hospital of St Leonard, which, as well as Alnwick Abbey, was founded by Eustace Fitz John, completes the series of antiquities in Alnwick. In this interesting locality, however, there must be mentioned the mansion of Howick, built in the 18th century, in a fine situation near the coast to the N.E. Not far from this, overlooking the sea from a rocky cliff pierced by deep gullies, are the ruins of Dunstanborough Castle; it dates from the 14th century, though the site was probably occupied as a stronghold from earlier times.

The chief industries are brewing, tobacco, snuff and fishing-tackle making, and corn milling. Alnwick is under an urban district council, but is a borough by prescription, and its freemen form a body corporate without authority over the affairs of the town. It is, however, required to pay, under an act of 1882, a sum not less than L. 500 out of the corporate property towards the upkeep of corporation schools. An ancient peculiar ceremony was attached until modern times to the making of freemen; those elected were required to ride in procession to a large pool called Freemen's Well and there rush through the water. According to tradition the observance of this custom was enjoined by King John to punish the inhabitants, the king having lost his way and fallen into a bog owing to the neglected condition of the roads in the neighbourhood.

According to the Chronicle of Alnwick Abbey, the barony of Alnwick belonged before the Conquest to Gilbert Tyson, whose son and heir William was killed at Hastings, and whose estates with his daughter were granted by the king to Ivo de Vescy, although this theory does not seem probable since Gilbert Tyson was certainly not a Saxon. In 1297 William de Vescy, a descendant of Ivo, dying without issue, left the barony to the bishop of Durham, who in 1309 sold it to Sir Henry Percy, in whose family it still continues. The town evidently grew up round the castle, which is said to have been built by Eustace Fitzjohn about 1140. Tradition states that it received its borough charter from King John. However, Alnwick is first definitely mentioned as a borough in a charter given by William de Vescy in the reign of Henry II., by which the burgesses were to have common of pasture on Haydon Moor and to hold of him ``as freely and quietly as the burgosses of Newcastle hold of the king.'' This charter was confirmed by his grandson, William de wescy, in an undated charter, and again by William, son of the latter William, in 1290. According to an inquiry of 1291 a market and fair were held in Alnwick from time immemorial. In 1297 Edward I., in addition, granted the bishop of Durham a market on Saturday, and a fair on the 17th of March and six following days. By charters of Henry VI. the burgesses received licence to enclose their town with a wall, to have a free port at Alnmouth, a market on Wednesday as well as Saturday, and two new fairs on the feasts of SS Philip and James and St Lucy, and eight days following each. Tanning and weaving were formerly the principal industries carried on in Alnwick, and in 1646 there were twenty-two tanneries there. Alnwick has never been represented in parliament.

See George Tate, The History of the Borough, Castle, and Barony of Alnwick, 2 vols. (Alnwick, 1866-1869); Victoria County History, Northumberland.

ALOE, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Liliaceae, with about 90 species growing in the dry parts of Africa, especially Cape Colony, and in the mountains of tropical Africa. Members of the closely allied genera Gasteria and Haworthia, with a similar mode of growth, are also cultivated and popularly known as aloes. The plants are apparently stemless, bearing a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves, or have a shorter or longer (sometimes branched) stem, along which, or towards the end of which and its branches, the generally fleshy leaves are borne. They are much cultivated as ornamental plants, especially in public buildings and gardens, for their stiff, rugged habit. The leaves are generally lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny margin; but vary in colour from grey to bright green, and are sometimes striped or mottled. The rather small tubular yellow or red flowers are borne on simple or branched leafless stems and are generally densely clustered. The juice of the leaves of certain species yields aloes (see below). In some cases, as in Aloe venenosa, the juice is poisonous. The plant called American aloe, Agave americana (c.v.), belongs to a different order, viz. Amaryllidaceae.

Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a purgative and produced from various species of aloe, such as A. vera, vulgaris, socotrina, chinensis, and Perryi. Several kinds of aloes are distinguished in commerce--Barbadoes, Socotrine, hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are those commonly used for medicinal purposes. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant. When the leaves are cut the juice flows out, and is collected and evaporated. After the juice has been obtained, the leaves are sometimes boiled, so as to yield an inferior kind of aloes.

From these plants active principles termed aloins are extracted by water. According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes are to be recognized: (1) Nataloins, which yield picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) Barbaloins, which yield aloetic acid, C7H2N3Q5, chrysammic acid, C7H2N2O6, picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by this reagent. This second group may be divided into a-Barbaloins, obtained from Barbadoes aloes, and reddened in the cold, and b-Barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed, or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin, 2C17H13O7.H2O, forms bright yellow scales, melting at 212 deg. -222 deg. ; barbaloin, C17H18O7, forms yellow prismatic crystals. Aloes also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due.

The dose is 2 to 5 grains, that of aloin being 1/2 to 2 grains. Aloes can be absorbed from a broken surface and will then cause purging. When given internally it increases the actual amount as well as the rate of flow of the bile. It hardly affects the small intestine, but markedly stimulates the muscular coat of the large intestine, causing purging in about fifteen hours. There is hardly any increase in the intestinal secretion, the drug being emphatically not a hydragogue cathartic. There is no doubt that its habitual use may be a factor in the formation of haemorrhoids; as in the case of all drugs that act powerfully on the lower part of the intestine, without simultaneously lowering the venous pressure by causing increase of secretion from the bowel. Aloes also tends to increase the menstrual flow and therefore belongs to the group of emmenagogues. Aloin is preferable to aloes for therapeutic purposes, as it causes less, if any, pain. It is a valuable drug in many forms of constipation, as its continual use does not, as a rule, lead to the necessity of enlarging the dose. Its combined action on the bowel and the uterus is of especial value in chlorosis, of which amenorrhoea is an almost constant symptom. The drug is obviously contraindicated in pregnancy and when haemorrhoids are already present. Many well-known patent medicines consist essentially of aloes.

The lign-aloes is quite different from the medicinal aloes. The word is used in the Bible (Numb. xxiv. 6), but as the trees usually supposed to be meant by this word are not native in Syria, it has been suggested that the LXX. reading in which the word does not occur is to be preferred. Lign-aloe is a corruption of the Lat. lignum-aloe, a wood, not a resin. Dioscorides refers to it as agallochon, a wood brought from Arabia or India, which was odoriferous but with an astringent and bitter taste. This may be Aquilaria agallochum, a native of East India and China, which supplies the so-called eagle-wood or aloes-wood, which contains much resin and oil.

ALOIDAE, or ALOADAE, i.e. Otus and Ephialtes, in ancient Greek legend, the twin-sons of Poseidon by Iphimedeia, wife of Aloeus. They were celebrated for their extraordinary stature and strength. According to Homer (Od. xi. 305). they made war upon the Olympian gods and endeavoured to pile Pelion upon Ossa in order to storm heaven itself; had they reached the age of manhood, their attempt would have been successful, but Apollo destroyed them before their beards began to grow. In the Iliad (v. 365) Ares is imprisoned by them, but delivered by Hermes. Apollodorus says that they succeeded in piling Pelion upon Ossa. Another story is that they were presumptuous enough to seek Artemis and Hera in marriage, and that Artemis caused them to slay each other unintentionally on the island of Naxos, where they were afterwards worshipped as heroes. In punishment for their offences they were bound back to back with snakes to a pillar in the lower world (Hyginus, Fab. 28). The Aloidae (here connected with aloe, threshing-floor) represent the spirits of the fertile earth and agriculture, conceived of by the Greeks as engaged in combat with the Olympian gods. In contrast to these legends, Pausanias tells us that they were regarded as the first to worship the Muses on Mt. Helicon, while Diodorus represents them as historical personages, princes of Thessaly, who defeated the Thracians in Strongyle, i.e. Naxos, where they made themselves rulers, and subsequently slew one another in a quarrel.

ALOMPRA, ALOUNG P'HOURA (1711--1760), founder of the last Burmese dynasty, was born in 1711 at Motshobo, a small village 50 m. north-west of Ava. Of humble origin, he had risen to be chief of his native village when the invasion of Burma by the king of Pegu in 1752 gave him the opportunity of attaining to the highest distinction. The whole country had tamely submitted to the invader, and the leading chiefs had taken the oaths of allegiance. Alompra, however, with a more independent spirit, not only contrived to regain possession of his village, but was able to defeat a body of Peguan troops that had been sent to punish him. Upon this the Burmese, to the number of a thousand, rallied to his standard and marched with him upon Ava, which was recovered from the invaders before the close of 1753. For several years he prosecuted the war with uniform success. In 1754 the Peguans, to avenge themselves for a severe defeat at Keoum-nuoum, slew the king of Burma, who was their prisoner. The son of the latter claimed the throne, and was supported by the tribe of Quois; but Alompra resisted, being determined to maintain his own supremacy. In 1755 Alompra founded the city of Rangoon. In 1757 he had established his position as one of the most powerful monarchs of the East by the invasion and conquest of Pegu. Before a year elapsed the Peguans revolted; but Alompra, with his usual promptitude, at once quelled the insurrection. The Europeans were suspected of having instigated the rising, and the massacre of the English at Negrais in October 1759 is supposed to have been approved by Alompra after the event, though there is no evidence that he ordered it. Against the Siamese, who were also suspected of having abetted the Peguan rebels, he proceeded more openly and severely. Entering their territory, he was just about to invest the capital when he was seized with an illness which proved fatal on the 15th of May 1760. Alompra is one of the most remarkable figures in modern Oriental history. To undoubted military genius he added considerable political sagacity, and he deserves particular credit for his efforts to improve the administration of justice. His cruelty and deceitfulness were faults common to all Eastern despots.

ALONE. This adjective or adverb requires no definition for its meaning of ``by oneself'' or ``solitary''; but its etymological history, as simply a combination of the words ``all'' and ``one'' is rather curious (compare the Ger. allein.) ``Lone'' is merely a clipped form of the word, and so ``lonely.'' The New English Dictionary traces the English word back to the year 1300.

ALORA, a town of southern Spain in the province of Malaga; 17 m. W.N.W. of Malaga, on the right bank of the river Guadalhorce, and on the Cordova-Malaga railway. Pop. (1900) 10,525. Alora, which is an ancient and picturesque town, with several Moorish ruins, occupies an outlying hill of the Sierra de Tolox, and overlooks a fertile valley where maize, sugar-cane and datepalms are cultivated. There are hot sulphurous springs in the town, which has also a fine climate; and many of the wealthy families from Malaga reside here in summer. Brandy distilling is, after agriculture, the chief local industry.

ALOST (Flem. Aalst), a town of Belgium, in the province of East Flanders, situated on the left bank of the Dender; the ancient capital of what was called Imperial Flanders. Pop. (1897) 28,771; (1904) 31,655. Flanders in the feudal period was a fief of the king of France---the count of Flanders being the first of the twelve peers of France; but there was a small strip extending from Alost to the isles of Zeeland, designated Imperial Flanders, of which the count was the vassal of the Holy Roman emperor. Attached to the hotel de ville is a fine belfry of the 15th century, but unfortunately it was seriously damaged by fire in 1879. In the church of St Martin, dating from 1498 but unfinished, is a fine Rubens. The subject is St Roch, the patron saint of lepers, and the colouring of the scaly skin of the leper in the forefront of the picture is generally regarded as one of the master's most striking effects. The work was pointed to the order of the Brewers' Gild in (it is said) eight days. It was outside Alost that William Clito, grandson of William the Conqueror, who was then endeavouring to establish his claims as count of Flanders, was mortally wounded in 1128. Of all the claims Alost possesses to fame perhaps the most remarkable is that Thierry Maartens (c. 1474) set up there one of the first printing presses in Europe. Alost is famous to-day for its hop gardens and linen-bleaching establishments. The meadows south of Alost are often covered with the linen undergoing the process of bleaching, which makes them assume the aspect of a whitish-blue carpet.

ALP. To the Swiss dwellers in the plains the term ``the Alps'' (q.v.) signifies the high snowy mountains which they see on the horizon, but to the dwellers in the valleys which nature has carved in the sides of those high mountains, the word alp means exclasively the summer pastures situated on the slopes above the valley, though below the snow-line. In fact such pastures are essential to the inhabitants of pastoral alpine districts, for the fodder to be obtained in the valley itself would not suffice to support the number of cattle which are required to afford sustenance to the inhabitants. Such mountain pastures, made use of only during the summer months, are of almost immemorial antiquity, cases occurring in 739, 868 and 999, while they are found in all parts of the Alpine chain. In France and Italy the system is badly managed, as also in Tirol (where the local name is Almen), where, too, these pastures have in the course of years been largely alienated by the valley inhabitants, and belong to large villages or small towns almost in the plains. But in Switzerland, and especially in the German-speaking mountain districts, the alps are the centre round which the entire pastoral life of the inhabitants turns. It is reckoned that in that country there are now about 4778 alps in ail, the capital value of which is put at rather over L. 3,000,000. Of these alps about 45% are owned by the communes (exclusively or jointly) and 54% by individuals, the remaining 1% being the property of the state or a few great monasteries. In the case of the alps belonging to the Swiss communes, it must be borne in mind that ``commune'' here does not signify either Einwohnergemeinden or Burgergemeinden, but a special class called Alpgemeinden (for instance in the well-known valley of Grindelwald there is one Einwohnergemeinde, but seven Alpgemeinden.) These Alpgemeinden are composed of the persons who have a right to send cattle up to any particular alp in summer, this right being attached (in different places) either to certain plots of ground in the valley or certain houses in the Village, or to certain persons. In any case the owners of an alp fix the greatest number of cows which it can support during the summer without being permanently damaged. The plot of ground which can support a single cow (or 2 heifers, 3 calves or sheep, 4 pigs or 8 goats) is called a Kuhstoss (of which there are 270,389 in Switzerland), and it is in these terms that the productiveness of the alp is reckoned. Sometimes a particular alp, or a portion of it, is reserved exclusively to heifers and calves, or to goats (in this case it is the loftier portion). On each alp there are several sets of huts wherein live the cow-herds and cheese-makers (the latter are called Sennen or Fruitiers), the cattle being generally left in the open. The cattle, with their attendants, shift from one to the other of these sets of huts, between the end of June and the end of September, making but one sojourn at the highest huts, but two at the lower. The proper name for these nuts is Sennhutten or chalets, but the latter term is incorrectly applied also to houses in the village below. The milk given each day by each cow is entered in a book, and then made into butter and cheese. the cow-herds and cheese-makers having the right to a certain proportion of milk, butter and cheese for their own sustenance, and receiving a small sum per head of cattle for looking after them. At the end of the season the net amount of cheese produced by milk from each cow is handed over to the owner of that particular cow, and is carried down by him to his home in the valley from the hut (a small building on four stone legs to secure the contents from mice) wherein the cheeses have been stored since they were made--this hut is called a Speicher. As the owners of Kuhstossen may exchange them provisionally for others on another alp, or may hire them out (they can only sell them with the plot or house to which they are attached), the persons who in any given summer actually send cows up to an alp (these form the Besetzerschaft) need not necessarily be absolutely identical with the true owners of these rights or Besitzerschaft. Hay is never mown on the true alps save in spots which are not easily accessible to cattle (in very high spots it belongs to the mower, and is then called Wildheu), but hay-crops are made on the Mayens or Voralpen, the lowest pastures, situated between the homesteads and the true alps; these Voralpen are individual (not communal) property, though probably in olden days cut out of the true Alpen. In the winter the cattle consume the hay mown on these Voralpeii (which, to a certain extent, are grazed in late spring and early autumn, that is, before and after the summer sojourn on the alps), either living in the huts on the Foralpen while they consume it, or in the stable attached to the dwelling-houses in the village; in the barn is stored the hay mown on the homestead and on the meadows near the village, which may belong to the owner of the cattle. The whole system is well organized and is well understood by the natives, though not always by strangers who visit the Alps in summer.

See John Ball, Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (article x., especially pp: lvii.-lxv.); new edition, London, 1899; Felix Anderegg, Illustriertes Lehrbuch fur die gesamte schweiz. Alpwirtschaft (Bern, 1897--1898); the Schweiz-Alpstatistik (each volume devoted to the alps of a single Swiss canton); and A. v. Miaskowski's two books, Die schweiz. Allmend (Leipzig, 1879), and Die Verfassung der Land-, Alpen- und Forstwirtschaf der Schweiz (Basel, 1878). (W. A. B. C.)

ALPACA, one of two domesticated breeds of South American camel-like ungulates, derived from the wild huanaco or guanaco. Alpacas are kept in large flocks which graze on the level heights of the Andes of southern Peru and northern Bolivia, at an elevation of from 14,000 to 16,000 ft. above the sea-level, throughout the year. They are not used as beasts of burden like llamas, but are valued only for their wool, of which the Indian blankets and ponchos are made. The colour is usually dark brown or black and the coat of great length, reaching nearly to the ground. In stature the alpaca (Lama huanacos pacos) is considerably inferior to the llama, but has the same unpleasant habit of spitting.

In the textile industries ``alpaca'' is a name given to two distinct things. It is primarily a term applied to the wool, or rather hair, obtained from the Peruvian alpaca. It is, however, more broadly applied to a style of fabric originally made from the alpaca wool but now frequently made from an allied type of wool, viz. mohair, Iceland, or even from lustrous English wool. In the trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohairs and lustres, but so far as the general purchaser is concerned little or no distinction is made.

The four species of indigenous South American wool-bearing animals are the llama, the alpaca, the guanaco and the vicuna. The llama and the alpaca are domesticated; the guanaco and the vicuna run wild. Of the four the alpaca and the vicuna are the most valuable wool-bearing animals: the alpaca on account of the quality and quantity, the vicuna on account of the softness, fineness and quality of its wool. In the early days of the 19th century, the usual length of alpaca staples appears to have been about 12 in., this being a three years' growth; but to-day the length is little more than about half this, i.e. a one to two years' growth, although from time to time longer staples are to be found. The fleeces are sorted for colour and quality by skilled native women. The colour of the greater proportion of alpaca imported into the United Kingdom is black and brown, but there is also a fair proportion of white, grey and fawn. It is customary to mix these colours together, thus producing a curious ginger-coloured yarn, which upon being dyed black in the piece takes a fuller and deeper shade than can be obtained by piece-dyeing a solid-coloured wool. In physical structure alpaca is somewhat akin to hair, being very glossy, but its softness and fineness enable the spinner to produce satisfactory yarns with comparative ease.

The history of the manufacture of this wool into cloth is one of the romances of commerce. Undoubtedly the Indians of Peru employed this fibre in the manufacture of many styles of fabrics for centuries before its introduction into Europe as a commercial product. The first European importations would naturally be into Spain. Spain, however, transferred the fibre to Germany and France. Apparently alpaca yarn was spun in England for the first time about the year 1808. It does not appear to have made any headway, however, and alpaca wool was condemned as an unworkable material. In 1830 Benjamin Outram, of Greetland, near Halifax, appears to have again attempted the spinning of this fibre, and for the second time alpaca was condemned. These two attempts to use alpaca were failures owing to the style of fabric into which the yarn was woven---a species of camlet. It was not until the introduction of cotton warps into the Bradford trade about 1836 that the true qualities of alpaca could be developed in the fabric. Where the cotton warp and mohair or alpaca weft plain-cloth came from is not known, but it was this simple yet ingenious structure which enabled Titus Salt (q.v.), then a young Bradford manufacturer, to utilize alpaca successfully. Bradford is still the great spinning and manufacturing centre for alpacas, large quantities of yarns and cloths being exported annually to the continent and to the United States, although the quantities naturally vary in accordance with the fashions in vogue, the typical ``alpaca-fabric'' being a very characteristic ``dress-fabric.''

The following statistics, taken from Hooper's Statistics of the Woollen and Worsted Trades of the United Kingdom, give an idea of the extent of the trade in yarns and fabrics of the alpaca type; unfortunately statistics for alpaca alone are not published.

Alpaca, Vicuna, and Llama Wool imported into the United Kingdom.

Year Peru Chile1 lb L. lb L. 1854 1,247,015 124,946 15,573 1,557 1860 2,334,048 263,635 520,402 58,443 1870 3,324,454 388,969 563,782 65,996 1880 1,412,365 98,644 890,627 64,621 1890 3,114,336 190,703 564,606 30,694 1900 4,236,566 205,839 1,148,694 51,116 1902 5,038,998 259,927 1,028,171 47,610 1905 2,301,522 119,321 2,302,650 112,367

Note.--in 1840 the imports into, exports from, and consumed in the United Kingdom of mohair, alpaca, vicuna, &c., amounted to

Exports of Mohair and Alpaca Yarns for 1905.

Russia . . . 1,288,800 lb. . . . L. 168,596 Germany. . . 9,851,200 '' . . . 1,145,795 Belgium. . . . 316,400 '' . . . 40,409 France . . . 2,006,700 '' . . . 223,605

Exports of Alpaca from the United Kingdom to the United States.

1881 . L. 1,256 1900 . .L. 30,631 1890 . . . -- 1905 . . 4,954

Owing to the success in the manufacture of the various styles of alpaca cloths attained by Sir Titus Salt and other Bradlord manufacturers, a great demand for alpaca wool arose, and this demand could not be met by the native product, for there never seems to have been any appreciable increase in the number of alpacas available. Unsuccessful attempts were made to acclimatize the alpaca goat in England, on the European continent and in Australia, and even to cross certain English breeds of sheep with the alpaca. There is, however, a cross between the alpaca and the llama--a true hybrid in every sense--producing a material placed upon the Liverpool market under the name ``Huarizo.'' Crosses between the alpaca and vicuna have not proved satisfactory.

The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing of alpacas and mohairs are dealt with under WOOL. (A. F. B.)

1 Grown in Peru but shipped from Valparaiso.

ALP ARSLAN, or AXAN, MAHOMMED BEN DA'UD (1029-1072), the second sultan of the dynasty of Seljuk, in Persia, and great-grandson of Seljuk, the founder of the dynasty, was born in the year A.D. 1029 (421 of the Hegira). He assumed the name of Mahommed when he embraced the Mussulman faith; and on account of his military prowess he obtained the surname Alp Arslan, which signifies ``a valiant lion.'' He succeeded his father Da'ud as ruler of Khorasan in 1059, and his uncle Togrul Bey as sultan of Oran in 1063, and thus became sole monarch of Persia from the river Oxus to the Tigris. In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by Nizam ul-Mulk, his vizier, one of the most eminent statesmen in early Mahommedan history. Peace and security being established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son Malik Shah his heir and successor. With the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of St Basil in Caesarea, the capital of Cappadocia, he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the Euphrates and entered and plundered that city. He then marched into Armenia and Georgia, which, in 1064, he finally subdued. In 1068 Alp Arslan invaded the Roman empire. The emperor Romanus Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders in Cihcia. In three arduous campaigns, the two first of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenus, the Turks were defeated in detail and finally (1070) driven across the Euphrates. In 1071 Romanus again took the field and advanced with 100,000 men, including a contingent of the Turkish tribe of the Uzes and of the French and Normans, under Ursel of Bahol, into Armenia. At Manzikert, on the Murad Tchai, north of Lake Van, he was met by Alp Arslan; and the sultan having proposed terms of peace, which were scornfully rejected by the emperor, a battle took place in which the greeks, after a terrible slaughter, were totally routed, a result due mainly to the rapid tactics of the Turkish cavalry. Romanus was taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, and terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. The dominion of Alp Arslan now extended over the fairest part of Asia; 1200 princes or sons of princes surrounded his throne and 200,000 warriors were at his command. He now prepared to march to the conquest of Turkestan, the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced td the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, Yussuf Kothual, a Kharizmian. He was, however, obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to a cruel death. Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan. Alp Arslan, the most skilful archer of his day, motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. The wound proved mortal, and Alp Arslan expired a few hours after he received it, on the 15th of December 1072

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by J. B. Bury (1898), vi. pp. 235 et seq., and authoriries there cited.

ALPENA, a city and the county seat of Alpena county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Thunder Bay, a small arm of Lake Huron, at the mouth of Thunder Bay river, in the N.E. part of the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890) 11,283; (1900) 11,802, of whom 4193 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,706. It is served.by the Detroit & Mackinac railway and by steamboat lines to Detroit and other ports. The city is built on sandy ground on both sides of the river and has a good harbour, which has been considerably improved by the Federal government; in 1007 the maximum draft that could be carried over the shallowest part of the channel was 14 ft. There is good farming land in the vicinity and Alpena has lumber and shingle mills, pulp works, Portlald cement manufactories and tanneries; in 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $2,905,263. In 1906 the commerce of the port, chiefly in lumber, cement, coal, cedar posts and ties, fodder and general merchandise, was valued at $3,018,894. Alpena occupies the site of an Indian burying-ground. A tradingpost was established here in 1835, but the permanent settlement dates from 1858; in 1871 Alpena was chartered as a city.

ALPENHORN, ALPHORN, a musical instrument, consisting of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped mouthpiece, used by mountaineers in Switzerland and elsewhere. The tube is made of thin strips of birchwood soaked in water until they have become quite pliable; they are then wound into a tube of conical form from 4 to 8 ft. long, and neatly covered with bark. A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete. The alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe. The harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the bore in relation to the length. An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwytz, and now in the South Kensington Museum, measures 8 ft. in length and has a straight tube. The well-known Ranz des Paches is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn, which has been immortalized by Beethoven in the finale of the Pastoral Symphony, where the music is generally rendered by a cor aniglais (q.v..) Rossini has introduced the melody into his opera William Tell. Wagner, in the third act of Tristan and Isolde, was not entirely satisfied with the tone quality of the cor anglais for representing the natural pipe of the peasant. Having in his mind the timbre of the alpenhorn, he had a wooden horn made for him with one valve only and a small pear-shaped bell, which is used at Bayreuth (see HONZTROMPETE.) The Swiss alpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland. Michael Praetorius mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holzerni trummet in Syniagma Musicum (Wittenberg, 1615--1619). (K. S.)

ALPES MARITIMES, a department in the S.E. of France, formed in 1860 out of the county of Nice, to which were added the districts of Grasse (formerly in the department of the Var) and of Mentone (purchased from the prince of Monaco). Pop. (1906) 334,007. It is bounded N.E. and E. by Italy, S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and W. by the departments of the Var and the Basses Alpes, while its northern extremity forms a sharp angle between France and Italy. Its area is 1444 sq. m., its greatest length is 59 m. and its greatest breadth 48 1/2 m. It is composed of the valley of the Var river (which is all but completely within this department), together with those of its chief affluents, the Tinee and the Vesubie. The region of Grasse is hilly, but the rest of the department is mountainous, its loftiest point being the Mont Tinibras (9948 ft.) at the head of the Tinee valley. Two singular features of the frontier of the department towards the east are only to be explained by historical reasons. One is that the ce:itral bit of the Roja valley is French, while the upper and lower bits of this valley are Italian; the reason is that those bits which are now Italian formed part of the county of Ventimiglia, and the central bit part of the county of Nice, which alone became French in 1860. The result is that the Italians are now unable to build a railway from Culeo by the Col de Tenda and down the Roja valley direct to Ventimiglia. The other strange feature is that from near Isola in the upper Tinee valley southwards the political frontier does not coincide with the physical frontier, or the main watershed of the Alpine chain; the reason (it is said) is that in 1860 all the higher valleys of the Maritime Alps (on both sides of the watershed) were expressly excepted from the treaty of cession, in order that Victor Emmanuel II. might retain his right of chamois hunting in these parts. The department is divided into three arrondissements (Nice, Grasse and Puget Thenicrs), 27 cantons and 155 communes. It forms the bishopric of Nice (the first bishop certainly known is mentioned at the end of the 4th century), which till 1792 was in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, then (1802) in that of Aix en Provence, next in that of Genoa (1814),and lilally (1860) in that of Aix again. Its chief town is Nice. The broad-gauge railways in the department cover 56 m., including the line along the coast, while there are also 82 m. of narrow-gauge railways. The chief industries are distilleries for perfumes and manufacture of olive oil, of pottery and of tiles, besides a great commerce in cut flowers. To foreigners the department is best known for its health resorts, Nice, Cannes, Mentone, Antibes and Beaulieu, while other important towns are Grasse and Puget Theniers. (W. A. B. C.)

ALPHA and OMEGA (A and O), the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, corresponding to the Aleph and Taw of the Hebrew. They are used as a designation of Himself by the speaker in Rev.i.8; xxi. 6; xxii. 13. The first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet are used in Rabbinic writings in a similar way. We find also ``the seal of God is Emeth,'' Emeth (truth) being composed of the first, middle and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet. God is thus represented as the beginning, middle and end of all things (see the Jewish Encyclopaedia, s.v.).

ALPHABET (see also WRITING.) By the word alphabet, derived from the Greek names for the first two letters--alpha and beta--of the Greek alphabet, is meant a series of conventional symbols each indicating a single sound or combination of sounds. The ideal alphabet would indicate one sound by one symbol, and not more than one sound by the same symbol. Symbols for a combination of sounds are not necessary, though they may be convenient as abbreviations. In the writing of some languages, e.g. Sanskrit, such abbreviations are carried to an extreme; in most Greek MSS. also they are of very frequent occurrence. These contractions, however, may prove too great a strain upon the eyesight or the memory, and thus become a hindrance instead of a help. This was apparently the case in Greek, for though the early printers cast types for all the contractions of the Greek MSS. these have now with one consent been given up. A consonant like x can only be regarded as an abbreviation; it expresses nothing that cannot as well be expressed by ks or gz, both of which combinations in different situations it may represent (see X). No alphabet corresponds exactly to the ideal which we have postulated, nor if it did, would it continue long so to do, as the sounds of most languages are continually changing. Hence in the case of dead languages or past forms of living languages, it is often very difficult to define with precision what the sounds of the past epoch were. The study of the history of English pronunciation occupied the late Dr A. J. Ellis for a large part of his life, and the results fill five large volumes. The sounds which are most difficult to define exactly are the vowels; a great variety may be indicated by the same symbol. In the New English Dictionary no fewer than thirteen different nuances of vowel sound are distinguished under the symbol A alone. In English, moreover, the vowel sounds tend to become diphthongs, so that the symbol for the simple sound tends to become the symbol for that combination which we call a diphthong. Thus the long i in ride, wine, &c., has become the diphthong ai, and the name of the symbol I is itself so pronounced. In familiar, if vulgar, dialects, A tends in the same direction. In the ``cockney'' dialect, really the dialect of Essex but now no less familiar in Cambridge and Middlesex, the ai sound of i is represented by oi as in toime, ``time,'' while a has become ai in Kate, pane, &c. In, all southern English o becomes more rounded while it is being pronounced, so that it ends with a slight u sound. In the vulgar dialect already mentioned, the sound begins as a more open sound than in the cultivated pronunciation, so that no is really pronounced as naou. It is clear, therefore, that the best alphabet would not long indicate very precisely the sounds which it was intended to represent. See PHONETICS.

But the history of the alphabet shows that at no time has it represented any European language with much precision, because it was an importation adapted in a somewhat rough and ready fashion to represent sounds different from those which it represented outside Europe. Wherever the alphabet may have originated, there seems no doubt that its first importation in a form closely resembling that with which we are familiar in modern times was from the Phoenicians to the Greeks. The Phoenicians were certainly using it with freedom in the 9th century B.C.; with so much freedom, indeed, that they must have been in possession of it for a considerable time before we can trace it. With the materials available up to August 1910 it would be idle here to attempt to trace its earlier history. Great discoveries in Cappadocia, Assyria and Egypt were then only at their beginning, and any statement was liable to be quickly disproved by the appearance of new evidence. The prevalent theory, universally accepted till a few years ago, was that of Vicomte Emmanuel de Ronge, first propounded to the Academie des Inscriptions in 1859, but unnoticed by the world at large till republished, after derouge's death, by his son in 1874. According to this view the alphabet was borrowed by the Phoenicians from the cursive (hieratic) form of Egyptian hieroglyphics. The resemblances between some Egyptian symbols and some symbols of the Phoenician alphabet are striking; in other cases the differences are no less remarkable. As a matter of fact the Egyptians might have passed about thirty-five centuries B.C. from the picture writing of hieroglyphs to genuine alphabetic signs.1 They did not, however, profit by their discovery, because, amongst the Egyptians, writing was clearly a mystery in both senses--only possible at that period for masters in the craft, and also something, like the writing of medical prescriptions at the present day in Latin, which was not to be made too easily intelligible to the common people. At all periods, moreover, hieroglyphic writing was a branch of decorative art, and it may have been that the ancient Egyptian, like the modern Turk, resented too much lucidity, and liked his literary compositions to be veiled in a certain obscurity. The alphabet devised by the Egyptians consisted of twenty-four letters. Egyptologists are at variance on the question whether this alphabet was the original, or had any influence upon the development of the Phoenician alphabet. ``With the papyrus paper,'' says Professor Breasted,2 ``the hand customarily written upon it in Egypt now made its way into Phoenicia, where before the 10th century B.C. it developed into an alphabet of consonants, which was quickly transmitted to the Ionian Greeks and thence to Europe.'' On the other hand, Professor Spiegelberg,3 writing soon after Professor Breasted, says that investigation has not as yet furnished proof that the Phoenician alphabet is of Egyptian origin, though he admits that in some respects the development of the two alphabets, both without vowel signs, is curiously parallel.

The most recent view is that of Dr A. J. Evans, who argues ingeniously that the alphabet was taken over from Crete by the ``Cherethites and Pelethites'' or Philistines, who established for themselves settlements on the coast of Palestine.4 From them it passed to the Phoenicians, who were their near neighbours, if not their kinsfolk. Symbols like the letters of the alphabet have been found in European soil painted upon pebbles belonging to a stratum between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic age.5 This was in France at Mas d'Azil on the left bank of the Arize. Elsewhere several series of such symbols resembling inscriptions have been found scratched on bones of the same period.6 For the history of writing these may be important, but for the history of the alphabet, as we know it, they are not in question. The alphabet may have originated as Dr Evans thinks, but at present the proof is not conclusive. The Greek names of the letters, their forms, and the order of the symbols show that the Greek alphabet as we know it must have been imported by or from a Semitic people, and there is no evidence to contradict ancient tradition that this people was the Phoenicians. The view propounded by Deecke7 in 1877, that the Phoenician alphabet had developed out of the late Assyrian cuneiform, never met with much acceptance and has really no evidence in its favour.

The earliest alphabetic document which can be dated with comparative certainty is the famous Moabite stone, which was discovered in 1868, and after a controversy between rival claimants which led to its being broken in pieces by the Arabs, ultimately reached the Louvre, where in a restored form it remains. The long inscription upon it celebrates the achievements of Mesha, king of Moab, who had been a tributary of Ahab, king of Israel, and rebelled after his death (1 Kings iii. 4, 5). Though the chronology of the period is somewhat uncertain, the date must be in the first half of the 9th century B.C. It is to be remembered, however, that important as this monument is for the development of the alphabet, and because it can be dated with tolerable accuracy, the dialect and alphabet of Moab are not in themselves proof for the Phoenician forms which influenced the peoples of the Aegean, and through them Western Europe. The fragment of a bronze bowl discovered in Cyprus in 1876, which bears round its edge an inscription dedicating it to Baal-Lebanon as a gift from a servant of Hiram, king of the Sidonians, is probably the oldest Phoenician document which we possess. This bowl, though perhaps a little earlier than the Moabite stone, in all probability is not more than a century older, while some authorities think it is even later. The earliest alphabet consisted of twenty-two letters, and bears a very close resemblance to the earliest Green alphabet from A to T. The symbols in the Greek alphabet from Y to O, or in the numerical alphabet to @, are not found in the Phoenician alphabet.

As already mentioned, the twenty-two symbols of the Phoenician alphabet indicate consonantal sounds only. Greek did not possess so many consonants. The Phoenician alphabet possessed many more aspirates than were required in Greek, which tended more and more to drop all its aspirates. Before history begins it had also lost, except sporadically in out-of-the-way dialects, the semi-vowel i (approximately English y.) It therefore made the aspirates A, E, O and the semi-vowel into vowels, and apparently converted the semi-vowel Y = w into the vowel Y = u, which it placed at the end of the alphabet and substituted for it as the sixth symbol of the alphabet the letter F with the old value of w. The superfluous sibilants were also adapted in various ways (see below).

Relationship of Greek to Phoenician

The discovery of a large number of very archaic inscriptions in the island of Thera, which was made by Freiherr Hiller von Gartringen in 1896, has shown that the earliest Greek alphabet was even more like the Phoenician than had been heretofore believed. The symbol for b in Thera (@) is nearer than any previously known to the Semitic letter (@) though, as not infrequently happens in the transference of a symbol from one people to another, its position is inverted--a fate which in this alphabet has befallen also l (Semitic @, Thera @), and possibly s (Semitic @, Thera @). The era of excavation initiated by Dr Schliemann on the grand scale has increased our knowledge of Greek inscriptions beyond anything that was earlier dreamt of. Besides the excavations of Athens, Delos, Epidaurus and Delphi, the results of which are most important for the 5th century B.C. and later. the exploration of the sites of Olympia, of the Heraeum near Argos, of Naucratis in Egypt, and of various Cretan towns (above all the ancient Gortyn), has revolutionized our knowledge of the archaic alphabets of Greece. We can now see how long and laborious was the process by which the Greeks attained to uniformity in writing and in numeration. In no field, perhaps, was the centrifugal tendency of the Greeks more persistent than in such matters. In numeration, indeed, uniformity was not attained till at least the 2nd century of the Christian era. The differentiation of the local alphabets is found from the very beginning of our records: Unfortunately, as yet no record is preserved which can with any probabilily be dated earlier than the 7th century B.C., and the Phoenician influence had by then nearly ceased. How long this influence lasted we cannot tell. If in Crete a system of writing of an entirely different nature had been developed seven or eight centuries before, there must have been some very important reason for the entire abandonment of the old method and the adoption of a new. In Crete, at least, the excavations show that the old civilization must have ended in a social and political cataclysm. The magnificent palace of Minos--there seems no reason to withhold from it the name of the great prince whom Thucydides recognized as the first to hold the empire of the sea--perished by the flames, and it evidently had been plundered beforehand of everything that a conqueror would regard as valuable. The only force in Greek history which we know that could have produced this change was that of the Dorian conquest. As everywhere in the Peloponnese, except at Argos, there seems to have been a sudden break with the earlier civilization, which can have been occasioned only by the semi-barbarous Dorian tribes, so the same result seems to have followed from the same cause in Thera. The Dorians apparently were without an alphabet, and consequently when Phoenician traders and pirates occupied the place left vacant by the downfall of Minos's empire, the people of the island, and of the sea coasts generally, adopted from them the Phoenician alphabet.8 The Greeks who migrated to Cyprus, possibly as the result of the Dorian invasion, adopted a syllabary, not an alphabet (see Plate; also WRITING.) That the alphabet was borrowed and adapted independently by different places not widely separated, and that the earliest Greek alphabets did not spread from one or a few centres in Greek lands, seem clear (a) from the different Greek sounds for which the Phoenician symbols were utilized; (b) from the different symbols which were employed to represent sounds which the Phoenicians did not possess, and for which, therefore, they had no symbols. The Phoenician alphabet was an alphabet of consonants only, but all Greek alphabets as yet known agree in employing A, E, I, O, Y as vowels. On the other band, a table of Greek alphabets9 will show how widely divergent the symbols for the same sound were. Except for a single Attic inscription (see Plate), the alphabets of Thera and of Corinth are the oldest Greek alphabets which we possess. Yet at Corinth alongside @), which is found for the so-called spurious diphthong ei (i.e. the Attic ei, which does not represent an Indo-European ei, but arises by contraction, as in fileite, or through the lengthening of the vowel sound as the result of the loss of a consonant, as in eiremenos for fefremenos) the short e sound is represented by B; i is found at Corinth in its oldest form @, and also as S, while in Thera it is @. In Thera the w sound of digamma (f) was entirely lost, and therefore is not represented. Both Thera and Corinth employ in the earliest inscriptions @ for z, not x, though in both alphabets the ordinary use as x is adopted, no doubt through the influence of trade with other states. On the other hand. at Cleonae. which is distant not more than 8 or 9 m. from Corinth, an ancient inscription written boustrofedon has recently been discovered, which shows that. though Cleonae for B wrote @, like the Corinthian @, and, as at Corinth, wrote @ for a vowel sound, the vowel thus represented was not short and long e (e and e) as at Corinth, but e only, as in @ (chrema me.) Here @ represents e, and the spurious diphthong is represented by ei, as in @ (eimen, Doric infinitive = einai), a form which shows that i has at Cleonae the more modern form as distinguished from the Corinthian

Regarding three other questions controversy still rages. These are: (a) how Greek utilized the four sibilants (Shin, Samech, Zain and Zade), which it rook over from the Phoenician; (b) what was the history of development in the symbols for f, ch, ps, o (the history of x belongs to both heads); (c) the history of the symbol for the digamma f.

Greek use of Phoenician sibilants.

In the Phoenician alphabet Zain was the seventh letter, occupying the same position and having the same form approximately (@) as the early Greek Z, while in pronunciation it was a, voiced s-sound; Samech (@) followed the symbol for n and was the ordinary s-sound, though, as we have seen, it is in different Greek slates at the earliest period z as well as x; afier the symbol for p came Zade (@), which was a strong palatal s, though in name it corresponds to the Greek zera: while lastly Shin (@ follows rhe symbol for r, and was an sh-sound. The Greek name for the sibilant (sigma) may simply mean the hissing letter and be a derivative from sizo; many authorities, however, hold that it is a corruption of the Phoenician Samech. Unfortunately, it is not clear how many sibilants ere distinguished in Greek pronunciation, nor over what areas a particular pronunciation extended. There is, however, considerable evidence of the view that Greek ss representing the sound arising from ky, ch y, ty, thy was pronounced as sh (s), while z representing gy, dy was pronounced in some districts zh ( ***Possible erro On an inscriotion of Halicarnassus, a town which stood in ancient Carian territory, the sound of ss in 'Alikarnasseon is represented by @, as it is also in the Carian name Panyassis (Panna Tios, genitive), though the ordinary @@ is also found in the same inscription. The same variation occurs at the neighbouring Teos and at Ephesus, while the coins of Mesembria in Thrace show regularly @ and @, where @ represents the sound which resulted from the fusion of thy, and which appears in Homer as ss in messos, while in later Green it becomes mesos.12. This symbol @ is in all probability the early form of the letter which was known to the Greeks as San (san) and in modern times as Sampi, and which is utilized as the numeral for 900 in the shape @ According to Herodotus (i. 139), San was only the Dorian name for the letter which the Ionians called Sigma. This would bring it into connexion with the Phoenician @ (Shin), which, turned through a right angle, is possibly the Greek S, though some forms of Zade on old Hebrew coins and gems (@) equally resemble the Greek letter. From other forms of Sade, however, the other early form of s, viz. @, is probably derived. The confusion is thus extreme: the name Zade assimilated in Greek to the names eta and qhra becomes zeta, though the form is that of Zain; the name of Samech is possibly the origin of Sigma, while the form of Samech is that of X which has not taken over a Phoenician name. lt is probable that the form @ is an abbreviation in writing from right to left of the earlier @, and @ of the four stroke @. That the confusion of the sibilants was not coufined to the Greeks only, but that pronunciation varied within a small area even among the Semitic stock, is shown by the difficulty which the Ephraimites found in pronouncing ``shibboleth'' (Judges xii. 6).

History of the digamma.

For the history of the additional symbols which are not Phoenician, we must begin with @ There is no Greek alphabet in which the symbol is not represented. But the Phoenician form corresponding to it is the consonant w, and occupies the position of the Greek digamma as sixth in the series. Whence did the Greeks obtain the digamma? The point is not clear, but probably the Greeks acted here as they did in the case of the vowel i and the consonant y, adopting the consonant symbol for the vowel sound. As, however, except in Cyprus, Pamphylia and Argos, the only y sound which survived in Greek-- the glide between i and another vowel as in diia=diya--is never represented, there was no occasion to use the Phoenician Jod in a double function. With Vau it was different; the u-sound existed in some form in all dialects, the w-souud survived in many far into historical times. The Phoenician symbol having been adopted for the vowel sound, whence came the new symbol @ or @ for the digamma? Hitherto there have been two views. Most authorities have held that the new form was derived from E by dropping the lowermost crossbar; some have held that it developed out of the old Vau, a view which is not impossible in itself and has the similar development in Aramaic (Tema) in its favour. But as Dr Evans has found a form like the digamma among his most recent types of symbols, and as we have no intermediate forms which will prove the development of @ from @ , though the form found at Oaxos in Crete, viz. @ shows a form sufficiently unlike @, it is necessary to suspend judgment.

Greek aspirates, &c.

The Greek aspirates were not the sounds which we represent by ph, th, ch (Scotch), but corresponded rather to the sound of the final consonants in such words as lip, bit, lich, the breath being audible after the formation of the consonant. It is not clear that Greek took over @ with this value, for in one Theran inscription @ are found combined as equivalent to T--H, while the regular representation of f and ch is @ and K @, or @ (koppa) @ respectively. In the great Gortyn inscription from Crete and occasionally in Thera, @ (in Crete in the form C) and K are used alone for f and ch, just as conversely even in the 5th century the name of Themistocles has been found upon an ostrakon spelt Themisthokles. Such confusions show that even to Greek ears the distinction between the sounds was very small. To have recorded it in writing at all shows considerable progress in the observation of sounds. Such progress is more easily indicated by changes in the symbols among a people whose acquaintance with the art is not of long standing nor vcry familiar. English, though possessing sounds comparable to the Greek th, f, ch, has never made any attempt to represent them in writing. On the other hand, no doubt Athens in 403 B.C. officially adopted the Ionic alphabet and gave up the old Attic alphabet. The political situation in Athens, however, at this time was as exceptional as the French Revolurion, and offered an opportunity not likely to recur for the adoption of a system in widely extended use which private individuals had been employing for a long time.

The history of rhe symbols f and ch is altogether unknown. The very numerous theories on the subject have generally been founded on a principle which itself is in need of proof, viz. that these symbols must have arisen by differentiation from others already existing in the alphabet. The explanation is possible, but it is not easy to see why, for example, the symbol @ or @ = Koppa, the Latin Q, should have been utilized for a sound so different as p-h; nor, again, why the symbol for th (@) by losing its cross stroke should become f, seeing that the sounds of th and f outside Aeolic (a dialect which is not here in question) are never confused. On the other hand, if we remember the large number of symbols belonging to the prehistoric script, it will seem at least as easy to believe that the persons who, by adding new letters to the Phoenician alphabet, attempted to bring the symbols more into accordance with the sounds of the Greek language, may have borrowed from this older script. It is now generally admitted that the improvements of the alphabet were made by traders in the interests of commerce, and that these improvements began from the great Greek emporia of Asia Minor, above all from Miletus. Symbols exactly like f, ch, and ps (@, @, @) are found in the Carian alphabet, and transliterated by Professor Sayce 13 as v (and u), h and kh respectively. If the Carian alphabet goes back to the prehistoric script, why should not Miletus have borrowed them from it? We have already seen that, in the earliest alphabets of Thera and Corinth, the ordinary symbol for x in the Ionic alphabet was used for z. This usage brought in its train another--the use of @, not for ps as in Ionic, but for x in the name @ = 'Alexagooa, and similarly in Melos, @ = Praxikudeos.14 This experiment, for it was no more, bclongs apparently to the latter part of the 6th century, and was soon given up. As the Ionians kept the form @, which the people of Thera used for z, in the same position in their alphabet as Samech occupied in the Phoenician alphabet, there can be no doubt as to its origin. The symbol @ which the Chalcidian Greeks used in the 6th century B.C. for x may be derived, according to the most widely accepted theory, from a primitive form of Samech @, which is recorded only in the abecedaria of the Chalcidian colonies in Italy. In this case the borrowing of the Greek alphabet must long precede any Phoenician record we possess. But it is not probable that the Ionic and Phoenician @ developed independently from the closed form. Kretschmer, however, in several publications15 takes a different view. He thinks that the guttural element in x was a spirant, and therefore different from ch, which is an aspirate. He points out that in Naxos, in a 6th-century inscription,16 x in Naxiou, exochos and Fraxou is represented by @, the first element in which he regards as a form of @ = h. As ch is found in the same inscription (in the form X), the guttural element must have been different, else x would have been spelt @. Attica and most of the Cyclades kept X for the guttural element in x (written @ or @) and for ch as well. On the west of the Aegean a new symbol @ was invented for the aspirate value, and this spread over the mainland and was carried by emigrants to Rhodes, Sicily and Italy. The sign ch was kept in the western group for the guttural spirant in x, which was written @; but, as this spirant occurred nowhere else, the combination was often abbreviated, and X was used for @ precisely as in the Italic alphabets we shall flnd that F = f develops out of a combination FH.

The development of symbols for the long vowels e and o was also the work of the Ionians. The h-sound ceased at a very early period to exist in Ionic, and by 800 B.C. was ignored in writing. The symbol @ or H was then employed for the long open e-sound, a use suggested by the name of the letter, which, by the loss of the aspirate, had passed from Heta to Eta. About the same period, and probably as a sequel to this change, the Greeks of Miletus developed @ for the long open o-sound, a form which in all probability is differentiated out of O. Centuries passed, however, before this symbol was generally adopted, Athens using only O for o, o and ou, the spurious diphthong, until the adoption of the whole ionic alphabet in 403 B.C.17

Latin alphabet.

The discoveries of the last quarter of the 19th century carried back our knowledge of the Latin alphabet by at least two centuries, although the monuments of an early age which have been discovered are only three.

The Dvenos inscription.

(a) In 1880 was discovered between the Quirinal and Viminal hills a little earthenware pot of a curious shape, being as it were, three vessels radiating from a centre, each with a separate mouth at the top.18 Round the sides of the triangle formed by the three vessels and under the mouths runs an inscription of considerable length. The use for which the pot was intended and the purport of the inscription have been much disputed, there being at least as many interpretations as there are words in the inscription. The date is probably the early part of the 4th century B.C. Though found in Rome, the vessel is small enough to be easily portable, and might therefore have been brought from elsewhere in Italy. It is equally possible that the potter who inscribed the words upon it was not a native of Rome. One or two points in theinscription make it doubtful whether the Latin upon it is really the Latin of Rome. It is generally known as the Dvenos inscription, from the name of the maker who wrote on the vessel from right to left the inscription, part of which is DVENOS MED FECED ( = fecit).

The Praeneste fibula.

(b) The second of these early records is the inscription on a gold fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887. The inscription runs from right to left, and is in letters which show more clearly than ever that the Roman alphabet is borrowed from the alphabets of the Chalcidian Greek colonies in Italy. Its date cannot be later than the 5th and is possibly as early as the 6th century B.C. The words are MANIOS MED FHEFHAKED NVMASIOI, ``Manius made me for Numasius.'' The symbol for M has still five strokes, s has the angular form @, @. The inscription is earlier than the Latin change of s between vowels into r, for Numasioi is the dative of the older form which corresponds to the later Numerius. The verb form is remarkable. In the Dvenos inscription the perfect of facio is feced; here it is a reduplicated form with the same vowel as the present. The spelling also is interesting. The symbol K is still in ordinary use, and not merely used for abbreviations as in the classical age. But most remarkable is the representation of Latin F by FH. The reason for this is clear. The value of F in the Greek alphabet is w and not f as in Latin. Greek had no sound corresponding to Latin F, consequently an attempt is made by combining F and H to indicate the difference of sound. Etruscan uses FH in in the same way. As Latin, however, made the symbol V indicate not only the vowel sound u, but also the consonant sound v (i.e. English w), the sign for the digamma F was left unemployed, and as FH was a cumbrous method of representing a sound which did not exist in Greek, the second element came to be left out in writing. Thus F came to be the representative of the unvoiced labiodental spirant instead of that for the bilabial voiced spirant. Whether the form fefaked was ever good Latin in Rome may be doubted, for the Romans, in spite of the few miles that separate Praeneste from Rome, were inclined to sneer at the pronunciation and idiom of the praenestines (cf. Plautus, Trin. 609, Truc. 691; Quintilian i. 5, 56)

Forum inscriptions.

(c) The last, and in some respects the most important, of these records was found in 1899 under an ancient pavement in the Comitium at the north-west corner of the Roman Forum. It is engraved upon the four sides and one bevelled edge of a pillar, the top of which has been broken off. As the writing is boustrofedon, beginning at the bottom of the pillar and running upwards and down again, no single line of the inscription is complete. Probably more than half the pillar is lost, so that it is not possible to make out the sense with certainty. The inscription is probably not older than that on the fibula from Praeneste, but has the additional interest of being undoubtedly couched in the Latin of Rome. The surviving portion of the inscription contains examples of all the letters of the early alphabet, though the forms of F and B are fragmentary and doubtful. As in the Praenestine inscription, the alphabet is still the western (Chalcidian) alphabet. K is still in use as an ordinary consonant, and not limited to a symbol for abbreviations as in the classical period. The rounded form of g is found with the value of G in RECEI, which is probably the dative of rex. H has still the closed form @, M has the five-stroke form, S is the three-stroke @, tending to become rounded. R appears in the Greek form without a tail,and V and Y are both found for the same sound. The manner of writing up and down instead of backwards and forwards across the stone is obviously appropriate to a surface which is of considerable length, but comparatively narrow, a connected sense being thus much easier to observe than in writing across a narrow surface where, as in the gravestones of Melos, three lines are required for a single word. The form of the monument corresponds to that which we are told was given to the revolving wooden pillars on which the laws of Solon were painted. That the writing of Solon's laws, which was boustrofedon, was also vertical is rendered probable by the phrase o katothen nomos in Demosthenes' speech Against Aristocrates, sec. 28, for which Harpocration is unable to supply a satisfactory explanation.

Differentiation of Roman from Greek alphabet.

The differentiation of the Roman alphabet from the Greek is brought about (a) by utilizing the digamma for the unvoiced labiodental spirant F; (b) by dropping out the aspirates th, f, ch (@ in the Chalcidian alrhabet, whence the Roman is derived) from the alphabet proper and employing them only as numerals, th (@) being gradually modified till it was identified with C as though the initial of centum, 100. Similarly @ became in time identified with M as though the initial of mille, 1000, aud the side strokes of ch in the above form were flattened out till it became @, and ultimately L, 50. (c) After 350 B.C., at latest, there was in Latin no sound corresponding to Z, which was therefore dropped. In the Chalcidian alphabet the symbol for x was placed after the symbols common to all Greek alphabets, a position which X retains in the Latin (and also in the Faliscan) alphabet. K in time passed out of use except as an abbreviation, its place being taken by C, which, as we have seen, is in the earliest inscrio1ion still g. Three points here require explanation: (1) Why K fell into disuse: (2) Why C took the place of K; (3) why the new symbol G was put in the place of the lost Z. It is clear that C must have become an equivalent of K before the latter fell out of use. There is some evidence which seems to point to a prouunciation of the voiced mutes which, like the South German pronunciation of g, d, b, but slightly differentiated them from the unvoiced mutes, so that confusion migh easily arise. The Etruscans, who were separated from the Romans only by the Tiber, gradually lost the voiced mutes. But another cause was perhaps more potent. C and IC, as k was frequently written, would easily be confused in writing, and Professor Hempl (Transactions of the Chalcidian Philological Association for 1899, pp. 24 ff.) shows that the Chalcidian form of z-- I developed into shapes which might have partaken of the confusion. Owing to this confusion, the new symbol G, differentiated from C, took the place of the useless I. In abbreviations, however, C remained as before in the value of G, as in the names Gaius and Gnaeus. Y and Z were added in the last century of the republic for use in transliterating Greek words containing u and z.19

The dialect which was mosr closely akin to Latin was Faliscan. The men of Falerii, however, regularly took the side of the Etruscans in wars with Rome, and it is clear that the civilization of the old Falerii, destroyed for its rebellion in 241 B.C., was Etruscan and not Roman in character. Peculiar to this alphabet is the form for f--@. Much more important than the scanty remains of Faliscan is the Oscan alphabet. The history of this alphabet is different from that of Rome. It is certain from the symbols which they develop or drop that the people of Campania and Samnium borrowed their alphabet from the Etruscans, who held dominion in Campania from the 8th to the 5th century B.C. Previous to the Punic wars Campania had reached a higher stage of civilization than Rome. Unfortunately, the remains of that civilization are very scanty, and our knowledge of the official alphabet outside Capua, and at a later period Pompeii, is practically confined to two important inscriptions, the tabula Agnonensis, now in the British Museum, and the Cippus Abellanus, which is now kept in the Episcopal Seminary at Nola. Of Etruscan origin also is the Umbrian alphabet, represented first and foremost in the bronze tablets from Gubbio (the ancient Iguvium). The Etruscan alphabet, like the Latin, was of Chalcidian origin. That it was borrowed at an early date is shown by the fact that most of its numerous inscriptions run from right to left, though some are written boustrofedon. That it took over the whole Chalcidian alphabet is rendered probable by the survival in Umbrian and Oscan, its daughter alphabets, of forms which are not found in Etruscan itself. This mysterious language, despite the existence of more than 6000 inscriptions, and the publication in 1892 of a book written in the language and handed down to us by the accident of its use to pack an Egyptian mummy, remains as obscure as ever, but apparently it underwent very great phonetic changes at an early period, so that the voiced mutes B, D, G disappeared. Of the existence of the vowel O there is no evidence. If it ever existed in Etruscan, it had been lost before the Oscans and Umbrians borrowed their alphabets. On the other hand, both of their alphabets preserve B and Umbrian G in the form @. Etruscan also retained this symbol in the form @, and utilized it exactly as Latin did to replace @. Oscan, in order to represent D, introduced later a form @, thus creating confusion between the symbols for d and for r. This form was adopted for d because @ had already been borrowed from Etruscan as the symbol for r, although @ is also found on Etruscan inscriptions. For the Greek digamma Etruscan used both @ and @, but the former only was borrowed by the other languages. Etruscan, like Latin, used @(from right to left) to represent the sound of Latin F, but, unlike Latin, adopted @ not @ as the single symbol. This form it then wrote as two lozenges @, whence developed a later sign, @, which is used also in Umbrian and Oscan. As the old digamma was kept, this new sign was placed after those borrowed from the Chalcidian alphabet. Similarly it used @ and I for the Chalcidian z; Umbrian borrowed the first, Oscan the second form. The form for h was still closed @, which Etruscan passed on to Oscan, while Umbrian modified it to @. The form for m has five strokes; from a later form @ the Oscan form was borrowed. Of the two sibilants, M and @ or S, Oscan adopted only @, Umbrian both M and the rounded form S. @ is found on Etruscan inscriptions, but not in the alphabet series preserved; neirher Umbrian nor Oscan has this form. T appears in Etruscan as @, and X; of these Umbrian borrows the first two, while Oscan has a form T like Latin. Etruscan took over the three Greek aspirates, th, f, ch, in their Chalcidian forms; th survives in Umbrian as @ , the others naturally disappear. Both Umbrian and Oscan devised two new symbols. Umbrian took over from Etruscan perhaps the sign @, but gave it the new value of a spirant whirh developed out of an earlier d-sound, but which is written in the Latin alphabet with rs. The second Umbrian symbol was @, which was the representative of an s-sound developed by palatalizing an earlier k. In Oscan, which had an o-sound, but no symbol for it, a new sign was invented by placing a dot between the legs of the symbol for u-@. This, however, is found only in the best-written documents, and on some materials the dot cannot be distinguished. The symbol @ was invented for the open i-sound and close e'm-sound.20 At a much later epoch it was introduced into the Latin alphabet by the emperor Claudius to represent y, and the sound which was wrirten as i or u in maximus, maxumus, &c.

Besides the Italic alphabets already mentioned, which are all derived from the alphabet of the Chalcidian Greek colonists in Italy, there were at least four other alphabets in use in different parts of Italy: (1) the Messapian of the south-east part of the peninsula, in which the inscriptions of the Illyrian dialect in use there were written, an alphabet which, according to Pauli (Alt-italische Forschungen, iii. chap. ii.) was borrowed from the Locrian alphabet; (2) the Sabellic alphabet, derived from that of Corinth and Corcyra, and found in a few inscriptions of eastern-central Italy; (3) the alphabet of the Veneti of north-east Italy derived from the Elean: (4) the alphabet of Sondrio (between Lakes Como and Garda), which Pauli, on the insufficient ground that it possesses no symbols corresponding to f and ch, derives from a source at the same stage of development as the oldest alphabets of Thera, Melos and Crete.

From the fact that upon the Galassi vase (unearthed at Cervetri, but probably a product of Caere), which is now in the Gregorian Museum of the Vatican, a syllabary is found along with one of the most archaic Greek alphabets, and that a similar combination was found upon the wall of a tomb at Colle, near Siena, it has been argued that syllabic preceded alphabetic writing in Italy. But a syllabary where each syllable is made by the combinations of a symbol for a consonant with that for a vowel can furnish no proof of the existence of a syllabary in the strict sense, where each symbol represents a syllable; it is rather evidence against the existence of such writing. The syllabary upon the Galassi vase indicates in all probability that the vase, which resembles an ink-bottle, belonged to a child, for whose edification the syllables pa, pi, pe, pu and the rest were intended. The evidence adduced from the Latin grammarians, and from abbreviations on Latin inscriptions like lubs for lubens, is not sufficient to establish the theory.

Teutonic runes.

It has been argued that the runes of the Teutonic peoples have been derived from a form of the Etruscan alphabet, inscriptions in which are spread over a great part of northern Italy, but of which the most characteristic are found in the neighbourhood of Lugano, and in Tirol near Innsbruch, Botzen and Trent. The Danish scholar L. F. A. Wimmer, in his great work Die Runenschrift (Berlin, 1887), contends that the resemblance, though striking, is superficial. Wimmer's own view is that the runes were developed from the Latin alphabet in use at the end of the 2nd century A.D. Wimmer supports his thesis with great learning and ingenuity, and when allowance is made for the fact that a script to be written upon wood, as the runes were, of necessity avoids horizontal lines which run along the fibres of the wood, and would therefore be indistinct, most of the runic signs thus receive a plausible explanation. The strongest argument for the derivation from the Latin alphabet is undoubtedly the value of attaching to @; for, as we have seen, the Greek value of this symbol is w, and its value as f arises only by abbreviation from FH. On the other hand, several of Wimmer's equations are undoubtedly forced. Even if we grant that the Latin symbols were inverted or set at an angle (a proceeding which is paralleled by the treatment of the Phoenician signs in Greek hands), so that @ represents Latin V, M, Latin E, @ and @ Latin D; while the symbol for the voiced spirant th is @ doubled, @, @, it is difficult to believe that the symbol for the spirant g, viz. @, represents a Latin K (which was of rare occurrence), or again @, @ a Latin N, or that the symbol for ng, do, represents @ = c doubled. Moreover, the date of the borrowing seems too late. The runes are found in all Teutonic countries,and the Romans were in close contact with the Germans on the Rhine before the beginning of the Christian era. We hear of correspondence between the Romans and German chieftains in the early day's of the empire. It is strange, therefore, if the Roman alphabet, which formed the model for the runes, was that of two whole centuries later, and even then the formal alphabet of inscriptions. By that time the Teutons were likely to have more convenient materials than wood whereon to write, so that the adaptation of the forms would not have been necessary. That the Germans were familiar with some sort of marks on wood at a much earlier period is shown by Tacitus's Germania, chap. x. There we are told that for purposes of divination certain signs were scratched on slips of wood from a fruit-bearing tree (including, no doubt, tile beech; cp. book, German Buch, and Buchstabe, a letter of the alphabet); the slips were thrown down promiscuously on a white cloth. whence the expert picked them up at random and by them interpreted fate. In these slips we have the origin of the Norse kefli, the Scots kaivel, which were and are still used as lots. The fishermen of north-east Scotland, when they return after a successful haul, divide the spoil into as many shares as there are men in the boat, with one share more for the boat. Each man then procures a piece of wood or stone, on which he puts a private mark. These lots are put in a heap, and an outsider is called in who throws one lot or kaivel upon each heap of fish. Each fisherman then finds his kaivel, and the heap on which it lies is his. This system of ``casting kaivels,'' as it is called, is certainly of great antiquity. But its existence will not help to prove an early knowledge of reading or writing, for in order that everything may be fair, it is clear that the umpire should not be able to identify the lot as belonging to a particular individual. It has, however, been contended that a system of primitive runes existed whence some at least of the later runes were borrowed, and the ownership marks of the Lapps, who have no knowledge of reading and writing, have been regarded as borrowed from these early Teutonic runes.21 Be this as it may, the resemblances between the runic and the Mediterranean alphabets are too great to admit of denial that it is from a Greek alphabet, whether directly or indirectly, that the runes are derived. That Wimmer postdates the introduction of the runic alphabet seems clear from the archaic forms and method of writing. It is very unlikely that a people borrowing an alphabet which was uniformly written from left to right should have used it in order to write from right to left, or boustrofedon. Hence Hempl contends22 that Wimmer's view must be discarded, and that the runes were derived about 600 B.C. from a western Greek alphabet which closely resembled the Formello alphabet (one of the ancient Chalcidian abecedaria) and the Sabellic and North Etruscan alphabets. He thus fixes the date at the same period as Isaac Taylor had done in his Greeks and Goths and The Alphabet. Taylor, however, derived the runes from the alphabet of a Greek colony on the Black Sea. Hempl's initiative was followed by Professor Gundermann of Giessen, who announced in November 180723 that he had discovered the source of the runic alphabet, the introduction of which he declares preceded the first of the phonetic changes known as the ``Teutonic sound-shifting,'' since @ = g is used for k, X = ch for g, a Theta-like symbol for d, while zd is used for st. If this view (which is identical with Taylor's) be true, we have a parallel in the Armenian alphabet, which is similarly used for a new value of the sounds. Hempl, on the other hand, contends that the sound-shifting had already taken place, and, arguing that several of the symbols have changed places (e.g. @ f and @ a, @ u and @ b, because at this time b was a bilabial spirant and not a stop), ultimately obtains an order-- a b d e f z kgw h i j @@ p r s t u l m n th o. As neither Gundermann nor Hempl has published the full evidence for his view, no definite conclusion at the moment is possible.

Ogam writing.

In one of the earliest runic records which we possess, the pendant found at Vadstena in Sweden in 1774, and dating from about A.D. 600 (see Plate) the signs are divided up into three series of eight (the twenty fourth, @, being omitted for want of room). Upon the basis of this division a system of cryptography (in the sense that the symbols are unintelligible without knowledge of the runic alphabet) was developed, wherein the series and the position within the series of the letter indicated, were each represented by straight strokes, the strokes for the series being shorter than those for the runes or the series being represented by strokes to the left the runes by strokes to the right of a medial line.24 From this system probably developed the ogam writing employed among the Celtic peoples of Britain and Ireland. The ogam inscriptions in Wales are frequently accompanied by Latin legend, and they date probably as far back as the 5th and 6th centuries A D. Hence the connexion between Celt and Teuton as regards writing must go back to a period preceding the Viking inroads of the 8th century. Taylor, however, conjectures (The Alphabet ii. p 227) that the ogams originated in Pembroke, ``where there was a very ancieni Teutonic settlement, possibly of Jutes, who as is indicated by the evidence of runic inscriptions fonnd in Kent, seem to have been the only Teutonic people of southern Britain who were acquainted with the Gothic Futhoro.'' However this may be, the ogam alphabet shows some knowledge of phonetics and some attempt to classifv the sounds accordingly. The symbols are as follows25:--

The form of the ogam alphabet made it easy to carve hastily; hence in the old sagas, when a hero is killed we had the common formula. ``His grave was dug and his stone was raised, and his name was written in ogam.'' mccording to Sophus Muller (Nordische Altertumskunde, ii. p. 264), it was from Britain that the use of runes upon gravestones was derived a use which, to judge from the number of bilingual inscriptions in Britain, the Celts derived from the Romans.

The special forms of the alphabet--the Cyrillic and the Glagolitic --which have been adopted by certain of the Slavonic peoples are both sprung directly from the Greek alphabet of the ninth century A.D , with the considerable additions rendered necessary by the greater variety of sounds in Slavonic as compared with Greek. Apart from other evidence, the use of B with the value of v, of H as well as I with the value of i, of F with the value of f and X wiih that of the Scotch ch, would be proof that the alphabet was not borrowed till long after the Greek classical period, for not till later did b, f, ch become spirants and e become identified with i. The confusion of b wirh v necessitated the invention of a new symbol b in the Cyrillic, @ in the Glagolithic for b, while new symbols were also required for the sounds or combinations of sounds z (zh), dz, st (sht), c (ts), c (ch in church), s (sh), u, i, y (u without protrusion of the lips), e (a close long e sound), for the combination of o, a and e with consonantal I (English y) and for the nasalized vowels e, a (nasalized o in pronunciation) and the combinations je and ja (English je and ja) In all these matters Glagolitic differs very little from Cyrillic; it has only one symbol for ja (ya) and e because both in this dialect were pronounced the same. It has also only one symbol for e and je (ye) for the phonetic reason that je always appears in the old ecclesiastical Slavonic, for which the alphabets were fashioned, at the beginning of words and after vowels: cp. the English use of the symbol u in unspoken and uniform. Glagolitic has a symbol for the palatalized g (@), but it is used only in the transcription of Greek words, g having become y early between vowels in the popular dialects.

Such an elaborate alphabet could hardly have been invented except by a scholar, and tradition, probably rightly, has attached the credit for its invention to Cyril (originally Constantine), who along wi1h his brother Methodius proceeded in A.D. 863 to Moravia from Constantinople, for the purpose of converting the Slavonic inhabitants to Christianity. The only question which concerns us here is which of the two alphabets was the earlier in use, and after much discussion authorities on Slavonic seem generally agreed that it was the Glagolitic (the name is derived from the Old Bulgarian, i.e old ecclesiastical Slavonic glagolu, ``word''). According to Professor Leskien (Grammatlk der altbulgariechen (altkirchenslavischen) Sprache, Heidelberg, 1909, p. xxi.), Cyril had probably made a prolonged and careful study of Slavonic before proceeding on his missionary journey, and probably in the first instance with a view to preaching the Gospel to the Slavs of Macedonia and Bulgaria, who were much nearer his own home, Thessalonica, than were those of Moravia. The Glagolitic was founded upon the ordinary Greek minuscule writing of the period, as was shown by Dr Isaac Taylor,26 though the writing of the letters separately without abbreviations and an obvious attempt at artistic effect has gradually differentiated it from Greek writing. This alphabet, which is much more difficult to read than the bolder Cyrillic founded on the Greek uncial, survived for ordinary purposes in Croatia and in the islands of the Quarnero till the 17th century. The Servians and Russians apparently always used the Cyrillic, and its advantages gradually ousted the Glagolitic elsewhere, though the service book in the old ecclesiastical language which is used by the Roman Catholic Croats is in Glagolitic.27

Phrygian.

While the Carian and Lycian were probabIy independent of the Greek in origin, so, too, at the opposite end of the Mediterranean was the Iberian. On the other hand, the Phrygian was very closely akin to the Greek in alphabet as well as in linguistic character. The Greek alphabet, with which it was most closely connected, was the Western, for 1he evidence is strongly in favour of the form @ having the value of ch, not ps, in Phrygian, as it certainly has in the Etruscan inscription found on Lemnos in 1886, which is in an alphabet practically identical.

Armenian.

To a much later era belongs the Armenian alphabet, which, according to tradition, was revealed to Bishop Mesrob in a dream. The land might have been Grecized had it not, about A.D. 387, been divided between Persia and Byzantium, the greater part falling to the former, who discouraged Greek and favoured Syriac, which the Christian Armenians did not understand. As those within Persian terrirory were forbidden to learn Greek, an Armenian Christian liierature became a necessity. Taylor contends that the alphabet is Iranian in origin, but the circumstances justify Gardthausen and Hubschmann in claiming it for Greek. That some symbols are like Persian only shows that Mesrob was not able to rid himself of the influences under which he lived.

Of the later development of Phoenician amongst Phoenician people little need be said here. It can be traced in the graffiti of the mercenaries of Psammetichus at Abu Simbel in Upper Egyrt, where Greeks, Carians and Phoenicians all cut their names upon the legs of the colossal statues. Still later it is found on the stele of Byblos, and on the sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (about 300 B.C.). The most numerous inscriptions come from the excavations in Carthage, the ancient colony of Sidon. One general feature characterizes them all, though they differ somewhat in detail. The symbols become longer and thinner; in fact, cease to be the script of monuments and become the script of a busy trading people. While the Phoenician alphabet was thus fertile in developing daughter alphabets in the West, the progress of writing was no less great in the East, first among the Semitic peoples, and through them among other peoples still more remote. The carrying of the alphabet to the Greeks by the Phoenicians at an early period affords no clue to the period when Semitic ingenuity constructed an alphabet out of a heterogeneous multitude of signs. If it be possible to assign to some of the monuments discovered in Arabia by Glaser a date not later than 1500 B.C., the origin of the alphabet and its dissemination are carried back to a much earlier period than had hitherto been supposed. Next in date amongst Semitic records of the Phoenician type to the bowl of Baal-Lebanon and the Moabite stone comes the Hebrew inscription found in the tunnel at the Pool of Siloam in 1881, which possibly dates back to the reign of Hezekiah (700 B.C.). The only other early records are seals with Hebrew inscriptions and potters' marks upon clay vessels found in Lachish and other towns.28

Like the Phoenician, these Hebrew signs are distinctly cursive in character but, as the legend on the coins of the Maccabees shows, became stereotyped for monumental use, while the Jews after the exile gradually adopted the Aramaic writing, whence the square Hebrew script is descended. The Samaritans alone stuck fast to the old Hebrew as part of their contention that they, and not the Jews, were the true Hebrews.

Aramaic

The oldest records in Aramaic were found at Sindjirli, in the north of Svria, in 1890, and date to about 800 B.C. At this epoch the Aramaic alphabet, or at any rate the alphabet of these records, is but little different from that shown upon the Moabite stone. Either two sounds are confused under one symbol, or these records represent a dialect which, like Hebrew and Assyrian, shows sh, z, and c, where the ordinary Aramaic representation is t, d and t the Arabic th, dh, and th. The Aramaic became in time by far the most important of the northern Semitic alphabets. Even while long and important documents in Assyria were still written on clay tablets, in cuneiform, a docket or precis of the contents was made upon the side in Aramaic, which thus became the alphabet of cursive writing--a fact which explains its later development. Two changes, the inception of which is early, but the completion of which belongs to the Persian period, gave the impulse which Aramaic obeyed in all its later developments. These were (a) the opening of the heads of letters, so that beth @, daleth @, and resh @ become respectively @, @, and @, while O becomes first U and ultimatelv V. In thc later development the heads tend to be reduced in size, and finally to disappear. (b) As was natural in cursive wriiing, angles tend to become rounded, and the tails of the letters, which in, Phoenician are very long are curved round in the middie of words so as to join on to the succeeding letter. These characteristics were naturally emphasized in the Aramaic writing on papyrus which, beginning about 500 B.C., during the Persian sovereignty in Egypt, lasted on there till about 200 B.C. The gradual development of this script into the square Hebrew, and the more ornamental writing of Palmyra, may be traced in the works of Berger and Lidzbarski.30

Arabic.

In the land of the Nabataeans, a people of Arabian origin, the Aramaic alphabet was employed in a form which ultimately developed into the modern Arabic alphabet. Probably the earliest example of the Aramaic script in Atrabia is the stele of Tema, in north-western Arabia, whereon is commemorated the establishment of a worship of an Aramaic diviniry. This monument, now in the Louvre, is not later than the 5th century B.C. In it the writing preserves its ancient form, the heads of the closed letters being only very slightly opened. The Nabataean inscriptions belong to a different epoch and a different style. They were first discovered by Charles Doughty in 1876-1877, who was followed between 1880 and 1884 by Huber and Euting, to whom a complete collection of these records is due. The records are fortunately dated, and belong to the period from 9 B.C. to A.D. 75. A further development can be traced in the graffiti wirh which pilgrims adorned the rocks of Mount Sinai down to the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. By the help of these inscriptions it is possible to trace the development of the modern Arabic where so many of the forms of the letters have become similar that diacritic points are essential to distinguish them, the original causes of confusion being the continuous development of cursive writing and the adoption of ligatures. Arabic writing, as known to us from documents of the early Mahommedan period, exhibits two principal types which are known respectively as the Cufic and the nashki. The former soon fell into disuse for ordinary purposes and was retained only for inscriptions, coins, &c.; the latter, which is more cursive in character, is the parent of the Arabic writing of the present day. Another form of the Aramaic alphabet, namely, the so-called Estrangela writing which was in use amongst the Christians of northern Syria, mas carried by Nestorian missionaries into Central Asia and became the ancestor of a multitude of alphabets spreading through the Turkomans as far east as Manchuria.

South Semitic.

There still remains a branch of the Semitic languages which, except for one or two of the languages belonging to it, was practically unknown till recent years. This is the South Semitic. Till the 19th century the earliest form known of this alphabet was the Ethiopian or Geez, in which Christian documents have been preserved from the early centuries of our era, and which is still used by the Abyssinians for liturgical purposes. The travels of two English naval officers, Wellsted and Cruttenden, through Yemen in southern Arabia in 1835, first called attention to the earlier monuments of Arabia. Fulgence Fresnel first established the importance of the inscriptions discovered by these Englishmen, and in 1843, when French consul at Jeddah, obtained through a French traveller, Francois Arnaud, information about other monuments of the same kind. In 1869 Joseph Halevy brought back nearly seven hundred inscriptions from Yemen, and this number has been increased from other quarters by several thousands, through the energy of several adventurous scholars, but chiefly by Eduard Glaser's repeated journeys. The south Arabian inscrip1ions to which the terms Himyaritic aud Sabaean are applied fall into two groups, the Sabaean proper and the Minaean. These are distinguished by differences in grammar and phraseology rather than in alphabet. The relative age of the Minaean and Sabaean monuments is a matter of dispute amongst Semitic scholars. Inscriptions in a kindred dialect were brought from El-Ola, in the north of the Hedjaz, by Professor Euting. To these D. H. Muller31 gave the title of Lihyanite, from the name of the tribe (Lihjan) to which they belong. Their date is supposed to be earlier than that of the Sabaean and Minaean. Minaean inscriptions were found at the same place, the Minaeans having had a trading station there. In 1893 J. Theodore Bent copied carefully at Yeha in Abyssinia a few inscriptions, some of which had been already copied in 1814 by the English traveller Salt. These inscriptions are of the greatest importance, because they demonstrate, according to D. H. Muller,32 that the Sabaeans had colonized Abyssinia as early as 1000 B.C. Other inscriptions copied by Bent at Aksum belong to the 4th century A.D. and later. Two of the earliest are written in Sabaean characters, but in the language which is known as Geez or Ethiopic. From about A.D 500 Ethiopic was written in an alphabet which according to Muller was no gradual growth but an ingenious device of a Greek scholar of this period at the court of Abyssinia. The Sabaean, like other Semitic, inscriptions are generallv written from right to left, but a few are boustrofedon; the Ethiopic is written from left to right, and makes a marked advance upon the ordinary Semitic manner of writing by indicating the vowels. This is done by varying the form of the consonant according to the vowel which follows it. The Ethiopic system is thus rather a syllabary than an alphabet. It is noticeable that the changes thus established were made upon the basis of the old Sabaean script, which in its oldest form is evidently closely related to the old Phoenician, though it would be premature to say that the Sabaean alphabet is derived from the Phoenician. It is as likely, considering the date of both, that they are equally descendants from an older source. The characteristics of the Sabaean are great squareness aud boldness in outline. It has twenty-nine symbols, whereby it is enabled to differentiate certain sounds which are not distinguished from one another in the writing of the northern Semites. As we have seen, it is a tendency in northern Semitic to open the heads of letters, and therefore it is possible that the Sabaean form for Jod @ may be older32 than the Phoenician @. Similarly if Pe means mouth, Hommel is right in contending that the Sabaean @ is more like the object than the Phoenician @, if we suppose the form, like @ or the Phoenician @ and @ for the Phoenician @ turned through an angle of 90 deg. . So also if Kaf corresponds to the Babylonian Kappu, ``hollow-hand,'' the Sabaean form @ which Hommel33 interprets as the outline of the hand with the fingers turned in and the thumb raised is a better pictograoh than the various meaningless forms of k (@, &c.).

The rock inscriptions in the wild district of Safah near Damascus which have been collected by Halevv are also written in an Arabic dialect, but, owing chiefly to their careless execution, they are to a large extent unintelligible. The character appears to be akin to the Sabaean. It has been suggesred that they were the work of Arabs who had wandered thus far from the south.

Persia.

There still remain for discussion the alphabets of the Indo-European peoples of Persia and India from which the other alphabets of the Farther East are descended. When Darius in 516 B.C. caused the great Behistun inscription to be engraved, it was the cuneiform writing, already long in use for the languages of Mesopotamia, that was adopted for this purpose. We have seen that at Babylon itself the Aramaic language and character were well known. It is probable therefore, a priori, that from the Aramaic alphabet the later writing of Persia should be developed. The conclusion is confirmed by the coins, the only records with Iranian script which go back so far; but the special form of Aramaic from which the Iranian alphabet is derived must at present be left undecided. The later developments of the Iranian alphabet are the Pahlavi and the Zend, in which the MSS. of the Avesta are written. Of Cese manuscripts none is older than the 15th century A.D. The Pahlavi is properly the alphabet of the Sassanid kings who ruled in Persia from A.D. 226 till the Arab conquest in the 7th century A.D. Under the Sassanids the old Persian worship, which had fallen with the Achaemenid dynasty in Alexander's time, and had been neglected by the subsequent Arsacid line, was revived and the remains of its liturgical literature collected. The name is, however, also applied to the alphabet on the coins of the Parthian or Arsacid dynasty, which in its beginnings was clearly under Greek influence; while later, when a knowledge of Greek had disappeared, the attempts to imitate the old legends are as grotesque as those in western Europe to copy the inscriptions on Roman coins. The relationship between the Pahlavi and the Aramaic is clearest in the records written in the ``Chaldaeo-Pahlavi'' characters; the most important of these documents is the liturgical inscription of Hadji-abad, where the Arsacid and Sassanian alphabets are found side by side. Taylor (The Alphabet, ii. p. 248 f.) regards the former as probably derived from the ``ancient alphabet of Eastern Iran, a sister alphaber of the Aramaean of the satrapies,'' while the Sassanian belongs to a later stage of Aramaic.

India.

The alphabets of India all spring from two sources: (a) the Kharosthi, (b) the Brahmi alphabet. The history of the former is clear. It was always a local alphabet, and never attained the importance of its rival. According to Buhler,34 its range lay between 69 deg. and 73 deg. 30' E. and 33 deg. to 35 deg. N., a conclusion which is not invalidated by the fact that some important modifications are found beyond this area, nor by Dr Stein's discovery of a great mass of documents in this alphabet at Khotan in Turkestan, for, according to tradition, the ancient inhabitants of Khotan were emigrants banished in the time of King Acoka from the area to which Buhler assigns this alphabet (see Stins's Preliminary Report, 1901, p. 51). Rapson35 has pointed out that both Kharosthi and Brahmi letters are found upon Persian silver sigloi, which were coined in the Punjab and belong to the period of the Achaemenid kings of Persia. As Buhler shows in detail, the Kharosthi alphabet is derived from the alphabet of the Aramaic inscriptions which date from the earlier part of the Achaemenid period. The Aramaic alphabet passed into India with the staff of subordinate officials by whom Darius organized his conquests there. The people of India already possessed their Brahmi alphabet, but had this other alphabet forced upon them in their dealings with their rulers. The Kharosthi is then the gradual development under local conditions of the Aramaic alphabet of the Persian period. As Stein's explorations show, both alphabets may be found on ooposite sides of the same piece of wood.

The history of the Brami alphabet is more difficult. In its later forms it is so unlike other alphabets that many scholars have regarded it as an invention within India itself. The discovery of earlier inscriptions than were hitherto known has, however, caused this view to be discarded, and the problem is to decide from which form of the Semitic alphabet it is derived. Taylor (The Alphabet, ii. p. 314 ff.), following Weber, argues that it comes from the Sabaeans who were carrying on trade with India as early as 1000 B.C. Even if the alphabet had not reached India till the 6th century B.C., there would be time, he contends, for the peculiarities of the Indian form of it to develop before the period when records begin. The alphabet, according to Taylor, shows no resemblance to any northern Semitic script, while its stiff, straight lines and its forms seem like the Sabaean. Buhler, on the other hand, shows from literary evidence that writing was in common use in India in the 5th, possibly in the 6th, century B.C. The oldest alphabet must have been the Brahmi lipi, which is found all over India. But he rejects Taylor's derivation of this alphabet from the Sabaean script, and contends that it is borrowed from the North Semitic. To the pedantry of the Hindu he attributes its main characteristics, viz. (a) letters made as upright as possible, and with few exceptions equal in height; (b) the majority of the letters constructed of vertical lines, with appendages attached mostly at the foot, occasionally at the foot and at the top, or (rarely) in the middle, but never at the top alone: (c) at the tops of the characters the ends of vertical lines, less frequently straight horizontal lines, still more rarely curves or the points of angles opening downwards, and quite exceptionally, in the symbol ma, two lines rising upwards. A remarkable feature of the alphabet is that the letters are hung from and do not stand upon a line, a characteristic which, as Buhler notes (Indian Studies, iii. p. 57 n.), belongs even to the most ancient MSS., and to the Asoka inscriptions of the 3rd century B.C. When these specially Indian features have been allowed for, Buhler contends that the symbols borrowed from the Semitic alphabet can be carried back to the forms of The Phoenician and Moabite alphabets. The proof deals with each symbol separarately; as might be expected of its author, it is both scholarly and ingenious, but, it must be admitted, not very convincing. Further evidence as to the early history of this alphabet must be discovered before we can definitely decide what its origin may be. That such evidence will be forthcoming there is little doubt. Even since Buhler wrote, the vase, the top of which is reproduced (see Plate), has been discovered on the borders of Nepal in a stupa where some of the relics of Buddha were kept. The inscription is of the same type as the Asoka inscriptions, but, in Buhler's opinion (Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xxx., 1898, p. 389), is older than Asoka's time. It reads as follows: iyam salilanidhane Budhasa bhagavate sakiyanam sukitibhatinaim sabhaginikam saputadalanam. ``This casket of relics of the blessed Buddha is the pious foundation (so Pischel, no doubt rightly, Zeitsch. d. deutsch. morg. Gesell. lvi. 158) of the Sakyas, their brothers and their sisters, together with children and wives.''

How this alphabet was modified locally, and how it spread to other Eastern lands, must be sought in the specialist works to which reference has already been made. Its extension to new and hitherto unknown languages was in 1910 in process of being rapidly demonstrated by English and German expeditions in Chinese Turkestan.

AUTHORITIES.---Owing to the rapid increase of materials, all early works are out of date. The best general accounts, though already somewhat antiquated, are: (1) The Alphabet (2 vols., with references to earlier works), by Canon Isaac Taylor (1883), reprinted from the stereotyped plates with small necessary corrections (1899); and (2) Histoire de l'ecriture dans l'antiquite, by M. Philippe Berger (Paris, 1891, 2nd ed. 1892). An excellent popular account is The Story of the Alphabet, by E. Clodd (no date, about 1900). Faulmann's Illustrierte Geschichte der Schrift (1880) is a popular work with good illustrations. For the beginnings of the alphabet, Dr A. J. Evans's Scripta Minoa (vol. i., 1900) is indispensable, whether his theories hold their ground or not. The Semitic alphabet is excellently treated by Lidzbarski in the Jewish Encyclopaedia (1901); his Nordsemitlsche Epigraphik (1898) has excellent facsimiles and tables of the alphabets, and there are many contributions to the history of the alphabet in the same writer's Ephemeris fur semitische Epigraphik (Giessen, since 1900). See also ``Writing'' (by A. A. Bevan) in the Encyclopaedia Biblica, and ``Alphabet''(by Isaac Taylor) in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. A very good article, now somewhat antiquated, is Schlottmann's ``Schrift und Schriftzeichen'' in Riehm's Handworterbuch des biblischen Altertums (1884, reprinted 1894). For Greek epigraphy the fullest and also most recent work is W. Larfeld's Handbuch der griechischen Epigraphik (vol. ii., 1902; vol. i., 1907) (see especially Herkunft un Alter des griechischen Alphabets, i. 330 ff.). For the history of the Greek alphabet the fundamental work was A. Kirchhoff's Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets (4th ed., 1887).: His theories were adopted and worked out on a much larger scale in E. S. Roberts's Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, pt. i. ``The Archaic Inscriptions and the Greek Alphabet'' (1887), pt. ii. (wirh E. A. Gardner) ``The Inscriptions of Attica'' (1905); See also Salomon Reinach's Traite d' epigraphie grecque (1885). in Iwan von Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft important articles on both Greek and Latin epigraphy and alphabets have appeared (Greek in edition 1 by G. Heinrichs, 1886; in edition 2 by W. Larfeld, 1892; Latin by Emil Hubner). See also ``Alphabet,'' by W. Deecke, in Baumeister's Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums (1884), and by Szanto (Greek) and Joh. Schmidt (italic) in Pauly's Realencyclopadie edited by Wissowa (1894). Mommsen's Die unteritalischen Dialekte (1850) is not without value even now. Other literature and references to fuller bibliographies in separate departments have been given in the notes. Elsewhere in this edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica the articles on the various languages and under the headings INSCRIPTIONS, PALAEOGRAPHY, WRITING, &c., should be consulted, while separate articles are given on each letter of the English alphabet. The writer is indebted to Dr A. J. Evans for a photograph of the Cretan linear script, and to Professors A. A. Bevan and Rapson of Cambridge, and to Mr F. W. Thomas, librarian of the India Office, for help in their respective departments of Semitic and Indian languages. (P. Gt.) 1 Breasted, History of Egypt (1906), p. 45.

2 Op. cit. p. 484.

3 Die Schrift und Sprache der alten Agypter (1907), p. 24.

4 Scripta Minoa, i. (1909), sec. 10, pp. 77 ff.

5 E. Piette, L'Anthropologie, vii. (1896) pp. 384 ff.

6 E. Piette, L'Anthropologie, xvi. (1905) pp. 8-9. The apparent inscriptions of this period are conveniently collected and figured together in Dechelette's Malnuel d'archeologie prehistorique celtique et gallo-romaine, i. (1908) p. 233.

7 Der Ursprung des alt-semitischen Alphabets aus der neu-assyrischen Keilschrift (ZDMG. xxxi. pp. 102 ff.). A still more sweeping theory of the same nature is propounded by the Rev. C. J. Ball in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, xv. 1893) pp. 392 ff.

8 In an excellent summary of the different views held as to the origin of the alphabet (Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. xxii, first half, 1901), Dr J. P. Peters agrees (pp. 191 fl.) that the best test is ihe etymology of the names of the letters. He shows that twelve of the letter-names are words wiih meanings [in the northern dialects of Semitic], all of them indicating simple objects, six of the twelve being parts of the body. The objects denoted by the other six names--ox, house, valve of a door, water, fish and mark or cross--clearly do not belong to any people in a nomadic state, but to a settled, town-abiding population. . . . Six of the letter-names are not words in any known tongue, and appear to be syllables only. Four lerter-names are triliterals, and resemble in their form Semitic words.'' As 11 of the 12 which have meanings are to be found in the Assyrian-Babylonian syllabaries, he suggests a possible Babylonian origin. Different views with regard to some of these symbols are expressed by Lidzbarski, Ephemeris fur semitische Epigraphik, ii. pp. 125 ff. (1906). The earliest tradition of the names is discussed by Noldeke in his Beitrage zur semitischen Sprachwissenschait (1904), pp. 124 fl.

9 See, for example, the tables at the end of Roberts's Introduction to Greek Epigraphy (1887); or Kirchhoff's Studien zur Geschichte des grieschischen Alphabets (4th ed. 1887); or Larfeld's Handbuch der grieschischen Epigraphik, vol. i. (1907).

10 Cp. Frankel, Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum Pelopennesi, i., No. 1607.

11 See Witton, in American Journal of Philology, xix. pp. 420 ff., and Lagercrantz, Zur griechischen Lautgeschichte (Upsala, 1898).

12. See Foat, ``Tsade and Sampi'' (Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxv. pp. 338 fl., xxvi. p. 286). A number of ingenious points often uncertain are raised by A. Gercke, ``Zur Geschichie des altesten griechischen Alphabets'' (Hermes, xli., 1906, pp. 540 ff.).

13 See especially Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaology for 1895, p. 40; cf. also Kalinka, Neue Jahrbucher fur Philologie, iii. (1899), p. 683. Similar forms are also found in the Safa inscriptions (South Semitic) with similar values, and Praetorius argues (Z.D.M.G. lvi., 1902, pp. 677 ff., and again lviii., 1904, pp. 725 f.) that these were somehow borrowed by Greek in the 8th century B.C., while in lxii. pp.283 ff. he argues that the reason why the Greeks borrowed Th for the aspirated t was its form, the cross in @ being regarded as T and the surrounding circle as a variety of @ an occasional form of @ the aspirate. Here also (p. 287) as in his Ursprung des kanaanaischen Alphabets, pp. 13 f., he argues that the two forms of the digamma f and @, and also the South Semitic @ = o, could all have developed from the Cyprian I = we. But proof is impossible without evidence of the intermediate steps.

14 Inscriptiones Graecae, xii., fasc. iii. Nos. 811, 1149.

15 See especially Athenische Mitteilungen, xxi. p. 426.

16 Figured in Roberts's Introduction to Greek Epigraphy, p. 65.

17 Details of the history of the individual letters will be found in separate articles.

18 It is figured most accessibly in Egbert's Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions, p. 16.

19 Gardthausen ``Ursprung und Entwicklung der grieschen-lateinischen Schrift '' (Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift, i. (1909), pp. 337 ff.) argues for a ``proto-Tyrrhenian '' alphabet from which Etruscan, Umbrian and Oscan descended as one group, and Faliscan and Latin as the other. Evidence in favour of such a position for the Latin alphabet is not forthcoming.

20 For further details of these alphabets, see Conway, The Italic Dialects, ii. pp. 458 ff. The recent discovery by Keil and Premerstein (Denkschriften der Wiener Akademie, liii., 1908) of Lydian inscriptions containing the symbol @ suggests that the old derivation of the Etruscans from Lydia may be true and that they brought this symbol with them (see article on f.) But the inscriptions are not yet deciphered, so that conclusive proof is still wanting.

21 R. M. Meyer, Paul Braune und Sievers' Beitrage, xxi. (1896), pp. 162 ff.

22 In a paper published in the volume of Philologische Studien, presented as a ``Festgabe'' to Professor Sievers in 1896, and in a second paper in the Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. (1899), pp. 370 ff.

23 See Literaturblott fur germanische und romanische Philologie for 1897, col. 429 f.

24 A species of cryptography exactly like this, based upon the `abjad' order of the Arabic letters, is still in use among the Eastern Persia is (E G. Browne, A Year amongst the Persians, p. 391 f.).

25 Cf. Rhys, Outlines of Manx Phonology, p. 73 (publications of the Manx Society, vol. xxxiii.) ; Rhys and Brynmor Jones, The Welsh People, pp 3, 502. An interpretation of the oldest ogam inscriptions is given by Whitley Stokes in Bezzenberger's Beitrage, xi (1886), p 183 ff. Besides the collections of ogams by Brash (1879) and Fergeson (1887), a new collection by Mr R. A. S. Macalister is in course of publication (Studies in Irish Epigraphy, 1897, 1902, 1907). Professor Rhys, who at one time considered runes and ogam to be connected, now thinks that ogam was the invention of a grammarian in South Wales who was familiar with Latin letters.

26 Archiv fur slavische Philologie, v. 191 ff., where the Glagolitic and the cursive Greek, the Cyrillic and the Greek uncial are set side by side in facsimile.

27 For further details and references to literature see the introduction to Leskien's Grammatik (not to be confused with his Handbuch), from which this is abbreviated.

28 These are figured most accessibly in Lidzbarski's article on the alphabet in the Jewish Encyclopaedia, vol. i. (1901) ; see also his table of symbols added to the 27th edition of Gesenius' Hebraische, Grammatik (1902).

29 See Berger's Histoire de l'ecriture dans l'antiquite, p. 252 ff.; Nordsemitische Epigraphik, p. 186 ff., from whom this summary is taken. Lidzbarski's second volume and G. A. Cooke's Textbook of North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) contain the most convenient collections of Northern Semitic inscriptions for the student's purposes.

30 Muller, Epigraphische Denkmaler aus Arabien (Vienna, 1889).

31 Epigraphische Denkmaler aus Abessinien (Vienna, 1894). Praetorius (Z.D.M.G. lviii. p. 724) holds that the oldest Sabaean inscriptions may date from about 700 B.C., that the Lihyan inscriptions are at earliest of the Hellenistic period and the Safa inscriptions still later.

32 Praetorius (Z.D.M.G. lviii. p. 461 f.) attempts to trace the development of the Sabaean form from the Phoenician.

33 Hommel, Sud-arabische Chrestomathie (Munich, 1893), p. 5.

34 Buhler, Indian Studies, iii. (2nd. ed., 1898), p. 93. The account of these alphabets is drawn from this work and from the same author's Indische Palaographie in the Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie, to which is attached an atlas of plates (Strassburg, 1896), and in which a full bibliography is given.

35 For a coin and a gild token with inscriptions see Rapson's Indian Coins (in Grundriss d. ind.-ar. Phil.), Plate I.

AL-PHASI, ISAAC (1013--1103), Jewish rabbi and codifier, known as Riph, was born near Fez in 1013 and died at Lucena in 1103. 'Al-Pinasi means the ``man of Fez'' (medieval Jews were often named after their birthplaces). He was forced to leave Fez when an old man of 75, being accused on some unknown political charge. He then settled in Spain where he was held in much esteem. His magnanimous character was illustrated by two incidents. When 'Al-phasi's opponent Isaac 'Albalia died, 'Al-pinasi received 'Albalia's son with the greatest kindness and adopted him as a son. When, again, 'Al-phasi was himself on the point of death, he recommended as his successor in the Lucena rabbinate, not his own son, but his pupil Joseph ibn Migash. The latter became the teacher of Maimonides, and thus 'Al-phasi's teaching as well as his work must have directly influenced Maimonides. 'Al-phasi's fame rests on his Talmudical Digest called Halakhoth or Decisions. The Talmud was condensed by him with a special view to practical law. He omitted all the homiletical passages, and also excluded those parts of the Talmud which deal with religious duties practicable only in Palestine. 'Al-pinasi thus occupies an important place in the development of the Spanish method of studying the Talmud. In contradistinction to the French rabbis, the Spanish sought to simplify the Talmud and free it from casuistical detail. 'Al-pinasi succeeded in producing a Digest, which became the object of close study, and led in its turn to the great Codes of Maimonides and of Joseph Qaro.

ALPHEGE [AELFHEAH], SAINT (954-1023), archbishop of Canterbury, came of a noble family, but in early life gave up everything for religion. Having assumed the monastic habit in the monastery of Deerhurst, he pased thence to Bath, where he became an anchorite and ultimately abbot, distinguishing himself by his piety and the austerity of his life. In 984 he was appointed through Dunstan's inlluence to the bishopric of Winchester, and in 1006 he succeeded AElfric as archbishop of Canterbury. At the sack of Canterbury by the Danes in 1011 AElfheah was captured and kept in prison for seven months. Refusing to pay a ransom he was barbarously murdered at Greenwich on the 19th of April 1012. He was buried in St Paul's, whence his body was removed by Canute to Canterbury with all the ceremony of a great act of state in 1023.

Lives of St. Alphege in prose (which survives) and in verse were written by command of Lanfranc by the Canterbury monk Osborn (d. c. 1090), who says that his account of the solemn translation to Canterbury in 1023 was received from the dean, (Godric, one of Alphege's own scholars.

ALPHEUS ('Alfeios; mod. Ruphia), the chief river of Peloponnesus. Strictly Ruphia is the modern name for the ancient Ladon, a tributary which rises in N.E. Elis, but the name has been given to the whole river. The Alpheus proper rises near Asea; but its passage thither by subterranean channels from the Tegean plain and its union with the Eurotas are probably mythical (see W. Loring, in Journ. Hell. Studies, xv. p. 67). It consists for the most part of a shallow and rapid stream, occupying but a small part of its broad, stony bed. It empties itself into the Ionian sea. Pliny states that in ancient times it was navigable for six Roman miles from its mouth. Alpheus was recognized in cult and myth as the chief or typical river-god in the Peloponnesus, as was Acholous in northern Greece. His waters were said to pass beneath the sea and rise again in the fountain Arethusa at Syracuse; such is the earlier version from which later mythologists and poets evolved the familiar myth of the loves of Alpheus and Arethusa.

ALPHONSE I., COUNT OF TOULOUSE (1103-1148), son of Count Raymond IV. by his third wife, Elvira of Castile, was born in 1103, in the castle of Mont-Pelerin, Tripoli. He was surnamed Jourdain on account of his being baptized in the river Jordan. His father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, Guillaume Jourdain, count of Cerdagne (d. 1109), until he was five. He was then taken to Europe and his brother Bertrand gave him the countship of Rouergue; in his tenth year, upon Bertrand's death (1112), he succeeded to the countship of Toulouse and marquisate of Provence, but Toulouse was taken from him by William IX., count of Poitiers, in 1114. He recovered a part in 1119, but continued to fight for his possessions until about 1123. When at last successful, he was excommunicated by Pope Calixtus II. for having expelled the monks of Saint-Gilles, who had aided his enemies. He next fought for the sovereignty of Provence against Raymond Berenger I., and not till September 1125 did the war end in an amicable agreement. Under it Jourdain became absolute master of the regions lying between the Pyrenees and the Alps, Auvergne and the sea. His ascendancy was an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished. About 1134 he seized the countship of Narbonne, only restoring it to the Viscountess Ermengarde (d. 1197) in 1143. Louis VII., for some reason which has not appeared, besieged Toulouse in 1141, but without result. Next year Jourdain again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the rebels of Montpellier against their lord. A second time he was excommunicated; but in 1146 he took the cross at the meeting of Vezelay called by Louis VII., and in August 1147 embarked for the East. He lingered on the way in Italy and probably in Constantinople; but in 1148 he had arrived at Acre. Among his companions he had made enemies and he was destined to take no share in the crusade he had joined. He was poisoned at Caesarea, either the wife of Louis or the mother of the king of Jerusalem suggesting the draught.

See the documentary Histoire generale de Languedoc by De Vie and Vaissette, vol. iii. (Toulouse, 1872).

ALPHONSE, COUNT OF TOULOUSE AND OF POITIERS (12201271), the son of Louis VIII., king of France, and brother of St Louis, was born on the 11th of November 1220. He joined the county of Toulouse to his appanage of Poitou and Auvergne, on the death, in September 1249, of Raymond VII., whose daughter Jeanne he had married in 1237. He took the cross with his brother, St Louis, in 1248 and in 1270. In 1252, on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX., and took a great part in the negotiations which led to the treaties of Abbeville and of Paris (1258--1259). His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the Albigensian war and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. The charter known as ``Alphonsine,'' granted to the town of Riom, became the code of public law for Auvergne. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money. He died without heirs on his return from the 8th crusade, in Italy, probably at Savona, on the 21st of August 1271.

See B. Ledain, Histoire d'Alphonse, frere de S. Louis et du comte de Poltou sous son administration (1241-1271) (Poitou, 1869); E. Bourarie, Saint Louis et Alphonse de Poitiers (Paris, 1870); A. Molinier, Etude sur l'administration de S. Louis et d'Alphonse de Poitiers (Toulouse, 1880); and also his edition of the Correspondance adminiistrative d'Alphonse de Poitiers in the Collection de documents inedits pour servir a l'histoire de France (Paris, 1894 and 1895).

ALPHONSO, the common English spelling of Alfonso, Alonso and Alfonso, which are respectively the Galician, the Leonese and the Castilian forms of Ildefonso (Ildefonsus), the name of a saint and archbishop of Toledo in the 7th century. The name has been borne by a number of Portuguese and Spanish kings, who are distinguished collectively below.

Kings of Portugal.

Portuguese Kings.--ALPHONSO I. (Affonso Henriques), son of Henry of Burgundy, count of Portugal, and Teresa of Castile, was born at Guimaraes in 1094. He succeeded his father in 1112, and was placed under the tutelage of his mother. When he came of age, he was obliged to wrest from her by force that power which her vices and incapacity had rendered disastrous to the state. Being proclaimed sole ruler of Portugal in 1123, he defeated his mother's troops near Guimaraes, making her at the same time his prisoner. He also vanquished Alphonso Raymond of Castile, his mother's ally, and thus freed Portugal from dependence on the crown of Leon. Next turning his arms against the Moors, he obtained, on the 26th July 1139, the famous victory of Ourique, and immediately after was proclaimed king by his soldiers. He assembled the Cortes of the kingdom at Lamego, where he received the crown from the archbishop of Braganza; the assembly also declaring that Portugal was no longer a dependency of Leon. Alphonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested Santarem in 1146 and Lisbon in 1147. Some years later he became involved in a war that had broken out among the kings of Spain; and in 1167, being disabled during an engagement near Badajoz by a fall from his horse, he was made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of Leon, and was obliged to surrender as his r:asom almost all the conquests he had made in Galicia. In 1184, in spite of his great age, he had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, who was besieged in Santarem by the Moors. He died shortly after, in 1185. Alphonso was a man of gigantic stature, being 7 ft. high according to some authors. He is revered as a saint by the Portuguese, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their kingdom.

ALPHONSO II., ``the Fat,'' was born in 1185, and succeeded his father, Sancho I., in 1211. He was engaged in war with the Moors and gained a victory over them at Alcacer do Sal in 1217. He also endeavoured to weaken the power of the clergy and to apply a portion of their enormous revenues to purposes of national utility. Having been excommunicated for this by the pope (Honorius III.), he promised to make amends to the church; but he died in 1223 before doing anything to fulfil his engagement. He framed a code which introduced several beneficial changes into the laws of his kingdom.

ALPHONSO III., son of Alphonso II., was born in 1210, and succeeded his brother, Sancho II., in 1248. Besides making war upon the Moors, he was, like his father, frequently embroiled with the church. In his reign Algarve became part of Portugal. He died in 1279.

ALPHONSO IV. was born in 1290, and in 1325 succeeded his father, Dionis, whose death he had hastened by his intrigues and rebellions. Hostilities with the Castilians and with the Moors occupied many years of his reign, during which he gained some successes; but by consenting to the barbarous murder of Inez de Castro, who was secretly espoused to his son Peter, he has fixed an indelible stain on his character. Enraged at this barbarous act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and devastated the whole of the country between the Douro and the Minho before he was reconciled to his father. Alphonso died almostimmediately after, on the 12th of May 1357.

ALPHONSO w., ``Africano,'' was born in 1432, and succeeded his father Edward in 1438. During his minority he was placed under the regency, first of his mother and latterly of his uncle, Dom Pedro. In 1448 he assumed the reins of government and at the same time married Isabella, Dom Pedro's daughter. In the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false representations, he declared Dom Pedro a rebel and defeated his army in a battle at Alfarrobeira, in which his uncle was slain. In 1458, and with more numerous forces in 1471, he invaded the territories of the Moors in Africa and by his successes there acquired his surname of ``the African.'' On his return to Portugal in 1475 his ambition led him into Castile, where two princesses were disputing his succession to the throne. Having been affianced to the Princess Juana, Alphonso caused himself to be proclaimed king of Castile and Leon; but in the following year he was defeated at Toro by Ferdinand, the husband of Isabella of Castile. He went to France to obtain the assistance of Louis XI., but finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he abdicated in favour of his son John. When he returned to Portugal, however, he was compelled by his son to resume the sceptre, which he continued to wield for two years longer. After that he fell into a deep melancholy and retired into a monastery at Cintra, where he died in 1481.

ALPHONSO VI., the second king of the house of Braganza, was born in 1643 and succeeded his father in 1656. In 1667 he was compelled by his wife and brother to abdicate the throne and was banished to the island of Terceira. These acts, which the vices of Alphonso had rendered necessary, were sanctioned by the Cortes in 1668. He died at Cintra in 1675.

Kings of medieval and modern Spain.

Spanish Kings.--From Alphonso I. (739-757) to Alphonso V. (999-1028) the personal history of the Spanish kings of this name is unknown and their very dates are disputed. ALPHONSO I. is said to have married Ormesinda, daughter of Pelavo, who was raised on the shield in Asturias as king of the Goths after the Arab conquest. He is also said to have been the son of Peter. duke of Cantabria. It is not improbable that he was in fact an hereditary chief of the Basques, but no contemporary records exist. His title of``the Catholic'' itself may very well have been the invention of later chronicles. ALPHONSO II. (789-842), his reputed grandson, bears the name of ``the Chaste.'' The Arab writers who speak of the Spanish kings of the north-west as the Beni-Altons, appear to recognize them as a royal stock derived from Alphonso I. The events of his reign are in reality unknown. Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldana, and the feats of their son Bernardo del Carpio. Bernardo is the hero of a cantar de gesta (chanson de geste) written to please the anarchical spirit of the nobles.

The first faint glimmerings of medieval Spanish history begin with ALPHONSO III. (866--914) surnamed ``the Great.'' Of him also nothing is really known except the bare facts of his reign and of his comparative success in consolidating the kingdom known as ``of Galicia'' or ``of Oviedo'' during the weakness of the Omayyad princes of Cordova. ALPHONSO IV. (924-931) has a faint personality. He resigned the crown to his brother Ramiro and went into a religious house. A certain instability of character is revealed by the fact that he took up arms against Ramiro, having repented of his renunciation of the world. He was defeated, blinded and sent back to die in the cloister of Sahagun. It fell to ALPHONSO V. (999-1028) to begin the work of reorganizing the Christian kingdom of the north-west after a most disastrous period of civil war and Arab inroads. Enough is known of him to justify the belief that he had some of the qualities of a soldier and a statesman. His name, and that of his wife Geloria (Elvira), are associated with the grant of the first franchises of Leon. He was killed by an arrow while besieging the town of Viseu in northern Portugal, then held by the Mahommedans. (For all these kings see the article SPAIN: History.)

With ALPHONSO VI. (1065-1109) we come to a sovereign of strong personal character. Much romance has gathered round his name. In the cantar de gesta of the Cid he plays the part attributed by medieval poets to the greatest kings, to Charlemagne himself. He is alternately the oppressor and the victim of heroic and self-willed nobles--the idealized types of the patrons for whom the jongleurs and troubadours sang. (For the events of his reign see the article SPAIN: History.) He is the hero of a cantar de gesta which, like all but a very few of the early Spanish songs, like the cantar of Bernardo del Carpio and the Infantes of Lara, exists now only in the fragments incorporated in the chronicle of Alphonso the Wise or in ballad form. His flight from the monastery of Sahagnn, where his brother Sancho endeavoured to imprison him. his chivalrous friendship for his host Almamun of Toledo, caballero aunique moni, a gentleman although a Moor, the passionate loyalty of his vassal Peranzules and his brotherly love for his sister Urraca of Zamora, may owe something to the poet who took him for hero. They are the answer to the poet of the nobles who represented the king as having submitted to take a degrading oath at the hands of Ruy Diaz of Bivar (the Cid), in the church of Santa Gadea at Burgos, and as having then persecuted the brave nian who defied him. When every allowance is made, Alphonso Vl. stands out as a strong man fighting for his own hand, which in his case was the hand of the king whose interest was law and order and who was the leader of the nation in the reconquest On the Arabs he impressed himself as an enemy very fierce and astute, but as a keeper of his word. A story of Mahommedan origin, which is probably no more historical than the oath of Santa Gadea, tells of how he allowed himself to be tricked by Ibn Ammar, the favourite of Al Motamid, the king of Seville. They played chess for an extremely beautiful table and set of men, belonging to Ibn Ammar. Table and men were to go to the king if he won. If Ibn Ammar gained he was to name the stake. The latter did win and demanded that the Christian king should spare Seville. Alphonso kept his word. Whatever truth may lie behind the romantic tales of Christian and Mahommedan, we know that Alphonso represented in a remarkable way the two great influences then shaping the character and civilization of Spain. At the instigation, it is said, of his second wife. Constance of Burgundy, he brought the Cistercians into Spain, established them in Sahagun, chose a French Cistercian, Bernard, as the first archbishop of Toledo after the reconquest in 1085, married his daughters, legitimate and illegitimate, to French princes, and in every way forwarded the spread of French influence--then the greatest civilizing force in Europe. He also drew Spain nearer to the papacy, and it was his decision which established the Roman ritual in place of the old missal of Saint Isidore--the so-called Mozarabic. On the other hand he was very open to Arabic influence. He protected the Mahommedans among his subjects and struck coins with inscriptions in Arabic letters. After the death of Constance he perhaps married and he certainly lived with Zaida, said to have been a daughter of ``Benabet'' (Al Alotamid), Mahommedan king of Seville. Zaida, who became a Christian under the name of Maria or Isabel, bore him the only son among his many children, Sancho, whom Alphonso designed to be his successor, but who was slain at the battle of Ucles in 1108. Women play a great part in Alphonso's life.

[ALPHOASO I., king of Aragon, ``the Battler,'' who married Urraca, daughter of Alphonso VI. (1104-1134), is sometimes counted the VIIth in the line of the kings of Leon and Castile. A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against Christian or Moor), he was married to Urraca, widow of Raymond of Burgundy, a very dissolute and passionate woman. The marriage had been arranged by Alphonso VI. in 1106 to unite the two chief Christian states against the Almoravides, and to supply them with a capable military leader. But Urraca was tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Husband and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and came to open war. Alphonso had the support of one section of the nobles who found their account in the confusion. Being a much better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories at Sepalveda and Fuente de la Culebra, but his only trustworthy supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough to keep down Castile and Leon. The marriage of Alphonso and Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were third cousins. The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the Cistercians, almost as violently as with his wife. As he beat her, so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the monks of Sahagun. He was finally compelled to give way in Castile and Leon to his stepson Alphonso, son of Urraca and her first husband. The intervention of Pope Calixtus II. brought about an arrangement between the old man and the young. Alphonso the Battler won his great successes in the middle Ebro, where he expelled the Moors from Saragossa; in the great raid of 1125, when he carried away a large part of the subject Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, where he had rights as king of Navarre. Three years before his death he made a will leaving his kingdom to the Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Knights of the Sepulchre, which his subjects refused to carry out. He was a fierce, violent man, a soldier and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. Though he died in 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the Moors at Braga, he has a great place in the reconquest.]

ALPHONSO VII., ``the Emperor'' (1126-1157), is a dignified and somewhat enigmatical figure. A vague tradition had always assigned the title of emperor to the sovereign who held Leon as the most direct representative of the Visigoth kings, who were themselves the representatives of the Roman empire. But though given in charters, and claimed by Alphonso VI. and the Battler, the title had been little more than a flourish of rhetoric. Alphonso VII. was crowned emperor in 1155 after the death of the Battler. The weakness of Aragon enabled him to make his superiority effective. He appears to have striven for the formation of a national unity, which Spain had never possessed since the fall of the V'isigoth kingdom. The elements he had to deal with could not be welded together. Alphonso was at once a patron of the church, and a protector if not a favourer of the Mahommedans, who formed a large part of his subjects. His reign ended in an unsuccessful campaign against the rising power of the Almohades. Though he was not actually defeated, his death in the pass of Muradel in the Sierra Morena, while on his way back to Toledo, occurred in circumstances which showed that no man could be what he claimed to be---``king of the men of the two religions.'' His personal character does not stand out with the emphasis of those of Alphonso VI. or the Battler. Yet he was a great king, the type and to some extent the victim of the confusions of his age--Christian in creed and ambition, but more than half oriental in his household.

ALPHONSO VIII. (1158-1214), king of Castile only, and grandson of Alphonso VII., is a great name in Spanish history, for he led the coalition of Christian princes and foreign crusaders who broke the power of the Almohades at the battle of the Navas de Tolosa in 1212. The events of his reign are dealt with under SPAIN. His personal history is that of many medieval kings. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, Sancho, at the age of a year and a half. Though proclaimed king, he was regarded as a mere name by the unruly nobles to whom a minority was convenient. The devotion of a squire of his household, who carried him on the pommel of his saddle to the stronghold of San Esteban de Gormaz, saved him from falling into the hands of the contending factions of Castro and Lara, or of his uncle Ferdinand of Leon, who claimed the regency. The loyalty of the town of Avila protected his youth. He was barely fifteen when he came forth to do a man's work by restoring his kingdom to order. It was only by a surprise that he recovered his capital Toledo from the hands of the Laras. His marriage with Leonora of Aquitaine, daughter of Henry II. of England, brought him under the influence of the greatest governing intellect of his time. Alphonso VIII. was the founder of the first Spanish university, the studium generale of Palencia, which, however, did not survive him.

ALPHONSO IX. (1188--1230) of Leon, first cousin of Alphonso VIII. of Castile, and numbered next to him as being a junior member of the family (see the article SPAIN for the division of the kingdom and the relationship), is said by Ibn Khaldun to have been called the ``Baboso'' or Slobberer, because he was subject to fits of rage during which he foamed at the mouth. Though he took a part in the work of the reconquest, this king is chiefly remembered by the difficulties into which his successive marriages led him with the pope. He was first married to his cousin Teresa of Portugal, who bore him two daughters, and a son who died young. The marriage was declared null by the pope, to whom Alphonso paid no attention till he was presumably tired of his wife. It cannot have been his conscience which constrained him to leave Teresa, for his next step was to marry Berengaria of Castile, who was his second cousin. For this act of contumacy the king and kingdom were placed under interdict. The pope was, however, compelled to modify his measures by the threat that if the people could not obtain the services of religion they would not support the clergy, and that heresy would spread. The king was left under interdict personally, but to that he showed himself indifferent, and he had the support of his clergy. Berengaria left him after the birth of five children, and the king then returned to Teresa, to whose daughters he left his kingdom by will.

ALPHONSO X., El Sabio, or the learned (1252-1284), is perhaps the most interesting, though he was far from being the most capable, of the Spanish kings of the middle ages. (His merits as a writer are dealt with in the article SPAIN: Literature). His scientific fame is based mainly on his encouragement of astronomy. It may be pointed out, however, that the story which represents him as boasting of his ability to make a better world than this is of late authority. If he said so, he was speaking of the Ptolemaic cosmogony as known to him through the Arabs, and his vaunt was a humorous proof of his scientific instinct. As a ruler he showed legislative capacity, and a very commendable wish to provide his kingdoms with a code of laws and a consistent judicial system. The Fuero Real was undoubtedly his work, and he began the code called the Slete Partidas, which, however, was only promulgated by his great-grandson. Unhappily for himself and for Spain, he wanted the singleness of purpose required by a ruler who would devote himself to organization, and also the combination of firmness with temper needed for dealing with his nobles. His descent from the Hohenstaufen through his mother, a daughter of the emperor Philip, gave him claims to represent the Swabian line. The choice of the German electors, after the death of Conrad IV. in 1254, misled him into wildechemes which never took effect but caused immense expense. To obtain money he debased the coinage, and then endeavoured to prevent a rise in prices by an arbitrary tariff. The little trade of his dominions was ruined, and the burghers and peasants were deeply offended. His nobles, whom he tried to cow by sporadic acts of violence, rebelled against him. His second son, Sancho, enforced his claim to be heir, in preference to the children of Ferdinand de la Cerda, the elder brother who died in Alphonso's life. Son and nobles alike supported the Moors, when he tried to unite the nation in a crusade; and when he allied himself with the rulers of Morocco they denounced him as an enemy of the faith. A reaction in his favour was beginning in his later days, but he died defeated and deserted at Seville, leaving a will by which he endeavoured to exclude Sancho and a heritage of civil war.

ALPHONSO XI. (1312-1350) is variously known among Spanish kings as the Avenger or the Implacable, and as ``he of the Rio Salado.'' The first two names he earned by the ferocity with which he repressed the disorder of the nobles after a long minority; the third by his victory over the last formidable African invasion of Spain in 1340. The chronicler who records his death prays that ``God may be merciful to him, for he was a very great king.'' The mercy was needed. Alphonso XI. never went to the insane lengths of his son Peter the Cruel, but he could be abundantly sultanesque in his methods. He killed for reasons of state without form of trial, while his open neglect of his wife, Maria of Portugal, and his ostentatious passion for Leonora de Guzman, who bore him a large family of sons, set Peter an example which he did not fail to better. It may be that his early death, during the great plague of 1350, at the siege of Gibraltar, only averted a desperate struggle with his legitimate son, though it was a misfortune in that it removed a ruler of eminent capacity, who understood his subjects well enough not to go too far.

[Four other kings of Aragon, besides the Battler, bore the name of Alphonso. All these princes held territory in the south-east of France, and had a close connexion with Italy. ALPHONSO II. of Aragon (i162--1106) was the son of Raymond Berenger, Count of Barcelona, and of Petronilla, niece of Alphonso the Battler, and daughter of Ramiro surnamed the Monk. He succeeded to the county of Barcelona in 1162 on the death of his father, at the age of eleven, and in 1164 his mother renounced her rights in Aragon in his favour. Though christened Ramon (Raymond), the favourite name of his line, he reigned as Alphonso out of a wish to please his Aragonese subjects, to whom the memory of the Battler was dear. As king of Aragon he took a share in the work of the reconquest, by helping his cousin Alohonso VIII. of Castile to conquer Cuenca, and to suppress one Pero Ruiz de Azagra, who was endeavouring to carve out a kingdom for himself in the debatable land between Christian and Mahommedan. But his double position as ruler both north and south of the eastern Pyrenees distracted his policy. In character and interests he was rather Provencal than Spanish, a favourer of the troubadours, no enemy of the Albigensian heretics, and himself a poet in the southern French dialect. ALPHONSO III. of Aragon (12851291), the insignificant son of the notable Peter III., succeeded to the Spanish and Provencal possessions of his father, but his short reign did not give him time even to marry. His inability to resist the demands of his nobles left a heritage of trouble in Aragon. By recognising their right to rebel in the articles called the Union he helped to make anarchy permanent. ALPHONSO IV. of Aragon (1327-1336) was a weak man whose reign was insignificant. ALPHONSO V. of Aragon (1416-1458), surnamed the Magnanimous, who represented the old line of the counts of Barcelona only through women, and was on his father's side descended from the Castilian house of Trastamara, is one of the most conspicuous figures of the early Renaissance. No man of his time had a larger share of the quality called by the Italians of the day ``virtue.'' By hereditary right king of Sicily, by the will of Joanna II. and his own sword king of Naples, he fought and triumphed amid the exuberant development of individuality which accompanied the revival of learning and the birth of the modern world. When a prisoner in the hands of Filipo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan, in 1435, Alphonso persuaded his ferocious and crafty captor to let him go by making it plain that it was the interest of Milan not to prevent the victory of the Aragonese party in Naples. Like a true prince of the Renaissance he favoured men of letters whom he trusted to preserve his reputation to posterity. His devotion to the classics was exceptional even in that time. He halted his army in pious respect before the birthplace of a Latin writer, carried Livy or Caesar on his campaigns with him, and his panegyrist Panormita did not think it an incredible lie to say that the king was cured of an illness by having a few pages of Quintus Curtius read to him. The classics had not refined his taste, for he was amused by setting the wandering scholars, who swarmed to his court, to abuse one another in the indescribably filthy Latin scolding matches which were then the fashion. Alphonso founded nothing, and after his conquest of Naples in 1442 ruled by his mercenary soldiers, and no less mercenary men of letters. His Spanish possessions were ruled for him by his brotherjohn. He left his conquest of Naples to his bastard son Ferdinand; his inherited lands, Sicily and Sardinia, going to his brother John who survived him.]

ALPHONSO XII. (1857-1885), king of modern Spain, son of Isabella II. and Maria Fernando Francisco de Assisi, eldest son of the duke of Cadiz, was born on the 28th of November 1857. When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the revolution of 1868 he accompanied them to Paris, and from thence he was sent to the Theresianum at Vienna to continue his studies. On the 25th of June 1870 he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had followed the fortunes of the exiled queen. He assumed the title of Alphonso XII.; for although no king of united Spain had previously borne the name, the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy, represented by the eleven kings of Leon and Castile already referred to. Shortly afterwards he proceeded to Sandhurst to continue his military studies, and while there he issued, on the 1st of December 1874, in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy. At the end of the year, when Marshal Serrano left Madrid to take command of the northern army, General Martinez Campos, who had long been working more or less openly for the king, carried off some battalions of the central army to Sagunto, rallied to his own flag the troops sent against him, and entered Valencia in the king's name. Thereupon the president of the council resigned, and the power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, Canovas del Castillo. In the course of a few days the king arrived at Madrid, passing through Barcelona and Valencia, and was received everywhere with acclamation (1875). In 1876 a vigorous campaign against the Carlists, in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of Don Carlos and his abandonment of the struggle. Early in 1878 Alphonso married his cousin, Princess Maria de las Mercedes, daughter of the duc de Montpensier, but she died within six months of her marriage. Towards the end of the same year a young workman of Tarragona, Oliva Marcousi, fired at the king in Madrid. On the 29th of November 1879 he married a princess of Austria, Maria Christina, daughter of the Archduke Charles Ferdinand. During the honeymoon a pastrycook named Otero fired at the young sovereigns as they were driving in Madrid. The children of this marriage were Maria de las Mercedes, titular queen from the death of her father until the birth of her brother, born on the 11th of September 1880, married on the 14th of February 1901 to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, died on the 17th of October 1904; Maria Teresa, born on the 12th of November 1882, married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on the 12th of January 1906; and Alphonso (see below). In 1881 the king refused to sanction the law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of eighteen months, and upon the consequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned Sagasta, the Liberal leader, to form a cabinet. Alphonso died of phthisis on the 24th of November 1885. Coming to the throne at such an early age, he had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a sound judgment ripened by the trials of exile. Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting the districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by earthquake in 1885. His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party. In his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, the finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled Spain to pass through the disastrous war with the United States without even the threat of a revolution.

ALPHONSO XIII. (1886- ), king of Spain, son of Alphonso XII., was born, after his father's death, on the 17th of May 1886. His mother, Queen Maria Christina, was appointed regent during his minority (see SPAIN: History.) In 1902, on attaining his 16th year, the king assumed control of the government. On the 31st of May 1906 he married Princess Victoria Eugenie Julia Ena Maria Christina of Battenberg, niece of Edward VII. of England. As the king and queen were returning from the wedding they narrowly escaped assassination in a bomb explosion, which killed and injured many bystanders and members of the royal procession. An heir to the throne was born on the 10th of May 1907, and received the name of Alphonso.

AUTHORITIES--The lives of all the early kings of Spain will be found in the general histories (see the article SPAIN: Authorities), of which the most trustworthy is the Anales de la Corona de Aragon, by Geronimo Zurita (Saragossa, 1610). See also the Chronicles of the Kings of Castile in the Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles de Riva deneyra Madrid, 1846-1880, vols. 66, 68, 70). (D.H.) ALPHONSUS A SANCTA MARIA, or ALPHONSO DE CARTAGENA (1396-1456), Spanish historian, was born at Carthagena, and succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of Burgos. In 1431 he was deputed by John II., king of Castile, to attend the council of Basel, in which he made himself conspicuous by his learning. He was the author of several works, the principal of which is entitled Rerum Hispanorum Romanorum imperatorum, summorum pontificum, nec non regum Francorum anacephaleosis. This is a history of Spain from the earliest times down to 1456, and was printed at Granada in 1545, and also in the Rerum Hispanicarum Scriptores aliquot, by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579). Alphonsus died on the 12th of July 1456.

ALPINI, PROSPERO (PROSPER ALPINUS), 1553-1617, Italian physician and botanist, was born at Marostica, in the republic of Venice, on the 23rd of November 1553. In his youth he served for a time in the Milanese army, but in 1574 he went to study medicine at Padua. After taking his doctor's degree in 1578, he settled as a physician in Campo San Pietro, a small town in the Paduan territory. But his tastes were botanical, and to extend his knowledge of exotic plants he travelled to Egypt in 1580 as physician to George Emo or Hemi, the Venetian consul in Cairo. In Egypt he spent three years, and from a practice in the management of date-trees, which he observed in that country, he seems to have deduced the doctrine of the sexual difference of plants, which was adopted as the foundation of the Linnaean system. He says that ``the female date-trees or palms do not bear fruit unless the branches of the male and female plants are mixed together; or, as is generally done, unless the dust found in the male sheath or male flowers is sprinkled over the female flowers.'' On his return, he resided for some time at Genoa as physician to Andrea Doria, and in 1593 he was appointed professor of botany at Padua, where he died on the 6th of February 1617. He was succeeded in the botanical chair by his son Alpino Alpini (d. 1637). His best-known work is De Plantis Aegypti liber (Venice, 1592). His De Medicina Egyptiorum (Venice, 1591) is said to contain the first account of the coffee plant published in Europe. The genus Alpinia, belonging to the order Zingiberaceae, was named after him by Linnaeus.

ALPS, the collective name for one of the great mountain systems of Europe.

1. Position and Name.---The continent of Europe is no more than a great poninsula extending westwards from the much vaster continent of Asia, while it is itself broken up by two inland seas into several smaher peninsulas--the Mediterranean forming the Iberian, the Italian and the Greek peninsulas, while the Baltic forms that of Scandinavia and the much smaller one of Denmark. Save the last-named, all these peninsulas of Europe are essentially mountain ranges. But in height and importance the ranges that rise therein are much surpassed by a great mountain-chain, stretching from south-eastern France to the borders of Hungary, as well as between the plains of northern Italy and of southern Germany. This chain is collectively known as the Alps, and is the most important physical feature of the European continent. The Alps, however, do not present so continuous a barrier as the Himalayas, the Andes or even the Pyrenees. They are formed of numerous ranges, divided by comparatively deep valleys, which, with many local exceptions, tend towards parallelism with the general direction of the whole mass. This, between the Dauphine and the borders of Hungary, forms a broad band convex towards the north, while most of the valleys lie between the directions west to east and south-west to north-east. But in many parts deep transverse valleys intersect the prevailing direction of the ridges, and facilitate the passage of man, plants and animals, as well as of currents of air which mitigate the contrast that would otherwise be found between the climates of the opposite slopes.

The derivation of the name Alps is still very uncertain, some writers connecting it with a Celtic root alb, said to mean height, while others suggest the Latin adjective albus (white), referring to the colour of the snowy peaks. But in all parts of the great chain itself, the term Alp (or Alm in the Eastern Alps) is exclusively applied to the high mountain pastures (see ALP), and not to the peaks and ridges of the chain.

2. Limits.---These will depend on the meaning we attach to the word Alps as referring to the great mountain-chain of central Europe. If we merely desire to distinguish it from certain minor ranges (e.g. the Cevenues, the Jura, the hills of central Germany, the Carpathians, the Apennines), which are really independent ranges rather than offshoots of the main chain, the best limits are on the west (strictly speaking south), the Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (1624 ft.), leading from Turin to Savona and Genoa, and on the east the line of the railway over the Semmering Pass (3215 ft.) from Vienna to Marburg in the Mul valley, and on by Laibach to Trieste. But if we confine the meaning of the term Alps to those parts of the chain that are what is commonly called ``Alpine,', where the height is sufficient to support a considerable mass of perpetual snow, our boundaries to the west and to the east must be placed at spots other than those mentioned above. To the west the limit will then be the Col de Tenda (6145 ft.), leading from Cuneo (Coni) to Ventimigha, while on the east our line will be the route over the Radstadter Tauern (5702 ft.) and the Katschberg (5384 ft.) from Salzburg to Villach in Carinthia, and thence by Klagenfurt to Marburg and so past Laibach in Carniola on to Trieste; from Villach the direct route to Trieste would be over the Predil Pass (3813 ft.) or the Pontebba or Saifnitz Pass (2615 ft.), more to the west, but in either case this would exclude the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest summit of the entire South-Eastern Alps, as well as its lower neighbours.

On the northern side the Alps (in whichever sense we take this term) are definitely bounded by the course of the Rhine from Basel to the Lake of Constance, the plain of Bavaria, and the low region of foot-hills that extend from Salzburg to the neighbourhood of Vienna. One result of this limit, marked out by Nature herself, is that the waters which flow down the northern slope of the Alps find their way either into the North Sea through the Rhine, or into the Black Sea by means of the Danube, not a 1lrop reaching the Baltic Sea. On the southern side the mountains extending from near Turin to near Trieste subside into the great plain of Piedmont, Lombardy and Venetia. But what properly forms the western bit of the Alps runs, from near Turin to the Col de Tenda, in a southerly direction, then bending eastwards to the Col d'Altare that divides it from the Apennines.

It should be borne in mind that the limits adopted above refer purely to the topographical aspect of the Alps as they exist at the present day. Naturalists will of course prefer other limits according as they are geologists, botanists or zoologists.

3. Climate.---It is well known that as we rise from the sea-level into the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases. The effect of mountain-chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat, often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow or rain. The position of the Alps about the centre of the European continent has profoundly modified the climate of all the surrounding regions. The accumulation of vast masses of snow, which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers, maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges; it cools the breezes that are wafted to the plains on either side, but its most important function is to regulate the water-supply of thatlarge region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps. Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during six or seven months is stoled upin the form of snow, and is gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams. Nor is this all; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia, and afford an inexhaustible supply of water, which, from a remote period, has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility. Six regions or zones, which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation, are found in the Alps. It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above the sea-level. Local conditions of exposure to the sun, protection from cold winds, or the reverse, are of primary importance in determinin8 the climate and the corresponding vegetation.

Olive region.

The great plain of Upper Italy has a winter climate colder than that of the British Islands. The olive and the characteristic shrubs of the northern coasts of the Mediterranean do not thrive in the open air, but the former valuable tree ripens its fruit in sheltered places at the foot of the mountains, and penetrates along the deeper valleys and the shores of the Italian lakes. The evergreen oak is wild on the rocks about the Lake of Garda, and lemons are cultivated on a large scale, with partial protection in winter. The olive has been known to survive severe cold when of short duration, but it cannot be cultivated with success where frosts are prolonged, or where the mean winter temperature falls below 42 deg. F.; and to produce fruit it requires a heat of at least 75 deg. F. during the day, continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn.

Vine region.

The vine is far more tolerant of cold than the olive, but to produce tolerable wine it demands, at the season of ripening, a degree of heat not much less than that needed by the more delicate tree. These conditions are satisfied in the deeper valleys of the Alps, even in the interior of the chain, and up to a considerable height on slopes exposed to the sun. The protection afforded by winter snow enables the plant to resist severe and prolonged frosts, such as would be fatal in more exposed situations. Many wild plants characteristic of the warmer parts of middle Europe are seen to flourish along with the vine. A mean summer temperature of at least 68 deg. F. is considered necessary to produce tolerable wine, but in ordinary seasons this is much exceeded in many of the great valleys of the Alps.

Mountain region, or region of deciduous trees.

Many writers take the growth of grain as the characteristic of the mountain region; but so many varieties of all the common species are in cultivation, and these have such different climatal requirements, that they do not afford a factory criterion. A more natural limit is afforded by the presence of the chief deciduous trees---oak, beech, ash and sycamore. These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild herbaceous vegetation. This limit usually lies about 4000 ft. above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 5000 ft., sometimes even to 5500 ft. It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost extirpated them, and, excepting the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is scarcely anywhere to be found. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the Scottish pine and spruce, which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the British Islands; but the climatal conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons.

Subalpine region, or region of coniferous trees.

The Subalpine is the region which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the Alps. On a rough estimate we may reckon that, of the space lying between the summits of the Alps and the low country on either side, one-quarter is available for cultivation, of which about one-half may be vineyards and corn-fields, while the remainder produces forage and grass. About another quarter is utterly barren, consisting of snow-fields, glaciers, bare rock, lakes and the beds of streams. There remains about one-half, which is divided between forest and pasture, and it is the produce of this half which mainly supports the relatively large population. For a quarter of the year the flocks and herds are fed on the upper pastures; but the true limit of the wealth of a district is the number of animals that can be supported during the long winter, and while one part of the population is engaged in tending the beasts and in making cheese and butter, the remainder is busy cutting hay and storing up winter food for the cattle. The larger villages are mostly in the mountain region, but in many parts of the Alps the villages stand in the subalpine region at heights varying from 4000 ft. to 5500 ft. above the sea, more rarely extending to about 6000 ft. The most characteristic feature of this region is the prevalence of coniferous trees, which, where they have not been artificially kept down, form vast forests that cover a large part of the surface. These play a most important part in the natural economy of the country. They protect the valleys from destructive avalanches, and, retaining the superficial soil by their roots, they mitigate the destructive effects of heavy rains. In valleys where they have been rashly cut away, and the waters pour down the slopes unchecked, every tiny rivulet becomes a raging torrent, that carries off the grassy slopes and devastates the floor of the valley, covering the soil with gravel and debris. In the pine forests of the Alps the prevailing species are the common spruce and the silver fir; on siliceous soil the larch flourishes, and surpasses every other European species in height. The Scottish pine is chiefly found at a lower level and rarely forms forests. The Siberian fir is found scattered at intervals throughout the Alps but is not common. The mughus, creeping pine, or Krummholz of the Germans, is common in the Eastern Alps, and sometimes forms on the higher mountains a distinct zone above the level of its congeners. In the Northern Alps the pine forests rarely surpass the limit of 6000 ft. above the sea, but on the south side they commonly attain 7000 ft., while the larch, Siberian fir and mughus often extend above that elevation.

Alpine region.

Throughout the Teutonic region of the Alps the word Alp is used specifically for the upper pastures where cattle are fed in summer, but this region is held to include the whole space between the uppermost limit of trees and the first appearance of permanent masses of snow. It is here that the characteristic vegetation of the Alps is developed in its full beauty and variety. Shrubs are not wanting. Three species of rhododendron vie with each other in the brilliancy of their masses of red or pink flowers; the common juniper rises higher still, along with three species of bilberry; and several dwarf willows attain nearly to the utmost limit of vegetation. The upper limit of this region coincides with the so-called limit of perpetual snow.

Glacial region.

On the higher parts of lofty mountains more snow falls in each year than is melted on the spot. A portion of this is carried away by the wind before it is consolidated; a larger portion accumulates in hollows and depressions of the surface, and is gradually converted into glacier-ice, which descends by a slow secular motion into the deeper valleys, where it goes to swell perennial streams. As on a mountain the snow does not lie in beds of uniform thickness, and some parts are more exposed to the sun and warm winds than others, we commonly find beds of snow alternating with exposed slopes covered with brilliant vegetation; and to the observer near at hand there is no appearance in the least corresponding to the term limit of perpetual snow, though the case is otherwise when a high mountain-chain is viewed from a distance. Similar conditions are repeated at many different points, so that the level at which large snow-beds show themselves along its flanks is approximately horizontal. But this holds good only so far as the conditions are similar. On the opposite sides of the same chain the exposure to the sun or to warm winds may cause a wide difference in the level of permanent snow; but in some cases the increased fall of snow on the side exposed to moist winds may more than compensate the increased influence of the sun's rays. Still, even with these reservations, the so-called line of perpetual snow is not fixed. The occurrence of favourable meteorological conditions during several successive seasons may and does increase the extent of the snow-fields, and lower the limit of seemingly permanent snow; while an opposite state of things may cause the limit to rise higher on the flanks of the mountains. Hence all attempts to fix accurately the level of pernetual snow in the Alps are fallacious, and can at the best approach only to local accuracy for a particular district. In some parts of the Alps the limit may be set at about 8000 ft. above the sea, while in others it cannot be placed much below 9500 ft. As very little snow can rest on rocks that lie at an angle exceeding 60 deg. , and this is soon removed by the wind, some steep masses of rock remain bare even near the summits of the highest peaks, but as almost every spot offering the least hold for vegetation is covered with snow, few flowering plants are seen above 11,000 ft. There is reason to think, however, that it is the want of soil rather than climatal conditions that checks the upward extension of the alpine flora. Increased direct effect of solar radiation compensates for the cold of the nights, and in the few spots where plants have been found in flower up to a height of 12,000 ft., nothing has indicated that the processes of vegetation were arrested by the severe cold which they must sometimes endure. The climate of the glacial region has often been compared to that of the polar regions, but they are widely different. Here, intense solar radiation by day, which raises the surface when dry to a temperature approaching 80 deg. F., alternates with severe frost by night. There, a sun which never sets sends feeble rays that maintain a low equable temperature, rarely rising more than a few degrees above the freezing-point. Hence the upper region of the Alps sustains a far more varied and brilliant vegetation.

4. Main Chain.---In the case of every mountain system geographers are disposed to regard, as a general rule, the watershed (or boundary dividing the waters flowing towards opposite slopes of the range) as marking the main chain, and this usage is justified in that the highest peaks often rise on or very near the watershed. Yet, as a matter of fact, several important mountain groups are situated on one or other side of the watershed of the Alps, and form almost independent ranges, being only connected with the main chain by a kind of peninsula: such are the Dauphine Alps, the Eastern and Western Graians, the entire Bernese Oberland, the Todi, Albula and Silvretta groups, the Ortler and Adamello ranges, and the Dolomites of south Tirol, not to speak of the lower Alps of the Vorarlberg, Bavaria and Salzburg. Of course each of these semi-detached ranges has a watershed of its own, like the lateral ridges that branch off from the main watershed. Thus there are lofty ranges parallel to that which forms the main watershed. The Alps, therefore, are not composed of a single range (as shown on the old maps) but of a great ``divide,'' flanked on either side by other important ranges, which, however, do not comprise such lofty peaks as the main watershed. In the following remarks we propose to follow the main watershed from one end of the Alps to the other.

Starting from the Col d'Altare or di Cadibona (west of Savona), the main chain extends first south-west, then north-west to the Col de Tenda, though nowhere rising much beyond the zone of coniferous trees. Beyond the Col de Tenda the direction is first roughly west, then north-west to the Rocher des Trois Eveques (9390 ft.), just south of the Mont Enchastraye (9695 ft.), several peaks of about 10,000 ft. rising on the watershed, though the highest of all, the Punta dell' Argentera(10,794 ft.) stands a little way to its north. From the Rocher des Trois Eveques the watershed runs due north for a long distance, though of the two loftiest peaks of this region One, the Aiguille de Chambeyron (11,155 ft.), is just to the west, and the other, the Monte Viso (12,609 ft.), is just to the east of the watershed. From the head of the Val Pellice the main chain runs north-west, and diminishes much in average height till it reaches the Mont Thabor (10,440 ft.), which forms the apex of a salient angle which the main chain here presents towards.the west. Hence the main watershed extends eastwards, culminating in the Aiguille de Scolette (11,500 ft.), but makes a great curve to the north-west and back to the south-east before rising in the Rochemelon (11,605 ft.), which may be considered as a re-entering angle in the great rampart by which Italy is guarded from its neighbours. Thence the direction taken is north as far as the eastern summit (11,693 ft.) of the Levanna, the watershed rising in a series of snowy peaks, though the loftiest point of the region, the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.), stands a little to the west. Gnce more the chain bends to the north-west, rising in several lofty peaks (the highest is the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere, 12,323 ft.), before attaining the considerable depression of the Little St Bernard Pass. Thence for a short way the direction is north to the Col de la Soigne, and then north-east along the crest of the Mont Blanc chain, which culminates in the peak of Mont Blanc (15,782 ft.), the loftiest in the Alps. A number of high peaks crown our watershed before it attains the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.). Thence after a short dip to the south-east, our chain takes near the Great St Bernard Pass the generally eastern direction that it maintains till it reaches Monte Rosa,whence it bends northwards, making one small dip to the east as far as the Simplon Pass. It is in the portion of the watershed between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon that the main chain maintains a greater average height than in any other part. But, though it rises in a number of lofty peaks, such as the Mont Velan ( 12,353 ft. ), the Matterhorn (14,782 ft.), the Lyskamm (14,889 ft.), the Nord End of Monte Rosa (15,132 ft.), and the Weissmies (13,226ft.), yet manyof the highest points of the region, such as the Grand Combin (14,164 ft.), the Dent Blanche (14,318 ft.), the Weisshorn (14,804 ft.), the true summit or Dufourspitze (15,217 ft.) of Monte Rosa itself, and the Dom (14,942 ft.), all rise on its northern slope and not on the main watershed. On the other hand the chain between the Great St Bernard and the Simplon sinks at barely half a dozen points below a level of 10,000 ft. The Simplon Pass corresponds to what may be called a dislocation of the main chain. Thence to the St Gotthard the divide runs north-east, all the higher summits (including the Monte Leone, 11,684 ft., and the Pizzo Rotondo, 10,489 ft.) rising on it, a curious contrast to the long stretch just described. From the St Gotthard to the Maloja the watershed between the basins of the Rhine and Po runs in an easterly direction as a whole, though making two great dips towards the south, first to near the Vogelberg (10,565 ft.) and again to near the Pizzo Gailegione (10,201 ft.), so that it presents a broken and irregular appearance. But all the loftiest peaks rise on it: Scopi (10,499 ft.), Piz Medel (10,509 ft.), the Rheinwaldhorn (11,I49 ft.), the Tambohorn (10,749 ft.) and Piz Timun (10,502 ft.).

From the Maloja Pass the main watershed dips to the south-east for a short distance, and then runs eastwards and nearly over the highest summit of the Bernina group, the Piz Bernina (13,304 ft.), to the Bernina Pass. Thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass the main chain is ill-defined, though on it rises the Corno di Campo (10,844 ft.), beyond which it runs slightly north-east past the sources of the Adda and the Fraele Pass, sinks to form the depression of the Ofen Pass, soon hends north and rises once more in the Piz Sesvenna (10,568 ft.).

The break in the continuity of the Alpine chain marked by the deep valley, the Vintschgau, of the upper Adige (Etsch) is one of the most remarkable features in the orography of the Alps. The little Reschen lake which forms the chief source of the Adige is only 13 ft. below the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), and by it is but 5 m. from the Inn valley. Eastward of this pass, the main chain runs north-east to the Brenner Pass along the snowy crest of the Oetzthal and Stubai Alps, the loftiest point on it being the Weisskugel (12,291 ft., Oetzthal), for the highest summits both of the Oetzthal and of the Stubai districts, the Wildspitze (12,382 ft.) and the Zuckerhutl (11,520 ft.) stand a little to the north.

The Brenner (4495 ft.) is almost the lowest of all the great Carriage-road passes across the main chain, and has always been the chief means of communication between Germany and Italy. For some way beyond it the watershed runs eastwards over the highest crest of the Zillerthal Alps, which attains 11,559 ft. in the Hochfeiler. But, a little farther, at the Dreiherrenspitze (11,500 ft.) we have to choose between following the watershed southwards, or keeping due east along the highest crest of the Greater Tauern Alps. (a) The latter course is adopted by many geographers and has much in its favour. The eastward direction is maintained and the watershed (though not the chief Alpine watershed) continues through the Greater Tauern Alps, culminating in the Gross Venediger (12,008 ft.), for the Gross Glockner (12,461 ft.) rises to the south. Our chain bends north-east near the Radstadter Tauern Pass, and preserves that direction through the Lesser Tauern Alps to the Semmering Pass. (b) On the other hand, if from the Dreiherrenspitze we cleave to the true main watershed of the Alpine chain, we find that it dips south, passes over the Hochgall (11,287 ft.), the culminating point of the Rieserferner group, and then sinks to the Toblach Pass, but at a point a little east of the great Dolomite peak of the Drei Zinnen it hends east again, and rises in the Monte Coghans (9128 ft., the monarch of the Carnic Alps). Soon after our watershed makes a last bend to the south-east and culminates in the Terglou (9400 ft.), the highest point of the Julio Alps, though the Grintovc (8429 ft., the culminating point of the Karawankas Alps) stands more to the east. Finally our watershed turns south and ends near the great limestone plateau of the Birnbaumerwald, between Laibach and Gorz.

As might be expected, the main chain boasts of more glaciers and eternal snow than the independent or external ranges. Yet it is a curious fact that the three longest glaciers in the Alps (the Great Aletsch, 16 1/2 m., and the Unteraar and the Fiescher, each 10 m.) are all in the Bernese Oberland. In the main chain the two longest are both 9 1/4 m., the Mer de Glace at Chamonix and the Gomer at Zermatt. In the Eastern Alps the longest glacier is the Pasterze (rather over 6 1/4 m.), which is not near the true main watershed, though it clings to the slope of the Greater Tauern range, east of the Dreiherrenspitze. But the next two longest glaciers in the Eastern Alps (the Hintereis, 6 1/2 m., and the Gepatsch, 6 m.) are both in the Oetzthal Alps, and so close to the true main watershed.

The so-called alpine lakes are the sheets of water found at the foot of the Alps, on either slope, just where the rivers that form them issue into the plains. There are, however, alpine lakes higher up (e.g. the lake of Thun, and those in the Upper Engadine, in the heart of the mountains, though these are naturally smaller in extent, while the true lakes of the High Alps are represented by the glacier lakes of the Marjelensee (near the Great Aletsch glacier) and those on the northern slope of the Col de Fenetre, between Aosta and the Val de Bagnes. The most singular, and probably the loftiest, lake in the Alps is the ever-frozen tarn that forms the summit of the Roccia Viva (11,976 ft.) in the Eastern Graians.

Among the great alpine rivers we may distinguish two classes: those which spring directly from glaciers and those which rise in lakes, these being fed by eternal snows or glaciers. In the former class are the Isere, the Rhone, the Aar, the Ticino, the Tosa, the Hinter (or main) Rhine and the Linth; while in the latter class we have the Durance, the Po, the Reuss, the Vorder and middle branches of the Rhine, the Inn, the Adda, the Ogho and the Adige. The Piave and the Drave seem to be outside either class.

5. Principal Passes.--Though the Alps form a barrier they have never formed an impassable barrier, since, from the earliest days onwards, they have been traversed first, perhaps, for purposes of war or commerce, and later by pilgrims, students and tourists. The spots at which they were crossed are called passes (this word is sometimes though rarely applied to gorges only), and are the points at which the great chain sinks to form depressions, up to which deep-cut valleys lead from the plains. Hence the oldest name for such passes is Mont (still retained in cases of the Mont Cenis and the Monte Moro), for it was many ages before this term was especially applied to the peaks of the Alps, which with a few very rare exceptions (e.g. the Monte Viso was known to the Romans as Vesulus) were long simply disregarded. The native inhabitants of the Alps were naturally the first to use the alpine passes. But to the outer world these passes first became known when the Romans traversed them in order to conquer the world beyond. In the one case we have no direct knowledge (though the Romans probably selected the passes pointed out to them by the natives as the easiest), while in the other we hear almost exclusively of the passes across the main chain or the principal passes of the Alps. For obvious reasons the Romans, having once found an easy direct pass across the main chain, did not trouble to seek for harder and more devious routes. Hence the passes that can be shown to have been certainly known to them are comparatively few in number: they are, in topographical order from west to east, the Col de l'Argentiere, the Mont Genevre, the two St Bernards, the Splugen, the Septimer, the Brenner, the Radstadter Tauern, the Solkscharte, the Plocken and the Pontebba (or Saifnitz). Of these the Mont Genevre and the Brenner were the most frequented, while it will be noticed that in the Central Alps only two passes (the Splugen and the Septimer) were certainly known to the Romans. In fact the central portion of the Alps was by far the least Romanised and least known till the early middle ages. Thus the Simplon is first certainly mentioned in 1235, the St Gotthard (without name) in 1236, the Lukmanier in 965, the San Bernardino in 941; of course they may have been known before, but authentic history is silent as regards them till the dates specified. Even the Mont Cenis (from the 15th to the 19th century the favourite pass for travellers going from France to Italy) is first heard of in 756 only. In the 13th century many hitherto unknown passes came into prominence, even some of the easy glacier passes. It should always be borne in mind that in the Western and Central Alps there is but one ridge to cross, to which access is gained by a deep-cut valley, though often it would be shorter to cross a second pass in order to gain the plains, e.g. the Mont Genevre, that is most directly reached by the Col du Lautaret; and the Simplon, which is best gained by one of the lower passes over the western portion of the Bernese Oberland chain. On the other hand, in the Eastern Alps, it is generally necessary to cross three distinct ridges between the northern and southern plains, the Central ridge being the highest and most difficult. Thus the passes which crossed a single ridge, and did not involve too great a detour through a long valley of approach, became the most important and the most popular, e.g. the Mont Cenis, ihe Great St Bernard, the St Gotthard, the Septimer and the Brenner. As time went on the travellers (with whatever object) who used the great alpine passes could not put up any longer with the bad old mule paths. A few passes (e.g. the Semmering, the Brenner, the Tenda and the Arlberg) can boast of carriage roads constructed before 1800, while those over the Umbrail and the Great St Bernard were not completed till the early years of the 20th century. Most of the carriage roads across the great alpine passes were thus constructed in the 19th century (particularly its first half), largely owing to the impetus given by Napoleon. As late as 1905, the highest pass over the main chain that had a carriage road was the Great St Bernard (8111 ft.), but three still higher passes over side ridges have roads---the Stelvio (9055 ft.), the Col du Galibier (8721 ft.), in the Dauphine Alps, and the Umbrail Pass (8242 ft.). Still more recently the main alpine chain has been subjected to the further indignity of having railway lines carried over it or through it---the Brenner and the Pontebba lines being cases of the former, and the Col de Tenda, the Mont Cenis (though the tunnel is really 17 m. to the west), the Simplon and the St Gotthard, not to speak of the side passes of the Arlberg, Albula and Pyhrn of the latter. There are also schemes (more or less advanced) for piercing the Splugen and the Hohe Tauern, both on the main ridge, and the Lotschen Pass, on one of the external ranges. The numerous mountain railways, chiefly in Switzerland, up various peaks (e.g. the Rigi and Pilatus) and over various side passes (e.g. the Brunig and the Little Scheidegg) do not concern us here.

6. Divisions.---The Alps, within the limits indicated under (2) above, form a great range, consisting of a main chain, with ramifications, and of several parallel minor chains. They thus form a single connected whole as contrasted with the plains at their base, and nature has made no breaks therein, save at the spots where they sink to comparatively low depressions or passes. But for the sake of practical convenience it has long been usual to select certain of the best marked of these passes to serve as limits within the range, whether to distinguish several great divisions from each other, or to further break up each of these great divisions into smaller groups. As these divisions, great or small, are so to speak artificial, several systems have been proposed according to which the Alps may be divided. We give below that which seems to us to be the most satisfactory (based very largely on personal acquaintance with most parts of the range), considering, as in the case of the limits of the chain, only its topographical aspect, as it exists at the present day, while leaving it to geologists, botanists and zoologists to elaborate special divisions as required by these various sciences. Our selected divisions relate only to the High Alps between the Col de Tenda and the route over the Radstadter Tauern. while in each of the 18 subdivisions the less elevated outlying peaks are regarded as appendages of the higher group within the topographical limits of which they rise. No attempt, of course, has been made to give a complete catalogue of the peaks and passes of the Alps, while in the case of the peaks the culminating point of a lower halfdetached group has been included rather than the loftier spurs of the higher and main group; in the case of the passes, the villages or valleys they connect have been indicated, and also the general character of the route over each pass.

As regards the main divisions, three are generally distinguished; the Western Alps (chiefly French and Italian, with a small bit of the Swiss Valais) being held to extend from the Col de Tenda to the Simplon Pass, the Central Alps (all but wholly Swiss and Italian) thence to the Reschen Scheideck Pass, and the Eastern Alps (wholly Austrian and Italian, save the small Bavarian bit at the northswest angle) thence to the Radstadter Tauern ro:ite, with a bend outwards towards the south-east, as explained under (2) in order to include the higher summits of the SouthEastern Alps. Strictly speaking, we should follow the Reschen Scheideck route down the Adigevalley, but as this would include in the Central Alps the Ortler and some other of the highest Tirolese summits, it is best (remembering the artificial character of the division) to draw a line from Mals southwards either over the Umbrail Pass (the old historical pass) or the Stelvio (wellknown only since the carriage road was built over it in the first quarter of the 19th century) to the head of the Valtellina, and then over the Aprica Pass (as the Bergamasque Alps properly belong to the Central Alps) to the Oglio valley or the Val Camonica, and down that valley to the Lake of Iseo and Brescid.

Assuming these three main divisions, we must now consider in detail the 18 sub-divisions which we distinguish; the first 5 forming the Western Alps, the next 7 the Central Alps, and the rest the Eastern Alps, the heights throughout being, of course, given in English feet and representing the latest measurements.

I. WESTERN ALPS

1. Maritime Alps (from the Col de Tenda to the Col de l'Argentiere). Punta dell' Argentera . . . . . 10,794 Mont Tinibras. . . . . . . . . . .9,948 Cima dei Golas. . . . . . . . . 10,286 Mont Enchastraye . . . . . . . . .9,695 Monte Matto . . . . . . . . . . 10,128 Monte Bego . . . . . . . . . . . .9,426 Mont Pelat. . . . . . . . . . . 10,017 Mont Monnier . . . . . . . . . . .9,246 Mont Clapier. . . . . . . . . . 9,994 Rocca dell' Abisso . . . . . . . .9,039

Chief passes of the Maritime Alps.

Passo del Pagarin (Vosubie Valley to Valdieri), snow . . . . . . . . . . .9,236 Col di Fremamorta (Tinee Valley to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,688 Bassa di Druos (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,629 Passo di Collalunga (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. . . . . . .8,531 Coll dell' Agnel (Tenda to Yaldieri), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,426 Col della Ciriegia (St Martin Vesubie to the Baths of Valdieri), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,370 Col des Granges Communes (St Etienne de Tinee to Barcelonnette), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242 Col de Pourriac (Tinee Valley to Argentera), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,222 Col della Finestre (St Martin de Vesubie to Valdieri), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,107 Col di Guercia (Tinee Valley t0 Vinadio), foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,042 Col della Lombarda (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,858 Col de la Cayolle (Var Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,717 Col di Santa Anna (Tinee Valley to Vinadio), bridle path. . . . . . . .7,605 Col del Sabbione (Tenda to Valdieri), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,428 Col d'Allos or de Valgelaye (Verdon Valley to Barcelonnette), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,382 Col de l'Argentiere (Barcelonnette to Cuneo), carriage road . . . . . .6,545 Col de Tenda (Tenda to Cuneo), carriage road, railway beneath. . . . . . .6,145

2. Cottian Alps (from the Col de l'Argentiere to the Mont Cenis and westwards to the Col du Galibier).

Chief Peaks of the Cottian Alps.

Monte Viso . . . . . . . . . . 12,609 Dents d'Ambin. . . . . . . . . . 11,096 Viso di Vallante . . . . . . . 12,048 Mont d'Ambin . . . . . . . . . . 11,080 Aiguille de Scolette . . . . . 11,500 Pointe de la Font Sancte . . . . 11,057 Aiguille de Chambeyron . . . . 11,155 Punta Ferrant. . . . . . . . . . 11,037 Grand Rubren . . . . . . . . . 11,142 Visolotto. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,001 Bree de Chambeyron . . . . . . 11,116 Rochebrune . . . . . . . . . . . 10,906 Rognosa d'Etache . . . . . . .11,106 Punta Sommeiller . . . . . . . . 10,896 Bric Froid . . . . . . . . . . 10,860 Tete des Toillies . . . . . . 10,430 Grand Glavza . . . . . . . . . 10,781 Monte Granero. . . . . . . . . . 10,401 Rognosa di Sestrieres . . . 10,758 Mont Chaberton . . . . . . . . . 10,286 Panestrel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,673 Tete de Moyse . . . . . . . . 10,204 Roche du Grand Galibier. . . . 10,637 Monte Meidassa . . . . . . . . . 10,187 Peou Roc. . . . . . . . . . 10,601 Pelvo d'Elva . . . . . . . . . . 10,053 Pic du Pelvat. . . . . . . . . 10,558 Mont Politri . . . . . . . . . . 10,009 Pointe Haute de Mary . . . . . 10,539 Mont Nlbergian . . . . . . . . . .9,974 Pic du Thabor. . . . . . . . . 10,316 Brio Bouchet . . . . . . . . . . .9,853 Mont Thabor. . . . . . . . . . 10,440 Punta Cournour . . . . . . . . . .9,410 Pointe des Cerces. . . . . . . 10,434

Chief Passes in the Cottian Alps.

Col Sommeiller (Bardonneche to Bramans), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,718 Col de la Traversette (Crissolo to Aliries), mainly bridle path beneath pass tunnel made in 1478-1480 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,679 Col d'Ambin (Exilles to Bramans), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,364 Col de St Veran (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,331 Col n'Etache (Bardonneche to Bramans), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .9,144 Col dell' Agnello (Val Varaita to the Queyras Valley), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,003 Col Girardin (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,855 Col de Sautron (Val Maira to Barcelonnette), bridle path . . . . . . . . .8,823 Col de Longet (Ubaye Valley to Val Varaita), bridle path . . . . . . . . .8,767 Col de Mary or de M iurin ( Ubaye Valley to Val Maira), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,708 Col d'Abries or de Prali (Perosa to Abries), bridle path . . . . . .8,695 Col de la Roue (Bardonneche to Modane), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .8,419 Col de Freius (same to same), carriage road, beneath which Col de Clapier (Bramans to Susa), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,173 Col d'Izouard (Briancon to the Queyras Valley), carriage path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,835 Col de la Croix (Torre Pellice to Abries); bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,576 Petit Mont Cenis (Bramans to the Mont Cenis Plateau), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,166 Col de Vars (Ubaye Valley to the Queyras Valley), carriage path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,939 Mont Cenis (Lanslebourg to Susa), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,893 Col de Sestrieres (Pignerol to Cesanne), carriage road . . . . . . .6,631 Mont Genevre (Briancon to Cesanne), carriage road . . . . . . . .6,083 Col des Echelles de Planpipinet (Briangon to Bardonneche), partly carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,774

3. Dauphine Alps (from the Col du Galibier, westwards and southwards).

Chief Peaks of the Dauphine Alps.

Pointe des Ecrins . . . . . 13,462 Pic Felix Neff. . . . . . . . 10,571 Meije. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,081 Vieux Chaillol . . . . . . . . . 10,378 Ailefroide . . . . . . . . . . 12,989 Tete de Vautisse. . . . . . . 10,375 Mont Pelvoux . . . . . . . . . 12,973 Grand Pinier . . . . . . . . . . 10,237 Pic Sans Nom . . . . . . . . . 12,845 Pic de Parieres . . . . . . . 10,007 Pic Gaspard. . . . . . . . . . 12,730 Mourre Froid . . . . . . . . . . .9,830 Pic Coolidge . . . . . . . . . 12,323 Belledonne (highest) . . . . . . .9,781 Grande Ruine . . . . . . . . . 12,317 Rocherblanc (Septlaux) . . . . . .9,617 Rateau. . . . . . . . . . . 12,317 Taillefer. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,387 Montagne des Agneaux . . . . . 12,oo8 Pic du Frene. . . . . . . . . .9,219 Les Bans . . . . . . . . . . . 11,979 Tete de l'Obiou . . . . . . . .9,164 Sommet des Rouies. . . . . . . 11,923 Grand Ferrand. . . . . . . . . . .9,059 Aiguille du Plat . . . . . . . 11,818 Pic de Bure (Aurouse). . . . . . .8,898 Pic d'Olan. . . . . . . . . . 11,735 Grand Veymont. . . . . . . . . . .7,697 Pic Bonvoisin. . . . . . . . . 11,680 Mont Aiguille. . . . . . . . . . .6,880 Aiguilles d'Arves (highest Chamechaude. . . . . . . . . . . .6,847 point). . . . . . . . . . . 11,529 Dent de Crolles. . . . . . . . . .6,779 Grandes Rousses. . . . . . . . 11,395 Grand Sore . . . . . . . . . . . .6,670 Roche de la Muzelle. . . . . . 11,349 Mont Granier . . . . . . . . . . .6,358 Sirac. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,280 Dent du Chat . . . . . . . . . . .4,593

Chief Passes of the Dauphine Alps.

Col de la Lauze (St Christophe to La Grave), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,625 Col des Avalanches (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow. . . . . . . . . . 11,520 Col de la Casse Deserte (La Berarde to La Grave), snow . . . . . . 11,516 Col Emile Pic (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,490 Col des Ecrins (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . 11,205 Col du Glacier Blanc (La Grave to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,854 Col du Sele (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow . . . . . . . . . . 10,834 Breche de la Meile (La Berarde to la Grave), snow. . . . . . . . . 10,827 Col de la Temple (La Berarde to Vallouise), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,772 Col des Aiguilles d'Arves (Valloire to St Jean d'Arvesl,snow . . . . . . 10,335 Col du Says (La Berarde to the Val Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . 10,289 Col du Clot des Cavales (La Berarde to La Grave), snow. . . . . . . . 10,263 Col du Loup du Valgaudemar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,210 Col Lombard (La Grave to St Jean d'Arves), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,171 Breche des Grandes Rousses (Allemont to Clavans), snow. . . . . . . . 10,171 Col du Sellar (Vallouise to the Val Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,063 Col de la Muande (St Christophe to the Val Gaudemar), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,037 Col des Quirlies (St Jean d'Arves to Clavans), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,679 Col du Goleon (La Grave to Valloire), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,449 Pas de la Cavale (Vallouise to Champoleon), carriage road . . . . . . .8,990 Col d'Orcieres (Dormillouse to Orcieres), bridle path. . . . . . . .8,859 Col de l'Infernet (La Grave to St lean d'Arves), foot path . . . . . . . .8,826 Col du Galibier (Lautaret Hospice to St Michel de Maurienne), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,721 Breche de Valsenestre (Bourg d'Oisans to Valsenestre), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,642 Col de Vallonpierre (Val Gaudemar to Champoleon), foot 8,596 path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,596 Col de Val Estrete (same to same), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,596 Col de Vaurze (Val Gaudemar to Val souflrey), foot path. . . . . . . . . .8,531 Col de Martignare (La Grave to St lean d'Arves), foot path . . . . . . . .8,531 Col des Tourettes (Orcieres to Chateauroux), bridle path . . . . . .8,465 Col de la Muzelle (St Christophe to Valsenestre), foot path. . . . . . . .8,202 Col de l'Eychauda (Vallouise to Monestier), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .7,970 Col d'Arsine (La Grave to Monestier), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,874 Col des Pres Nouveaux (Le Frenev to St Jean d'Arves), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,523 Col dessept Lanx (Allevard to Bourg d'Oisans), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,166 Col du Lautaret (Briancon to Bourg d'Oisans), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,808 Col de la Croix de Fer (Bourg d'Oisans to St Jean d'Arves), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,765 Col du Glandon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Chambre), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,401 Col de l'Alpe de Venose (Venose to Le Freney), bridle path . . . . .5,446 Col d'Ornon (Bourg d'Oisans to La Mure), carrigae road . . . . . . . . . .4,462 Col Bayard (La Mure to Gap), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,088 Col de la Croix Haute (Grenoble to Veynes and Gap), railway line over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,829

4. Graian Alps (from the Mont Cenis to the Little St Bernard Pass). These are usually divided into three groups, the Central (the watershed between the two passes named), the Western or French, and the Eastern or Italian; in the following lists the initials ``C,'' ``W,'' and ``E'' show to which group each peak and pass belongs.

Chief Peaks of the Graian Alps.

Grand Paradis (E). . . . . . . 13,324 Grande Aiguille Rousse Grivola (E). . . . . . . . . . 13,022 (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,424 Oirande Casse (W). . . . . . . 12,668 Granta Parey (C) . . . . . . . . 11,395 Mont Pourri (W). . . . . . . . 12,428 Roc du Mulinet (C) . . . . . . . 11,382 Mont Herbetet (E). . . . . . . 12,396 Aiguille Pers (C). . . . . . . . 11,323 Pointe de Charbonel (C). . . . 12,336 Pointe de la Sana (W). . . . . . 11,319 Aiguille de la Grande Cima dell' Auille (C). . . . . . 11,306 Sassiere (C) . . . . . 12,325 Pointe de l.Lchelle (W). . . . . 11,260 Dent Parrachee (W). . . . . 12,179 Punta Foura (E) . . . . . . . 11,188 Tour du Grand St Pierre Pointe des Sengies (E) . . . . . 11,182 (C) . . . . . . . . . . . 11,424 Pointe de la Gliere (W) . . . 11,109 Uja di Ciamareila (C). . . . . 12,061 Pointe de la Galise (C). . . . . 10,975 Cima di Charforon (E). . . . . 12,025 Pointe de la Traversiere Grande Motte (W) . . . . . . . 12,018 (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,962 Albaron (C). . . . . . . . . . 12,915 Pointe de Mean Martin Roccia Viva (E). . . . . . . . 11,976 (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,949 Levanna (C). . . . . . . . . . 11,943 Punta Lavina (E) . . . . . . . . 10,854 Bessanese (C). . . . . . . . . 11,917 Ormelune (C) . . . . . . . . . . 10,77i Punta di Gaij (E). . . . . . . 11,887 Roche Chevriere (W) . . . . . 10,768 Dome de l'Arpont (W) . . . . . 11,874 Signaldu Montlseran (C). . . . . 10,634 Pointe de Ronco (C). . . . . . 11,871 Pointedela Rechasse (W) 10,575 Bec de l'lnvergnan (C) . . . . 11,838 Crand Assaly (C) . . . . . . . . .10,44 Tsanteleina (C). . . . . . . . 11,831 Roisebanque (E). . . . . . . . . 10,381 Dome de Chasseforet (W). 11,802 Bocca di Nona (E). . . . . . . . 10,309 Croce Rossa (C). . . . . . . . 11,703 Torre d'Ovarda (C) . . . . . . . 10,089 Aiguille de Peclot (W). . . 11,700 Pointe du Pousset (E). . . . . . .9,994 Mont Einilius (E). . . . . . . 11,677 Dome de Val d'Isere (C) . . . .9,951 Punta d'Arnas (C). . . . . . . 11,615 UJa di Mondrone (C). . . . . . . .9,725 Aiguille de Polset (W) . . . . 11,608 Bellagarda (C) . . . . . . . . . .9,643 Rochemelon (C) . . . . . . . . 11,605 Monte Marzo (E). . . . . . . . . .9,023 Mont Chalanson(C). . . . . . . 11,582 Petit Mont Blanc de Tersiva (E). . . . . . . . . . 11,526 Pralognan (W).. . . . . . . .8,809 Grande Traversiere (C). . . 11,467 Mont Jouvet (W). . . . . . . . . .8,409 Tete du Rutor (C) . . . . . 11,438 Monte Civrari (C). . . . . . . . .7,553

Chief Passes of the Graian Alps.

Col de la Grande Rousse (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,483 Col de Gebroulaz (Arc Valley to Mofitiers Tarentaise), snow (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,385 Col de Monel (Cogne to Locana), snow (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,247 Col du Grand Paradis (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,988 Col du Charforon (same to same), snow (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,929 Col de Teleccio (Cogne to Locana), snow (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,913 Col de Lauzon (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E) . . . . . . 10,831 Col du Bouquetin (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), snow (C). . . . . . . . . 10,827 Col de St Grat (Val Grisanche to La Thuille), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . 10,827 Col de l'Herbetet (Cogne to the Val Savaranche), snow (E). . . . . . . . 10,686 Col du Collerin (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,506 Col du Grand Etret (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), snow (E). . . . . . 10,361 Col de Bassac (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), snow (C). . . . . 10,345 Col du Carro (Bonneval to Ceresole), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,302 Col d'Arbole (Comboe to Brissogne), snow (E) . . . . . . . . . . . 10,292 Col de la Goletta (Va Id'Isere to the Rhemes Valley), snow (C) . . 10,237 Col de Rhemes (same to same), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,174 Col de la Grande Casse (Pralognan to the Premou Glen), snow (W) . . . 10,171 Col de Sea (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C). . . . . . . . . . . 10,115 Col de l'Autaret (Bessans to Usseglio), foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . 10,073 Col de Girard (Bonneval to Forno Alpi Graie), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . .9,987 Col Rosset (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), bridle path (C) . . .9,922 Col d'Arnas (Bessans to Balme), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,889 Col de la Galise (Ceresole to Val d'Isere), snow (C). . . . . . . . . .9,836 Col de Sort (Val Savaranche to the Rhemes Valley), partly bridle path .9,735 Quecees de Tignes (Val d'Isere to Termignon), snow (W) . . . . . . .9,646 Col della Nouva (Cogne to Pont Canavese), partly bridle path (E) . . . . .9,623 Col de Garin (Aosta to Cogne), foot path (E) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,411 Collarin d'Arnas (Balme to Usseglio), snow (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,351 Finestra del Torrent (Rhemes Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path. .9,341 Fenetre de Champorcher (Cogne to Champorcher), bridle path (E). . . . .9,311 Col de Vaudet (Isere Valley to the Val Grisanche), foot path (C). . . .9,305 Col de Bardoney (Cogne to Pont Canavese), snow (E) . . . . . . . . . . . .9,295 Col de Chaviere (Modane to Pralognan), foot path (W). . . . . . . . . .9,206 Col de la Leisse (Tignes to Termignon), snow (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,121 Col du Mont Iseran (Bonneval to Val d'Isere), bridle path (C) . . . . .9,085 Ghicet di Sea (Balme to Forno Alpi Graie), foot path (C) . . . . . . . . .8,973 Col de la Sachette (Tignes to Bourg St Maurice), foot path (W) . . . . . .8,954 Col du Palet (Tignes to Moutiers Tarentaise or Bourg St Maurice), bridle path (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,721 Col du Mont (Ste Foy to the Val Grisanche), bridle path (C). . . . . . . .8,681 Col de la Croix de Nivolet (Ceresole to the Val Savaranche), bridle path (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,665 Col della Crocetta (Ceresole to Forno Alpi Graie), bridle path (C) . . . .8,649 Col de la Platiere (St Jean de Maurienne to Moutiers Tarentaise), partly bridle path (W). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,531 Col de la Vanoise (Pralognan to Termignon), bridle path (W). . . . . . . .8,291 Col des Encombres (St Michel de Maurienne to Moutiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,668 Little St Bernard (Aosta to Moutiers Tarentaise), carriage road (C) . .7,179 Col de la Madeleine (La Chambre to Moutiers Tarentaise), bridle path (W). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,509

5. Pennine Alps (from the Little St Bernard to the Simplon Pass). This range contains all the highest peaks in the Alps, save the Finsteraarhorn (14,026) in the Bernese Oberland.

Chief Peaks of the Pennine Alps.

Mont Blanc . . . . . . . . . . 15,782 Mont Blanc de Seilon . . . . . . 12,700 Monte Rosa (Dufourspitze). . . 15,217 Aiguille du Midi . . . . . . . . 12,609 Tour Noir. . . . . . . . . . . . 12,586 Nord End (Monte Rosa). . . . . 15,132 Aiguille des Glaciers. . . . . . 12,579 Dom (Mischabelhorner) . . . 14,942 Mont Dolent. . . . . . . . . . . 12,543 Lyskamm. . . . . . . . . . . . 14,889 Aiguille du Chardonnet . . . . . 12,540 Weisshorn. . . . . . . . . . . 14,804 Cima di Jazzi. . . . . . . . . . 12,527 Matterhorn . . . . . . . . . . 14,782 Balfrin. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,474 Taschhorn . . . . . . . . . 14,758 Pigne d'Arolla . . . . . . . . . 12,471 Mont Maudit. . . . . . . . . . 14,669 Mont Velan. . . . . . . . . . 12,353 Dent Blanche . . . . . . . . . 14,318 Aiguille du Dru. . . . . . . . . 12,320 Dome du Gouter . . . . . 14,210 Tete Blanche. . . . . . . . . 12,304 Grand Combin . . . . . . . . . 14,164 L'Eveque. . . . . . . . . . . 12,264 Castor . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,879 Mont Pleureur. . . . . . . . . . 12,159 Zinal Rothhorn . . . . . . . . 13,856 Dome de Miage. . . . . . . . . . 12,100 Alphubel . . . . . . . . . . . 13,803 Lo Besso . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,058 Grandes Jorasses . . . . . . . 13,797 Aiguille de la Za. . . . . . . . 12,051 Rimpfischhorn. . . . . . . . . 13,790 Mont Collon. . . . . . . . . . . 11,956 Strahlhorn . . . . . . . . . . 13,751 Diablons . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,828 Dent d'Herens . . . . . . . 13,715 Aiguille de Tour . . . . . . . . 11,615 Zermatt Breithorn. . . . . . . 13,685 Mont Gele . . . . . . . . . . 11,539 Aiguille Verte . . . . . . . . 13,541 Bec de Luseney . . . . . . . . . 11,503 Ober Gabelhorn . . . . . . . . 13,364 Aiguille de Grepon. . . . . . 11,489 Aiguille de Bionnassay . . . . 13,341 Chateau des Dames . . . . . . 11,447 Allalinhorn. . . . . . . . . . 13,236 Aiguille des Charmoz . . . . . . 11,293 Weissmies . . . . . . . . . . 13,226 Aiguille du Tacul. . . . . . . . 11,280 Aiguille du Geant . . . . . 13,170 Grand Tournalin. . . . . . . . . 11,086 Laquinhorn . . . . . . . . . . 13,140 Pointe de Rosa Blanche . . . . . 10,985 Rossbodenhorn. . . . . . . . . 13,128 Mont Avril . . . . . . . . . . . 10,962 Grand Cornier. . . . . . . . . 13,022 Grande Rochere. . . . . . . . 10,913 Aiguille de Trelatete. . 12,832 Corno Bianco . . . . . . . . . . 10,893 Aiguille d'Argentiere . . . 12,819 Grauhaupt. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,876 Ruinette . . . . . . . . . . . 12,727 Pointe d'Orny. . . . . . . . . . 10,742 Aiguille de Triolet. . . . . . 12,717 Dent du Midi . . . . . . . . . . 10,696 Mont Favre . . . . . . . . . . 10,693 Tagliaferro. . . . . . . . . . . .9,725 Sasseneire . . . . . . . . . . 10,693 Riffelhorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,617 Grand Golliaz. . . . . . . . . 10,630 Pointe Percee du Reposoir . . .9,029 Tour Sallieres. . . . . . . 10,588 Crammont . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,980 Pizzo Bianco . . . . . . . . . 10,552 Pointe des Fours . . . . . . . . .8,921 Latelhorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,523 Pointe du Colloney . . . . . . . .8,832 Schwarzhorn (Augstbord). . . . 10,512 Catogne. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,527 Gornergrat . . . . . . . . . . 10,289 Monte Bo. . . . . . . . . . . .8,386 Pointe de Lechaud . . . . . 10,260 Mont Joly. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,291 Buet . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,201 Brevent . . . . . . . . . . . .8,284 Mont Ruan. . . . . . . . . . . 10,099 Pointe de Salles . . . . . . . . .8,183 Mont Neri . . . . . . . . . 10,073 Aiguille de Varens . . . . . . . .8,163 Bella Tola . . . . . . . . . . 9,935 Mont Chetif . . . . . . . . . .7,687 Pointe de Tanneverge . . . . . 9,784 Mole. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,132 Belvedere (Aigs. Rouges) 9,731 Saleve (highest point). . . . .4,528

Chief Passes of the Pennine Alps.

Sesiajoch (Zermatt to Alagna), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,515 Col de la Brenva (Courmayeur to Chamonix), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,217 Domjoch (Randa to Saas), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,062 Lysjoch (Zermatt to Gressoney), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,033 Mischabeljoch (Zermatt to Saas), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,651 Alphubel Pass (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,474 Adler Pass (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,461 Moming Pass (Zermatt to Zinal), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,287 Schwarzthor (Zermatt to Ayas), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,274 Col de Triolet (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,110 Ried Pass (St Niklaus to Saas), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,800 New Weissthor (Zermatt to Macugnaga), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,746 Allalin Pass (Zermatt to Saas), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,713 Col de Valpelline (Zermatt to Aosta), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,687 Biesjoch (Randa to Turtmann), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,644 Triftjoch (Zermatt to Zinal), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,615 Col d'Argentiere (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 11,536 Col du Sonadon (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow. . . . . . . 11,447 Col de Talefre (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,430 Col d'Herens (Zermatt to Evolena), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,418 Col Durand (Zermatt to Zinal), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,398 Col des Maisons Blanches (Bourg St Pierre to the Val de Bagnes), snow. . 11,241 Col de Bertol (Arolla to the Col d'Herens), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 11,200 Col de Miage (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,077 Col du Geant (Chamonix to Courmayeur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,060 Col du Mont Rouge (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow . . 10,962 Col du Chardonnet (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,909 Col de St Theodule (Zermatt to Chatillon), snow. . . . . . . . . . 10,899 Col du Tour (Chamonix to Orsieres), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,762 Fenetre de Saleinaz (Saleinaz Glacier to Trient Glacier), snow. . . . 10,709 Col de Tracuit (Zinal to Turtmann), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,670 Zwischbergen Pass (Saas to Gondo), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,657 Col d'Oren (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,637 Col de Seilon (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow . . . . 10,499 Col du Cret (Val de Bagnes to the Val d'Heremence), snow. . . . 10,329 Col de Valcournera (Val Tournanche to the Valpelline), snow . . . . . 10,325 Col de Collon (Arolla to Aosta), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270 Col de Valsorey (Bourg St Pierre to Aosta), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,214 Col de Chermontane (Val de Bagnes to Arolla), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,119 Cimes Blanches (Val Tournanche to Ayas), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .9,777 Col de Torrent (Evolena to the Val de Torrent), bridle path. . . . . . . .9,593 Augstbord Pass (St Niklaus to Turtmann), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .9,492 Col de Crete Seche (Val de Bagnes to the Valpelline), snow . . . . .9,475 Col de Breuil (Bourg St Maurice to La Thuille), snow . . . . . . . . . . .9,446 Col d'Olen (Alagna to Gressoney), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,420 Monte Moro (Saas to Macugnaga), partly bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,390 Pas de Chevres (Arolla to the Val d'Heremence), foot path . . . .9,354 Antrona Pass (Saas to Antrona), partly bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,331 Col de Sorebois (Zinal to the Val de Torrent), bridle path . . . . . . . .9,269 Col de Vessona (Valpelline to the St Barthelemy Glen), foot path. . . .9,167 Col de Fenetre (Val de Bagnes to Aosta), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .9,141 Z'Meiden Pass (Zinal to Turtmann), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,095 Turlo Pass (Alagna to Macugnaga), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,977 Col de Fenetre (Great St Bernard to the Swiss Val Ferret), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,855 Bettafurka (Ayas to Gressoney), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,780 Col du Mont Tondu (Contamines to Courmayeur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .8,498 Col Serena (Great St Bernard to Courmayeur). foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,327 Col Ferret (Courmayeur to Orsieres), carriage road in progress. . . . .8,311 Col de la Seigne (Chapieux to Courmayeur) bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,242 Col de Susanfe (Champery to Salvan), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,202 Col du Bonhomme (Contamines to Chapieux), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,147 Col de Valdobbia (Gressoney to the Val Sesia), bridle path . . . . . . . .8,134 Great St Bernard (Martigny to Aosta), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .8,111 Col de Sagerou (Sixt to Champery), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,917 Col de Moud (Alagna to Rima and Varallo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,622 Col d'Anterne (Sixt to Servos), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,425 Col d'Egua (Rima to the Val Anzasca), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,336 Col de Balme (Chamonix to the Trient Valley), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,221 Simplon Pass (Brieg to Domo d'Ossola), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,592 Col de Checouri (Courmayeur to the Lac de Combal),bridle path . . . . .6,431 Baranca Pass (Varallo to the Val Anzasca), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .5,971 Col de Voza (Chamonix to Contamines), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .5,496 Col de la Forclaz (Chamonix to St Gervais), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .5,105 Col de la Forclaz (Trient Valley to Martigny), carriage road . . . . . . .4,987

II. CENTRAL ALPS

6. Bernese Oberland (from the Lake of Geneva to the Furka, the Reuss Valley and the Lake of Lucerne). This general name seems best to describe the range in question, though, of course, portions of it are in Cantons other than that of Berne, viz. Vaud, Fribourg, the Valais, Lucerne, Uri and Unterwalden.

Chief Peaks of the Bernese Oberland.

Finsteraarhorn . . . . . . . . 14,026 Wellhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,486 Aletschhorn. . . . . . . . . . 13,721 Mettenberg . . . . . . . . . . . 10,194 Jungfrau . . . . . . . . . . . 13,669 Loffelhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,165 Monch . . . . . . . . . . . 13,468 Grand Muveran. . . . . . . . . . 10,043 Gross Schreckhorn. . . . . . . 13,386 Gross Wendenstock. . . . . . . . .9,987 Gross Fiescherhorn . . . . . . 13,285 Sparrhorn. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,928 Eiger. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13,042 Torrenthorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,853 Bietschhorn. . . . . . . . . . 12,970 Grande Dent de Morcles . . . . . .9,777 Gross Wannehorn. . . . . . . . 12,812 Schilthorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,754 Gross Nesthorn . . . . . . . . 12,533 Eggishorn. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,626 Lauterbrunnen Breithorn. . . . 12,399 Uri Rothstock. . . . . . . . . . .9,620 Balmhorn . . . . . . . . . . . 12,176 Schwarzhorn(Grindelwald) . . . . .9,613 Wetterhorn (Mittelhorn). . . . 12,166 Gross Siedelhorn . . . . . . . . .9,452 Wetterhorn (Hash Jungfrau) . . 12,149 Albristhorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,069 Rothihorn.. . . . . . . . . . .9,052 Wetterhorn (Rosenhorn) . . . . 12,110 Faulhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,803 Blumlisalphorn. . . . . . . 12,044 Gummfluh . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,074 Gross Doldenhorn . . . . . . . 11,966 Sulegg . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,914 Atels. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,930 Vanil Noir . . . . . . . . . . . .7,858 Dammastock . . . . . . . . . . 11,920 Niesen . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,763 Galenstock . . . . . . . . . . 11,802 Brienzer Rothhorn. . . . . . . . .7,714 Sustenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 11,523 Tour d'Ai. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,658 Gspaltenhorn . . . . . . . . . 11,293 Hohgant. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,225 Fleckistock. . . . . . . . . . 11,214 Stockhorn. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,192 Gross Huhnerstock . . . . . 10,985 Kaiseregg. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,182 Ewigschneehorn . . . . . . . . 10,929 Pilatus (Tomlishorn) . . . . . . .6,995 Ritzlihorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,768 Chamossaire. . . . . . . . . . . .6,943 Wildhorn . . . . . . . . . . . 10,709 Gemmenalphorn. . . . . . . . . . .6,772 Wildstrubel. . . . . . . . . . 10,673 Rochers de Nave. . . . . . . . . .5,710 Diablerets . . . . . . . . . . 10,650 Moleson . . . . . . . . . . . .6,582 Titlis . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,627 Dent de Jaman. . . . . . . . . . .6,165 Gross Spannort . . . . . . . . 10,516 Napf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,629

Chief Passes of the Bernese Oberland.

Lauithor (Lauterbrunnen to the Eggishorn), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,140 Monchjoch (Grindelwald to the Eggishorn), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,680 Jungfraujoch (Wengern Alp to the Eggishorn), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,385 Strahlegg Pass (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,995 Grunhornlueke (Great Aletsch Glacier to the Fiescher Glacier), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,844 Oberaarjoch (Grimsel to the Eggishorn), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,607 Gauli Pass (Grimsel to Meiringen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,519 Petersgrat (Lauterbrunnen to the Lotschenthal), snow. . . . . . . . . 10,516 Lotschenlucke (Lotschenthal to the Eggishorn), snow . . . . . . 10,512 Lauteraarsattel (Grindelwald to the Grimsel), snow . . . . . . . . . . . 10,355 Beichgrat (Lotschenthal to the Bel Alp), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,289 Lammernjoch (Lenk to the Gemmi), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,276 Triftlimmi (Rhone Glacier to the Gadmen Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . 10,200 Sustenlimmi (Stein Alp to Goeschenen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,181 Gamchilucke (Kien Valley to Lauterbrunnen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,295 Tschiugel Pass (Lauterbrunnen to Kandersteg), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,265 Hohthurli Pass (Kandersteg to the Kien Valley), foot path . . . . . . .8,882 Lotschen Pass (Kandersteg to the Lotschenthal), snow . . . . . . . .8,842 Sefinenfurka (Lauierbrunnen to the Kien Valley), foot path . . . . . . . .8,583 Wendenjoch (Engelberg to the Gadmen Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,544 Furtwangsattel (Guttannen to the Gadmen Valley), foot path . . . . . . . .8,393 Furka Pass (Rhone Glacier to Andermatt), carriage road . . . . . . . . . .7,992 Rawil Pass (Sion to Lenk), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,924 Gemmi Pass (Randersteg to Leukerbad), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,641 Surenen Pass (Engelberg to Altdorf), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,563 Susten Pass (Meiringen to Wassen), partly carriage road. . . . . . . . . .7,422 Sanetsch Pass (Sion to Saanen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,331 Joch Pass (Meiringen to Engelberg), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,267 Grimsel Pass (Meiringen to the Rhone Glacier), carriage road . . . . . . .7,100 Kleine Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Lauterbrunnen), railway over. . . . . . .6,772 Col de Cheville (Sion to Bex), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,723 Grosse Scheidegg (Grindelwald to Meiringen), bridle path . . . . . . . . .6,454 Col de Jaman (Montreux to Montbovon), mule path over, railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,974 Brunig Pass (Meiringen to Lucerne), railway over. . . . . . . . . . . .3,396

7. Lepontine Alps (from the Simplon to the Splugen and south of the Furka and Oberalp Passes). The eastern portion of this range, from the St Gotthard Pass to the Splugen, is sometimes named the Adula Alps.

Chief Peaks of the Lepontine Alps.

Monte Leone. . . . . . . . . . 11,684 Piz Blas . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,918 Rheinwaldhorn. . . . . . . . . 11,149 Monte Giove. . . . . . . . . . . .9,876 Guferhorn . . . . . . . . . 11,132 Pizzo Centrale . . . . . . . . . .9,853 Blindenhorn. . . . . . . . . . 11,103 Pizzas d'Annarosa. . . . . . . . .9,850 Basodino . . . . . . . . . . . 10,749 Piz Beverin. . . . . . . . . . . .9,843 Tambohorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,749 Weisshorn (Splugen) . . . . . .9,817 Helsenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,742 Pizzo Lucendro . . . . . . . . . .9,708 Wasenhorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,680 Piz Tomul . . . . . . . . . . .9,676 Ofenhorn . . . . . . . . . . . 10,637 Piz Cavel. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,659 Cherbadung . . . . . . . . . . 10,542 Barenhorn . . . . . . . . . . .9,620 Piz Medel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,509 Six Madun (Badus). . . . . . . . .9,619 Scopi. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,499 Piz Muraun . . . . . . . . . . . .9,512 Pizzo Rotondo. . . . . . . . . 10,489 Zervreilerhorn . . . . . . . . . .9,508 Pizzo dei Piani. . . . . . . . 10,361 Monte Cistella . . . . . . . . . .9,353 Piz Terri. . . . . . . . . . . 10,338 Piz Lukmanier. . . . . . . . . . .9,115 Piz Aul. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,250 Monte Prosa. . . . . . . . . . . .8,983 Pizzo di Pesciora. . . . . . . 10,247 Pizzo Columbe . . . . . . . . .8,363 Wyttenwasserstock. . . . . . . 10,119 Monte Camoghe . . . . . . . . .7,303 Campo Tencia . . . . . . . . . 10,089 Piz Mundaun. . . . . . . . . . . .6,775 Leckihorn. . . . . . . . . . . 10,069 Monte Generoso . . . . . . . . . .5,591 Bruschghorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,020 Monte San Salvatore. . . . . . . .3,004 Alperschellihorn . . . . . . . 9,991

Chief Passes of the Lepontine Alps.

Zapport Pass (Hinterrhein to Malvaglia and Biasca), snow . . . . . . . . 10,103 Guferlucke (Kanal Glen to the Lenta Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . .9,777 Lentalucke (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,692 Hohsand Pass (Binn to Tosa Falls), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,603 Lecki Pass (Wyttenwasser Glen to the Mutten Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . .9,554 Passo Rotondo (Airolo to Oberwald), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,449 Kaltwasser Pass (Simplon Hospice to Veglia Alp), snow. . . . . . . . . . .9,331 Scaradra Pass (Vals Platz to Olivone), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,088 Satteltelucke (Vals Platz to Vrin), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,082 Ritter Pass (Binn to Veglia Alp), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,832 Cavanna Pass (Realp to the Val Bedretto), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,566 Scatta Minoja (Devero to the Val Formazza), bridle path. . . . . . . . . .8,521 Bocca di Cadlimo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), foot path . . . . . . . .8,340 Valserberg (Hinterrhein to Vals Platz), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,225 Safierberg (Splugen to Safien Platz), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .8,170 Geisspfad Pass (Binn to Devero), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,120 Gries Pass (Ulrichen to Tosa Falls), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,098 Passo di Naret (Fusio to Airolo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,015 Nufenen Pass (Ulrichen to Airolo), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,006 Diesrut Pass (Vrin fo the Somvix Oolen), bad bridle path . . . . . . . . .7,953 Albrun Pass (Binn to Devero and Baceno), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,907 Greina Pass (Olivone to the Somvix Glen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,743 San Giacomo Pass (Airolo to Tosa Falls), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,573 Passo di Buffalora (Val Mesocco to the Val Calanca), foot path . . . . . .7,431 Passo dell' Uomo (Airolo to the Lukmanier Pass), bridle path . . . . . . .7,258 Splugen Pass (Thusis to Chiavenna), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . .6,946 St Gotthard Pass (Andermatt to Airolo), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,936 San Bernardino Pass (Thusis to Bellinzona), carriage road. . . . . . . . .6,769 Lukmanier Pass (Disentis to Olivone), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .6,289

8. The Range of the Todi (from the Oberalp Pass to the Klausen Pass).

Todi. . . . . . . . . . . . 11,887 Piz Segnes . . . . . . . . . . . 10,178 Bifertenstock. . . . . . . . . 11,241 Piz Giuf . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,165 Piz Urlaun . . . . . . . . . . 11,060 Crispalt . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,105 Oberalpstock . . . . . . . . . 10,926 Bristenstock . . . . . . . . . . 10,086 Gross Scheerhorn . . . . . . . 10,814 Selbsanft. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,938 Claridenstock. . . . . . . . . 10,729 Vorab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,925 Dussistock. . . . . . . . . 10,703 Tschingelhorner (Elm) . . . . .9,351 Ringelspitz. . . . . . . . . . 10,667 Piz Sol (Grauehorner) . . . . .9,348 Brigelserhorner (highest) . 10,663 Calanda. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,213 Grosse Windgalle. . . . . . 10,473 Karpfstock. . . . . . . . . . .9,177 Hausstock. . . . . . . . . . . 10,342 Mageren. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,294 Gross Ruchen . . . . . . . . . 10,289 Murtschenstock. . . . . . . . .8,012

Chief Passes of the Range of the Todi.

Clariden Pass (Amsteg to Linththal), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,741 Planura Pass (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,646 Kammlilucke or Scheerjoch (Maderanerthal to Unterschachen), snow . .9,344 Sardona Pass (Flims to Ragaz), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,318 Sand Alp Pass (Disentis to Linththal), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,121 Brunni Pass (Disentis to Amsteg), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,977 Segnes Pass (Elm to Flims), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,613 Kisten Pass (Linththal to Ilanz), bad bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,203 Panixer Pass (Elm to Ilanz), bad bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,897 Kruzli Pass (Amsteg to Sedrun), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,710 Foo or Ramin Pass (Elm to Weisstannen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,290 Oberalp Pass (Andermatt to Disentis), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .6,719 Klausen Pass (Altdorf to Linththal), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .6,404

9. The Alps of North-Eastern Switzerland (north of the Klausen Pass).

Chief Peaks of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.

Glarnisch (highest) . . . . 9,580 Gross Mythen . . . . . . . . . . .6,240 Boser Faulen. . . . . . . . 9,200 Rigikulm . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,906 Santis. . . . . . . . . . . 8,216 Hoher Kasten . . . . . . . . . . .5,899 Altmann. . . . . . . . . . . . 7,999 Rossberg . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,194 Faulfirst. . . . . . . . . . . 7,925 Zugerberg (Hochwacht). . . . . . .3,255 Alvier . . . . . . . . . . . . 7,753 Albis Hochwacht. . . . . . . . . .2,887 Kurfursten (highest). . . . 7,576 Uetliberg. . . . . . . . . . . . .2,864 Speer. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6,411

Chief Passes of the North-Eastern Swiss Alps.

Ruosalperkulm (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path. . . . .7,126 Karren Alp Pass (Muota Valley to Linththal), foot path . . . . . . . . . .6,877 Kinzigkulm Pass (Schachen Valley to the Muota Valley), foot path. . . .6,811 Saasberg Pass (Einsiedeln to Glarus), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,227 Kamor Pass (Appcnzell to Ruti), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,512 Saxerlucke (Appenzell to Sax), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,417 Schwein Alp Pass (Waggithal to the Klon Glen), bridle path . . . . .5,158 Pragel Pass (Muotathal to Glarus), carriage road in progress . . . . . . .5,099 Hacken Pass (Schwyz to Einsiedeln), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,649 Holzegg Pass (same to same), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,616 Ibergeregg Pass (Schwyz to Iberg and Einsicdeln), carriage road. . . . . .4,613 Krazeren Pass (Nesslau to Urnasch), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .3,993

10. Bernina Alps (from the Maloja to the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio, south and east of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine and north of the Vultellina).

Chief Peaks of the Bernina Alps.

Piz Bernina. . . . . . . . . . 13,304 Piz Languard . . . . . . . . . . 10,716 Piz Zupo . . . . . . . . . . . 13,131 Piz Sesvenna . . . . . . . . . . 10,568 Monte di Scerscen. . . . . . . 13,116 Piz Pisoc. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,427 Piz Roseg. . . . . . . . . . . 12,934 Piz Murtarol. . . . . . . . . 10,424 Piz Palu. . . . . . . . . . 12,835 Piz Quaiervals . . . . . . . . . 10,358 Crast' Aguzza . . . . . . . 12,704 Pizzo della Margna . . . . . . . 10,355 Piz Morteratsch. . . . . . . . 12,317 Cima di Redasco. . . . . . . . . 10,299 Monte della Disgrazia. . . . . 12,067 Piz Lischanna. . . . . . . . . . 10,204 Pizzo di Verona. . . . . . . . 11,359 Pizzo di Sena. . . . . . . . . . 10,099 Cima di Piazzi . . . . . . . . 11,283 Piz Casana . . . . . . . . . . . 10,079 Cima di Castello . . . . . . . 11,155 Monte Foscagno . . . . . . . . . 10,010 Cima Viola . . . . . . . . . . 11,103 Pizzo del Teo. . . . . . . . . . 10,007 Pizzo Cengalo. . . . . . . . . 11,070 Pizzo del Ferro. . . . . . . . . 10,007 Cima di Rosso. . . . . . . . . 11,060 Piz Umbrail. . . . . . . . . . . .9,955 Pizzo Scalino. . . . . . . . . 10,903 Zwei Schwestern. . . . . . . . . .9,784 Pizzo Badile . . . . . . . . . 10,863 Monte Braulio. . . . . . . . . . .9,777 Corno di Campo . . . . . . . . 10,844 Monte Spluga . . . . . . . . . . .9,321 Pizzo di Dosde. . . . . . . 10,762 Monte Massuccio. . . . . . . . . .9,239 Cima di Saoseo . . . . . . . . 10,752 Mont la Schera . . . . . . . . . .8,494

Chief Passes of the Bernina Alps.

Fuorcla Bellavista (Ponrresina to Chiesa, in Val Malenco), snow. . . . . 12,087 Fuorcla Crast' Aguzza (same to same), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,805 Fuorcla Tschierva (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,572 Fuorela Sella (same to same), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,840 Passo di Bondo (Bondo to the Baths of Masino), snow. . . . . . . . . . . 10,227 Passo di Castello (Maloja to Morbegno), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,171 Passo Tremoggia (Sils to Chiesa), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,912 Passo di Mello Chiareggio to Val Masino), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,813 Diavolezza Pass (Bernina road to the Morteratsch Glen), snow . . . . . . .9,767 Passo di Dosde (Val Grosina to Val Viola Bormina), foot path. . . . . .9,351 Passo di Sacco (Bernina road to Grosio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .9,026 Passo di Zocca (Vicosoprano to Val Masino), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,000 Casana pass (Scants to Livigno), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,832 Muretto pass (Maloja to Chiesa), partly snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,389 Umbrail Pass or Wormserjoch (Munster Valley to the Stelvio road), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242 Passo di Val Viola (Bernina road to Bormio), bridle path . . . . . . . . .7,976 Giufplan Pass (Ofen road to Fraele), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,723 Bernina Pass (Pontresina to Tirano), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .7,645 Forcola di Livigno (Bernina Pass to Livigno), small carriage road. . . . .7,638 Cruschetta Pass (Schuls by Scarl to Taufers), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,599 Passo di Verva (Bormio to Grosio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,592 Sursass or Schlinig Pass (Remus to Mals) foot path. . . . . . . . . . .7,540 Foscagno Pass (Bormio to Trepalle), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,517 Alpisella Lass (Uivigno to Fraule), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .7,497 Scarl Pass (Scarl to Santa Maria Munster), carriage road. . . . . . . .7,386 Dossradond Pass (Santa Maria Munster to Fraele), bridle path. . .7,349 Passo Dheira (Livigno to Trepalle) bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,248 Ofen Pass (Zernez to Mals), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,071 Fraele Pass (Bormio to the Ofen road), partly bridle path . . . . . . .6,398 Scale di Fraele (Borniio to Fraele), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .6,372 Maloja Pass (St Moritz to Chiavenna), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .5,935

11. Albula Range (from the Splugen Pass to the Fluela Pass. north and west of the Val Bregaglia and of the Engadine).

Chief Peaks of the Albula Range.

Piz Kesch. . . . . . . . . . . 11,228 Pizzo Stella . . . . . . . . . . 10,375 Piz dellas Calderas. . . . . . 11,132 Fluela Schwarzhorn. . . . . . 10,355 Piz Platta . . . . . . . . . . 11,109 Pizzo della Duana. . . . . . . . 10,279 Piz Julier . . . . . . . . . . 11,106 Pizzo Gallegione . . . . . . . . 10,201 Piz d'Err. . . . . . . . . . . 11,093 Gletscherhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,191 Piz d'Aela . . . . . . . . . . 10,959 Cima di Lago . . . . . . . . . . 10,112 Cima da Flex . . . . . . . . . 10,785 Hoch Ducan . . . . . . . . . . . 10,060 Piz Uertsch. . . . . . . . . . 10,739 Piz Grisch . . . . . . . . . . . 10,000 Piz Forbisch . . . . . . . . . 10,689 Averser Weissberg. . . . . . . . .9,987 Piz Ot . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,667 Surettahorn. . . . . . . . . . . .9,971 Gross Piz Vadret . . . . . . . 10,584 Arosa Rothhorn . . . . . . . . . .9,794 Piz Timun or Emet. . . . . . . 10,502 Piz Curver . . . . . . . . . . . .9,761 Tinzenhorn . . . . . . . . . . 10,430 Pizzo Lunghino . . . . . . . . . .9,121 Piz Michel . . . . . . . . . . 10,378 Statzerhorn . . . . . . . . . .8,450

Chief Passes of the Albula Range.

Fuorcla Calderas (Molins to Bevers), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270 Fuorcla d'Eschia (Madulein to Bergun), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,869 Passo della Duana (Avers Vnlley to the Val Bregaglia), snow. . . . . . . .9,187 Sertig Pass (Davos to Scanfs), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,062 Forcella di Prassignola (Avers Valley to Soglio), old paved cattle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,924 Tinzenthor (Bergun to Savognino), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,918 Forcella di Lago or Madris Pass (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path . .8,793 Forcellina (Avers Valley to the Septimer Pass), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,770 Ducan Pass (Davos to Bergun), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,763 Passo di Lei (Avers Valley to Chiavenna), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,724 Forcella di Lunghino (Maloja to the Septimer Pass), foot path. . . . . . .8,645 Scaletta Pass (Davos to Scanfs), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,593 Suvretta Pass (St Moritz to Bevers), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,590 Fuorcla d'Alp Fontauna (Bergun to Scanfs), foot path. . . . . . . . . .8,580 Stallerberg (Avers Valley to Bivio-Stalla), foot path. . . . . . . . . . .8,478 Grialetsch Pass (Davos to Sus), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,353 Fluela Pass (Davos to Sus), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,838 Strela Pass (Davos to Langwies), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,799 Albula Pass (Bergun to Ponte), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,595 Septimer Pass (Bivio-Stalla to Casaccia), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .7,582 Julier Pass (Thusis to Silvaplana), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,504 Passo di Madesimo or d'Emet (Avers Valley to Madesimo), foot path. . . . .7,481

12. Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges (from the Fuela Pass to the Reschen Scheideck and the Arlberg Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranpes.

Piz Linard . . . . . . . . . . 11,201 Vesulspitze. . . . . . . . . . . 10,145 Fluchthorn . . . . . . . . . . 11,165 Fluela Weisshorn. . . . . . . 10,132 Gross Piz Buin . . . . . . . . 10,880 Piz Minschun . . . . . . . . . . 10,079 Verstanklahorn . . . . . . . . 10,831 Patteriol. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,037 Muttler. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,821 Piz Faschalba. . . . . . . . . . 10,010 Piz Fliana . . . . . . . . . . 10,775 Hexenkopf. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,968 Stammerspitze. . . . . . . . . 10,689 Gemsbleiskopf. . . . . . . . . . .9,899 Silvrettahorn. . . . . . . . . 10,657 Pischahorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,784 Augstenberg. . . . . . . . . . 10,611 Scesaplana . . . . . . . . . . . .9,741 Plattenhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,568 Rothbleiskopf. . . . . . . . . . .9,640 Dreilanderspitze. . . . . . 10,539 Hohes Rad. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,554 Piz Tasna. . . . . . . . . . . 10,443 Schiltfluh . . . . . . . . . . . .9,482 Kuchenspitze . . . . . . . . . 10,401 Plattenpspitze . . . . . . . . . .9,449 Hoher Riffler. . . . . . . . . 10,368 Madrishorn . . . . . . . . . . . .9,285 Piz Mondin . . . . . . . . . . 10,325 Drusenfluh . . . . . . . . . . . .9,282 Kuchelspitze. . . . . . . . 10,315 Sulzfluh . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,252 Gross Seehorn. . . . . . . . . 10,247 Zimbaspitze. . . . . . . . . . . .8,678 Vesilspitze. . . . . . . . . . 10,220 Naafkopf . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,445 Gross Litzner. . . . . . . . . 10,207 Falknis. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,419

Chief Passes of the Silvretta and Rhatikon Ranges.

Jamjoch (Guarda to Galtur), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 112 Fuorcla del Confin (Silvretta Pass to the Vermunt Glacier), snow . . . . 10,033 Buinlucke (Guarda to Patenen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,020 Silvretta Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,886 Zahnlucke (Jam Glen to the Fimber Glen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,712 Verstanklathor (Klosters to Lavin), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,682 Fuorcla d'Urezzas (Ardez to Galtur), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,564 Fuorcla Tasna (Ardez to Ischgl), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,374 Fuorcla Maisas (Remus to the Samnaun Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,357 Vermunt or Fermunt Pass (Guarda to Patenen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,193 Futschol Pass (Ardez to Galtur), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,098 Fuorcla Zadrell or Vernela Pass (Klosters to Lavin), snow. . . . . . . . .9,033 Cuolm d'Alp bella or Vignitz Pass (Samnaun Glen to Kappl), foot path . . .8,852 Schafbucheljoch (Mathon to St Anton), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,685 Fimber Pass (Remus to Ischgl), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,570 Scheien Pass (Klosters to the See Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,557 Vereina Pass or Pass da Val Torta (Klosters to Lavin), foot path . . . . .8,540 Zebles Pass (Ischgl to the Samnaun Glen), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .8,350 Garnerajoch (Klosters to Gaschurn), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,153 Fless Pass (Klosters to Sus), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,045 St Antonien or Gargellenjoch (St Antonien to St Gallenkirch), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,792 Drusenthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,710 Verrajochl (Lunersee to the Schweizerthor), foot path. . . . . . . .7,648 Ofen Pass (Schweizerthor to Schruns), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,523 Cavelljoch (Bludenz and the Lunersee to Seewis), foot path. . . . . . .7,343 Gruben Pass (St Antonien to Schruns), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .7,333 Schlappinerjoch (Klosters to St Gallenkirch), bridle path. . . . . . . . .7,218 Schweizerthor (Schiers to Schruns), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 057 Bielerhohe (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . .6,631 Zeinisjoch (Patenen to Galtur), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,076 Arlberg Pass (Landeck to Bludenz), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,912

III. EASTERN ALPS

13. The Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg (north of the Arlberg Pass, Innsbruck, the Pinzgau, and the Enns valley).

Chief Peaks of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg.

Parseierspitze . . . . . . . . 9,968 Watzmann . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,901 Dachstein. . . . . . . . . . . 9,830 Rothewandspitze. . . . . . . . . .8,878 Zugspitze. . . . . . . . . . . 9,738 Gross Krottenkopf(Allgau) . . .8,718 Hochkonig . . . . . . . . . 9,639 Selbhorn . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,711 Valluga. . . . . . . . . . . . 9,223 Hohes Licht. . . . . . . . . . . .8,701 Rockspitze . . . . . . . . . . 9,059 Madelegabel . . . . . . . . . .8,681 E. Hohe Griesspitze. . . . . . 9,052 Hochvogel. . . . . . . . . . . . .8,511 Stanskogel . . . . . . . . . . 9,052 Elmauer Haltsspitze Birkkarspitze (Karwendel). . . 9,042 (Kaisergebirge) . . . . . . .7,691

Chief Passes of the Alps of Bavaria, the Vorarlberg and Salzburg.

Gentschel Pass (Oberstdorf to Schrocken), bridle path . . . . . . . . .6,480 Schrofen Pass (Oberstdorf to Warth), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,538 Gerlos Pass (Zell to Mittersill), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,876 Pass Thurn (Kirzbuhel to Mittersill), carriage road . . . . . . . . . .4,183 Fern Pass (Reutte to Nassereit), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,026 Scharnitz or Seefeld Pass (Partenkirchen to Zirl), carriage road . . . . .3,874 Hirschbuhel Pass (Berchtesgaden to Saalfelden), carriage road . . . . .3,858 Hochfilzen Pass (Saalfelden to Kitzbuhel), railway over . . . . . . . .3,173 Pyhrn Pass (Linz to Liezen), carriage road over, railway tunnel beneath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,100 Wagreinstattel (Radstadt to St Johann in Pongau), carriage road. . . . . .2,743

14. Central Tirol Alps (from the Brenner Pass to the Radstadter Tauern Pass, north of the Drave Valley and south of the Pinzgau and the Enns Valley). This division takes in the Zillerthal and Tuern Ranges.

Chief Peaks of the Central Tirol Alps.

Gross Glockner . . . . . . . . 12,461 Ruthnerhorn(Rieserferner). . . . 11,024 Gross Venediger. . . . . . . . 12,008 Gross Wiesbachhorn . . . . . . 11,713 Hochalmspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,008 Hochfeiler (Zillerthal). . . . 11,559 Reichenspitze (Z). . . . . . . . 10,844 Dreiherrenspitze . . . . . . . 11,500 Gross Rotherknopf (Schober). . . 10,814 Mosele (Z). . . . . . . . . 11,438 Olperer (Z). . . . . . . . . . 1i,418 Gross Morchner (Z). . . . . . 10,785 Johannisberg . . . . . . . . . 11,375 Hochnarr (Goldberg). . . . . . . 10,689 Hochgall (Rieserferner). . . . 11,287 Ankogel. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,673 Thurnerkamp (Z). . . . . . . . 11,228 Hochschober. . . . . . . . . . . 10,663 Gross Loflier (Z) . . . . . 11,096 Kitzsteinhorn. . . . . . . . . . 10,512 Fusstein (Z) . . . . . . . . . 11,090 Sonnblick. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,196 Schwarzenstein (Z) . . . . . . 11,057 Zsigmondyspitze. . . . . . . . . 10,122 Gross Geiger . . . . . . . . . 11,041 Reckner (Tuxergebirge) . . . . . .9,485

Chief Passes of the Central Tirol Alps.

Mitterbachjoch (Breitlahner to Taufers), snow (Z). . . . . . . . . . . . 10,270 Trippachsattel (Floiten Valley to Taufers), snow (Z) . . . . . . . . . . 10,020 Riffelthor (Kaprun to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,010 Bockkarscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,994 Sonnblickscharte (Rauris to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,774 Alpeinerscharte (Breitlahner to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z). . . .9,712 Vorder Umbalthorl (Pragraten to Kasern), snow. . . . . . . . . . . .9,607 Ober Sulzbachthorl (Pragraten to Wald), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,600 Keilbachjoch (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . .9,410 Unter Sulzbachthorl (Wald to Gschloss), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,400 Schwarzkopfscharte (Bramberg to Gschloss), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,351 Pragraterthorl (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen),foot path . . .9,338 Glodisthorl (Lienz to Kals), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,292 Antholzerscharte (Rein Valley to the Antholz Valley), snow . . . . . . . .9,252 Krimmlerthorl (Krimml Glen to the Obersulzbach Glen) snow . . . . . . .9,233 Goldzechscharte (Heiligenblut to Rauris), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,220 Kalserthorl (Kals to Liens), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,197 Ober Tramerscharte (Rauris to Dollach), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,193 Kleine Elendscharte (Gastein to Gmund), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,987 Kleine Zirknitzscharte (Dollach to Fragant or Rauris), snow . . . . . .8,921 Dossener or Maunitzerscharte (Mallnitz to Gmund), snow . . . . . . .8,783 Grosse Elendscharte (Mallnitz to the Upper Malta Glen), snow . . . . . . .8,770 Unter Pfandlscharte (Ferleiten to Heiligenblut), snow. . . . . . . . . . .8,744 Heiliggeistjochl (Mayrhofen to Kasern), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . .8,721 Bergerthorl (Kals to Heiligenblut), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,695 Kaprunerthorl (upper Kaprun Glen to the upper Stubach Glen), snow . . .8,645 Krimmler Tauern (Krimml to Kasern), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,642 Virgner or Defereggerthorl (Defereggen Glen to Virgen and Pragraten), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,586 Backlenke or Trojerjoch (Pragraten to the Defereggen Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,573 Hochthor or Heiligenbluter Tauern (Heiligenblut to Rauris), foot path. . .8,442 Horndljochl (Mayrhofen to Steinhaus), foot path (Z). . . . . . . . .8,383 Velber Tauern (Windisch Matrei to Mittersill), bridle path . . . . . . . .8,334 Kalser Tauern (Kals to Uttendorf), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,242 Hohe or Korn Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path over, railway tunnel beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,081 Niedere or Mallnitzer Tauern (Mallnitz to Gastein), bridle path. . . . . .7,920 Fuscherthorl (Ferleiten to the Seidlwinkel Glen), foot path . . . . . .7,891 Lappacherjoch (Lappach to theahrn Valley), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . .7,763 Tuxerjoch or Schmirnjoch (Mayrhofen to St Jodok am Brenner), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,697 Klammljoch (Taufers to the Defereggen Valley), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,517 Arlscharte (St Johann in Pongau to Gmund), foot path. . . . . . . . . .7,386 Pfitscherjoch (Mayrhofen to Sterzing), foot path (Z) . . . . . . . . . . .7,376 Kals Matreierthorl (Kals to Windisch Matrei), bridle path . . . . . . .7,238 Die Stanz (Gastein to Rauris), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,900 Stallersattel (Defereggen Glen to the Antholz Glen), bridle path (R) . . .6,742 Radstadter Tauern (Radstadt to Mautendorf), carriage road . . . . . . .5,702

15. Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Banges (from the Reschen Scheideck and the Stelvio to the Brenner Pass, south of the Inn Valley, and north of the Tonale Pass).

Chief Peaks of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.

Ortler . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,802 Zuckerhutl (Stubai) . . . . . 11,520 Konigsspitze. . . . . . . . 12,655 Schalfkogel. . . . . . . . . . . 11,516 Monte Cevedale . . . . . . . . 12,382 Schrankogel. . . . . . . . . . . 11,483 Wildspitze (Oetzthal). . . . . 12,382 Hochwildspitze . . . . . . . . . 11,418 Weisskugel . . . . . . . . . . 12,291 Sonklarspiize. . . . . . . . . . 11,405 Monte Zebru. . . . . . . . . . 12,254 Tuckettspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,346 Palon della Mare . . . . . . . 12,156 Wilder Freiger . . . . . . . . . 11,241 Funta San Matteo . . . . . . . 12,113 Veneziaspitze. . . . . . . . . . 11,103 Thurwieserspitze . . . . . . . 11,946 Tscheugelser Hochwand. . . . . . 11,083 Hintere Schwarze. . . . . . 11,920 Monte Confinale. . . . . . . . . 11,057 Similaun . . . . . . . . . . . 11,821 Glockthurm . . . . . . . . . . . 11,011 Pizzo Tresero. . . . . . . . . 11,818 Fernerkogel. . . . . . . . . . . 10,827 Gross Ramolkogel . . . . . . . 11,651 Monte Sobretta . . . . . . . . . 10,814 Vtertainspitze . . . . . . . . 11,618 Habicht. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,758 Hochvernagtspitze. . . . . . . 11,585 Pflerscher Tribulaun . . . . . . 10,178

Chief Passes of the Ortler, Oetzthal and Stubai Ranges.

Hochjoch (Sulden to the Zebru Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,602 Vioz Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,949 Sonklarscharte (Solden to Sterzing), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,916 Konigsjoch (Sulden to Santa Caterina), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,811 Cevedale Pass (Santa Caterina to the Martell Glen), snow . . . . . . . . 10,732 Gepatschjoch (Vent to the Kauns Valley), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,640 Ramoljoch (Vent to Gurgl), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.479 Langtaufererjoch (Vent to the Reschen Scheideck Pass), snow. . . . . . . 10,391 Bildstockljoch (Solden to Ranalt), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,296 Gurgler Eisjoch (Gurgl to the Pfossen Glen), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,292 Eissee Pass (Sulden to the Martell Glen), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,279 Langthalerjoch (Gurgl to Pfelders), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,033 Passo del Zebru (Santa Caterina to the Zebru Glen), snow . . . . . . . . .9,925 Sallentjoch (Martell Glen to Rabbi), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,913 Nederjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,899 Sforzellina Pass (Santa Caterina to Pejo), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,859 Pitzthalerjochl (Mittelbera to Solden), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,826 Eisjochl am Bild (Pfelders to the Pfossen Glen), snow . . . . . . . . .9,541 Venter Hochjoch (Vent to the Schnals Valley), snow . . . . . . . . . . . .9,465 Tabarettascharte (Sulden to Trafoi), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,459 Stelvio Pass (Trafoi to Bormio), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,055 Gavia Pass (Santa Caterina to Ponte di Legno), foot path . . . . . . . . .8,651 Timmeljoch or Timblerjoch (Solden to the Passeierthal and Meran), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,232 Jaufen Pass (Sterzing to Meran), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,870 Reschen Scheideck Pass (Landeck to Meran), carriage road . . . . . . . . .4,902 Brenner Pass (Innsbruck to Verona), railway over . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,495

16. Lombard Alps flrom the Lake of Como to the Adige Valley, south of the Valtellina and the Aprica and Tonale Passes. This division includes the Adamello, Presanella, Brenta and Bergamasque ranges.

Chief Peaks of the Lombard Alps.

Presanella. . . . . . . . . . 11,694 Pizzo del Diavolo. . . . . . . . .9,564 Adamello . . . . . . . . . . . 11,661 Re di Castello. . . . . . . . .9,482 Care Alto . . . . . . . . . 11,369 Recastello . . . . . . . . . . . .9,475 Dosson di Genova . . . . . . . 11,254 Monte Gleno. . . . . . . . . . . .9,459 Crozzon di Lares . . . . . . . 11,004 Monte Tornello . . . . . . . . . .8,819 Corno di Baitone . . . . . . . 10,929 Corno Stella . . . . . . . . . . .8,596 Busazza. . . . . . . . . . . . 10,922 Monte Legnone. . . . . . . . . . .8,563 Lobliia Alta . . . . . . . . . 10,486 Pizzo dei Tre Signori. . . . . . .8,380 Cima Tosa (Brenta) . . . . . . 10,420 Pizzo di Presolana . . . . . . . .8,239 Cima di Brenta . . . . . . . . 10,352 Grigna . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,907 Crozzon di Brenta. . . . . . . 10,247 Monte Baldo. . . . . . . . . . . .7,218 Pizzo di Coca (Bergamasque). . 10,014 Monte Spinale. . . . . . . . . . .7,094 Pizzo di Scais . . . . . . . . .9,974 Monte Gazza. . . . . . . . . . . .6,529 Pizzo di Redorta . . . . . . . .9,964 Monte Resegone . . . . . . . . . .6,155 Pietra Grande. . . . . . . . . .9,630

Chief Passes of the Lombard Alps.

Passo di Lares (Lares Glacier to the Lobbia Glacier), snow . . . . . . . 10,483 Passo di Cercen (gal di Genova to Fucine), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,984 Passo della Lobbia Alta (Lobbia Glacier to the Mandron (Glacier), snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9,961 Passo di Presena (Val di Genova to the Tonale Pass), snow. . . . . . . . .9,879 Pisgana f'ass ()al di Genova to Ponte di Legno), snow . . . . . . . . .9,626 Bocca di Tuckett (Campiglio to Molveno), snow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,714 Passo di Val Morta or del Diavolo (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,534 Ulocca di Brenta (Pinzolo or Campiglio to Molveno), snow . . . . . . . . .8,376 Passo del Groste fcampiglio to Clesl, foot path . . . . . . . . . . . .8,006 Passo di Veniua (kal Brembana to Sondrio), foot path . . . . . . . . . . .7,983 Passo del Salro (Val Seriana to Sondrio), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .7,937 Passo del Venerocolo (Val di Scalvc to the Aprica road), bridle path.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,595 Passo della Forcellina or di Campo (Cedegolo to the Val di Fomo), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,507 V'asso di Idordona (Val Brembana to Sondrio), foot path. . . . . . . . . .6,824 Passo di San Marco (Bergamo to Morbegno), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . .6,513 Croce Domini Pass (Breno to Bagolino in Val Caffaro), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,217 Tonale Tass (.Trent to Edolo), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,181 Passo di Zovetto (Val di Scalve to Edolo), bridle path . . . . . . . . . .5,968 Colle Maniva (Val Trompia to Bagolino), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . .5,476 Campo or Ginevrie Pass (Oimaro by Campiglio to Pinzolo), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,407 Ciampenjoch (Cles to Meran), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,051 Mendel Pass (Botzen to Cles), railway on the E. slope. . . . . . . . . . .4,462 Passo di Castione or Presolana Pass (Clusone to the Val di Scalve), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,219 Aprica Pass (Edolo to Tirano), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,875

17. The Dolomites of South Tirol (from the Brenner Pass to the Monte Croce Pass, and south of the Pusterthal).

Chief Peaks of the Dolomites of South Tirol.

Marmolata. . . . . . . . . . 10,972 Pala di San Martino. . . . . . . .9,831 Antelao. . . . . . . . . . . 10,706 Rosengartenspitze. . . . . . . . .9,781 Tofana di Mezzo. . . . . . . 10,633 Marmarole. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,715 Sorapiss . . . . . . . . . . 10,594 Cima di Fradusta . . . . . . . . .9,649 Monte Civetta .. . . . . . . 10,564 Fermedathurm . . . . . . . . . . .9,407 Vernel . . . . . . . . . . . 10,319 Cima d'Asta. . . . . . . . . . . .9,344 Monte Cristallo. . . . . . . 10,496 Cima di Canali . . . . . . . . . .9,338 Cima di Vezzaoa. . . . . . . 10,470 Croda Grande . . . . . . . . . . .9,315 Cimon della Pala . . . . . . 10,453 Vajoletthurm (highest) . . . . . .9,256 Langkofel . . . . . .. . . . 10,427 Sass Maor. . . . . . . . . . . . .9,239 Pelmo . . . . . . . .. . . . 10,397 Cima di Ball . . . . . . . . . . .9,131 Dreischusterspitze . . . . . 10,375 Cima della Madonna Boespitze . . . . . . . . 10,342 (Sass Maor) . . . . . . . . . .9,026 Croda Rossa (Hoher . . . . . 10,329 Rosetta. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,993 Caisl) . . . . . . . . 10,329 Croda da Lago. . . . . . . . . . .8,911 Piz Popena . . . . . . . . . 10,312 Central Grasleitenspitze . . . . .8,875 Elferkofel . . . . . . . . . 10,220 Schlern. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,406 Grohmannspitze . . . . . . . 10,207 Sasso di Mur . . . . . . . . . . .8,380 Zwolferkofel. . . . . . . 10,142 Cima delle Dodici. . . . . . . . .7,671 Sass Rigais(Geislerspitzen). .9,932 Monte Pavione. . . . . . . . . . .7,664 Drei Zinnen . . . . . . . . .9,853 Cima di Posta. . . . . . . . . . .7,333 Kesselkogel (Rosengarten). . .9,846 Monte Pasubio. . . . . . . . . . .7,323 Funffingerspitze. . . . . .9,833

Chief Passes of the Dolomites of South Tirol.

Passo d' Ombretta (Campitello to Caprile), foot path . . . . . . . . . . .8,983 Langhofeljoch (Groden Valley to Campirello), foot path. . . . . . . . .8,803 Tschagerjoch (Karersee to the Vnjolet Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . .8,675 Crasleiten Pass (Vniolet Glen to thegrasleiten Glen), foot path. . . . . .8,521 Passo di Pravitale (Rosetta Plateau to the Pravitale Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,465 Passo delle Comelle (same to Cencenighe), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,462 Passo della Rosetta (San Martino di Castrozza to the great limestone Rosetta plateau), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,442 Vajolet Pass (Tiers to the Vajolet Glen), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,363 Passo di Canali (Primiero to Agordo), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,193 Tiersalpljochl (Campitello to'I.iers), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . .8,055 Passo di Ball (San Martino di Castrozza to the Pravitale Glen), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8,038 Forcella di Giralba (Sexte11 to Auronzo), foot path . . . . . . . . . .7,992 Col dei Bos (F.alzarego Glen to the Travernanzes GIen), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,589 Forcella Grande (San Vito to Auronzo), foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,422 Pordoi Pass (Caprile to Canipitello), carriage road. . . . . . . . . . . .7,382 Sellajoch (Groden Glen to Camphello), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . .7,277 Tre Sassi Pass (Cortina to St Cassian), foot path. . . . . . . . . . . . .7,215 Mahlknechtjoch (Upper Duron Glen to the Seiser Alp), foot path . . . . . .7,113 Grodenerjoch (Groden Glen to Colfuschg), bridle path . . . . . . . .7,011 Falzarego Pass (Caprile to Cortina), small carriage road . . . . . . . . .6,946 Fedaja Pass (Campitello to Caprile), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,713 Passo di Valles (Paneveggio to Cencenighe), foot path. . . . . . . . . . .6,667 Rolle Pass (Predazzo to San Martino di Castrozza and Primiero), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,509 Forcella Forada (Caprile to San Vito), bridle path . . . . . . . . . . . .6,480 Passo di San Pellegrino (Moena to Cencenighe), small carriage, path . .6,267 Forcella d'Alleghe (Alleghe to the Zoldo Glen), foot path. . . . . . . . .5,971 Tre Croci Pass (Cortina to Auronzo), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . .5,932 Karersee or Caressa Pass (WClschenofen to Vigo di Fassa), Ndonte Croce Pass (Innichen and Sexten to the Piave Valley and Belluno), carriage road . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5,374 Ampezzo Pass (Toblach to Cortina and Belluno), carriage path . . . . . . .5,066 Cereda Pass (Primiero to Agordo), bridle path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4,501 Toblach Pass (Bruneck to Lienz), railway over. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3,967

18. South-Eastern Alos (east of the Monte Croce Pass). This division includes three small groups, the J ulic, Carnic and Karawankas Alps--each peak and pass being distinguished by one of the initial letters ``J,'' ``C'' or ``K.''

Chief Peaks of the South-Eastern Alps.

Terglou or Triglav (J) . . . . 9,400 Monte Cridola (C). . . . . . . . .8,468 Monte Coglians (C) . . . . . . 9,128 Grintovc (K) . . . . . . . . . . .8,429 Kellerwand (C) . . . . . . . . 9,105 Prestrelenik (J) . . . . . . . . .8,202 Jof del Montasio (J) . . . . . 9,039 Monte Cavallo (C). . . . . . . . .7,386 Cima dei Preti (C) . . . . . . 8,868 Krn (J). . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,369 Monte Paralba (C). . . . . . . 8,829 Stou (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,346 Manhart (J). . . . . . . . . . 8,786 Dobratsch (C). . . . . . . . . . .7,120 Jalouc (J) . . . . . . . . . . 8,711 Velka Kappa (K). . . . . . . . . .5,059 Monte Canin (J). . . . . . . . 8,471

Chief Passes of the South-Eastern Alps.

Oefnerjoch (Forno Avoltri to St Lorenzen in the Gail Valley), foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7,550 Wolayer Pass (same to Mauthen), foot path (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6,306 Loibl Pass (Klagenfurt to Laibach), carriage road (K). . . . . . . . . . .4,495 Plocken Pass (.Tolmezzo to Mauthen), bridle path (C). . . . . . . . . .4,462 Predil Pass (Villach by d'arvis and Flitsch to Gorz), carriage road (J)3,183 Birnbaumerwald (Laibach to Gorz), carriage road (J) . . . . . . . . . .2,897 Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (Villach by Tarvis and Pontebba to Udine), railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2,615

Political History and Modern State of the Inhabitants of the Alps.--We know practically nothing of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty acocunts preserved to us by Roman and Greek historians and geographers. A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by Augustus, though not much more than their names. The successive emigrations and occupation of the Alpine region by divers Teutonic tribes from the 5th to the 6th centuries are, too, known to us only in outline, while to them, as to the Frankish kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence. It is not till the final break up of the Carolingian empire in the 10th and 11th centuries that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of different parts of the Alps.

In the case of the Western Alps (minus the bit from the chain of Mont Blanc to the Simplon, which followed the fortunes of the Valais), a prolonged struggle for the Alpine region took place between the feudal lords of Savoy, the Dauphine and Provence. In 1349 the Dauphine fell to France, while in 1388 the country of Nice passed from Provence to the house of Savoy, which too held Piedmont as well as other lands on the Italian side of the Alps. The struggle henceforth was limited to France and the house of Savoy, but little by France succeeded in pushing back the house of Savoy across the Alps, thus forcing it to become a purely Italian power. One turning-point in the rivalry was the treaty of Utrecht (1713), by which France gave up to Savoy the districts (all forming part of the Dauphine, and lying on the Italian slope of the Alps) of Exilles, Bardonneche, Oulx, U.enestrelles, and Chatean Dauphin, while Savoy handed over to France the valley of Barcelonnette, situated on the western slope of the Alps and forming part of the county of Nice. The final act in the long-continued struggle took place in 1860, when France obtained by cession the rest of the county of Nice and also Savoy, thus remaining sole mistress on the western slope of the Alps.

In the Central Alps the chief event, on the northern side of the chain, is the gradual formation from 1291 to 1815 of the Swiss Confederation, at least so far as regards the mountain Cantons, and with especial reference to the independent confederations of the Grisons and the Valais, which only became full members of the Confederation in 1803 and 1815 respectively. The attraction of the south was too strong for both the Forest Cantons and the Grisons, so that both tried to secure, and actually did secure, various bits of the Milanese. The former, in the 15th century, won the Val Leventina (down which the St Gotthard train now thunders) as well as Bellinzona and the Val Blenio (though the Ossola Valley was held for a time only), while the latter added to the Val Bregaglia (which had been given to the bishop of Coire in 960 by the emperor Otto I.) the valleys of Mesocco and of Poschiavo. Further, in 1512, the Swiss Confederation as a whole won the valleys of Locarno with Lugano, which, combined with the 15th century conquests by the Forest Cantons, were formed in 1803 into the new Canton of Ticino or Tessin. On the other hand, the Grisons won in 1512 the Valtellina, with Bormio and Chiavenna, but in 1797 these regions were finally lost to it as well as to the Swiss Confederation, though the Grisons retained the valleys of Mesocco, Bregaglia and Poschiavo, while in 1762 it had bought the upper bit of the valley of Munster that lies on the southern slope of the Alps.

In the Eastern Alps the political history is almost monotonous, for it relates simply to the advance or retreat of the house of Habsburg, which still holds all but the whole of the northern portion (the exception is the small bit in the north-west that belongs to Bavaria) of that region. The Habsburgers, whose original home was in the lower valley of the Aar, where still stand the ruins of their ancestral castle, lost that district to the Swiss in 1415, as they had previously lost various other bits of what is now Switzerland. But they received a rich compensation in the Eastern Alps (not to speak of the imperial crown), for they there gathered in the harvest that numerous minor dynasties had prepared for them, albeit unconsciously. Thus they won the duchy of Austria with Styria in 1282, Carinthia and Carniola in 1335, Tirol in 1363, and the Vorarlberg in bits from 1375 to 1523, not to speak of minor ``rectifications'' of frontiers on the northern slope of the Alps. But on the other slope their progress was slower, and finally less successful. It is true that they early won Primiero (1373), as well as (1517) the Ampezzo Valley and several towns to the south of Trent. In 1797 they obtained Venetia proper, in 1803 the secularized bishoprics of Trent and Briken (as well as that of Salzburg, more to the north), besides the Valtellina region, and in 1815 the Bergamasque valleys, while the Milanese had belonged to them since 1535. But, as is well known, in 1859 they lost to the house of Savoy both the Milanese and the Bergamasca, and in 1866 Venetia proper also, so that the Trentino is now their chief possession on the southern slope of the Alps. The gain of the Milanese in 1859 by the future king of Italy (1861) meant that Italy then won the valley of Livigno (between the Upper Engadine and Bormio), which is the only important bit it holds on the non-Italian slope of the Alps, besides the county of Tenda (obtained in 1575, and not lost in 1860), with the heads of certain glens in the Maritime Alps, reserved in 1860 for reasons connected with hunting. Thus the Alpine states (Italy, Switzerland and Austria), other than France and Bavaria, hold bits of territory on the slope of the Alps where one would not expect to find them Roughly speaking, in each of these five lands the Alpine population speaks the tongue of the country, though in Italy there are a few French-speaking districts (the Waldensian valleys as well as the Aosta and Oulx valleys) as well as some German-speaking and Ladin-speaking settlements. In Switzerland there are Italian-speaking regions, as well as some spots (in the Grisons) where the old Romance dialect of Romansch or Ladin survives; while in Austria, besides German, Italian and Ladin, we have a Slavonic-speaking population in the South-Eastern Alps. The highest permanently inhabited village in the Alps is Juf, 6998 ft. (Grisons); while in the French Alps, L'Ecot, 6713 ft. (Savoy), and St Veran, 6726 ft. (Dauphine), are rivals; the Italian Alps boast of Trepalle, 6788 ft. (between Livigno and Bormio), and the Tirolese Alps of Ober Gurgl, 6322 ft., and Fend, 6211 ft. (both in the Oetzthal).

8. Exploration of the High Alps.---The higher region of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. It is reckcned that about 20 glacier passes were certainly known before 1600. about 25 more before 1700, and yet another score before 1800; but though the attempt of P. A. Arnod (an official of the duchy of Aosta) in 1689 to ``re-open'' the Col du Ceant may be counted as made by a non-native, we do not come upon another case of the kind till the last quarter of the 18th century. Nor did it fare mach better with the high peaks, though the two earliest recorded ascents were due to non-natives, that of the Rochemelon in 1358 having been undertaken in fulfilment of a vow, and that of the Mont Aiguihe in 1492 by order of Charles VIII. of France, in order to destroy its immense reputation for inaccessibility-- in 1555 Conrad Gesner did not climb Pilatus proper, but only the grassy mound of the Gnepfstein, the lowest and the most westerly of the seven summits. The two first men who really systematically explored the regions of ice and snow were H. B. de Saussure (1740-1799), as regards the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis, Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833, most of whose ascents were made before 1806), in the valleys at the sources of the Rhine. In the early 19th century the Meyer family of Aarau conquered in person the Jungfrau (1811) and by deputy the Finsteraarhorn (1812), besides opening several glacier passes, their energy being entirely confined to the Bernese Oberland. Their pioneer work was continued in that district, as well as others, by a number of Swiss, pre-eminent among whom were Gottlieb Studer (1804-1890) of Bern, and Edouard Desor (1811-1882) of Neuchatel. The first-known English climber in the Alps was Colonel Mark Beaufoy (1764-1827), who in 1787 made an ascent (the fourth) of Mont Blanc, a mountain to which his fellow-countrymen long exclusively devoted themselves, with a few noteworthy exceptions, such as Principal J. D. Forbes (1809-1868), A. T. Malkin (1803-1888), John Ball (1818-1889), and Sir Alfred Wills (b. 1828). Around Monte Rosa the Vincent family, Josef Zumstein (1783-1861), and Giovanni Gnifetti (1801--1867) did good work during the half century between 1778 and 1842, while in the Eastern Alps the Archduke John (1782-1850), Prince F.J. C. von Schwarzenberg, archbishop of Salzburg (1809-1885), Valentine Stanig (1774-1847), Adolf Schaubach (1800-1850), above all, P. J. Thurwieser (1789-1865), deserve to be recalled as pioneers in the first half of the 19th century. In the early fifties of the 19th century the taste for mountaineering 1apidly developed for several very different reasons. A great stimulus was given to it by the foundation of the various Alpine clubs, each of which drew together the climbers who dwelt in the same country. The first was the English Alpine Club (founded in the winter of 1857--1858), followed in 1862 by the Austrian Alpine Club (which in 1873 was fused, under the name of the German and Austrian Alpine Club, with the German Alpine Club, founded in 1869), in 1863 by the Italian and Swiss Alpine Clubs, and in 1874 by the French Alpine Club, not to mention numerous minor societies of more local character. It was by the members of these clubs (and a few others) that the minute exploration (now all but complete) of the High Alps was carried out, while much has been done in the way of building club huts, organizing and training guides, &c., to smooth the way for later comers, who benefit too by the detailed information published in the periodicals (the first dates from 1863 only) issued by these clubs. Limits of space forbid us to trace out in detail the history of the exploration of the High Alps, but the two sub-joined lists give the dates of the conquest of about fifty of the greater peaks (apart from the two climbed in 1358 and in 1402, see above), achieved before and after 1st January 1858. As a proof of the rapidly-growing activity of Englishmen, it may be pointed out that while before 1858 only four summits (the Mittelhorn, or central peak of the Wetterhorner, the highest point of Monte Rosa, Laquinhorn and Pelmo) were first ascended by Englishmen, in the case of the second list only five (Grand Combin, Wildspitze, Marmolata, Langkofel and Meije) were not so conquered (if the present writer, an American, be included among the English pro hac vice.)

(1) Before 1st January 1858:---Titlis (1744), Ankogel (1762), Mont Velan (1779), Mont Blanc (1786), Rheinwaldhorn (1789), Gross Glockner (1800), Ortler (1804), Jungfrau (1811), V.insteraarhorn (1812), Zumsteinspitze (1820),Todi (1824), Altels (1834), Piz Linard (1835), Gross Venediger (1841), Signalkuppe (1842), Wetterhorner (1844-1845), Mont Pelvoux (1848), Ieiablerets and Piz Bernina (both in 1850), highest point of Monte Rosa (1855), Laquinhorn (1856) and Pelmo (1857).

(2) After 1st January 1858:--Dom (1858), Aletschhorn, Bietschhorn and Grand Combin (all in 1859), Grand Paradis and Grande Casse (both in 1860), Wbisshorn, Monte Viso, Gross Schreckhorn, Lyskamm and Wildspitze (all in 1861), Dent Blanche, Monte della Disgrazia and Taschhorn (all in 1862), Marmolata, Presanella, Pointe des Ecrins and Zinal Rothhorn (all in 1864), Matterhorn, Ober Gabelhorn, Aiguille Verte and Piz Roseg (all in 1865), Langkofel (1869), Cimon della Pala (1870), Rosengarten (1872), Meije (1877), Aiguilledu Dru (1878), Punta dell' Argentera (1879), Aiguille des Charmoz (1880), Aiguille de Grepon (1881) and Aiguille du Geant (1882).

9. GENERAL LIST OF BOOKS AND MAPS.--(1) Books.---For a longer list than we can give see sohn Ball's Hints and Notes for Travellers in the Alps (new ed., 1899) and also A. Wuber's Landes- und Reisebeschreibungen der Schwelz (1899, supplement in 1907). in general see s. Ball's The Alpine Guide (3 vols., new ed. of vol. i., 1898 last ed. of vol. ii., 1876, and of vol. iii., 1879); H. A. Berlepsch, Die Alpen in Natur- und Lebensbildern (last ed., 1885, Eng. trans., 1861); T. G. Bonney, The Alpine Regions of Switzerland and the Neighbouring Countries (1868); A. Civiale, Les Alpes au point de vue de ta geographie physique (1882); Sir Martin Conway, The Alps (1904); W. A. B. Coolidge, Swiss Travel and Swiss Guide-Books (1889) and The Alps (1908); R. von Lendenfeld, Aus den Alpen (2 vols., 1896); C. Lentheric, L'Homme devant les Alpes (1896); F. Umlauft, Die Alpen (1887, Eng. trans., 1889). On some special subjects see W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Sport in the Alps i1896); A. Mosso. Fisiologia dell' Uomo sulle Alpi (1897, English trans., 1898); N. Zuntz and others, Hohenklima und Bergwanderungen in ihrer Wirkungen auf den Menschen (1906); G. Perndt, Der Fohn (1896, the south wind, so important in mountain districts); and the article on GLACIER..''

As to Alpine legends, consult Maria Savi-Lopez, Leggende delle Alpi (1889); M. Tscheinen, VLalliscr-Sagen (1872); Th. Vernaleken, Alpensagen (1858); and I. V. Zingerle, Sagen aus Tirol (1859); and as to Alpine poetry--J. Adam, Der Natursinn in der deutschen Dichtung (1906); E. A. Baker and F. E. Ross, The Voice of The Mountalns (1905, an anthology in verse and prose); A. von Haller, Die Alpen (1732, first ed., 1882, illustrated ed., 1902); and H. E. Jenny, Die Alpendichtung in der deutschen Schweiz (1905).

As to Alpine dialects, consult J. Alton, Die ladinischen Idiome in Ladinien, Groden, Fassa, Buchenstein, Ampezzo (1879); J. A. Chabrand and A. de Rochas d'Aiglun, Patois des Alpes cottiennes (1877).; Z. and E. Pallioppi, Dizionari dels Idioms Romauntschs d'Engiadina ota e bassa, &c. (1895); A. Socin, Schriftsprache und Dialekte im Deutschen (1888); F. J. Stalder, Die Landessprachen der Schweiz (1819), and J. Zimmerli, Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweiz (3 vols., 1891-1899); besides the great Swiss Dialect Dictionary (Schweiz. Idiotikon) in course of publication since 1881.

As to the history of the Alps, the following works touch on various aspects of the subject:---G. Allais, Le Alpi Occidentali nell' Antichita 1891); W. Brockedon, Illustrations of the Passes of the Alps (2 vols., 1828-1829); J. Grand-Carteret, La Montagne a travers les ages (2 vols., 1902-1904); G. Oberziner, Le Guerre di Augusto contro i populi alpini (1900); E. Oehlmann, Die Alpenpasse im Mittelalter (1878-1879); R. Peinhard, Passe und Strassen in den Schweizer Alpen (1903); and L. Vaccarone, Le Vie delle Alpi Occidentali negli antichi tempi (1884); while W. A. B. Coolidge's Joslas Simler et les originies de l'alpinisme Jusqu'en 1600 (1904) summarises our knowledge of the Alps up to 1600.

Among works of a more or less descriptive nature (based on actual travels), the following list includes all the standard works dated before 1855:--Le Alpi che cingono l'Italia (1845); J. G. Altmann, Versuch einer hist. u. phys. Beschreibung der helvetischen Eisbergen (1751); A. C. Bordier, Voyage pittoresque aux glacieres de Savoye (173); P. J. de Bourcet, Memoires militaires sur les Jrontieres de la France, du Piemont, et de la Savoie (1801); M. T. Bourrit, Descrip non des glacieres, glaciers, et amas de glace du duche de Savoye (1773, Eng. trans., 1775), Description des Alpes pennines et rhetiennes (2 vols., 178i, 3rd vol., 1785), and Descriptioni des cols ou passages des Alpes (2 vols., 1803); W. Brockedon, Journals of Excursions in the Alps (1833); U. Campell, Raetioe alpestris topographica descriptio (finished in 1572, but publ. only in 1884, with a supplement in 1900); J. A. Deluc and P. G. Dentan, Relation de differents voyages dans les Alpes du Faucigny (1776); E. Desor Excursions et sejours dans les glaciers (2 series, 1844-1845l; C. M. Engelhardt, Naturschilderungen aus den hochsten Schweizer-Alpen (1840), and Das Monte-Rosa und Matterhorn-Gebirg (1852); J. D. Forbes, Travels through the Alps of Kivoy (1843: new ed., 1900): Sir John Forbes, A Physician's Holiday (1849); J. Frobel, Reise in die weniger bekannten Thaler auf der Nordseite der penninischen Alpen (1840); G. Gnifetti, Nozioni topografiche del Monte Rosa ed ascensioni su di esso (1845, 2nd ed., 1838); G. S. Gruner, Die Eisgebirge des Schwelzerlandes (3 vols., 1760); J. Hegetschweiler, Reisen in den Gebirgsstock zwischen Glarus und Graubunden, 1819--1822 (1825); G. Hoffmann, Wanderungen in der Gletscherwelt (1843); F. J. Hugi, Naturhistorische Alpenreise (1830); C. J. Latrobe, The Alpenstock (1829) and The Pedestrian (1832); J. R. and H. Meyer, Reise auf den Jungjfrau-Gletscher und Ersteigung seines Gipfels (1811): De Montannel, La Topographic militaire de la frontiere des Alpes (written in 1777, but publ. in 1875 only); Operations geodesiques et astroniomiques pour la mesure d'un arc du parallele moyen (2 vols., 1825-1827); H. R. Rebmann, Ein poetisch Gastmal und Gesprach zweyer Bergen, nemlich des Niesens und Stockhorns (1606); C. Rohrdorf, Reise uber die Grindelwald-Vescher-Gletscher und Ersteigung des Gletschers des Jungfrau-Berges (1828); H. B. de Saussure, Voyages dans les Alpes (4 vols., 1779-1796); A. Schaubach, Deutsche Alpen (4 vols., 1845-1847); J. J. Scheuchzer, Helvetiae Stoicheiographia, Orographia, et Oreographia (1716), and Itinera per Helvetiae alpinas regiones facta annis 1702-1711 (4 vols., 1725); J. Simler. Vallesiae Descriptio et de Alpibus Commentarius (1574, new ed. in 1904, see Coolidge above); Albert Smith, The Story of Mont Blanc (1853); G. Studer, Topographische Mitteilungen aus dem Alpengebirge (1843); R. Topffer, Voyages en zigzag (2 series, 1844 and 1853); Aegid. Tschudi, De prisca ac vera alpina Rhaetia (1538, also in German, same date); and L. von Weldon, Der Monte Rosa (1824).

As to works published after 1855 we can only give a short, though carefully selected, list. C. Aeby and others, Das Hochgebirge von Grindelwald (1865); W. A. Baillie-Grohmann, Tyrol and the Tyrolese (1876), and Gaddings with a Primitive People (2 vols., 1878); H. von Barth, Aus den nordlichen Kalkalpen (1874); L. Barth and L. Pfaundler, Die Stubaiergebirgsgruppe (1863); G. F. Browne, Off the Mill (1895); Mrs H. W. Cole, A Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa (1859); E. T. Coleman, Scenes from the Snow Fields (1859); Sir Marrin Conway, The Alps from End to End (1895); A. Daudet, Tartarin sur les Alpes (1885, Eng. trans., same date); C. T. Dent, Above the Snow Line (1883); Miss A. B. Edwards, Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys (1873, Dolomites); Max Forderreuther, Die Allgauer Alpen (1906); D. W. Freshfield, Across Country from Thonon to Trent (1865), and Italian Alps (1875); Mrs Henry Freshfield, Alpine Byways (1861), and A Summer Tour in the Grisons (1862); H. B. George, The Oberland and its Glaciers (1866); J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchill, The Dolomite Mountains (1854); A. G. Girdlestone, The High Alps without Guides (1870); P. Grohmann, Wanderungen in den Dolomiten (1877); P. Gussfeldt, In den Hochalpen (1886), and Der Montblanc (1894); T. W. Hinchliff, Summer Months among the Alps (1857); C. Hudson and E. S. Kennedy, Where there's a Will there's a Way (1856); E. Javelle, Souvenirs d' un Alpiniste (1886, Eng. trans., 1899); S. W. King, The Italian Valleys of the Pennine Alps (1858); Le V'alli di Lanzo (publ. by the Italian Alpine Club in 1899); A. Lorria and E. A. Mariel, Le Mossif de la Bernina (1894); J. Michelet, La Montagne (1868, Eng. trans., 1872); A. W. Moore, The Alps in 1864 (1867, publ. ed., 1902); A. F. Mummery, My Climbs in the Alps (1895); Norman-Neruda, The Climbs of (1899); Peaks, Passes and Glaciers (3 vols., 1859-1862); L. Purtscheller, Uber Fels und Firn (1901); E. Rambert, Ascensions et flaneries (2 vols., 1888); G. Rey, Il Monte Cervino (1904); John Ruskin, vol. iv. (On Mountain Beauty) of Modern Painters (1856); A. von Ruthner, Aus den Tauern (1864) and Aus Tirol (1869); V. Sella and D. Vallino, Monte Rosa e Gressoney (1890); F. Simony, Das Dachsteingebict (1889-1896); L. Sinigaglia, Climbing Reminiscences of the Dolomites (1896); K. von Sonklar, Die Oetzthaler Gebirgsgruppe (1860), and Die Glebirgsgruppe der Hohen-Tauern (1866); Sir L. Stephen, The Playground of Europe (1871); B. Studer, Geschichte der physischen Geographie der Schweiz bis 1815 (1863); G. Studer and others, Berg- und Gletscherfahrten (2 series, 1859 and 1863); G. Theobald, Naturbilder aus den rhatischen Alpen (1860), and Das Bundner Oberland (1861); F. F. Tuckett, Hochalpenstudien (2 vols., 1873-1874); Miss L. Tuckett, How we Spent the Summer (1864), Pictures in Tyrol (1867), and Zigzagging amongst Dolomites (1871); J. Tyndall, The Glaciers of the Alps (1860), Mountaineering in 1861 (1862), and Hours of Exercise in the Alps (1871); J. J. Weilenmann, Aus der Firnenwelt (3 vols., 1872-1877); E. Whymper, Scrambles amongst the Alps (1871); Sir A. Wills, Wanderings among the High Alps (1856), and The ``Eagle's Nest''in the Valley of Sixt (1860); G. Yeld, Scrambles in the Eastern Graians (1900); H. Zschokke, Reise auf die Eisgebirge des Kantons Bern und Ersteigung ihrer hochsten Gipfel im Sommer von 1812 (1813); E. Zsigmondy, Im Hochgebirge (1889); M. Zurbriggen, From the Alps to the Andes (1899).

Many useful practical hints as to climbing are to be found in C. T. Dent and others, Mountaineering (1892, 3rd ed., 1900, ``Badminton Library''); the Manuel d'Alpinisme (1904, publ. by the French Alpine Club); J. Meurer, Handbuch der alpinen Sport 1882), Katechismus fur Bergsteiger (1892), and Der Bergsteiger im Hochgebirge (1893); .and C. Wilson, Mountaineering (1893, ``All England'' series). As regards the dangers of Alpine climbing consult C. Fiorio and C. Ratti, I Pericoli dell' Alpinismo (1889), and E. Zsigmondy, Die Gefahren der Alpen (1885, Fr. trans., 1889). There are also special guide-books for the use of climbers in the Alps---the ``Climbers' Guides'' series, edited by Sir Martin Conway and W. A. B. Coolidge (10 vols., 1890--1894); W. A. B. Coolidge, H. Duhamel and F. Perrin, Guide du Haut Dauphine (1887, with supplement in 1890, Eng. trans., 1892 and 1905); L. Purtscheller and H. Hess, Der Hochtourist in den Ostalpen (2 vols., 1894, 3 vols., 3rd ed., 1903); the 3 vols. publ. (1902-1905) by the Swiss Alpine Club under the name of Clubfuhrer to the Alps of Glarus and Uri, and V. Wolf von Glanvell, Dolomitenfuhrer (1898).

As regards the early history of Alpine exploration consult W. A. B. Coolidge, Josias Simler et les origines de l'alpinisme jusqu'en 1600 (1904), and F. Gribble, The Early Mountaineers (1899). For the later period see, besides the more general works of travel mentioned above, the publications (that date from 1863) of the various Alpine Clubs--the Alpine Journal (English A. C.), the Annuaire, Bulletin, La Montagne, and Revue alpine (French A. C.), the Jahrbuch, Mitteilungen, Verhandlungen, and Zeitschrift (German and Austrian A. C.), the Alpinista, Bollettino, and Rivista Mensile (Italian A. C.), and the Alpina, Echo des Alpes, Jahrbuch, Schweizer Alpen-Zeitung (Swiss A. C.), besides those of the smaller societies, such as the Osterreichische Alpen-Zeitung (Austrian A. C.), the Annuaire (Societe des Touristes du Dauphine), and the Anunuario (Societa degli Alpinisti Tridentini). Summaries of the Alpine history of the three great divisons of the Alps are given in (W. Alps) L. Vaccarone, Statistica delle Prime Ascensioni nelle Alpi Occidentali (3rd. ed., 1890--this work omits the Dauphine Alps, as to which see the 1887 work or its Eng. version 1905, mentioned above); (Central and Swiss Alps) G. Studer, Uber Eis und Schnee (2nd ed. 3 vols., 1896-1899); and (E. Alps) G. Groger and J. Rabi, Die Entwickelung der Hochtouristik in den osterreichischen Alpen (1890), and E. Pichter, Die Erschliessung der Ostalpen (3 vols., 1894). The detailed history of Mont Blanc has been written by Ch. Durier, Le Mont Blanc (1877, 4th ed., 1897), and C. E. Mathews, The Annals of Mont Blanc (1898). Lives of some of the most celebrated mountain guides have been written in C. D. Cunningham and W. de W. Abney, Pioneers of the Alps (2nd ed., 1888).

(2) Maps--There is no good modern and fairly large-scale map of the entire chain of the Alps. But L. Ravenstein's maps (scale 1:250,000) of the Swiss Alps (2 sheets) and of the Eastern Alps (8 sheets) include the whole chain, save that portion south of the range of Mont Blanc.

All the countries which include Alpine districts have now issued official Government maps. The French map on a scale of 1:80,000 is clearer and more accurate than that on a scale of 1:100,000. The Italian Government has published maps on scales of 1:50,000 and 1:100,000. the Austrian on a scale of 1:75,000, and the Bavarian on a scale of 1:50,000. But the most splendid Government map of all is that put forth by the Swiss Federal Topographical Bureau, under the title of Siegfried Atlas (scale 1:50,000 for the Alpine districts), which has quite superseded the Dufour Map (scale 1:100,000), the history of which was published in 1896. For maps of the Swiss Alps and their neighbours, see J. H. Graf, Literatur der Lalndesvermessung (1896 with a supplement).

A few of the best special maps of certain districts may be mentioned-- such as H. Duhamel's maps of the Dauphine Alps (4 sheets on a scale of 1:i oo,ooo, 1889, 2nd ed., 1892), and that of the range of Mont Blanc (scale 1:50,000, 1896, 2nd ed., 1905), by X. Imfeld and L. Kurz. The German and Austrian Alpine Club is publishing a very fine set of maps (scale 1:50,000) of the Eastern Alps, which are clearer and better than the Austrian Government's Topographische Detailkarten (11 sheets, scale 1:50,000). (W.. A. B. C.)

10. Geology.---The Alps form but a small portion of a great zone of crumpling which stretches, in a series of curves, from the Atlas Mountains to the Himalayas. Within this zone the crust of the earth has been ridged up into a comolex system of creases or folds, out of which the great mountain chains of southern Europe and Asia have been carved by atmospheric agencies. Superficially, the continuity of the zone is broken at intervals by gaps of greater or less extent; but these are due, in part at least, to the subsidence of portions of the folded belt and their subsequent burial by more recent accumulations. Such a gap is that between the Alps and the Carpathians, but a glance at a geological map of the region will show that the folding was probably at one time continuous. Leaving, however, the larger question of the connexion between the great mountain ranges of Europe and Asia, we find that the Alps are formed cf a series of wrinkles or folds, one behind another, frequently arranged en echelon. The folds run, in general, in the direction of the chain, and together they form an arc around the plain of Lombardy and Piedmont. Outside this arc lies a depression along which the waters of the upper Danube and the lower Rhone find their way towards the sea; and beyond rise the ancient crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France, together with the intervening Mesozoic beds of southern Germany and the Jura. The depression is filled by Miocene and later beds, which for the most part lie flat and undisturbed as they were laid down. Beyond the depression also, excepting in the Jura Mountains, there is no sign of the folding which has raised the Alpine chain. Some of the older beds indeed are crumpled, but the folding is altogether different in age and in direction from that of the Alps.

To assist in forming a clear idea of the relations of the Alps to the surrounding regions, a simple illustration will suffice. Upon a table covered by a cloth lay two books in the relative positions shown in figure. The book A represents the central plateau of France and the book B represents the rocks of Bohemia and southern Germany. If the two hands be placed flat upon the table, in the angle between the two books, and the cloth pushed towards the corner, it will at once be rucked up into a fold which will follow a curve not unlike that of the Alps. The precise character and form of the folds produced will depend upon the nature of the cloth and other accidental circumstances; but with a little adjustment not only a representation of the chain of the Alps, but even a subsidiary fold in front in the position of the Jura Mountains may be obtained. Imperfect though this illustration may be, it will serve to explain the modern conception of the forces concerned in the formation of the Alps. Within the crust of the earth, whether by the contraction of the interior or in any other way, tangential pressures were set up. Since the crust is not of uniform strength throughout, only the weaker portions yielded to the pressure; and these were crumpled up against the more resisting portions and sometimes were pushed over them. In the case of the Alps it seems natural enough that the crystalline masses of Bohemia, the Black Forest and the central plateau of France should be firmer than the more modern sedimentary deposits; but it is not so easy to understand why the Mesozoic rocks of southern Germany resisted the folding, while those of the Jura yielded. It should, however, be borne in mind that the resisting mass is not necessarily at the surface. Such is in outline the process by which the Alps were elevated; but when the chain is examined in detail, it is found that its history has not been uniform throughout; and it will be convenient, for purposes of description, to divide it into three portions, which may be called the Eastern Alps, the Swiss Alps, and the Western Alps.

The Eastern Alps consist of a central mass of crystalline and schistose rocks flanked on each side by a zone of Mesozoic beds andon the north by an outer band of Tertiary deposits. On the Italian side there is usually no zone of folded Tertiaries and the Mesozoic band forms the southern border of the chain. Each of these zones is folded within itself, and the folding is more intense on the Bavarian side than on the Italian, the folds often leaning over towards the north. The Tertiary zone of the northern border is of especial significance and is remarkable for its extent and uniformity. It is divided longitudinally into an outer zone of Molasse and an inner zone of Flysch. The line of separation is very clearly defined; nowhere does the Molasse pass beyond it to the south and nowhere does the Flysch extend beyond it to the north. The Molasse, in the neighbourhood of the mountains, consists chiefly of conglomerates and sandstones, and the Flysch consists of sandstones and shales; but the Molasse is of Miocene and Oligocene age, while the Flysch is mainly Eocene. The relations of the two series are never normal. Along the line of contact, which is often a fault, the oldest beds of the Molasse crop out, and they are invariably overturned and plunge beneath the Flysch. A few miles farther north these same beds rise again to the surface at the summit of an anticlinal which runs parallel to the chain. Beyond this point all signs of folding gradually cease and the beds he flat and undisturbed.

The Flysch is an extraordinarily thick and uniform mass of sandstones and shales with scarcely any fossils excepting fucoids. It is intensely folded and is constantly separated from the Mesozoic zone by a fault. Throughout the whole extent of the Eastern Alps it is strictly limited to the belt between this fault and the marginal zone of Molasse. Eocene beds, indeed, penetrate farther within the chain, but these are limestones with nummulites or lignite-bearing shales and have nothing in common with the Flysch. But although the Flysch is so uniform in character, and although it forms so well defined a zone, it is not everywhere of the same age. In the west it seems to be entirely Eocene, but towards the east intercalated beds with Inoceramus, &c., indicate that it is partly of Cretaceous age. It is, in fact, a facies and nothing more. The most probable explanation is that the Flysch consists of the detritus washed down from the hills upon the flanks of which it was formed. It bears, indeed, very much the same relation to the Alps that the Siwalik beds of India bear to the Himalayas.

The Mesozoic belt of the Bavarian and Austrian Alps consists mainly of the Trias, Jurassic and Cretaceous beds playing a comparatively subordinate part. But between the Trias of the Eastern Alps and the Trias of the region beyond the Alpine folds there is a striking contrast. North of the Danube, in Germany as in England, red sandstones, shales and conglomerates predominate, together with beds of gypsum and salt. It was a continental formation, such as is now being formed within the desert belt of the globe. Only the Muschelkalk, which does not reach so far as England, and the uppermost beds, the Rhaetic, contain fossils in any abundance. The Trias of the Eastern Alps, on the other hand, consists chiefly of great masses of limestone with an abundant fauna, and is clearly of marine origin. The Jurassic and Cretaceous beds also differ, though in a less degree, from those of northern Europe. They consist largely of limestone; but marls and sandstones are by no means rare, and there are considerable gaps in the succession indicating that the region was not continuously beneath the sea. Tithonian fossils, characteristic of southern Europe, occur in the upper Jurassic, while the Gosau beds, belonging to the upper Cretaceous, contain many of the forms of the Hippuritic sea. Nevertheless, the difference between the deposits on the two sides of the chain shows that the central ridge was dry land during at least a part of the period.

The central zone of crystalline rock consists chiefly of gneisses and schists, but folded within it is a band of Palaeozoic rocks which divides it longitudinally into two parts. Palaeozoic beds also occur along the northern and southern margins of the crystalline zone. The age of a great part of the Palaeozoic belts is somewhat uncertain, but Permian, Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian fossils have been found in various parts of the chain, and it is not unlikely that even the Cambrian may be represented.

The Mesozoic belt of the southern border of the chain extends from Lago Maggiore eastwards. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds play a larger part than on the northern border, but the Trias still predominates. On the west the belt is narrow, but towards the east it gradually widens, and north of Lago di Garda its northern boundary is suddenly deflected to the north and the zone spreads out so as to include the whole of the Dolomite mountains of Tirol. The sudden widening is due to the great Judicaria fault, which runs from Lago d'Idro to the neighbourhood of Meran, where it bends round to the east. The throw of this fault may be as much as 2000 metres, and the drop is on its south-east side, i.e. towards the Adriatic. It is probable, indeed, that the fault took a large share in the formation of the Adriatic depression. On the whole, the Mesozoic beds of the southern border of the Alps point to a deeper and less troubled sea than those of the north. Clastic sediments are less abundant and there are fewer breaks in the succession. The folding, moreover, is less intense; but in the Dolomites of Tirol there are great outbursts of igneous rock, and faulting has occurred on an extensive scale.

Swiss Alps.

West of a line which runs from Lake Constance to Lago Maggiore the zones already described do not continue with the same simplicity. The zone of the Molasse is little changed, but the Flysch is partly folded in the Mesozoic belt and no longer forms an absolutely independent band. The Trias has almost disappeared, and what remains is not of the marine type characteristic of the Eastern Alps but belongs rather to the continental facies which occurs in Germany and France. Jurassic and Cretaceous beds form the greater part of the Mesozoic band. On the southern side of the chain the Mesozoic zone disappears entirely a little west of Lago Maggiore and the crystalline rocks rise directly from the plain.

Perhaps the strangest problem in the whole of Switzerland is that presented by the so-called Klippen. Within the Alps, when normally developed, we may trace the individual folds for long distances and observe how they arise, increase and die out, to be replaced by others of similar direction. But at times, within or on the border of the northern Eocene trough, the continuity of the folds is suddenly broken by mountain masses of quite different constitution. These are the Klippen, and they are especially important in the Chablais and between the Lakes of Geneva and Thun. Not only is the folding of the Klippen wholly independent of that of the zone in which they lie, but the rocks which form them are of foreign facies. They consist chiefly of Jurassic and Triassic beds, but it is the Trias and the Jura of the Eastern Alps and not of Switzerland. Moreover, although they interrupt the folding of the zone in which they occur, they do not disturb it: they do not, in fact, rise through the zone, but lie upon it like unconformable masses -- in other words, they rest upon a thrust-plane. Whence they have come into their present position is by no means clear; but the character of the beds which form them indicates a distant origin. It is interesting to note, in this connexion, that the pebbles of the Swiss Molasse are not generally such as would be derived from the neighbouring mountains, but resemble the rocks of the Eastern Alps. The Klippen are, no doubt, the remains of a much larger mass brought into the region upon a thrust-plane, and much of the Molasse has been derived from its destruction. Although the explanation here given of the origin of the Swiss Klippen is that which now is usually accepted, it should be mentioned that other theories have been proposed to account for their peculiarities.

Western Alps.

In the Western Alps the outer border of Molasse persists; but it no longer forms so well-defined a zone, and strips are infolded amongst the older rocks. The Eocene has altogether lost its independence as a band and occurs only in patches within the Mesozoic zone. The latter, on the other hand, assumes a greater importance and forms nearly the whole of the subalpine ranges. It consists almost entirely of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, the Trias in these outer ranges being of very limited extent. The main chain is formed chiefly of crystalline and schistose rocks, which on the Italian side rise directly from the plain without any intervening zone of Mesozoic beds. But it is divided longitudinally by a well-marked belt of stratified deposits, known as the zone of the Brianconnais, composed chiefly of Carboniferous, Triassic and Jurassic beds. The origin of the schistose rocks has long been under discussion, and controversy has centred more particularly around the schistes lustres, which are held by some to be of Triassic age and by others to be pre-Carboniferous and even, perhaps, Archaean. Partly in consequence of the uncertainty as to the age of these and other rocks, there is considerable difference of opinion as to the structure of the Western Alps. According to the view most widely accepted in France the main chain as a whole forms a fan, the folds on the eastern side leaning towards Italy and those on the western side towards France. The zone of the Brianconnais lies in the middle of the fan.

Asymmetry of the Alps.

From the above account it will at once appear that between the convex and the concave margins of the Alpine chain there is a striking difference. Upon the outer side of the arc the central zone of crystalline rocks is flanked by Mesozoic and Tertiary belts; towards the west, indeed, the individuality of these belts is lost, to a large extent, but the rocks remain. Upon the inner side the Tertiary band is found only in the eastern part of the chain, while towards the west, first the Tertiary and then the Mesozoic band disappears against the modern deposits of the low land. The appearance is strongly suggestive of faulting; and probably the southern margin of the chain lies buried beneath the plain of northern Italy.

Age of the Alps.

The chain of the Alps was not raised by a single movement nor in a single geological period. Its growth was gradual and has not been uniform throughout. In the Eastern Alps the central ridge seems to have been in existence at least as early as Triassic times, but it has since been subject to several oscillations. The most conspicuous folding, that of the Mesozoic and Tertiary belts, must have occurred in Tertiary times, and it was not completed till the Miocene period. The structure of the zones in the Bavarian Alps seems to suggest that the chain grew outwards in successive stages, each stage being marked by the formation of a boundary fault. A precisely similar structure is seen in the Himalayas.

AUTHORITIES. -- The literature is very extensive. The following list includes a few selected works on each portion of the chain: -- F. Frech, ``Die karnischen Alpen,'' Abh. naturf Ges Halle, xviii (1892 and 1894); A. Rothpletz, Ein geologischer Querschnitt durch die Ost-Alpen (Stuttgart, 1894); C. Diener, ``Bru und Bild der Ostalpen unrides Karstgebietes,'' in Bau und Bild Osterreichs (Vienna and Leipzig, 1903): Livret-guide geologique dans le Jura et les Alpes de la Suisse (Paris and Lausanne, 189h); A. Helm, Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung (Basel, 1878); D. Zaccagna, ``Riassunto di osservauoni geologiche fatte sul versante occidentale delle Alpi Graie,'' Boll. R. Com. Geol. Ital. vol. xxiii. (1892), pp. 175-244; C. Diener, Der Glebirpsbau der West-Alpen (1894); M. Bertrand, ``Etudes dans les Alpes francaises,'' Bull. Soc. Geol France, ser. 5, vol. xxii (1894), pp. 69-162; S. Franchi, ``Sull' eta mesozoica della zona delle pietri verdi nelle Alpi Occidentali,'' Boll. R. Geol. Ital. vol. xxix. (1898), pp. 173-217, 325-482, pts. v.-ix. For the broader question of the relation of the Alps to other regions, E. Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde Vienna, 1885) (English translation, Oxford, 1904) should be consulted. The Geologischer Fuhrer durch die Alpen, published by Borntraeger, Berlin, are handy guides. (P. LA.)

11. Flora. -- The Alps owe the richness and beauty of their plant life partly to their position as the natural boundary between the ``Baltic'' flora on the north and the ``Mediterranean'' flora on the south, but chiefly to the presence on their heights of a third flora which has but little in common with either of the others. The stronghold of this last, the distinctively ``Alpine'' flora, is the region above the tree-limit. Its closest relationship is with the flora of the Pyrenees; but an alpine flora is characteristic of all the lofty mountains of central Europe. According to J. Ball, 2010 well-marked species of flowering plants occur within the limits of the Alps. If now we confine our attention to the alpine and higher regions of the Alps and exclude from our list all those plants which, however abundant in these regions, are not less so in the adjacent lowlands, we have left some 700 species (693, according to Dr Christ). We must observe, as regards the plants of the lower alpine region, that it is the actual presence of a forest vegetation, rather than the theoretical tree-limit, which affects their vertical distribution; so that, e.g. they overflow into the extensive clearings made by man in the primeval mountain forests. Indeed, an analysis of the composition of the alpine flora as a whole leads to the conclusion that the chief bond of union between its members consists in the treeless character of their habitat.

We may broadly distinguish two main geographical elements in the alpine flora, namely, the northern element and the endemic element. This division (which is not, however, strictly exhaustive) directs special attention to what is undoubtedly the most striking feature of the flora -- namely, that of its 693 species no less than 271 reappear in the extreme north. This relation of the arctic to the alpine flora is all the more remarkable in view of the very important differences between the arctic and alpine climates. The following circumpolar species are common, and widely diffused throughout the whole of the Alps: Silene acaulis, Dryas octopetala, Saxifsaga oppositifolia, S. aizoides, S. steliaris, Erigeron alpinus, Azalea procumbens, M. yosotis alpestris, Polygonum viviparum, Salix retusa, S. herbacea, Phleum alpinum, Juniperus nana. The proportion of northern forms, as regards both species and individuals, increases as we ascend to the higher regions. In the highest vegetation-zone, the snow-region -- i.e. on islands of rock above the snow-line -- they attain to an equality with the endemic forms. As examples of northern flowers which are characteristic of the snow-region, we may mention Silene acaulis, Eritrichium nanuin and Arenaria ciliata. On the other hand, typical endemic species of this highest zone are Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis, Petrocallis pyrenaica and Cherleria sedoides. All the plants just named, we may observe, are ``cushion-plants.'' Their compact, moss-like growth and general structural peculiarities are not an expression of mutual affinity, but are in adaptation to the combined cold and dryness of their habitat. It is noteworthy that among the northern plants of the alpine zone, in the narrower sense of the term (i.e. of the region between the tree-limit and the snow-line), there is a marked predominance of species that affect moist localities; and conversely, the majority of alpine flowers of wet habitat are found also in the north. For example, in the genus Primula, a highly characteristic genus of the alpine flora, whose members are among the most striking ornaments of the rocks, the single northern species, P. Jarinosa, grows only in marshy meadows. On the whole, then, adaptation to cold and wet is the note of the northern element.

As for the explanation of the community between the alpine and arctic floras, all authorities are agreed that the key to the problem is furnished by the occurrence of the glacial period. In the ice-free belt, between the northern ice-sheet and the vastly extended glaciers of the Alps, the two floras must have found a common refuge and congenial conditions of existence; and this view is confirmed by direct palaeontological evidence. With the return of a milder climate, the so-called northern forms of the present alpine flora were split in two, one portion following close on the northern ice in its gradual retreat to the Arctic, the other following the shrinking glaciers till the plants were able to establish (or re-establish) themselves on the slopes of the Alps. The same explanation covers the case of the similarity of the flora (not merely as regards the northern element) on all the high mountains of central Europe. So much seems to be beyond reasonable doubt. But at this point disagreement begins between the most eminent writers on the subject. While some (e.g. Sir J. D. Hooker, Heer) regard the Arctic, and some (e.g. Wettstein) the Alps, as the original home of at least the bulk of the ``northern'' element, others (e.g. Ball, Christ) locate this in the highlands of temperate Asia. For it is a remarkable fact that, of the 230 northern species which are most typical of the far north, 182 are found also in the Altai (taking this as a collective name for the mountains that form the southern boundary of Siberia). In any case, however, the migration of these plants to the Alps must for the most part have taken place via the Arctic. The possibility of any extensive east to west migration having taken place direct from the Altai to the Alps seems excluded by the fact that 50% of the arctico-altaic alpine plants are absent from the Caucasus. A score of species, it is true -- not such a number, be it observed, as was formerly supposed -- are common to the Alps and Altai, but absent from the Arctic. But the species composing this Altaic element are not so numerous as the arctico-alpine species that are absent from the Altai. On the whole, a common origin in the north for at least the arctico-altaic group of alpine plants seems to be the most reasonable hypothesis.

Side by side with the northern element (which in some respects, we may observe to point the contrast, would be better named the tundra-element) we find a group of species usually spoken of as the xerothermic or meridional element. These do not, however, form an ``element,'' in the strict geographical sense in which this term is otherwise used here. They are those species which, on general phyto-geographical grounds, must be regarded as having originated under steppe-like conditions. Their affinities are chiefly, though not exclusively, with the present Mediterranean flora -- about fifty are of presumably Mediterranean origin -- and a large proportion of them are restricted to the southern slopes of the Alps. The following, however, among others, are distributed throughout the whole, or a great part, of the range: Colchicum alpinain, Crocus vernus, Orchis globosa, Petroeallis pyrenaica, Astragalus depressus, A. aristatus, Oxytropis Halleri, Erynigium alpinum, Erica carnea, Linaria alpina, Globularia nudicaulis, G. cordifolia, Leontopodium alpinum. The last named (the well-known ``edelweiss'') is at the present day characteristic of the Siberian steppes. The presence of these plants among the alpine flora is traceable to the steppe-like conditions which prevailed in central Europe both during the warmer inter-glacial periods and (probably) for a time after the close of the ice-age. Subsequently, as the climate of the plains assumed a colder and more humid character, they retired before the invading forests to the high mountains. Here, in the intenser insolation which they enjoy on the alpine slopes, they seem to find a compensation for the drawbacks incidental to the altitude of their present station.

As regards now the endemic element as a whole, the question as to the time and place of its origin is of a highly complicated and controversial nature. The question, too, in the case of this element, is necessarily of genetic rather than purely geographical scope. It must suffice to say that the weight of scientific opinion inclines to the view that at least the majority of endemic species are of pre-glacial origin, and are either strictly indigenous or products of the neighbouring lowlands. About 40% of the endemic element in the alpine flora are endemic also in the narrower sense, i.e. they are confined to the Alps. Many of them are restricted to some one small portion of the chain; these occur chiefly in the southern and eastern Alps. It is an interesting fact that the centrally situated Bernese Alps produce hardly a single peculiar species. The greater richness of certain districts in the matter of species is partly due to the variety of soils encountered therein; but in part may be explained by the fact that these districts were the first to be freed from the ice-sheet at the end of the glacial period.

The following is a list of the most thoroughly characteristic alpine plants -- all of them ipso facto members of the endemic element -- which are at once peculiar to the Alps (or practically so) and widely distributed within the limits of the chain. These are: Festuca pulchella, Carex microstyla, Salix caesia, Rumex nivalis, Alsine aretioides, Aquilegia alpina, Thlaspi rotundifolium, Saxifeaga Seguieri, S. aphylla, Astragalus leontinus, Daphne striata, Eryngium alpinum, Bupleurum stellatum, Androsace helvetica, A. glacialis, Gentiana bavarica, Phyteuma humile, Campanula thyrsoidea, C. cenisia, Achillea atrata, Cirsium spinosissimum, Crepis Terglouensis.

AUTHORITIES. -- Among the voluminous literature on Alpine flora, the following works are particularly noteworthy: -- Ball, ``On the Origin of the Flora of the European Alps,'' in proceed. of the Roy. Geog. Soc., 1879; Bennett, The Flora of the Alps, 2 vols. with 120 coloured plates (1896); Briquet, ``Les Colonies vegetales xerothermiques des alpes lemaniennes,'' in Bull. d. l. Murithienne, soc. valaisienne des sciences nat., xxvii. and xxviii. (1898-1899); Alph. de Candolle, ``Sur les causes de l'ineaale distribution des Plantes rares dans la chaine des Alpes,'' Extr. des Actes du Congres botan. internat. de Florence (1875); Chodat u. Pampanini, ``Sur la distribution des plantes des alpes austro-orientales,'' Extr. du Globe, organe de la soc. de geographie de Geneve, tome xli. (1902); H. Christ, Das Pflanzenleben der Schweiz (1882) -- the chief classic on the subject; Engler, Die Pfanzenformationen und die pflanzengeographische Gliederung der Alpenkette (1901); Heer, Uleber die nivale Kora der Schweiz (1885); Jerosch, Geschichte und Herkunft der schweizerischen Alpenfforal cine Ubersicht uber den gegenwartigen Stand der Frage (1903). Schroter, Das Pflanzenleben der Alpen (Zurich, 1908); R. von Wettstein, Die Geschichte unserer Alpenflora (1896). The best book of coloured plates is the Atlas der Alpemflora, in 5 vols., pub. by the Deutscher u. Oesterreichischer Alpenverein (2nd. ed., 1897).

12. Fauna. -- The fauna of the lower zones in the Alps is, on the northern side of the chain, practically identical with that of central Europe, and on the southern side with that of the Mediterranean basin. But in the higher regions it presents many features of special interest alike to the zoologist and the traveller. It seems therefore best to treat here principally of the animal inhabitants of the high Alps.

Though among mammalia -- as also in the case of the birds -- there are but few forms peculiar to the Alps, many interesting animals have found in the high mountains at least a temporary refuge from man. The European bison, the urus, the elk and the wild swine have disappeared since Roman times. But the lynx (Lynx vulgaris) perhaps lingers in remote parts, and the brown bear (Hrsus arctos) still survives in the dense forests of the Lower Engadine. The fox (Canis vulpes), the stonemarten (Martes foina) and the stoat or ermine (Putorius ermiiiea) range in summer above the tree-limit. The Ungulata are represented by the chamois (Rupicapra tragus) and the bouquetin or steinbock (Capra ibex). The former -- the sole representative, in western Europe, of the antelopes -- is found elsewhere only in the Pyrenees, Carpathians, Caucasus and the mountains of eastern Turkey; the latter survives only in the eastern Graian Alps. Of the Rodentia the most interesting and conspicuous is the marmot (Arctomys marmota), which lives in colonies close to the snow-line. The snow-mouse (Arvicola nivalis) is confined to the alpine and snow regions, and is abundant at these levels throughout the whole chain of the Alps. The mountain hare (Lepus variabilis or timidus) replaces the common hare (Lepus europaeus) in the higher regions; though absent from the intervening plains it again appears in the north of Europe and in Scotland. Among the Insectivora, the alpine shrew (Sorex alpinus) is restricted to the Alps. Of the Cheiroptera (bats) only Vesperugo maurus is characteristically alpine.

The birds of the Alps are proportionately very numerous. The lammergeyer (Gypaetus barbatus), once common, is now extremely rare, even if it has not already become extinct in the Alps; but the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) still holds its own. Some of the smaller birds of prey are not uncommon, but there is none that can be regarded as specially characteristic either of the Alps as a whole or of the alpine region. As characteristic birds of the snow-region may be mentioned the alpine chough (Pyrrhocorax alpinus), which is frequently seen at the summits even of the loftiest mountains, the alpine swift (Cypselus melba), the wallcreeper ( Tichodroma muraria), snow-finch (Montifringilla nivalis) and ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus); the geographical distribution of this last being similar to that of the mountain hare. The black redstart (Rulicilla titys), though common in the lower regions, is

also met with in fair numbers almost up to the snow-line. The raven (Corpus corax) is fairly common in the alpine and sub-alpine regions. On the highest pastures we find, further, the alpine accentor (Accentor collaris) and the alpine pipit (Anthus spipoletta). The crag-martin (Cotyle rupestris) haunts lofty cliffs in the alpine region. On the upper verge of the pine forests, or in the scrubby vegetation just beyond, the following are not uncommon -- black woodpecker (Picus martius), ring-ousel (Turdus torquatus), Bonelli's warbler (Phylloscopus Bonellii), crested til (Parus cristatus), citril finch (Citrinella alpina), siskin (Chrysomitris spinus), crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes), blackcock (Tetrao tetrix), and the alpine varieties of the marsh-tit (Parus palustris, borealis) and tree-creeper (Certhia familiaris, costae).

The remaining classes of Vertebrata are very sparsely represented in the high Alps; and what few species occur are mostly common to the plains as well. In fact, among the remaining land vertebrates, only the black salamander (Salamandra atra) is exclusively alpine. This interesting animal, though a member of the Amphibia, is terrestrial and viviparous.

The former connexion between the Arctic and the Alps, which has left such unmistakable traces in the present alpine flora, affords, as regards the fauna also, the only possible explanation of the present geographical distribution of many alpine forms; but it is chiefly among the Invertebrata that we find this collateral testimony to the influence of the glacial period. In this respect we may note that two small crustaceans, Diaptomus bacillifer and D. denticornis, swarm in the ice-cold waters of the highest alpine tarns throughout the entire chain; and the former of these is also a characteristic inhabitant of pools formed from melting snow in the extreme north. Among the remaining divisions of Invertebrata special mention may be made of the air-breathing Arthropoda -- on the whole the most important and interesting group. About one-third of the animals belonging thereto that occur in the higher regions are exclusively alpine (or alpine and northern); these characteristically alpine forms being furnished chiefly by the spiders, beetles and butterflies. Most numerous are the beetles. Those of the highest zone are remarkable for the great predominance of predaceous species and of wingless forms. In this last respect they present a striking analogy with the endemic coleopterous fauna of oceanic islands. As for the butterflies, not more than one-third of the species found in the alpine region occur in the neighbouring lowlands. The relations between alpine butterflies and plants are especially interesting, as regards not only their bionomic interdependence but also the analogies of their geographical distribution. It should be noted that butterflies are the chief agents in securing the continued existence of such alpine flowers as depend on insect fertilization, the other insect fertilizers being mostly wanting at great heights.

The classic of alpine zoology is F. von Tschudi's Das Tierleben der Alpenwelt (11th ed., 1890). See also zoological section, by K. W. v. Dalla Torre, of Anleitung zu wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Alpenreisen. For the Vertebrata, see V. Fatio's Faune des vertebres de la Suisse (3 vols., 1869-1904). Die Tierwelt der Hochgebirgsseen, by F. Zschokke (1900) is an important treatise on an interesting department of alpine natural history. C. Zeller's Alpentiere im Wechsel der Zeit (1892) gives a reliable account of the gradual disappearance of some of the larger forms of life from the Alps. For the inter-relations of alpine insects and flowers, see H. Muller's Alpenblumen, ihre Befruchtung durch Insekten, und ihre Anpassung an dieselben (1881). (H. V. K.)

ALPUJARRAS or ALPUXARRAS, THE (Moorish al Busherat, ``the grass-land''), a mountainous district of southern Spain, in the province of Granada, consisting principally of valleys which descend at right angles from the crest of the Sierra Nevada on the north, to the Sierras Almijara, Contraviesa and Gador, which sever it from the Mediterranean Sea, on the south. These valleys are among the most beautiful and fertile in Spain. They contain a rich abundance of fruit trees, especially vines, oranges, lemons and figs, and in some parts present scenes of almost Alpine grandeur. The inhabitants are the descendants of the Moors, who, after the Spanish conquest of Granada in 1492, vainly sought to preserve the last relics of their independence in their mountain fastnesses. Many of the names of places in the Alpujarras are of Moorish origin. The district contains many villages of 1000 to 4000 inhabitants, the four largest being Lanjaron, with its ruined castle and chalybeate baths, Orgiba, Trevelez and Ugijar; all situated at a considerable elevation. Trevelez, the highest, stands 5332 ft. above the sea.

`ALQAMA IBN `ABADA, generally known as `ALQAMA AL-FAHL, an Arabian poet of the tribe Tamim, who flourished in the second half of the 6th century. Of his life we know practically nothing except that his chief poem concerns an incident in the wars between the Lakhmids and the Ghassanids (see ARABIA, History). Even the date of this is doubtful, but it is generally referred to the period after the middle of the 6th century. His poetic description of ostriches is said to have been famous among the Arabs. His diwan consists of three qusidas (elegies) and eleven fragments. Asma` i considered three of the poems genuine.

The poems were edited by A. Swain with Latin translation as Die Gedichte des Alkama Alfahl (Leipzig, 1867), and are contained in W. Ahlwardt's The Diwans of the six ancient Arabic Poets (Lond., 1870); cf. W. Ahlwardt's Bemerkungen uber die Aechtheit der alten arabischen Gledichte (Greifswald, 1872), pp. 65-71 and 146-168. (G. W. T.)

ALQUIFOU (etymologically the same word as ``alcohol''), a lead ore found in Cornwall, used by potters for its green glaze.

ALREDUS, ALURED or ALUREDUS, OF BEVERLEY, was sacristan of the church of Beverley in the first half of the 12th century. He wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a chronicle entitled Annales sive Historia de gestis regum Britanniae, which begins with Brutus and carries the history of England down to 1129. This work was edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1716), and at one time enjoyed some reputation as an authority. It is, however, a mere compilation and of no value. Geoffrey of Monmouth and Simeon of Durham are Alured's chief sources. Among the Cottonian MSS. there is a collection of records relating to Beverley, Liberlales Ecclesiae S. Johannis de Beverlae, which is attributed to Alured, but on no good authority. (H. W. C. D.)

ALSACE (Ger. Elsass), a former province of France, divided after the Revolution into the departments of Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin, and incorporated since the war of 1870 with the German empire (see ALSACE-LORRAINE). It is bounded on the north by the Rhenish Palatinate, on the east by the Rhine, on the south by Switzerland and on the west by the Vosges Mountains; and it comprises an area of 3344 English sq. m. The district possesses many natural attractions, and is one of the most fertile in central Europe. There are several ranges of hills, but no point within the province attains a great elevation. The only river of importance is the Ill, which falls into the Rhine after a course of more than 100 m., and is navigable below Colmar. The hills are generally richly wooded, chiefly with fir, beech and oak. The agricultural products are corn, flax, tobacco, grapes and various other fruits. The country has a great wealth of minerals, silver having been found, and copper, lead, iron, coal and rock-salt being wrought with profit. There are considerable manufactures, chiefly of cotton and linen. The chief towns are Mulhausen and Colmar in the upper district and Strassburg in the lower. The province is traversed from east to west by the railway from Strassburg to Nancy, and the main line north and south runs between Basel and Strassburg.

History. -- From a very early period Alsace has been a disputed territory, and has suffered in the contentions of rival races. Inhabited by the Rauraci and the Sequani, it formed part of ancient Gaul, and was therefore included in the Roman empire in the provinces of Germania Superior and Maxima Sequanorum. The Romans held it nearly five hundred years, and on the dissolution of their power it passed under the sway of the Franks. In the Merovingian period it formed a duchy attached to the kingdom of Austrasia, and was governed by the descendants of duke Eticho, one of whom was St Odilia. After the death of Charlemagne, Alsace, like the rest of the empire, was divided into countships. But the duchy was re-established after the death of the German king Henry I., and became hereditary in the Hohenstaufen family, and then in the house of Austria,

which succeeded in 1273 to the imperial dignity. In the beginning of the 12th century the country was divided between the two landgraviates of Upper and Lower Alsace, but to counteract the power of the nobles the emperors established in Alsace a great number of free towns. This state of things continued until 1648, when a large part of Alsace, comprising the two landgraviates of Upper and Lower Alsace and the prefecture of the ten free imperial towns, was ceded to France by the treaty of Westphalia. In the war which preceded this peace (generally known as the Thirty Years' War) Alsace had been so terribly devastated by the Swedes and the French that the German emperor found himself unable to hold it. The population was greatly reduced in numbers, and much of the land was left uncultivated. In the war between France and the Empire, arising out of the attempt of Louis XIV to seize Holland, that part of Alsace which remained to Germany was again overrun by the French. Although this war was terminated in 1678 by the treaty of Nijmwegen, the French monarch was desirous of incorporating a still larger amount of Rhine territory; and accordingly in 1680 he laid claim to a number of territories, belonging to princes of the Empire, which he alleged had been dismembered from Alsace. It was ordered that these territories should be at once restored to that province under the crown of France, and several independent sovereigns were cited to appear before two chambers of inquiry, called chambres de reunion, which Louis had established at Brisach and Metz. The princes appealed to the emperor and to the diet; but the previous wars had so exhausted the power of the former that nothing could be done to resist the aggression. In 1681 the French troops under Louvois seized Strassburg, aided by the treachery of the bishop and other great men of the city. A further war broke out, but by the treaty of Ratisbon (Regensburg) in 1684, Strassburg was secured to France. The war was renewed in 1688 and continued until 1697, when the peace of Ryswick confirmed definitively the annexation of Strassburg to France. Some remaining territories of small extent were acquired by the French after the revolution of 1789, including Mulhausen, which had been a republic allied to Switzerland.

Originally Celtic, the population was modified during the Roman period by the arrival of a Germanic people, the Triboci. In the 5th century came other German tribes, the Alamanni, and then the Franks, who drove the Alamanni into the south. Since that period the population has in the main been Teutonic; and the French conquests of the 17th century, while modifying this element, still left it predominant. The people continued to use a German dialect as their native tongue, though the educated classes also spoke French. Protestantism was professed by a large number of the inhabitants; and in many respects their characteristics identified them rather with the race to the east than that to the west of the Rhine. In process of time, however, they considered themselves French, and lost all desire for reannexation to any of the German states.

Alsace suffered a good deal in the war of 1870-71. The earlier battles of the campaign were fought there; Strassburg and other of its fortified towns were besieged and taken; and its people were compelled to submit to very severe exactions. The civil and military government of the province, as well as that of Lorraine, was assumed by the Germans as soon as they obtained possession of those parts of France, which was very shortly after the commencement of the war. The Alsatian railways were reorganized and provided with a staff of German officials. German stamps were introduced from Berlin; the occupied towns were garrisoned by the Landwehr; and requisitions on a large scale were demanded, and paid for in cheques which, at the close of the war, were to be honoured by whichever side should stand in the unpleasant position of the conquered. The people, notwithstanding their German origin, showed a very strong feeling against the invaders, and in no part of France was the enemy resisted with greater stubbornness. It was evident from an early period of the war, however, that Prussia was resolved to reannex Alsace to German territory. When the preliminaries of peace came to be discussed at Versailles in February 1871, the cession of Alsace, together with what is called German Lorraine, was one of the earliest conditions laid down by Bismarck and accepted by Thiers. This sacrifice of territory was afterwards ratified by the National Assembly at Bordeaux, though not without a protest from the representatives of the departments about to be given up; and thus Alsace once more became German. By the bill for the incorporation of Alsace and German Lorraine, introduced into the German parliament in May 1871, it was provided that the sole and supreme control of the two provinces should be vested in the German emperor and the federal council until the 1st of January 1874, when the constitution of the German empire was established. Bismarck admitted the aversion of the population to Prussian rule, but said that everything would be done to conciliate the people. This policy appears really to have been carried out, and it was not long in bearing fruit. Many of the inhabitants of the conquered districts, however, still clung to the old connexion, and on the 30th of September 1872 -- the day by which the people were required to determine whether they would consider themselves German subjects and remain, or French subjects and transfer their domicile to France -- 45,000 elected to be still French, and sorrowfully took their departure. The German system of compulsory education of every child above the age of six was introduced directly after the annexation.

ALSACE-LORRAINE (Ger. Elsass-Lothringen), a German imperial territory (since 1871), consisting of the former French province Alsace (then divided into the departments of Haut-Rhin and Bas-Rhin), together with its capital Strassburg, and German Lorraine (which included the department of the Moselle and portions of the departments of Meurthe and Vosges), together with the capital and fortress of Metz. The imperial territory (Reichsland) is bounded S. by Switzerland; E. by Baden, from which it is separated by the Rhine; N.E. and N. by the Bavarian Palatinate, the Prussian Rhine Province and Luxemburg, and W. by France. Its area is 5601 sq. m. The maximum length from N. to S. is 145 m.; the maximum breadth E. to W. 105 m., and the minimum breadth, on a line drawn through Schlettstadt, 24 m. In respect of its physical features, Alsace-Lorraine falls into three parts -- mountain land, plain and plateau. The first, practically co-extensive with the western half of Alsace, consists of the Vosges range, which running in a northerly direction from the deep gap or pass of Belfort (trouee de Belfort) forms in its highest ridges the natural frontier line between Germany and France. Between this mountain chain and its spurs, which fall steeply to the E., and the Rhine, stretches a fertile plain forming the eastern half of Alsace. In the N.W. a high and undulating plateau, which gently descends in the W. to the valley of the Moselle, occupies nearly the whole area of Lorraine. The drainage of the Vosges valleys and of the Rhine valley is collected and carried into the Rhine about 10 m. below Strassburg by the Ill, which has a course of more than 100 m. and is navigable below Colmar. With the exception of a few streams which run to the Rhone, all the waters of Alsace flow into the Rhine. The climate is on the whole temperate -- warmest in the lowest districts (460 ft. above sea-level) of N. Alsace, and coldest on the summits of the Vosges, where snow lies six months in the year. The mean annual temperature at Strassburg is 49.8 deg. F., at Metz 48.2 deg.; the rainfall at Strassburg 26 1/4 in., and at Metz 27 1/2 in. The Rhine Valley is in great part fertile, yielding good crops of potatoes, cereals (including maize), sugar beet, hops, tobacco, flax, hemp and products of oleaginous plants. But grapes and fruit are amongst the most valuable of the crops. The cereals chiefly grown are wheat, oats, barley and rye. Great quantities of hay are harvested. This description embraces also the production of Lorraine, where agriculture is less strenuously carried on, and the fertility of the soil is less. But Lorraine possesses, in compensation, greater riches in the earth, in coal and iron and salt mines. Cows are grazed on the S. Vosges in summer, and large quantities of cheese (Munster cheese) are made and exported. Total population (1905) 1,814,626.

The farms in Alsace are mostly small and are beld partly as a

private possession, partly on the communal system; in Lorraine there are some larger occupations. The manufacture of cottons, and on a smaller scale of woollens, is special to Alsace, the chief centres of the industry being Mulhausen, Colmar and the valleys of the Vosges. The territory has always been the centre of an active commerce, owing to its situation on the confines of Germany, France and Switzerland, and alongside the great highway of the Rhine. The communications embraced some 1249 m. of railway (1903), of which 1108 m. belonged to the state, a good system of roads, and several canals (notably the Rhine-Rhone, the Rhine-Marie and the Saar Canals), in addition to the rivers. Administratively the territory is divided into the following three districts, showing a density of population of about 316 to the sq. m.:--

Population. Districts. Area in sq. miles. 1885. 1905. Upper Alsace . . 1354 462,549 512,709 Lower Alsace . . 1845 612,077 686,359 Lorraine . . . 2402 489,729 615,558

On the sex division, 935,305 were in 1905 males, and 879,321 females. The percentage of illegitimacy is about 7. The rural population embraces 51% of the whole, the urban population 48%. The largest towns are Strassburg (the capital of the territory), Mulhausen, Metz, Colmar, all above 20,000 inhabitants each. Classified according to religion there were, in 1904, 372,078 Protestants, 1,310,391 Roman Catholics, and 32,379 Jews. Education is provided for at the university of Strassburg, in 21 classical and pro-classical schools, in 18 modern schools, and in nearly 4000 elementary schools. Over 85% of the people speak German as their mother-tongue, the rest French, or a patois of French. The annual revenue and expenditure are each somewhat in excess of L. 3,000,000. Customs and indirect taxes yield more than three-fifths of the total revenue, and direct taxes less than one-fourth. The state forests give about one-ninth of the whole. The higher administration of justice is devolved upon six provincial courts and a supreme court, sitting at Colmar. Moreover, there are purely industrial tribunals at Mulhausen, Thann, Markirch, Strassburg and Metz. The fish-breeding establishment at Huningen in Upper Alsace should be mentioned.

Constitution. -- The sovereignty over the territory was by a law (Reichsgesetz) of the 9th of June 1871 vested in the German emperor, who, until the introduction of the imperial constitution on the 1st of January 1874, had, with the assent of the federal council (Bundesrat) and, in a few cases, that of the imperial diet (Reichstag), the sole right of initiating legislation. In October of this last year a committee (Landesausschuss) of the whole territory was appointed to deliberate on laws proposed to it before they received the final sanction of the emperor. On the 2nd of May 1877, the Landesausschuss was itself empowered to initiate legislation within the competence of the territory, and in 1879 the imperial viceroy (Statthalter), representing the imperial chancellor, who had until then been the responsible minister, took up his residence in Strassburg. He is assisted in the government by 4 ministers of departments, under the presidency of a secretary of state, and, when occasion demands the extraordinary discussion of legislative proposals, by a council of state (Staatsrat), consisting of the secretary of state, under secretaries, the president of the supreme court of justice of the territory and, as a rule, of 12 nominees of the emperor. The Lanitesaus-schuss, a constitutional body with parliamentary privileges, consists of 58 members, 34 being appointed out of their number by the various district councils (Bezirkslage), 4 by the large towns, and 20 by the rural districts. Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrat by two commissioners, who have, however, but one voice; and the territory returns 15 members to the Reichstag.

See A. Schmidt, Elsass unid Lothringen (Lerp., 1859); Spach, Histoire de la basso Alsace et de la ville de Strasbourg (Stras., 1860); von Mullenheim Rechberg, Die Annexion des Elsass durch Frankreich und Ruckblick auf die Verwaltung des Landes, 1648-1697 (Stras., 1897); Du Prel, Die deutsche Verwaltung in Elsass, 1870-1879 (Stras., 1879); L. Petersen, Das Deutschtum in Elsass-Lothringen (Munich, 1902). (P. A. A.)

ALSATIA (the old French province of Alsace), long a ``debatable ground'' between France and Germany, and hence a name applied in the 17th century to the district of Whitefriars, between the Thames and Fleet Street, in London, which afforded sanctuary (q.v.) to debtors and criminals. The privileges were abolished in 1697. The term is also used generally of any refuge for criminals.

ALSEN (Danish Als), an island in the Baltic, off the coast of Schleswig, in the Little Belt. It formerly belonged to Denmark, but, as a result of the Danish war of 1864, was incorporated with Germany. Its area is 105 sq. m.; the length nearly 20, and the breadth from 3 to 12 m. Pop. (1900) 25,000, most of whom speak Danish. The island is fertile, richly wooded, and yields grain and fruit. Sonderburg, the capital, with a good harbour and a considerable trade, is connected with the mainland by a pontoon bridge. Other places of note are Norburg and Augustenburg. On the peninsula Rekenis at the S.W. end of Alsen there is a lighthouse. Here, in 1848, the Danes directed their main attack against Field-marshal Wrangel's army. In 1864 the Prussians under Herwarth von Bittenfeld took Alsen, which was occupied by 9000 Danish troops under Steinmann, thus bringing the Danish war to a close. Since 1870 Alsen has been fortified.

'ALSHEKH, MOSES, Jewish rabbi in Safed (Palestine) in the later part of the 16th century. He was the author of many homiletical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. His works still justly enjoy much popularity, largely because of their powerful influence as practical exhortations to virtuous life.

ALSIETINUS LACUS (mod. Lago di Martignano), a small lake in southern Etruria, 15 m. due N.N.W. of Rome, in an extinct crater. Augustus drew from it the Aqua Alsietina; the water was hardly fit to drink, and was mainly intended to supply his naumachia (lake made for a sham naval battle) at Rome, near S. Francesco a Ripa, on the right bank of the Tiber, where some traces of the aqueduct were perhaps found in 1720. The course of the aqueduct, which was mainly subterranean, is practically unknown: Frontinus tells us that it received a branch from the lake of Bracciano near Careiae (Galera): and an inscription relating to it was found in this district in 1887 (F. Barnabei, Notizie degli Scavi, 1887, 181).

ALSIUM (mod. Palo), an ancient town of Etruria, 29 m. W. by N. of Rome by rail, on the Via Aurelia, by which it is about 22 m. from Rome. It was one of the oldest cities of Etruria, but does not appear in history till the Roman colonization of 247 B.C., and was never of great importance, except as a resort of wealthy Romans, many of whom (Pompey, the Antonine emperors) had villas there. About 1 1/2 m. N.E. of Palo is a row of large mounds called I Monteroni, which belong to tombs of the Etruscan cemetery. Considerable remains of ancient villas still exist along the low sandy coast, one of which, about 1 m. E. of Palo, occupies an area of some 400 by 250 yds. The medieval castle belongs to the Odescalchi family. Near Palo is the modern sea-bathing resort Ladispoli, founded by Prince Odescalchi. See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, i. 219.

ALSOP, VINCENT (c. 1630- 1703), English Nonconformist divine, was of Northamptonshire origin and was educated at St John's College, Cambridge. He received deacon's orders from a bishop, whereupon he settled as assistant-master in the free school of Oakham, Rutland. He was reclaimed from indifferent courses and associates here by a very ``painful'' minister, the Rev. Benjamin King. Subsequently he married Mr King's daughter, and ``becoming a convert to his principles, received ordination in the Presbyterian way, not being satisfied with that which he had from the bishop.'' He was presented to the living of Wilby in Northamptonshire; but was thence ejected under the act of Uniformity in 1662. After his ejection he preached privately at Oakham and Wellingborough, sharing the common pains and penalties of nonconformists, -- e.g. he was imprisoned six months for praying with a sick person. A book against William Shedock, dean of St Paul's, called Antisozzo (against Socinus), written in the vein of Andrew Marvell's Rehearsal Transprosed, procured him much celebrity as a wit. Dr Robert South, no friend to nonconformists, publicly pronounced that Alsop had the advantage of Sherlock in every way. Besides fame, Antisozzo procured for its author an invitation to succeed the venerable Thomas Cawton (the younger) as independent minister in Westminster. He accepted the call and drew great multitudes to his chapel. He published other books which showed a fecundity of wit, a playful strength of reasoning, and a provoking indomitableness of raillery. Even with Dr Goodman and Dr Stillingfleet for antagonists, he more than held his own. His Mischief of Impositions (1680) in answer to Stillingfleet's Mischief of Separation, and Melius Inquirenduni (1679) in answer to Goodman's Compassionate Inquiry, remain historical landmarks in the history of nonconformity. Later on, from the entanglements of a son in alleged treasonable practices, he had to sue for and obtained pardon from King James II. This seems to have given a somewhat diplomatic character to his closing years, inasmuch as, while remaining a nonconformist, he had a good deal to do with proposed political- ecclesiastical compromises. He died on the 8th of May 1703, having preserved his ``spirits and smartness'' to the last.

See Wood's A thenae (Bliss) iv. 106; Calamy's Life of Baxter, ii. 487; Wilson's History and Ant. of Dissenting Churches, iv. 63-66. (A. J. G.) ALSTED, JOHANN HEINRICH (1588-1638), German Protestant divine. He was some time professor of philosophy and theology at Herborn, in Nassau, and afterwards at Weissenburg in Transylvania, where he remained till his death in 1638. He was a marvellously prolific writer. His Encyclopaedia (1630), the most considerable of the earlier works of that class, was long held in high estimation.

ALSTON, CHARLES (1683-1760), Scottish botanist, was born at Eddlewood, near Hamilton, in 1683, and became lecturer in materia medica and botany at Edinburgh and also superintendent of the botanical gardens, of the plants in which he published a catalogue in 1740. He was a critic of Linnaeus's system of plant-classification (see BOTANY.) He died on the 22nd of November 1760 at Edinburgh. His Lectures on Materia Medica were published posthumously in 1770.

ALSTON, a market-town in the Penrith parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, 29 m. by road E.S.E. of Carlisle, on a branch of the North-Eastern railway from Haltwhistle. Pop. (1901) 3133. It lies in the uppermost part of the valley of the South Tyne, among the high bleak moors of the Pennines. Copper and blende are found, and there are limestone quarries. The mines of argentiferous lead, belonging to Greenwich Hospital, London, were formerly of great value, and it was in order that royalties on the Alston lead mines and on those elsewhere in the county might be jointly collected that the parish was first included within the borders of Cumberland, in the 18th century. As many as 119 lead mines were worked in the parish in 1768, but the supply of metal has been almost exhausted. Coal is worked chiefly for lime-burning, and umber is prepared for the manufacture of colours. Thread and flannels are also made. Whitley Castle, 2 m. N., was a Roman fort, the original name of which is not known, guarding the road which ran along the South Tyne valley and over the Pennines. It has no connexionwith Alston itself.

ALSTROMER, JONAS (1685-1761), Swedish industrial re-former, was born at Alingsas in Vestergotland, on the 7th of January 1685. He left his native village at an early age, and in 1707 became clerk to Alberg, a merchant of Stockholm, whom he accompanied to London. After carrying on business for three years, Alberg failed, and Alstrom (as his name was before his ennoblement) engaged in the business of shipbroker on his own account, and eventually proved very successful. After travelling for several years on the continent, he was seized with the patriotic desire to transplant to his native country some of the industries he had seen flourishing in Britain. He accordingly returned to Alingsas, and in 1724 established a woollen factory in the village. After preliminary difficulties it became a very profitable business. He next established a sugar refinery at Gothenburg, introduced improvements in the cultivation of potatoes and of plants suitable for dyeing, and directed attention to improved methods in shipbuilding, tanning and the manufacture of cutlery. But his most successful undertaking was the importation of sheep from England, Spain and Angora. He received many marks of distinction, was created (1748) knight of the order of the North Star, and a few years later received letters of nobility, with permission to change his name to Alstromer. He died on the 2nd of June 1761, leaving several works on practical industrial subjects. A statue was erected in his honour in the exchange at Stockholm. One of his sons, Clas (Claude) (1736-1794), was a naturalist of considerable eminence. During a voyage to Spain he noticed a native Peruvian plant known in Peru as the lily of the Incas, at the Swedish counsul's at Cadiz; he sent a few seeds to his master and friend, Linnaeus, who named the genus in his honour Alstromeria. He also wrote a work on sheep-breeding.

ALTAI (in Mongolian Altain-ula, the ``Mountains of Gold''), a term used in Asiatic geography with Various significations. The Altai region, in West Siberia and Mongolia, is similar in character to Switzerland, but covers a very much greater area. It extends from the river Irtysh and the Dzungarian depression (46 deg. -47 deg. N.) northwards to the Siberian railway and to the Sayan mountains. The backbone of the region is the Sailughem or Silyughema mountains, also known as Kolyvan Altai, which stretch north-eastwards from 49 deg. N. and 86 deg. E. towards the western extremity of the Sayan mountains in 51 deg. 60' N. and 89 deg. E. Their mean elevation is 5000-5500 ft. The snow-line runs at 6700 ft. on the northern versant and at 7800 ft. on the southern, and above it the rugged peaks tower up some 3200 ft. more. Passes across the range are few and difficult, the chief being the Ulan-daban at 9275 ft. (9445 ft. according to Kozlov), and the Chapchan-daban, at 10,555 ft., in the south and north respectively. On the east and south-east this range is flanked by the great plateau of Mongolia, the transition being effected gradually by means of several minor plateaus, such as Ukok (7800 ft.), Chuya (6000 ft.), Kendykty (8200 ft.), Kak (8270 ft.), Suok (8500 ft.), and Juvlu-kul (7900 ft.). This region, which is not accurately known, is studded with large lakes, i.e. Ubsa-nor (2370 ft. above sea-level), Kirghiz-nor, Durga-nor and Kobdo-nor (3840 ft.), and traversed by various mountain ranges, of which the principal are the Tannu-ola, running roughly parallel with the Sayan mountains as far east as the Kosso-gol (100 deg. -101 deg. E. long.), and the Khan-khu mountains, also stretching west and east.

The range of the Altai proper, known also as the Ek-tagh, Mongolian Altai, Great Altai and Southern Altai, likewise extend in two twin parallel chains eastwards as far as 99 deg. , if not farther. The Ek-tagh or Mongolian Altai, which separates the Kobdo basin on the north from the Irtysh basin on the south, is a true border-range, in that it rises in a steep and lofty escarpment from the Dzungarian depression (1550 to 3000 ft.), but descends on the north by a relatively short slope to the plateau (4000-5500 ft.) of north-western Mongolia. East of 94 deg. the range is continued by a double series of mountain chains, all of which exhibit less sharply marked orographical features and are at considerably lower elevations. The southern chain bears the names of Karaadzirga and Burkhan-ola, and terminates in about 99 deg.; but the northern range, the principal names of which are Artsi-bogdo and Saikhat, extends probably most of the way to the great northward bend of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River round the desert of Ordos. Whereas the western Ek-tagh Altai rises above the snowline and is destitute of timber, the eastern double ranges barely touch the snow-line and are clothed with thick forests up to an altitude of 6250 ft. The slopes of the constituent chains of the system are inhabited principally by nomad Kirghiz.

The north-western and northern slopes of the Sailughem mountains are extremely steep and very difficult of access. On this side lies the culminating summit of the range, the double-headed Byelukha (the Mont Blanc of the Altai), whose summits reach 14,890 and 14,560 ft. respectively,1 and give origin to several glaciers (30 sq. m. in aggregate area). Here also are the Kuitun (12,000 ft.) and several other lofty peaks. Numerous spurs, striking in all directions from the Sailughem mountains, fill up the space between that range and the lowlands of Tomsk, but their mutual relations are far from being well known. Such are the Chuya Alps, having an average altitude of 9000 ft., with summits from 11,500 to 12,000 ft., and at least ten glaciers on their northern slope; the Katun Alps, which have a mean elevation of about 10,000 ft. and are mostly snow-clad; the Kholzun range; the Korgon (6300 to 7600 ft.), Talitsk and Selitsk ranges; the Tigeretsk Alps, and so on. Several secondary plateaus of lower altitude are also distinguished by geographers. The Katun valley begins as a wild gorge on the south-west slope of Byelukha; then, after a big bend, the river (400 m. long) pierces the Katun Alps, and enters a wider valley, lying at an altitude of from 2000 to 3500 ft., which it follows until it emerges from the Altai highlands to join the Biya in a most picturesque region. The Katun and the Biya together form the Ob. The next valley is that of the Charysh, which has the Korgon and Tigeretsk Alps on one side and the Talitsk and Bashalatsk Alps on the other. This, too, is very fertile. The Altai, seen from this valley, presents the most romantic scenes, including the small but deep Kolyvan lake (altitude, 1180 ft.), which is surrounded by fantastic granite domes and towers. Farther west the valleys of the Uba, the Ulba and the Bukhtarma open south-westwards towards the Irtysh. The lower part of the first, like the lower valley of the Charysh, is thickly populated; in the valley of the Ulba is the Riddersk mine, at the foot of the Ivanovsk peak (6770 ft.), clothed with beautiful alpine meadows. The valley of the Bukhtarma, which has a length of 200 m., also has its origin at the foot of the Byelukha and the Kuitun peaks, and as it falls some 5000 ft. in less than 200 m., from an alpine plateau at an elevation of 6200 ft. to the Bukhtarma fortress (1130 ft.), it offers the most striking contrasts of landscape and vegetation. Its upper parts abound in glaciers, the best known of which is the Berel, which comes down from the Byelukha. On the northern side of the range which separates the upper Bukhtarma from the upper Katun is the Katun glacier, which after two ice-falls widens out to 700-900 yards. From a grotto in this glacier bursts tumultuously the Katun river. The middle and lower parts of the Bukhtarma valley have been colonized since the 18th century by runaway Russian peasants -- serfs and nonconformists (Raskolniks) -- who created there a free republic on Chinese territory; and after this part of the valley was annexed to Russia in 1869, it was rapidly colonized. The high valleys farther north, on the same western face of the Sailughem range, are but little known, their only visitors being Kirghiz shepherds. Those of Bashkaus, Chulyshman, and Chulcha, all three leading to the beautiful alpine lake of Teletskoye (length, 48 m.; maximum width, 3 m.; altitude, 1700 ft.; area, 87 sq. m.; maximum depth, 1020 ft.; mean depth, 660 ft.), are only inhabited by nomad Telenghites or Teleuts. The shores of the lake -- reminding a visitor somewhat of the Swiss lake of Lucerne -- rise almost sheer to over 6000 ft. and are too wild to accommodate a numerous population. From this lake issues the Biya, which joins the Katun at Biysk, and then meanders through the beautiful prairies of the north-west of the Altai. Farther north the Altai highlands are continued in the Kuznetsk district, which has a slightly different geological aspect, but still belongs to the Altai system. But the Abakan river, which rises on the western shoulder of the Sayan mountains, belongs to the system of the Yenisei. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau range, on the left bank of the Abakan, runs north-east into the government of Yeniseisk, while a complexus of imperfectly mapped mountains (Chukchut, Salair, Abakan) fills up the country northwards towards the Siberian railway and westwards towards the Ob. The Tom and its numerous tributaries rise on the northern slopes of the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, and their fertile valleys are occupied by a dense Russian population, the centre of which is Kuznetsk, on the Tom.

Geology. -- Geologically the Altai mountains consist of two distinct elements which differ considerably from each other in composition and structure. The Russian Altai is composed mainly of mica and chlorite schists and slates, together with beds of limestone, and in the higher horizons Devonian and Carboniferous fossils occur in many places. There is no axial zone of gneiss, but intrusions of granite and other plutonic rocks occur, and the famous ore deposits are found chiefly near the contact of these intrusions with the schists. The strata are thrown into folds which run in the direction of the mountain ridges, forming a curve with the convexity facing the south-east. The Mongolian or Great Altai, on the other hand, consists mainly of gneiss and Archaean rocks. The strike of the rocks is independent of the direction of the chain, and the chain is bounded by faults. It is, in fact, a horst and not a zone of folding.

Flora.--The flora of the Altai, explored chiefly by Karl F. von Ledebour (1785-1851), is rich and very beautiful. Up to a level of 1000 ft. on the northern and 2000 ft. on the southern slopes, plant life belongs to the European flora, which extends into Siberia as far as the Yenisei. The steppe flora penetrates into the mountains, ascending some 1100-1200 ft., and in sheltered valleys even up to 5500 ft., when it of course comes into contact with the purely alpine flora. Tree vegetation, which reaches up as high as 6500 and 8150 ft., the latter limit on the north and west, consists of magnificent forests of birch, poplar, aspen, and Coniferae, such as Pinus cerebra, Abies sibirica, Larix sibirica, Picea obovata, and so on, though the fir is not found above 2500 ft., while the meadows are abundantly clothed with brightly coloured, typical assortments of herbaceous plants. The alpine meadows, which have many species in common with the European Alps, have also a number of their own peculiar Altaian species.

Mineral wealth.--The Altai proper is rich in silver, copper, lead and zinc ores, while in the Kuznetsk Ala-tau, gold, iron and coal are the chief mineral resources. The Kuznetsk Ala-tau mines are only now beginning to be explored, while the copper, and perhaps also the silver, ores of the Altai proper were worked by the mysterious prehistoric race of the Chudes at a time when the use of iron was not yet known. Russians began to mine in 1727 at Kolyvan, and in 1739 at Barnaul. Most of the Altai region, covering an area of some 170,000 sq. m. and including the Kuznetsk district, has since 1746 formed a domain of the imperial family under the name of the Altai Mining District. The ores of the Altai proper nearly always appear in irregular veins, containing silver, lead, copper and gold -- sometimes all together, -- and they are, or were, worked chiefly by Zmeinogorsk (or Zmeiev), Zyryanovsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk and Riddersk (abandoned in 1861). They offer, however, great difficulties, especially on account of their continually varying productivity and temperature of fusion. The beautiful varieties of porphyry -- green, red, striped -- which are obtained, often in big monoliths, near Kolyvan, are cut at the imperial stone-cutting factory into vases and other ornaments, familiar in the art galleries and palaces of Europe. Aquamarines of mediocre quality but enormous size (up to 3 in. in diameter) are found in the Korgon mine. The northern, or Salair, mining region is rich in silver ores, and the mine of this name used formerly to yield up to 93,300 oz. of silver in the year. But the chief wealth of the northern Altai is in the Kuznetsk coal-basin, also containing iron-ores, which fills up a valley between the Kuznetsk Ala-tau and the Salair range for a length of about 270 m., with a width of about 65 m. The coal is considered equal to the best coal of England and south Russia. The country is also covered with thick diluvial and alluvial deposits containing gold. However, all the mining is now on the decline.

Population.--The Russian population has rapidly increased since the fertile valleys belonging to the imperial family have been thrown open to settlement, and it has been estimated that in 1908 the population of the region (Biysk, Barnaul and Kuznetsk districts) reached about 800,000. Their chief occupations are agriculture (about 3,500,000 acres under culture), cattle-breeding, bee-keeping, mining, gathering of cedar-nuts and hunting. All this produce is exported partly to Tomsk and partly to Kobdo in Mongolia. The natives may represent a population of about 45,000. They are Altaians in the west and Telenghites or Teleuts in the east, with a few Kalmucks and Tatars. Although all are called Kalmucks by the Russians, they speak a Turkish language. Both the Telenghites and the Altaians are Shamanists in religion, but many of the former are already quite Russified. The virgin forests of the Kuznetsk Ala-tau -- the Chern, or Black Forest of the Russians -- are peopled by Tatars, who live in very small settlements, sometimes of the Russian type, but mostly in wooden yurts or huts of the Mongolian fashion. They can hardly keep any cattle, and lead the precarious life of forest-dwellers, living upon various wild roots when there is no grain in the spring. Hunting and fishing are resorted to, and the skins and furs are tanned.

Towns.--The capital of the Altai region is Barnaul, the centre of the mining administration and an animated commercial town; Biysk is the commercial centre; Kuznetsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk, and the mining towns of Kolyvan, Zmeinogorsk, Riddersk and Salairsk are the next largest places.

AUTHORITIES. -- P. Semenov and G. N. Potanin, in supplementary vol. of Russian ed. of Ritter's Asien (1877); Ledebour, Reise durch das Altaigebirge (1829-1830); P. Chikhatchev, Voyage scientifique dans l'Altai oriental (1845); Gebler, Ubersicht des katunischen Gebirges (1837); G. von Helmersen, Reise nach dem Altai (St Petersburg, 1848); T. W. Atkinson, Oriental and Western Siberia (1838); and Cotta, Der Altai (1871), are still worth consulting. Of modern works see Adrianov, ``Journey to the Altai,'' in Zaeiski Russ. Geogr. Soc. xi.; Yadrintsev, ``Journey in West Siberia,'' in Zapiski West Sib. Geogr. Soc. ii.; Golubev, Altai (1890, Russian); Schmurlo, ``Passes in S. Altai'' (Sailughem), in Izvestia Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1898), xxxiv. 5; V. Saposhnikov, various articles in same periodical (1897), xxxiii. and (1899) xxxv., and, by the same, Katun i yeya Istoka (Tomsk, 1901); S. Turner, Siberia (1905); Deniker, on Kozlov's explorations, in La Geographie (1901, pp. 41, &c.); and P. Ignatov, in Izvestia Russ. Geog. Soc. (1902, No. 2). (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

1 Mr S. Turner estimates the culminating peak of Mt. Byelukha at 14,800 ft., but to Willer's Peak, a little to the N. W. of Byelukha, he assigns an altitude of 17,800 ft. (p. 205 of Siberia.)

ALTAMURA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Bari, 28 m. S.S.W. of the town of that name, and 56 m. by rail via Gioia del Colle. Pop. (1901) 22,729. It possesses a fine Romanesque cathedral begun in 1232 and restored in 1330 and 1531, the portal being especially remarkable. It is one of the four Palatine churches of Apulia. The surrounding territory is fertile. The medieval walls, erected by the emperor Frederick II., rest upon the walls of an ancient city of unknown name. These early walls are of rough blocks of stone without mortar. Ancient tombs with fragments of vases have also been found, and there are cases which have been used as primitive tombs or dwellings, and a group of some fifty tumuli near Altamura.

ALTAR (Lat. altare, from altus, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4), strictly a base or pedestal used for supplication and sacrifice to gods or to deified heroes. The necessity for such sacrificial furniture has been felt in most religions, and consequently we find its use widespread among races and nations which have no mutual connexion.

Mesopotamia. -- Altars are found from the earliest times in the remains of Babylonian cities; the oldest are square erections of sun-dried bricks. In Assyrian mounds limestone and alabaster are the chief material. They are of varying form; an altar shown in a relief at Khorsabad is ornamented with stepped battlements, which are the equivalent of the familiar ``altarhorns'' in Hebrew ritual. An altar also from Khorsabad (now in the British Museum) has a circular table and a solid base triangular on plan, with pilasters ornamented with animals' paws at the angles. A third variety, of which an 8th century B.C. example from Nimrod exists in the British Museum, is a rectangular block ornamented at the ends by cylindrical rolls. These altars are in height from 2 to 3 ft. According to Herodotus (i. 183) the great altars of Babylonia were made of gold.

Egypt. -- In Egypt altars took the form of a truncated cone or of a cubical block of polished granite or of basalt, with one or more basin-like depressions in the upper surface for receiving fluid libations. These had channels whereby fluids poured into the receptacles could be drained off. The surface was plain, inscribed with dedicatory or other legends, or adorned with symbolical carving.

Palestine. -- Recent excavations, especially at Gezer, have shown that the earliest altars, or rather sacrifice hearths, in Palestine were circular spaces marked out by small stones set on end. At Gezer a pre-Semitic place of worship was found in which three such hearths stood together, and drained into a cave which may reasonably be supposed to have been regarded as the residence of the divinity. These circular hearths persisted into the Canaanite period, but were ultimately superseded by the Semitic developments. To the primitive nomadic Semite the presence of the divinity was indicated by springs, shady trees, remarkable rocks and other landmarks; and from this earliest conception grew the theory that a numen might be induced to take up an abode in an artificial heap of stones, or a pillar set upright for the purpose. The blood of the victim was poured over the stone as an offering to the divinity dwelling within it; and from this conception of the stone arose the further and final view, that the stone was a table on which the victim was to be burned.

Very few specimens of early Palestinian altars remain. The megalithic structures common in the Hauran and Moab may be entirely sepulchral. At Gezer no definite altar was discovered in the great High Place; though it is possible that a bank of intensely hard compact earth, in which were embedded a large number of human skulls, took its place. A very remarkable altar, at present unique, was found at Taanach by the Austrian excavators. It is pyramidal in shape, and the surface is ornamented with human-headed animals in relief. This, like the earliest Babylonian altars, is of baked earth.

The Old Testament conception of the altar varies with the stage of religious development. In the pre-Deuteronomic period altars are erected in any place where there had appeared to be a manifestation of deity, or under any circumstance in which the aid of deity was invoked; not by heretical individuals, but by the acknowledged religious leaders, such as Noah at Ararat, Abraham at Shechem, Bethel &c., Isaac at Beersheba, Jacob at Bethel, Moses at Rephidim, Joshua at Ebal, Gideon at Ophrah, Samuel at Raman, Elijah at Carmel, and others. These primitive altars were of the simplest possible description -- in fact they were required to be so by the regulation affecting them, preserved in Exodus xx. 24, which prescribes that in every place where Yahweh records his name an altar of earth or of unhewn stone, without steps or other extraneous ornamentation, shall be erected.

The priestly regulations affecting altars are of a very elaborate nature, and are framed with a single eye to the essential theory of later Hebrew worship -- the centralization of all worship at one shrine. These recognize two altars, which by the authors of this portion of the Pentateuch are placed from the first in the tabernacle in the wilderness -- a theory which is inconsistent with the other evidences of the nature of the earlier Hebrew worship, to which we have just alluded.

The first of these altars is that for burnt-offering. This altar was in the centre of the court of the tabernacle, of acacia wood, 3 cubits high and 5 square. It was covered with copper, was provided with ``horns'' at the corners (like those of Assyria), hollow in the middle, and with rings on the sides into which the staves for its transportation could be run (Ex. xxvii. 1-8). The altar of the Solomonic temple is on similar lines, but much larger. It is now generally recognized that the description of the tabernacle altar is intended to provide a precedent for this vast structure, which would otherwise be inconsistent with the traditional view of the simple Hebrew altars. In the second temple a new altar was built after the fashion of the former (1 Macc. iv. 47) of ``whole stones from the mountain.'' In Herod's temple the altar was again built after the same model. It is described by Josephus (v. 5. 6) as 15 cubits high and 50 cubits square, with angle horns, and with an ``insensible acclivity'' leading up to it (a device to evade the pre-Deutero- nomic regulation about steps). It was made without any use of iron, and no iron tool was ever allowed to touch it. The blood

and refuse were discharged through a drain into the brook Kedron; this drain probably still remains, in the Bir el-Arwah, under the ``Dome of the Rock'' in the mosque which covers the site of the temple.

The second altar was the altar of incense, which was in the holy place of the tabernacle. It was of similar construction to the altar of burnt-offering, but smaller, being 2 cubits high and 1 cubit square (Ex. xxx. 1-5). It was overlaid with gold. Solomon's altar of incense (1 K. vi. 20) is referred to in a problematical passage from which it would appear to have been of cedar. But the authenticity of the passages describing the altar of incense in the tabernacle, and the historicity of the corresponding altar in Solomon's temple, are matters of keen dispute among critics. The incense altar in the second temple was removed by Antiochus Epiphanes (1 Macc. i. 21) and restored by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. iv. 49). That in the temple of Herod is referred to in Luke i. 11.

The ritual uses of these altars are sufficiently explained by their names. On the first was a fire continually burning, in which the burnt-offerings were consumed. On the second an offering of incense was made twice a day.

In the pre-Deuteronomic passage, Exodus xxi. 14, the use of the altar as an asylum is postulated, though denied to the wilful murderer. This is a survival of the ancient belief that the deity resided in the pillar or stone-heap, and that the fugitive was placing himself under the protection of the local numen by seeking sanctuary. From 1 Kings i. 50 it would appear that the suppliant caught hold of the altar-horns (compare 1 Kings ii. 28), as though special protective virtue resided in this important though obscure part of the structure.

Greece and Rome. -- According to the difference in the service for which they were employed, altars fell into two classes. Those of the first class were pedestals, so small and low that the suppliant could kneel upon them; these stood inside the temples, in front of the sacred image. The second class consisted of larger tables destined for burnt sacrifice; these were placed in the open air, and, if connected with a temple, in front of the entrance. Possibly altars of the former class were in historical times substitutes for, and rendered the same service as, the bases of the sacred images within the temples in earlier ages. In this case the altar of Apollo at Delphi, upon which on the Greek vases Neoptolemus is frequently represented as taking refuge from Orestes, might be regarded as the pedestal of an invisible image of the god, and as fulfilling the same function as did the base of the actual image of Athene in Troy, towards which Cassandra fled from Ajax. The second class of altars, called bomoi by the Greeks and altaria by the Romans, appears to have originated in temporary constructions such as heaps of earth, turf or stone, made for kindling a sacrificial fire as occasion required. But sacrifices to earth divinities were made on the earth itself, and those to the infernal deities in sunk hollows (Odyss. x. 25; Festus s. v. Altaria). The note of Eustathius (Odyss. xii. 252) perhaps indicates some customs reminiscent of a primitive antiquity in which the sacrifice was made without an altar at all. He says apobomia tina iera on ouk epi bomou o kathagis mos all' epi edafous -- ``some holy places away from altars, whose offering is made not on an altar but on the floor.'' Pausanias (vi. 20. 7) speaks of an altar at Olympia made of unbaked bricks. In some primitive holy shrines the bones and ashes of the victims sacrificed were allowed to accumulate, and upon this new fires were kindled. Altars so raised were, like most religious survivals, considered as endowed with particular sanctity; the most remarkable recorded instances of such are the altars of Hera at Samos, and of Pan at Olympia (Paus. v. 14. 6; v. 15. 5), of Heracles at Thebes (Paus. ix. 11. 7), and of Zeus at Olympia (Paus. v. 13. 5). The last-mentioned stood on a platform (prothusis) measuring 125 ft. in circumference, and led up to by steps, the altar itself being 22 ft. high. Women were excluded from the platform. Where hecatombs were sacrificed, the prothusis necessarily assumed colossal proportions, as in the case of the altar at Parion, where it measured on each side 600 ft. The altar of Apollo at Delos (o keratinos bomos) was made of the horns of goats believed to have been slain by Diana; while at Miletus was an altar composed of the blood of victims sacrificed (Paus. v. 13. 6). The altar at Phorae in Achaea was of unhewn stones (Paus. vii. 22. 3). The altar used at the festival in honour of Daedalus on Mt. Cithaeron was of wood, and was consumed along with the sacrifice (Paus. ix. 3. 4). Others of bronze are mentioned. But these were exceptional, the usual material of an altar was marble, and its form, both among the Greeks and Romans, was either square or round; polygonal altars, of which examples still exist, being exceptions. When sculptured decorations were added they frequently took the form of imitations of the actual festoons with which it was usual to ornament altars, or of symbols, such as crania and horns of oxen, referring to the victims sacrificed. As a rule, the altars which existed apart from temples bore the name of the person by whom they were dedicated and the names of the deities in whose service they were, or, if not the name, some obvious representation of the deity. Such, for example, is the purpose of the figures of the Muses on an altar dedicated to them, now to be seen in the British Museum. An altar was retained for the service of one particular god, except where through local tradition two or more deities had become intimately associated, as in the case of the altar at Olympia to Artemis and Alpheus jointly, or that of Poseidon and Erechtheus in the Erechtheum at Athens. The most remarkable instance of multiple dedication was, however, at Oropus, where the altar was divided into five parts, one dedicated to Heracles, Zeus and Paean Apollo, a second to heroes and their wives, a third to Hestia, Hermes, Amphiaraus and the children of Amphilochus, a fourth to Aphrodite Panacea, Jason, Health, and Healing Athene, and the fifth to the Nymphs, Pan, and the rivers Archelous and Cephissus (Paus. i. 34. 2). Such deities were styled sbmbomoi, each having a separate part of the altar (Paus. i. 34. 2). Other terms are agonioi, or omobomioi. Deities of an inferior order, who were conceived as working together -- e.g. the wind gods -- had an altar in common. In the same way, the ``unknown gods'' were regarded as a unit, and had in Athens and at Olympia one altar for all (Paus. i. 1. 4; v. 14. 5; cf. Acts of Apostles, xvii. 18). An altar to all the gods is mentioned by Aeschylus (Suppl. 222). Among the exceptional classes of altars are also to be mentioned those on which fire could not be kindled (bomoi apuroi), and those which were kept free from blood (bomoi anaiaaktoi), of which in both respects the altar of Zeus Hypatos at Athens was an example. The lstia was a round altar; the eschara, one employed apparently for sacrifice to inferior deities or heroes (but lschara Toibou, Aesch. Pers. 205). In Rome an altar erected in front of a statue of a god was always required to be lower than the statue itself (Vitruvius iv. 9). Altars were always places of refuge, and even criminals and slaves were there safe, violence offered to them being insults to the gods whose suppliants the refugees were for the time being. They were also taken hold of by the Greeks when making their most solemn oaths.

Ancient America. -- As a single specimen of an altar, wholly unrelated to any of the foregoing, we may cite the ancient Mexican example described by W. Bullock (Six Months in Mexico, London, 1824, p. 335). This was cylindrical, 25 ft. in circumference, with sculpture representing the conquests of the national warriors in fifteen different groups round the side.

Portable altars and tables of offerings were used in pre-Christian as well as in Christian ritual. One such was discovered in the Gezer excavations, dating about 200 B.C. It was a slab of polished limestone about 6 in. square with five cups in its upper surface. Another from the same place was a small cubical block of limestone bearing a dedication to Heracles. They have also been found in Assyria. Pocket altars are still used in some forms of worship in India. See the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1852, p. 71.

1 Bullock also says (p. 354) that the altar in the church of the indian village of S. Miguel de los Ranchos which he visited was ``of the same nature as those in use before the introduction of Christianity.''

ALTARS IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH I. The Early Church. -- The altar is spoken of by the early Greek and Latin ecclesiastical writers under a variety of names: -- trapefa, the principal name in the Greek fathers and the liturgies; thusiasterion (rarer; used in the Septuagint for Hebrew altars); ilasterion; bomos (usually avoided, as it is a word with heathen associations); mensa Domini; ara (avoided like bomos, and for the same reason); and, most regularly, altare. After the 4th century other names or expressions come into use, such as mensa tremenda, series corporis et sanguinis Christi.

The earliest Christians had no altars, and were taunted by the pagans for this. It is admitted by Origen in his reply to Celsus (p. 389), who has charged the Christians with being a secret society ``because they forbid to build temples, to raise altars.'' ``The altars,'' says Origen, ``are the heart of every Christian.'' The same appears from a passage in Lactantius, De Origine Erroris, ii. 2. We gather from these passages that down to about A.D. 250, or perhaps a little later, the communion was administered on a movable wooden table. In the Catacombs, the arcosolia or bench-like tombs are said (though the statement is doubtful) to have been used to serve this purpose. The earliest church altars were certainly made of wood; and it would appear from a passage in William of Malmesbury (De Gest. Pontif. Angl. iii. 14) that English altars were of wood down to the middle of the 11th century, at least in the diocese of Worcester.

The cessation of persecution, and consequent gradual elaboration of church furniture and ritual, led to the employment of more costly materials for the altar as for the other fittings of ecclesiastical buildings. Already in the 4th century we find reference to stone altars in the writings of Gregory ot Nyssa. In 517 the council of Epaone in Burgundy forbade any but stone pillars to be consecrated with chrism; but of course the decrees of this provincial council would not necessarily be received throughout the church.

Pope Felix I. (A.D. 269-274) decreed that ``mass should be celebrated above the tombs of martyrs'' -- an observance probably suggested by the passage in Revelation vi. 9, ``I saw under the altar the souls of them that were slain for the word of God.'' This practice developed into the medieval rule that no altar can be consecrated unless it contain a relic or relics.

The form of the altar was originally table-shaped, consisting of a plane surface supported by columns. There were usually four, but examples with one, two and five columns are also recorded. But the development of the relic-custom led to the adoption of another form, the square box shape of an ``altar- tomb.'' Transitional examples, combining the box with the earlier table shape, are found dating about 450. Mention is made occasionally of silver and gold altaus in the 5th to the 8th centuries. This means no doubt that gold and silver were copiously used in its decoration. Such an altar still remains in Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, dating from the 9th century (see fig. 1).

II. The Medieval Church. -- It will be convenient now to pass to the fully-developed altar of the Western Church with its accessories, though the rudiments of most of the additional details are traceable in the earlier period.

In the Roman Catholic Church, which preserves in this respect the tradition that had become established during the middle ages, the component parts of a fixed altar in the liturgical sense are the table (mensa), or super-altar, consisting of a stone slab; the support (stipes), consisting either of a solid mass or of four or more columns; the sepulchrum, or altar-cavity, a small chamber for the reception of the relics of martyrs. The support, in the technical sense, must be of stone solidly joined to the table; but, if this support consist of columns, the intervals may be filled with other materials, e.g. brick or cement. The altar- slab or ``table'' alone is consecrated, and in sign of this are cut in its upper surface five Greek crosses, one in the centre and one in each corner. These crosses must have been anointed by the bishop with chrism in the ritual of consecration before the altar can be used. Crosses appear on the portable altar buried with St Cuthbert (A.D. 687), but the history of the origin and development of this practice is not fully worked out.

According to the Caeromoniale (i. 12. 13) a canopy (balda chinum) should be suspended over the altar; this should be square, and of sufficient size to cover the altar and the predella on which the officiating priest stands. This baldachin, called liturgically the ciborium, is sometimes hung from the roof by chains in such a way that it can be lowered or raised; sometimes it is fixed to the wall or reredos; sometimes it is a solid structure of wood covered with metal or of marble supported on four columns. The latter form is, however, usual only in large churches, more especially of the basilica type, e.g. St Peter's at Rome or the Roman Catholic cathedral at Westminster. The origin of the ciborium is not certain, but it is represented in a mosaic at Thessalonica of a date not later than A.D. 500. Even at the present day, in spite of a decree of the Congregation of Rites (27th of May 1697) ordering it to be placed over all altars, it is -- even at Rome itself -- usually only found over the high altar and the altar of the Blessed Sacrament.

Multiplication of altars is another medieval characteristic. This also is probably a result of the edict of Pope Felix already mentioned. In a vault where more than one martyr was buried an altar might be erected for each. It is in the 6th century that we begin to find traces of the multiplication of altars. In the church of St Gall, Switzerland, in the 9th century there were seventeen. In the modern Latin Church almost every large church contains several altars -- dedicated to certain saints, in private side chapels, established for masses for the repose of the founder's soul, &c. Archbishop Wuifred in 816 ordered that beside every altar there should be an inscription recording its dedication. This regulation fell into abeyance after the 12th century, and such inscriptions are very rare. One remains mutilated at Deerhurst (Archaeologia, vol. 1. p. 69).

Where there is in a cathedral or church more than one altar, the principal one is called a ``high altar.'' Where there is a second high altar, it is generally at the end of the choir or chancel. In monastic churches (e.g. formerly at St Albans) it sometimes stands at the end of the nave close to the choir screen.

Beside the altar was a drain (piscina) for pouring away the water in which the communion vessels were rinsed. This seems originally to have been under the altar, as it is still in the Eastern Church.

That the primitive communion table was covered with a communion-cloth is highly probable, and is mentioned by Optatus (c. A.D. 370), bishop of Alilevis. This had developed by the 14th or 15th century into a cerecloth, or waxed cloth, on the table itself; and three linen coverings one above the other, two of about the size of the table and one rather wider than the altar, and long enough to hang down at each end. Five crosses are worked upon it, four in the corners and one in the middle, and there is an embroidered edging.1 In front was often a hanging panel of embroidered cloth (the frontal; but frontals of wood, ornamented with carving or enamel, &c., are also to be found). These embroidered frontals are changeable, so that the principal colour in the pattern can accord with the liturgical colour of the day. Speaking broadly, red is the colour for feasts of martyrs, white for virgins, violet for penitential seasons, &c.; no less than sixty-three different uses differing in details have been enumerated. A similar panel of needlework (the dossal) is suspended behind the altar.

Portable altars have been used on occasion since the time of Bede. They are small slabs of hard stone, just large enough for the chalice and paten. They are consecrated and marked with the five incised crosses in the same way as the fixed altar, but they may be placed upon a support of any suitable material, whether wood or stone. They are used on a journey in a heretical or heathen country, or in private chapels. In the inventory of the field apparel of Henry, earl of Northumberland, A.D. 1513, is included ``A coffer wyth ij liddes to serue for an Awter and ned be'' (Archaeologia, xxvi. 403).

On the altar are placed a cross and candlesticks -- six in number, and seven when a bishop celebrates in his cathedral; and over it is suspended or fixed a tabernacle or receptacle for the reservation of the Sacrament.

III. Post-Reformation Altars. -- At the Reformation the altars in churches were looked upon as symbols of the unreformed doctrine, especially where the struggle lay between the Catholics and the Calvinists, who on this point were much more radical revolutionaries than the Lutherans. In England the name ``altar''2 was retained in the Communion Office in English, printed in 1549, and in the complete English Prayer-book of the following year, known to students as the First Book of Edward VI. But orders were given soon after that the altars should be destroyed, and replaced by movable wooden tables; while from the revised Prayer book of 1552 the word ``altar'' was carefully expunged, ``God's board'' or ``the table'' being substituted. The short reign of Mary produced a temporary reaction, but the work of reformation was resumed on the accession of Elizabeth.

The name ``altar'' has been all along retained in the Coronation Office of the kings of England, where it occurs frequently. It was also recognized in the canons of 1640, but with the reservation that ``it was an altar in the sense in which the primitive church called it an altar and in no other.'' In the same canons the rule for the position of the communion tables, which has been since regularly followed throughout the Church of England, was formulated. In the primitive church the altars seem to have been so placed that, like those of the Hebrews, they could be surrounded on all sides by the worshippers. The chair of the bishop or celebrant was on their east side, and the assistant clergy were ranged on each side of him. But in the middle ages the altars were placed against the east wall of the churches, or else against a reredos erected at the east side of the altar, so as to prevent all access to the table from that side; the celebrant was thus brought round to the west side and caused to stand between the people and the altar. On the north and south sides there were often curtains. When tables were substituted for altars in the English churches, these were not merely movable, but at the administration of the Lord's Supper were actually moved into the body of the church, and placed table-wise -- that is, with the long sides turned to the north and south, and the narrow ends to the east and west, -- the officiating clergyman standing at the north side. In the time of Archbishop Laud, however, the present practice of the Church of England was introduced. The communion table, though still of wood and movable, is, as a matter of fact, never moved; it is placed altar-wise -- that is, with its longer axis running north and south, and close against the east wall. Often there is a reredos behind it; it is also fenced in by rails to preserve it from profanation of various kinds.

In 1841 the ancient church of the Holy Sepulchre at Cambridge was robbed of most of its interest by a calamitous ``restoration'' carried out under the superintendence and partly at the charge of the Camden Society. On this occasion a stone altar, consisting of a flat slab resting upon three other upright slabs, was presented to the parish, and was set up in the church at the east wall of the chancel. This was brought to the notice of the Court of Arches in 1845, and Sir H. Jenner Fust (Faulkner v. Lichfield and Stearn) ordered it to be removed, on the ground that a stone structure so weighty that it could not be carried about, and seeming to be a mass of solid masonry, was not a communion-table in the sense recognized by the Church of England.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. -- For altars in the ancient East see M. Jastrow, Religion of Assyria anid Babylonia; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Chaldea (i. 143, 255); Sir i. Gardiner Wilkinson, A Second Series of the Monners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, ii. 387; Benzinger's and Nowack's works on Hebraische Archaologie. For classical altars, much information can be obtained from the notes in J. G. Frazer's Pausaniae. See also Schomann, Griechische Alterthumer, vol. ii.; the volume on ``Gottesdienstliche Altcrthumer'' in Hermann's Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten. On domestic altars and worship see Petersen, Hausgottesdienst der Griechen (Cassel, 1851). On plural dedications consult Maurer, De aribus graecorum pluribus deis in commune positis (Darmstadt, 1885). For Christian altars, reference is best made to the articles on the subject in the dictionaries of Christian and liturgical antiquities of Migne, Martigny, Smith and Cheetham, and Pugin, where practically all the available information is collected. See also Ciampinus, Vetera Monumenta (Rome, 1747), where numerous illustrations of altars are to be found; Martune, De antiquis Ecclesiae ritibus, iii. vi. (Rouen, 1700); Voigt, Thyslasteriologia sive de altaribus veterum Christianorum (Hamburg, 1709); and the liturgical works of Bona. Many articles on various sections of the subject have appeared in the journals of archaeoloeical societies; we may mention Nesbitt on the churches of Rome earlier than 1150 (Archaeologia, xl. p. 210), Didron, ``L'Autel chretien'' (Annales archeologiques, iv. p. 238), and a paper by Texier on enamelled altars in the same volume. (R. A. S. M.)

1 In the Eastern Church four small pieces of cloth marked with the names of the Evangelists are placed on the four corners of the altar, and covered with three cloths, the uppermost (the corporal) being of smaller size.

2 Except in one place where the term used is ``God's Board.''

ALTDORF, the capital of the Swiss canton of Uri. It is built at a height of 1516 ft. above sea-level, a little above the right bank of the Reuss, not far above the point where this river is joined on the right by the Schachen torrent. In 1900 the population was 3117, all Romanists and German-speaking. Altdorf is 34 m. from Lucerne by the St Gotthard railway and 22 m. from Goeschenen. Its port on the Lake of Lucerne, Fluelon, is 2 m. distant. There is a stately parish church, while above the little town is the oldest Capuchin convent in Switzerland (1581). Altdorf is best known as the place where, according to the legend, William Tell shot the apple from his son's head. This act by tradition happened on the market-place, where in 1895, at the foot of an old tower (with rude frescoes commemorating the feat), there was set up a fine bronze statue (by Richard Kissling of Zurich) of Tell and his son. In 1899 a theatre was opened close to the town for the sole purpose of performing Schiller's play of Wilhelm Tell. The same year a new carriage-road was opened from Altdorf through the Schachen valley and over the Klausen Pass (6404 ft.) to the village of Linththal (30 m.) and so to Glarus. One and a half mile from Altdorf by the Klausen road is the village of Burglen, where by tradition Tell was born; while he is also said to have lost his life, while saving that of a child, in the Schachen torrent that flows past the village. On the left bank of the Reuss, immediately opposite Altdorf, is Attinghausen, where the ruined castle (which belonged to one of the real founders of the Swiss Confederation) now houses the cantonal museum of antiquities. (W. A. B. C.)

ALTDORFER, ALBRECHT (N 1480-1538), German painter and engraver, was born at Regensburg (Ratisbon), where in 1505 he was enrolled a burgher, and described as ``twenty-five years old.'' Soon afterwards he is known to have been prosperous, and as city architect he erected fortifications and a public slaughter-house. Altdorfer has been called the ``Giorgione of the North.,' His paintings are remarkable for minute and careful finish, and for close study of nature. The most important of them are to be found in the Pinakothek at Munich. A representation of the battle of Arbela (1529), included in that collection, is usually considered his chief work. His engravings on wood and copper are very numerous, and rank next to those of Albrecht Durer. The most important collection is at the Bedin museum. Albrecht's brother, Erhard Altdorfer, was also a painter and engraver, and a pupil of Lucas Cranach.

ALTEN, SIR CHARLES [Karl] (1764-1840), Hanoverian and British soldier, son of Baron Alten, a member of an old Hanoverian family, entered the service of the elector as a page at the age of twelve. In 1781 he received a commission in the Hanoverian guards, and as a captain took part in the campaigns of 1793- 1795 in the Low Countries, distinguishing himself particularly on the Lys in command of light infantry. In 1803 the Hanoverian army was disbanded, and Alten took service with the King's German Legion in British pay. In command of the light infantry of this famous corps he took part with Lord Cathcart in the Hanoverian expedition of 1805 and in the siege of Copenhagen in 1807, and was with Moore in Sweden and Spain, as well as in the disastrous Walcheren expedition. He was soon employed once more in the Peninsula, and at Albuera commanded a brigade. In April 1813 Wellington placed him at the head of the famous ``Light Division'' (43rd, 52nd, 95th, and Cacadores), in which post he worthily continued the records of Moore and Robert Craufurd at Nivelle, Nive, Orthez and

Toulouse. His officers presented him with a sword of honour as a token of their esteem. In 1815 Alten commanded Wellington's 3rd division and was severely wounded at Waterloo. His conduct won for him the rank of Count von Alten. When the King's German Legion ceased to exist, Alten was given the command of the Hanoverians in France, and in 1818 he returned to Hanover, where he became subsequently minister of war and foreign affairs, and rose to be field-marshal, being retained on the British Army list at the same time as Major-General Sir Charles Alten, G. C. B. He died in 1840. A memorial to Alten has been erected at Hanover.

See Glentleman's Magazine, 1840; N. L. Beamish, Hist. of the King's German Legion, 2 vols. (1832-1837).

ALTENA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the river Lenne, 38 m. S.S.E. from Dortmund. Pop. (1900) 12,769. It consists of a single street, winding up a deep valley for about 3 m. There are three churches, a museum, high grade and popular schools. Its hardware industries are important, and embrace iron rolling, the manufacture of fine wire, needles, springs and silver ornaments. On the neighbouring Schlossberg is the ancestral castle of the counts of La Marok, ancestors, on the female side, of the Prussian royal house.

ALTENBURG, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, situated near the river Pleisse, 23 m. S. of Leipzig, and at the junction of the Saxon state railways Leipzig- Hof and Altenburg-Zeitz. Pop. (1905) 38,811. The town from its hilly position is irregularly built, but many of its streets are wide, and contain a number of large and beautiful buildings. Its ancient castle is picturesquely situated on a lofty porphyry rock, and is memorable as the place from which, in 1455, Kunz von Kaufungen carried off the young princes Albert and Ernest, the founders of the present royal and ducal families of Saxony. Its beautiful picture gallery, containing portraits of several of the famous princes of the house of Wettin, was almost totally destroyed by fire in January 1905. Altenburg is the seat of the higher courts of the Saxon duchies, and possesses a cathedral and several churches, schools, a library, a gallery of pictures and a school of art, an infirmary and various learned societies. There is also a museum, with natural history, archaeological, and art collections, and among other buildings may be mentioned St Bartholomew's church (1089), the town hall (1562-1564), a lunatic asylum, teachers' seminary and an agricultural academy. There is considerable traffic in grain and cattle brought from the surrounding districts; and twice a year there are large horse fairs. Cigars, woollen goods, gloves, hats and porcelain are among the chief manufactures. There are lignite mines in the vicinity.

ALTENSTEIN, a castle upon a rocky mountain in Saxe- Meiningen, on the south-western slope of the Thuringerwald, not far from Eisenach. It is the summer residence of the dukes of Meiningen, and is surrounded by a noble park, which contains, among other objects of interest, a remarkable underground cavern, 500 ft. long, through which flows a large and rapid stream. Boniface, the apostle of the Germans, lived and preached at Altenstein in 724; and near by is the place where, in 1521, Luther was seized, by the order of the elector Frederick the Wise, to be carried off to the Wartburg. An old beech called ``Luther's tree,'' which tradition connected with the reformer, was blown down in 1841, and a small monument now stands in its place.

ALTERNATION (from Lat. aiternare, to do by turns), strictly, the process of ``alternating''' i.e. of two things following one another regularly by turns, as night alternates with day. A somewhat different sense is attached to some usages of the derivatives. Thus, in American political representative bodies and in the case of company directors, a substitute is sometimes called an ``alternate.'' An ``alternative'' IS that which is offered as a choice of two things, the acceptance of the one implying the rejection of the other. It is incorrect to speak of more than two alternatives, though Mr Gladstone wrote in 1857 of a fourth (Oxf. Essays, 26). When there is only one course open there is said to be no alternative.

ALTHAEA, in classical legend, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, wife of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and mother of Meleager (q.v..)

ALTING, JOHANN HEINRICH (1583--1644), German divine, was born at Emden, where his father, Menso Alting ( 1541-1612), was minister. Johann studied with great success at the universities of Groningen and Herborn. In 1608 he was appointed tutor of Frederick, afterwards elector-palatine, at Heidelberg, and in 1612 accompanied him to England. Returning in 1613 to Heidelberg, after the marriage of the elector with Princess Elizabeth of England, he was appointed professor of dogmatics, and in 1616 director of the theological department in the Collegium Sapientiae. In 1618, along with Abraham Scultetus, he represented the university in the synod of Dort. When Count Tilly took the city of Heidelberg (1622) and handed it over to plunder, Alting found great difficulty in escaping the fury of the soldiers. He first retired to Schorndorf; but, offended by the ``semi-Pelagianism'' of the Lutherans with whom he was brought in contact, he removed to Holland, where the unfortunate elector and ``Winter King'' Frederick, in exile after his brief reign in Bohemia, made him tutor to his eldest son. In 1627 Alting was appointed to the chair of theology at Groningen, where he continued to lecture, with increasing reputation, until his death in 1644. Though an orthodox Calvinist, Alting laid little stress on the sterner side of his creed and, when at Dort he opposed the Remonstrants, he did so mainly on the ground that they were ``innovators.'' Among his works are: --Notae in Decadem Problematum Jacobi Behm (Heidelberg, 1618); Scripta Pheologica Meidelbergensia (Amst., 1662); Exegesis Augustanae Confessionis (Amst., 1647).

ALTINUM (mod. Altino), an ancient town of Venetia, 12 m. S.E. of Tarvisium (Treviso), on the edge of the lagoons. It was probably only a small fishing village until it became the point of junction of the Via Postumia and the Via Popillia (see AQUILEIA). At the end of the republic it was a municipium. Augustus and his successors brought it into further importance as a point on the route between Italy and the north-eastern portions of the empire. After the foundation of the naval station at Ravenna, it became the practice to take ship from there to Altinum, instead of following the Via Popillia round the coast, and thence to continue the journey by land. A new road, the Via Claudia Augusta, was constructed by the emperor Claudius from Altinum to the Danube, a distance of 350 m., apparently by way of the Lake of Constance. The place thus became of considerable strategic and commercial importance, and the comparatively mild climate (considering its northerly situation) led to the erection of villas which Martial (Epigr. iv. 25) compares with those of Baiae. It was destroyed by Attila in A.D. 452, and its inhabitants took refuge in the islands of the lagoons, forming settlements from which Venice eventually sprang.

ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high), height or eminence, and particularly the height above the ground or above sea-level. In geometry, the altitude of a triangle is the length of the perpendicular from the vertex to the base. In astronomy, the altitude of a heavenly body is the apparent angular elevation of the body above the plane of the horizon (see ASTRONOMY: Spherical). Apparent altitude is the value which is directly observed; true altitude is deduced by correcting for astronomical refraction and dip of the horizon; geocentric altitude by correcting for parallax.

ALTMUHL, a river of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria. It is an important left bank tributary of the Danube, rising in the Franconian plateau (Frankische Terrasse), and after a tortuous course of 116 m., at times flowing through meadows and again in weird romantic gorges, joins the Danube at Kelheim. From its mouth it is navigable up to Dietfurt (18 m.), whence the Ludwigscanal (100 m. long) proceeds to Bamberg on the Regnitz, thus establishing communication between the Danube and the Rhine.

ALTO (Ital. for ``high',), a musical term applied to the highest adult male voice or counter-tenor, and to the lower boy's or woman's (contralto) Voice.

ALTON, a market-town in the Fareham parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 46 1/2 m. S.W. of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5479. It has a pleasant undulating site near the headwaters of the river Wey. Of the church of St Lawrence part, including the tower, is Norman; the building was the scene of a fierce conflict between the royalist and parliamentary troops in 1643. There is a museum of natural history; the collection is reminiscent of the famous naturalist Gilbert White, of Selborne in this vicinity. Large markets and fairs are held for corn, hops, cattle and sheep; and the town contains some highly reputed ale breweries, besides paper mills and iron foundries.

ALTON, a city of Madison county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, on the Mississippi river, about 10 m. above the mouth of the Missouri, and about 25 m. N. of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1890) 10,294; (1900) 14,210, of whom 1638 were foreign-born; (1910) 17,528. Alton is served by the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Illinois Terminal railways. The river is here spanned by a bridge. The residential portion of the city lies on the river bluffs, some of which rise to a height of 250 ft. above the water level, and the business streets are on the bottom lands of the river. Alton has a public library and a public park. Upper Alton (pop. 2918 in 1910), about 1 1/2 m. N.E. of Alton, is the seat of the Western Military Academy (founded in 1879 as Wyman Institute; chartered in 1892), and of Shurtleff College (Baptist, founded in 1827 at Rock Spring, removed to Upper Alton in 1831, and chartered in 1833), which has a college of liberal arts, a divinity school, an academy and a school of music; and the village of Godfrey, 5 1/2 m. N. of Alton, is the seat of the Monticello Ladies' Seminary, founded by Benjamin Godfrey, opened in 1838, and chartered in 1841. Among the manufactures of Alton are iron and glass ware, miners' tools, shovels, coal-mine cars, flour, and agricultural implements; and there are a large oil refinery and a large lead smelter. The value of the city's factory products increased from $4,250,389 in 1900 to $8,696,814 in 1905, or 104.6%.

The first settlement on the site of Alton was made in 1807, when a trading post was established by the French. The town was laid out in 1817, was first incorporated in 1821, and in 1827 was made the seat of a state penitentiary, which was later removed to Joliet, the last prisoners being transferred in 1860. Alton was first chartered as a city in 1837. In 1836 the Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy (1802-1837), a native of Albion, Maine, removed the Observer, a religious (Presbyterian) periodical of which he was the editor, from St Louis to Alton. He had attracted considerable attention in St Louis by his criticisms of slavery, but though he believed in emancipation, he was not a radical abolitionist. After coming to Alton his anti-slavery views soon became more radical, and in a few months he was an avowed abolitionist. His views were shared by his brother, Owen Lovejoy (1811-1864), a Congregational minister, who also at that time lived in Alton, and who from 1857 until his death was an able anti-slavery member of Congress. Most of the people of southern Illinois were in sympathy with slavery, and consequently the Lovejoys became very unpopular. The press of the Observer was three time destroyed, and on the 7th of November 1837 E. P. Loveioy was killed while attempting to defend against a mob a fourth press which he had recently obtained and which was stored in a warehouse in Alton. His death caused intense excitement throughout the country, and he was everywhere regarded by abolitionists as a martyr to their cause. In 1897 a monument, a granite column surmounted by a bronze statue of Victory, was erected in his honour by the citizens of Alton and by the state.

See Henry Tanner, The Martyrdom of Lovejoy (Chicago, 1881), and ``The Alton Tragedy'' in S. J. May's Some Recollections of Our Anti-Slavery Conflict (Boston, 1869).

ALTONA, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the right bank of the Elbe immediately west of Hamburg. Though administratively distinct, the two cities so closely adjoin as virtually to form one whole. Lying higher than Hamburg, Altona enjoys a purer and healthier atmosphere. It has spacious squares and streets, among the latter the Palmaille, a stately avenue ending on a terrace about 100 ft. above the Elbe, whence a fine view is obtained of the river and the lowlands beyond. Of the six Evangelical churches, the Hauptkirche (parish church), with a lofty steeple, is noteworthy. The main thoroughfares are embellished by several striking monuments, notably the memorials of the wars of 1864 and 1870, bronze statues of the emperor William I. and Bismarck and the column of Victory (Siegessaule). The museum (1901) is an imposing building in the German Renaissance style and contains, in addition to a valuable library, ethnographical and natural history collections. Its site is that formerly occupied by the terminus of the Schleswig-Holstein railways, but a handsome central station lying somewhat farther to the N., connected with Hamburg by an elevated railway, now accommodates all the traffic and provides through communication with the main Prussian railway systems. There are also fine municipal and judicial buildings, a theatre (under the same management as the Stadttheater in Hamburg), a gymnasium, technical schools, a school of navigation and a hospital. In respect of its local industries Altona has manufactures of tobacco and cigars, of machinery, woollens, cottons and chemicals. There are also extensive breweries, tanneries and soap and oil works. Altona carries on an extensive maritime trade with Great Britain, France and America, but it has by no means succeeded in depriving Hamburg of its commercial superiority -- indeed, so dependent is it upon its rival that most of its business is transacted on the Hamburg exchange, while the magnificent warehouses on the Altona river bank are to a large extent occupied by the goods of Hamburg merchants. Since 1888, when Altona joined the imperial Zollverein, approximately half a million sterling has been spent upon harbour improvement works. The exports and imports resemble those of Hamburg. In the ten years 1871-1880, the port was entered on an average annually by 737 vessels of 67,735 tons, in 1881-1890 by 608 vessels of 154,713 tons, and in 1891-1898 by 839 vessels of 253,384 tons.

In 1890 the populous suburbs of Ottensen to the W., where the poet Gottlieb Klopstock lies buried, Bahrenfeld, Othmarschen and Ovelgonne were incorporated. Without these suburbs the growth of the town may be seen from the following figures: -- (1864, when it ceased to he Danish) 53,039; (1880) 91,049; (1885) 104,717; (1890) together with the four suburbs, 143,249; (1895) 148,944; (1900) 161,508; (1905) 168,301. Altona is the headquarters of the IX. German army corps.

The name Altona is said to be derived from allzu-nah (``all too near''), the Hamburgers' designation for an inn which in the middle of the 16th century lay too close to their territory. For a long time this was the only house in the locality. When in 1640 Altona passed to Denmark it was a small fishing village. Its rise to its present position is mainly due to the fostering care of the Danish kings who conferred certain customs privileges and exemptions upon it with a view to making it a formidable rival to Hamburg. In 1713 it was burnt by the Swedes, but rapidly recovered from this disaster, and despite the trials of the Napoleonic wars, gradually increased in prosperity. In 1853, owing to the withdrawal by Denmark of its customs privileges, its trade waned. In 1864 Altona was occupied in the name of the German Confederation, passed to Prussia after the war of 1866, and 1888 together with Hamburg joined the Zollverein, while retaining certain free trade rights over the Freihafengebiet which it shares with Hamburg and Wandsbek.

See Wichmann, Geschichte Altonas (2 vols., Alt., 1896); Ehrenberg & Stahl, Altonas topographische Entwickelung (Alt., 1894).

ALTOONA, a city of Blair county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 117 m. E. by N. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 30,337; (1900) 38,973, of whom 3301 were foreign-born, 1518 being German; (1010) 52,127. It lies in the upper end of Logan Valley at the base or the Alleghany mountains, about 1180 ft. above sea-level, and Commands views of some of the most picturesque mountain scenery in the state. A short distance to the W. is the famous Horseshoe Bend of the Pennsylvania

railway. Altoona is served by the Pennsylvania railway, and is one of the leading railway cities in the United States. Its freight yard is 7 m. long, and has 221 m. of tracks. Large numbers of eastbound coal trains from the mountains and westbound ``empties'' returning to the mines stop here; and the cars of these trains are classified here and new trains made up. Locomotives and cars are sent to Altoona to be repaired from all over the Pennsylvania railway system E. of Pittsburg, and cars and locomotives are built here; and in the south Altoona foundries car wheels and general castings for locomotives and cars are made. The several departments of railway work are used to give training in a sort of railway university. Graduates of technical schools are received as special apprentices and are directed in a course of four years through the erecting shops, vice shop, blacksmith shop, boiler shop, roundhouse, test department, machine shop, air-brake shop, iron foundry, car shop, work of firing on the road, office work in the motive power accounting department, and drawing room; the most competent may be admitted through the grades of inspector, in the office of the master mechanic or of the road foreman of engines, assistant master mechanic, assistant engineer of motive power, master mechanic and superintendent of motive power. The Pennsylvania railway, co-operating with the public school authorities, established at Altoona, in 1907, a railway high school, the first institution of the kind in the country. It has a well-equipped drawing room, carpenter shop, forging room, foundry, science laboratories and machinery department, in which expert instruction is given. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $14,349,963, and in this year the railway shops gave employment to 83.7% of all wage-earners employed in manufacturing establishments. The manufacture of silk is the only other important industry in the city. The site of the city (formerly farming land) was purchased in 1849 by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company and was laid out as a town. It was incorporated as a borough in 1854 and was chartered as a city in 1868.

ALTO-RELIEVO (Ital. for ``high relief''), the term applied to sculpture that projects from the plane to which it is attached to the extent of more than one-half the outline of the principal figures, which may be nearly or in parts entirely detached from the background. It is thus distinguished from basso-relievo (q.v.), in which there is a greater or less approximation in effect to the pictorial method, the figures being made to appear as projecting more than half their outline without actually doing so. At the same time it is not only the actual degree of relief which is implied by these two terms, but a resultant difference also of design and treatment necessitated by the contingent differences of light and shadow. (See RELIEF and SCULPTURE.)

ALTOTTING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, On the Morren, not far from its junction with the Inn, and on the Mulildorf-Burghausen railway. Pop. (1900) 4344. It has long been a place of pilgrimage to which Roman Catholics, especially from Austria, Bavaria and Swabia resort in large numbers, on account of a celebrated image of the Virgin Mary in the Holy Chapel, which also contains the hearts of some Bavarian princes in silver caskets. In the church of St Peter and St Paul is the tomb of Tilly.

ALTRANSTADT, a village of Germany, in Prussian Saxony near Merseburg (q.v.), with (1900) 813 inhabitants. Altranstadt is famous in history for two treaties concluded here: (1) the peace which Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony, was forced to ratify, on the 24th of September 1706, with Charles XII. of Sweden, whereby the former renounced the throne of Poland in favour of Stanislaus Leszczynski -- a treaty which Augustus declared null and void after Charles XII.'s defeat at Poltava (8th of July 1709); (2) the treaty of the 31st of August 1707, by which the emperor Joseph I. guaranteed to Charles XII. religious tolerance and liberty of conscience for the Silesian protestants.

ALTRINCHAM, or ALTRINOHAM (and so pronounced), a market-town, in the Altrincham padiamentary division of Cheshire England, 8 m. S.W. by S. of Manchester, on the London & North-Western, Manchester, South Junction & Altrincham and Cheshire Lines railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 16,831. Many residences in the locality are occupied by those whose business lies in Manchester, who are attracted by the healthy climate and the vicinity of Bowdon Downs and Dunham Massey Woods. Market gardening is carried on, large quantities of fruit and flowers being grown for sale in Manchester. Cabinet-making is also practised; and there are sawmills, iron foundries, and manufactures of cotton, yarn and worsted.

Altrincham (Aldringham) was originally included in the barony of Dunham Massey, one of the eight baronies founded by Hugh, earl of Chester, after the Conquest. An undated charter from Hamo de Massey, lord of the barony, in the reign of Edward I., constituted Altrincham a free borough, with a gild merchant, the customs of Macclesfield, the right to elect reeves and bailiffs for the common council and other privileges. In 1290 the same Hamo obtained a grant of a Tuesday market and a three days' fair at the feast of the Assumption of the Virgin; but in 1319, by a charter from Edward II., the date of the fair was changed to the feast of St James the Apostle. A mayor of Altrincham is mentioned by name in 1452, but the office probably existed long before this date; it has now for centuries been a purely nominal appointment, the chief duty consisting in the opening of the annual fairs. The trade in worsted and woollen yarns, which formerly furnished employment to a large section of the population, has now completely declined, partly owing to the introduction of Irish worsted.

See Victoria County History, Cheshire; Alfred Ingham, History of Altrincham and Bowdon (Altrincham, 1879).

ALTRUISM (Fr. autrui, from Lat. alter, the other of two), a philosophical term used in ethics for that theory of conduct which regards the good of others as the end of moral action. It was invented by Auguste Comte and adopted by the English positivists as a convenient antithesis to egoism. According to Comte the only practical method of social regeneration is gradually to inculcate the true social feeling which subordinates itself to the welfare of others. The application to sociological problems of the physical theory of organic evolution further developed the altruistic theory. According to Herbert Spencer, the life of the individual in the perfect society is identical with that of the state: in other words, the first object of him who would live well must be to take his part in promoting the well-being of his fellows individually and collectively. Pure egoism and pure altruism are alike impracticable. For on the one hand unless the egoist's happiness is compatible to some extent with that of his fellows, their opposition will almost inevitably vitiate his perfect enjoyment; on the other hand, the altruist whose primary object is the good of others, must derive his own highest happiness -- i.e. must realize himself most completely -- in the fulfilment of this object. In fact, the altruistic idea, in itself and apart from a further definition of the good, is rather a method than an end.

The self-love theory of Hobbes, with its subtle perversions of the motives of ordinary humanity, led to a reaction which culminated in the utilitarianism of Bentham and the two Mills; but their theory, though superior to the extravagant egoism of Hobbes, had this main defect, according to Herbert Spencer, that it conceived the world as an aggregate of units, and was so far individualistic. Sir Leslie Stephen in his Science of Ethics insisted that the unit is the social organism, and therefore that the aim of moralists is not the ``greatest happiness of the greatest number,'' but rather the ``health of the organism.'' The socialistic tendencies of subsequent thinkers have emphasized the ethical importance of altruistic action, but it must be remembered always that it is ultimately only a form of action, that it may be commended in all types of ethical theory, and that it is a practical guide only when it is applied in accordance with a definite theory of ``the good.'' Finally, he who devotes himself on principle to furthering the good of others as his highest moral obligation is from the highest point of view realizing, not sacrificing, himself.

See works of Comte, Spencer, Stephen, and text-books of ethics (cf. bibliography at end of article ETHICS).

ALTWASSER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, 43 m. by rail S.W. from Breslau, and 3 m. N. from Waldenburg. It has factories for glass, porcelain, machinery, cotton-spinning, iron-foundries and coal-mines. Pop. (1900) 12,144.

ALTYN-TAGH, or ASTYN-TAOH, one of the chief constituent ranges of the Kuen-lun (q.v.) in Central Asia, separating Tibet from east Turkestan and the Desert of Gobi.

ALUM, in chemistry, a term given to the crystallized double sulphates of the typical formula M2SO4.M2111.(SO4)324H2O, Where M is the sign of an alkali metal (potassium, sodium, rubidium, caesium), silver or ammonium, and M111 denotes one of the trivalent metals, aluminium, chromium or ferric iron. These salts are employed in dyeing and various other industrial processes. They are soluble in water, have an astringent, acid, and sweetish taste, react acid to litmus, and crystallize in regular octahedra. When heated they liquefy; and if the heating be continued, the water of crystallization is driven off, the salt froths and swells, and at last an amorphous powder remains.

Potash alum is the common alum of commerce, although both soda alum and ammonium alum are manufactured. The presence of sulphuric acid in potash alum was known to the alchemists. J. H. Pott and A. S. Marggraf demonstrated that alumina was another constituent. Pott in his Lithogeognosia showed that the precipitate obtained when an alkali is poured into a solution of alum is quite different from lime and chalk, with which it had been confounded by G. E. Stahl. Marggraf showed that alumina is one of the constituents of alum, but that this earth possesses peculiar properties, and is one of the ingredients in common clay (Experiences faites sur la terre de l'alun, Marggraf's Opusc. ii. 111) . He also showed that crystals of alum cannot be obtained by dissolving alumina in sulphuric acid and evaporating the solutions, but when a solution of potash or ammonia is dropped into this liquid, it immediately deposits perfect crystals of alum (Sur la regeneration de l'alun, Marggraf's Opusc. ii. 86).

T. O. Bergman also observed that the addition of potash or ammonia made the solution of alumina in sulphuric acid crystallize, but that the same effect was not produced by the addition of soda or of lime (De confectione aluminus, Bergman's Opusc. i. 225), and that potassium sulphate is frequently found in alum.

After M. H. Klaproth had discovered the presence of potassium in leucite and lepidolite, it occurred to L. N. Vauquelin that it was probably an ingredient likewise in many other minerals. Knowing that alum cannot be obtained in crystals without the addition of potash, he began to suspect that this alkali constituted an essential ingredient in the salt, and in 1797 he published a dissertation demonstrating that alum is a double salt, composed of sulphuric acid, alumina and potash (Annales de chimie, xxii. 258). Soon after, J. A. Chaptal published the analysis of four different kinds of alum, namely, Roman alum, Levant alum, British alum and alum manufactured by himself. This analysis led to the same result as that of Vauquelin (Ann. de chim xxii. 280).

The word alumen, which we translate alum, occurs in Pliny's Natural History. In the 15th chapter of his 35th book he gives a detailed description of it. By comparing this with the account of stupteria given by Dioscorides in the 123rd chapter of his 5th book, it is obvious that the two are identical. Pliny informs us that alumen was found naturally in the earth. He calls it salsugoterrae. Different substances were distinguished by the name of ''alumen''; but they were all characterized by a certain degree of astringency, and were all employed in dyeing and medicine, the light-coloured alumen being useful in brilliant dyes, the dark-coloured only in dyeing black or very dark colours. One species was a liquid, which was apt to be adulterated; but when pure it had the property of blackening when added to pomegranate juice. This property seems to characterize a solution of iron sulphate in water; a solution of ordinary (potash) alum would possess no such property. Pliny says that there is another kind of alum which the Greeks call schistos. It forms in white threads upon the surface of certain stones. From the name schistos, and the mode of formation, there can be little doubt that this species was the salt which forms spontaneously on certain slaty minerals, as alum slate and bituminous shale, and which consists chiefly of sulphates of iron and aluminium. Possibly in certain places the iron sulphate may have been nearly wanting, and then the salt would be white, and would answer, as Pliny says it did, for dyeing bright colours. Several other species of alumen are described by Pliny, but we are unable to make out to what minerals he alludes.

The alumen of the ancients, then, was not the same with the alum of the moderns. It was most commonly an iron sulphate, sometimes probably an aluminium sulphate, and usually a mixture of the two. But the ancients were unacquainted with our alum. They were acquainted with a crystallized iron sulphate, and distinguished it by the names of misy, sory, chalcanthum (Pliny xxxiv. 12). As alum and green vitriol were applied to a variety of substances in common, and as both are distinguished by a sweetish and astringent taste, writers, even after the discovery of alum, do not seem to have discriminated the two salts accurately from each other. In the writings of the alchemists we find the words misy, sory, chalcanthum applied to alum as well as to iron sulphate; and the name atramentum sutorium, which ought to belong, one would suppose, exclusively to green vitriol, applied indifferently to both. Various minerals are employed in the manufacture of alum, the most important being alunite (q.v.) or alum-stone, alum schist, bauxite and cryolite.

In order to obtain alum from alunite, it is calcined and then exposed to the action of air for a considerable time. During this exposure it is kept continually moistened with water, so that it ultimately falls to a very fine powder. This powder is then lixiviated with hot water, the liquor decanted, and the alum allowed to crystallize. The alum schists employed in the manufacture of alum are mixtures of iron pyrites, aluminium silicate and various bituminous substances, and are found in upper Bavaria, Bohemia, Belgium and Scotland. These are either roasted or exposed to the weathering action of the air. In the roasting process, sulphuric acid is formed and acts on the clay to form aluminium sulphate, a similar condition of affairs being produced during weathering. The mass is now systematically extracted with water, and a solution of aluminium sulphate of specific gravity 1.16 is prepared. This solution is allowed to stand for some time (in order that any calcium sulphate and basic ferric sulphate may separate), and is then evaporated until ferrous sulphate crystallizes on cooling; it is then drawn off and evaporated until it attains a specific gravity of 1.40. It is now allowed to stand for some time, decanted from any sediment, and finally mixed with the calculated quantity of potassium sulphate (or if ammonium alum is required, with ammonium sulphate), well agitated, and the alum is thrown down as a finely-divided precipitate of alum meal. If much iron should be present in the shale then it is preferable to use potassium chloride in place of potassium sulphate.

In the preparation of alum from clays or from bauxite, the material is gently calcined, then mixed with sulphuric acid and heated gradually to boiling; it is allowed to stand for some time, the clear solution drawn off and mixed with acid potassium sulphate and allowed to crystallize. When cryolite is used for the preparation of alum, it is mixed with calcium carbonate and heated. By this means, sodium aluminate is formed; it is then extracted with water and precipitated either by sodium bicarbonate or by passing a current of carbon dioxide through the solution. The precipitate is then dissolved in sulphuric acid, the requisite amount of potassium sulphate added and the solution allowed to crystallize.

Potash alum, K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O, crystallizes in regular

octahedra and is very soluble in water. The solution redens litmus and is an astringent. When heated to nearly a red heat it gives a porous friable mass which is known as ``burnt alum.'' It fuses at 92 deg. C. in its own water of crystallization. ``Neutral alum'' is obtained by the addition of as much sodium carbonate to a solution of alum as will begin to cause the separation of alumina; it is much used in mordanting. Alum finds application as a mordant, in the preparation of lakes for sizing hand-made paper and in the clarifying of turbid liquids.

Sodium alum, Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O, occurs in nature as the mineral mendozite. It is very soluble in water, and is extremely difficult to purify. In the preparation of this salt, it is preferable to mix the component solutions in the cold, and to evaporate them at a temperature not exceeding 60 deg. C. 100 parts of water dissolve 110 parts of sodium alum at 0 deg. C. (W. A. Tilden, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1884, 45, p. 409), and 51 parts at 16 deg. C. (E. Auge, Comptes rendus, 1890, 110, p. 1139).

Chrome alum, K2SO4.Cr2(SO 4/0)3.24H2O, appears chiefly as a by-product in the manufacture of alizarin, and as a product of the reaction in bichromate batteries.

The solubility of the various alums in water varies greatly, sodium alum being readily soluble in water, whilst caesium and rubidium alums are only sparingly soluble. The various solubilities are shown in the following table: --

Ammonium Alum. Caesium Alum. Potash Alum. Rubidium Alum. t deg. C. 100 parts t deg. C. 100 parts t deg. C. 100 parts t deg. C. 100 parts water water water water dissolve dissolve dissolve dissolve 0 2.62 0 0.19 0 3.9 0 0.71 10 4.5 10 0.29 10 9.52 10 1.09 50 15.9 50 1.235 50 44.11 50 4.98 80 35.2 80 5.29 80 134.47 80 21.60 100 70.83 100 357.48 Poggiale C. Setterberg Poggiale C. Setterberg Ann. Chim. phys. Ann. 1882, [3] 8, p. 467 211, p. 104

ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27.0), a metallic chemical element. Although never met with in the free state, aluminium is very widely distributed in combination, principally as silicates. The word is derived from the Lat. alumen (see ALUM), and is probably akin to the Gr. als (the root of salt, halogen, &c.). In 1722 F. Hoffmann announced the base of alum to be an individual substance; L. B. Guyton de Morveau suggested that this base should be called alumine, after Sel alumineux, the French name for alum; and about 1820 the word was changed into alumina. In 1760 the French chemist, T. Baron de Henouville, unsuccessfully attempted ``to reduce the base of alum'' to a metal, and shortly afterwards various other investigators essayed the problem in vain. In 1808 Sir Humphry Davy, fresh from the electrolytic isolation of potassium and sodium, attempted to decompose alumina by heating it with potash in a platinum crucible and submitting the mixture to a current of electricity; in 1809, with a more powerful battery, he raised iron wire to a red heat in contact with alumina, and obtained distinct evidence of the production of an iron-aluminium alloy. Naming the new metal in anticipation of its actual birth, he called it alumium; but for the sake of analogy he was soon persuaded to change the word to aluminum, in which form, alternately with aluminium, it occurs in chemical literature for some thirty years.

Preparation.

In the year 1824, endeavouring to prepare itbychemicalmeans, H. C. Oersted heated its chloride with potassium amalgam, and failed in his object simply by reason of the mercury, so that when F. Wohler repeated the experiment at Gottingen in 1827, employing potassium alone as the reducing agent, he obtained it in the metallic state for the first time. Contaminated as it was with potassium and with platinum from the crucible, the metal formed a grey powder and was far from pure; but in 1845 he improved his process and succeeded in producing metallic globules wherewith he examined its chief properties, and prepared several compounds hitherto unknown. Early in 1854, H. St Claire Deville, accidentally and in ignorance of Wohler's later results, imitated the 1845 experiment. At once observing the reduction of the chloride, he realized the importance of his discovery and immediately began to study the commercial production of the metal. His attention was at first divided between two processes -- the chemical method of reducing the chloride with potassium, and an electrolytic method of decomposing it with a carbon anode and a platinum cathode, which was simultaneously imagined by himself and R. Bunsen. Both schemes appeared practically impossible; potassium cost about L. 17 per lb, gave a very small yield and was dangerous to manipulate, while on the other hand, the only source of electric current then available was the primary battery, and zinc as a store of industrial energy was utterly out of the question. Deville accordingly returned to pure chemistry and invented a practicable method of preparing sodium which, having a lower atomic weight than potassium, reduced a larger proportion. He next devised a plan for manufacturing pure alumina from the natural ores, and finally elaborated a process and plant which held the field for almost thirty years. Only the discovery of dynamo-electric machines and their application to metallurgical processes rendered it possible for E. H. and A. H. Cowles to remove the industry from the hands of chemists, till the time when P. T. L. Heroult and C. M. Hall, by devising the electrolytic method now in use, inaugurated the present era of industrial electrolysis.

Ores.

The chief natural compounds of aluminium are four in number: oxide, hydroxide (hydrated oxide), silicate and fluoride. Corundum, the only important native oxide (Al2O3), occurs in large deposits in southern India and the United States. Although it contains a higher percentage of metal (52.9%) than any other natural compound, it is not at present employed as an ore, not only because it is so hard as to be crushed with difficulty, but also because its very hardness makes it valuable as an abrasive. Cryolite (AlF3.5NaF) is a double fluoride of aluminium and sodium, which is scarcely known except on the west coast of Greenland. Formerly it was used for the preparation of the metal, but the inaccessibility of its source, and the fact that it is not sufficiently pure to be employed without some preliminary treatment, caused it to be abandoned in favour of other salts. When required in the Heroult-Hall process as a solvent, it is sometimes made artificially. Aluminium silicate is the chemical body of which all clays are nominally composed. Haolin or China clay is essentially a pure disilicate (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O), occurring in large beds almost throughout the world, and containing in its anhydrous state 24.4% of the metal, which, however, in common clays is more or less replaced by calcium, magnesium, and the alkalis, the proportion of silica sometimes reaching 70%. Kaolin thus seems to be the best ore, and it would undoubtedly be used were it not for the fatal objection that no satisfactory process has yet been discovered for preparing pure alumina from any mineral silicate. If, according to the present method of winning the metal, a bath containing silica as well as alumina is submitted to electrolysis, both oxides are dissociated, and as silicon is a very undesirable impurity, an alumina contaminated with silica is not suited for reduction. Bauxite is a hydrated oxide of aluminium of the ideal composition, Al2O3.2H2O. It is a somewhat widely distributed mineral, being met within Styria, Austria, Hesse, French Guiana, India and Italy; but the most important beds are in the south of France, the north of Ireland, and in Alabama, Georgia and Arkansas in North America. The chief Irish deposits are in the neighbourhood of Glenravel, Co. Antrim, and have the advantage of being near the coast, so that the alumina can be transported by water-carriage. After being dried at 100 deg. C., Antrim bauxite contains from 33 to 60% of alumina, from 2 to 30% of ferric oxide, and from 7 to 24% of silica, the balance being titanic acid and water of combination. The American bauxites contain from 38 to 67% of alumina, from 1 to 23% of ferric oxide, and from 1 to 32% of silica. The French bauxites are of fairly constant composition, containing usually from 58 to 70% of alumina, 3 to 15% of foreign matter, and 27% made

up of silica, iron oxide and water in proportions that vary with the colour and the situation of the beds.

Before the application of electricity, only two compounds were found suitable for reduction to the metallic state. Alumina itself is so refractory that it cannot be melted save by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe or the electric arc, and except in the molten state it is not susceptible of decomposition by any chemical reagent. Deville first selected the chloride as his raw material, but observing it to be volatile and extremely deliquescent, he soon substituted in its place a double chloride of aluminium and sodium. Early in 1855 John Percy suggested that cryolite should be more convenient, as it was a natural mineral and might not require purification, and at the end of March in that year, Faraday exhibited before the Royal Institution samples of the metal reduced from its fluoride by Dick and Smith. H. Rose also carried out experiments on the decomposition of cryolite, and expressed an opinion that it was the best of all compounds for reduction; but, finding the yield of metal to be low, receiving a report of the difficulties experienced in mining the ore, and fearing to cripple his new industry by basing it upon the employment of a mineral of such uncertain supply, Deville decided to keep to his chlorides. With the advent of the dynamo, the position of affairs was wholly changed. The first successful idea of using electricity depended on the enormous heating powers of the arc. The infusibility of alumina was no longer prohibitive, for the molten oxide is easily reduced by carbon. Nevertheless, it was found impracticable to smelt alumina electrically except in presence of copper, so that the Cowles furnace yielded, not the pure metal, but an alloy. So long as the metal was principally regarded as a necessary ingredient of aluminium-bronze, the Cowles process was popular, but when the advantages of aluminium itself became more apparent, there arose a fresh demand for some chief method of obtaining it unalloyed. It was soon discovered that the faculty of inducing dissociation possessed by the current might now be utilized with some hope of pecuniary success, but as electrolytic currents are of lower voltage than those required in electric furnaces, molten alumina again became impossible. Many metals, of which copper, silver and nickel are types, can be readily won or purified by the electrolysis of aqueous solutions, and theoretically it may be feasible to treat aluminium in an identical manner. In practice, however, it cannot be thrown down electrolytically with a dissimilar anode so as to win the metal, and certain difficulties are still met with in the analogous operation of plating by means of a similar anode. Of the simple compounds, only the fluoride is amenable to electrolysis in the fused state, since the chloride begins to volatilize below its melting-point, and the latter is only 5 deg. below its boiling-point. Cryolite is not a safe body to electrolyse, because the minimum voltage needed to break up the aluminium fluoride is 4.0, whereas the sodium fluoride requires only 4.7 volts; if, therefore, the current rises in tension, the alkali is reduced, and the final product consists of an alloy with sodium. The corresponding double chloride is a far better material; first, because it melts at about 180 deg. C., and does not volatilize below a red heat, and second, because the voltage of aluminium chloride is 2.3 and that of sodium chloride 4.3, so that there is a much wider margin of safety to cover irregularities in the electric pressure. It has been found, however, that molten cryolite and the analogous double fluoride represented by the formula Al2F6.2NaF are very efficient solvents of alumina, and that these solutions can be easily electrolysed at about 800 deg. C. by means of a current that completely decomposes the oxide but leaves the haloid salts unaffected. Molten cryolite dissolves roughly 30% of its weight of pure alumina, so that when ready for treatment the solution contains about the same proportion of what may be termed ``available'' aluminium as does the fused double chloride of aluminium and sodium. The advantages lie with the oxide because of its easier preparation. Alumina dissolves readily enough in aqueous hydrochloric acid to yield a solution of the chloride, but neither this solution, nor that containing sodium chloride, can be evaporated to dryness without decomposition. To obtain the anhydrous single or double chloride, alumina must be ignited with carbon in a current of chlorine, and to exclude iron from the finished metal, either the alumina must be pure or the chloride be submitted to purification. This preparation of a chlorine compound suited for electrolysis becomes more costly and more troublesome than that of the oxide, and in addition four times as much raw material must be handled.

At different times propositions have been made to win the metal from its sulphide. This compound possesses a heat of formation so much lower that electrically it needs but a voltage of 0.9 to decompose it, and it is easily soluble in the fused sulphides of the alkali metals. It can also be reduced metallurgically by the action of molten iron. Various considerations, however, tend to show that there cannot be so much advantage in employing it as would appear at first sight. As it is easier to reduce than any other compound, so it is more difficult to produce. Therefore while less energy is absorbed in its final reduction, more is needed in its initial preparation, and it is questionable whether the economy possible in the second stage would not be neutralized by the greater cost of the first stage in the whole operation of winning the metal from bauxite with the sulphide as the intermediary.

Chemical reductions.

The Deville process as gradually elaborated between 1855 and 1859 exhibited three distinct phases: -- Production of metallic sodium, formation of the pure double chloride of sodium and aluminium, and preparation of the metal by the interaction of the two former substances. To produce the alkali metal, a calcined mixture of sodium carbonate, coal and chalk was strongly ignited in flat retorts made of boiler-plate; the sodium distilled over into condensers and was preserved under heavy petroleum. In order to prepare pure alumina, bauxite and sodium carbonate were heated in a furnace until the reaction was complete; the product was then extracted with water to dissolve the sodium aluminate, the solution treated with carbon dioxide, and the precipitate removed and dried. This purified oxide, mixed with sodium chloride and coal tar, was carbonized at a red heat, and ignited in a current of dry chlorine as long as vapours of the double chloride were given off, these being condensed in suitable chambers. For the production of the final aluminium, 100 parts of the chloride and 45 parts of cryolite to serve as a flux were powdered together and mixed with 35 parts of sodium cut into small pieces. The whole was thrown in several portions on to the hearth of a furnace previously heated to low redness and was stirred at intervals for three hours. At length when the furnace was tapped a white slag was drawn off from the top, and the liquid metal beneath was received into a ladle and poured into cast-iron moulds. The process was worked out by Deville in his laboratory at the Ecole Normale in Paris. Early in 1855 he conducted large-scale experiments at Javel in a factory lent him for the purpose, where he produced sufficient to show at the French Exhibition of 1855. In the spring of 1856 a complete plant was erected at La Glaciere, a suburb of Paris, but becoming a nuisance to the neighbours, it was removed to Nanterre in the following year. Later it was again transferred to Salindres, where the manufacture was continued by Messrs. Pechiney till the advent of the present electrolytic process rendered it no longer profitable.

When Deville quitted the Javel works, two brothers C. and A. Tissier, formerly his assistants, who had devised an improved sodium furnace and had acquired a thorough knowledge of their leader's experiments, also left, and erected a factory at Amfreville, near Rouen, to work the cryolite process. It consisted simply in reducing cryolite with metallic sodium exactly as in Deville's chloride method, and it was claimed to possess various mythical advantages over its rival. Two grave disadvantages were soon obvious -- the limited supply of ore, and, what was even more serious, the large proportion of silicon in the reduced metal. The Amfreville works existed some eight or ten years, but achieved no permanent prosperity. In 1858 or 1859 a small factory, the first in England, was built by F. W. Gerhard at Battersea, who also employed cryolite, made his own sodium, and was able to sell the product at 3s. 9d. per oz. This enterprise

only lasted about four years. Between 1860 and 1874 Messrs Bell Brothers manufactured the metal at Washington, near Newcastle, under Deville's supervision, producing nearly 2 cwt. per year. They took part in the International Exhibition of 1862, quoting a price of 40s. per lb troy.

In 1881 J. Webster patented an improved process for making alumina, and the following year he organized the Aluminium Crown Metal Co. of Hollywood to exploit it in conjunction with Deville's method of reduction. Potash-alum and pitch were calcined together, and the mass was treated with hydrochloric acid; charcoal and water to form a paste were next added, and the whole was dried and ignited in a current of air and steam. The residue, consisting of alumina and potassium sulphate, was leached with water to separate the insoluble matter which was dried as usual. All the by-products, potassium sulphate, sulphur and aluminate of iron, were capable of recovery, and were claimed to reduce the cost of the oxide materially. From this alumina the double chloride was prepared in essentially the same manner as practised at Salindres, but sundry economies accrued in the process, owing to the larger scale of working and to the adoption of W. Weldon's method of regenerating the spent chlorine liquors. In 1886 H. Y. Castner's sodium patents appeared, and The Aluminium Co. of Oldbury was promoted to combine the advantages of Webster's alumina and Castner's sodium. Castner had long been interested in aluminium, and was desirous of lowering its price. Seeing that sodium was the only possible reducing agent, he set himself to cheapen its cost, and deliberately rejecting sodium carbonate for the more expensive sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and replacing carbon by a mixture of iron and carbon -- the so-called carbide of iron -- he invented the highly scientific method of winning the alkali metal which has remained in existence almost to the present day. In 1872 sodium prepared by Deville's process cost about 4s. per lb, the greater part of the expense being due to the constant failure of the retorts; in 1887 Castner's sodium cost less than 1s. per lb, for his cast-iron pots survived 125 distillations.

In the same year L. Grabau patented a method of reducing the simple fluoride of aluminium with sodium, and his process was operated at Trotha in Germany. It was distinguished by the unusual purity of the metal obtained, some of his samples containing 99.5 to 99.8%. In 1888 the Alliance Aluminium Co., organized to work certain patents for winning the metal from cryolite by means of sodium, erected plant in London, Hebburn and Wallsend, and by 1889 were selling the metal at 11s. to 15s. per lb. The Aluminium Company's price in 1888 was 20s. per lb and the output about 250 lb per day. In 1889 the price was 16s., but by 1891 the electricians commenced to offer metal at 4s. per lb, and aluminium reduced with sodium became a thing of the past.

Electric reduction.

About 1879 dynamos began to be introduced into metallurgical practice, and from that date onwards numerous schemes for utilizing this cleaner source of energy were brought before the public. The first electrical method worthy of notice is that patented by E. H. and A. H. Cowles in 1885, which was worked both at Lockport, New York, U.S.A., and at Milton, Staffordshire. The furnace consisted of a flat, rectangular, firebrick box, packed with a layer of finely-powdered charcoal 2 in. thick. Through stuffing-boxes at the ends passed the two electrodes, made after the fashion of arc-light carbons, and capable of being approached together according to the requirements of the operation. The central space of the furnace was filled with a mixture of corundum, coarsely-powdered charcoal and copper; and an iron lid lined with firebrick was luted in its place to exclude air. The charge was reduced by means of a 50-volt current from a 300-kilowatt dynamo, which was passed through the furnace for 1 1/2 hours till decomposition was complete. About 100 lb of bronze, containing from 15 to 20 lb of aluminium, were obtained from each run, the yield of the alloy being reported at about 1 lb per 18 e.h.p.-hours. The composition of the alloys thus produced could not be predetermined with exactitude; each batch was therefore analysed, a number of them were bulked together or mixed with copper in the necessary proportion, and melted in crucibles to give merchantable bronzes containing between 1 1/4 and 10% of aluminium. Although the copper took no part in the reaction, its employment was found indispensable, as otherwise the aluminium partly volatilized, and partly combined with the carbon to form a carbide. It was also necessary to give the fine charcoal a thin coating of calcium oxide by soaking it in lime-water, for the temperature was so high that unless it was thus protected it was gradually converted into graphite, losing its insulating power and diffusing the current through the lining and walls of the furnace. That this process did not depend upon electrolysis, but was simply an instance of electrical smelting or the decomposition of an oxide by means of carbon at the temperature of the electric arc, is shown by the fact that the Cowles furnace would work with an alternating current.

In 1883 R. Cratzel patented a useless electrolytic process with fused cryolite or the double chloride as the raw material, and in 1886 Dr E. Kleiner propounded a cryolite method which was worked for a time by the Aluminium Syndicate at Tyldesley near Manchester, but was abandoned in 1890. In 1887 A. Minet took out patents for electrolysing a mixture of sodium chloride with aluminium fluoride, or with natural or artificial cryolite. The operation was continuous, the metal being regularly run off from the bottom of the bath, while fresh alumina and flouride were added as required. The process exhibited several disadvantages, the electrolyte had to be kept constant in composition lest either fluorine vapours should be evolved or sodium thrown down, and the raw materials had accordingly to be prepared in a pure state. After prolonged experiments in a factory owned by Messrs Bernard Freres at St Michel in Savoy, Minet's process was given up, and at the close of the 19th century the Heroult-Hall method was alone being employed in the manufacture of aluminium throughout the world.

The original Deville process for obtaining pure alumina from bauxite was greatly simplified in 1889 by K. T. Bayer, whose improved process is exploited at Larne in Ireland and at Gardanne in France. New works on the same process have recently been erected near Marseilles. Crude bauxite is ground, lightly calcined to destroy organic matter, and agitated under a pressure of 70 or 80 lb per sq. in. with a solution of sodium hydroxide having the specific gravity 1.45. After two or three hours the liquid is diluted till its density falls to 1.23, when it is passed through filter-presses to remove the insoluble ferric oxide and silica. The solution of sodium aluminate, containing aluminium oxide and sodium oxide in the molecular proportion of 6 to 1, is next agitated for thirty-six hours with a small quantity of hydrated alumina previously obtained, which causes the liquor to decompose, and some 70% of the aluminium hydroxide to be thrown down. The filtrate, now containing roughly two molecules of alumina to one of soda, is concentrated to the original gravity of 1.45, and employed instead of fresh caustic for the attack of more bauxite; the precipitate is then collected, washed till free from soda, dried and ignited at about 1000 deg. C. to convert it into a crystalline oxide which is less hygroscopic than the former amorphous variety.

The process of manufacture which now remains to be described was patented during 1886 and 1887 in the name of C. M. Hall in America, in that of P. T. L. Heroult in England and France. It would be idle to discuss to whom the credit of first imagining the method rightfully belongs, for probably this is only one of the many occasions when new ideas have been born in several brains at the same time. By 1888 Hall was at work on a commercial scale at Pittsburg, reducing German alumina; in 1891 the plant was removed to New Kensington for economy in fuel, and was gradually enlarged to 1500 h.p.; in 1894 a factory driven by water was erected at Niagara Falls, and subsequently works were established at Shawenegan in Canada and at Massena in the United States. In 1890 also the Hall process operated by steam power was installed at Patricroft, Lancashire, where the plant had a capacity of 300 lb per day, but by 1894 the turbines of the Swiss and French works ruined the enterprise. About 1897 the Bernard factory at St Michel passed into the hands of

Messrs Pechiney, the machinery soon being increased, and there, under the control of a firm that has been concerned in the industry almost from its inception, aluminium is being manufactured by the Hall process on a large scale. In July 1888 the Societe Metallurgique Suisse erected plant driven by a 500 h.p. turbine to carry out Heroult's alloy process, and at the end of that year the Allgemeine Elektricitats Gesellschaft united with the Swiss firm in organizing the Aluminium Industrie Action Gesellschaft of Neuhasen, which has factories in Switzedand, Germany and Austria. The Societe Electrometallurgique Francaise, started under the direction of Heroult in 1888 for the production of aluminium in France, began operations on a small scale at Froges in Isere; but soon after large works were erected in Savoy at La Praz, near Modane, and in 1905 another large factory was started in Savoy at St Michel. In 1895 the British Aluminium Company was founded to mine bauxite and manufacture alumina in Ireland, to prepare the necessary electrodes at Greenock, to reduce the aluminium by the aid of water-power at the Falls of Foyers, and to refine and work up the metal into marketable shapes at the old Milton factory of the Cowles Syndicate, remodelled to suit modern requirements. In 1905 this company began works for the utilization of another water-power at Loch Leven.

In 1907 a new company, The Aluminium Corporation, was started in England to carry out the production of the metal by the Heroult process, and new factories were constructed near Conway in North Wales and at Wallsend-on-Tyne, quite close to where, twenty years before, the Alliance Aluminium Co. had their works.

The Heroult cell consists of a square iron or steel box lined with carbon rammed and baked into a solid mass; at the bottom is a cast-iron plate connected with the negative pole of the dynamo, but the actual working cathode is undoubtedly the layer of already reduced and molten metal that lies in the bath. The anode is formed of a bundle of carbon rods suspended from overhead so as to be capable of vertical adjustment. The cell is filled up with cryolite, and the current is turned on till this is melted; then the pure powdered alumina is fed in continuously as long as the operation proceeds. The current is supplied at a tension of 3 to 5 volts per cell, passing through 10 or 12 in series; and it performs two distinct functions: -- (1) it overcomes the chemical affinity of the aluminium oxide, (2) it overcomes the resistance of the electrolyte, heating the liquid at the same time. As a part of the voltage is consumed in the latter duty, only the residue can be converted into chemical work, and as the theoretical voltage of the aluminium fluoride in the cryolite is 4.0, provided the bath is kept properly supplied with alumina, the fluorides are not attacked. It follows, therefore, except for mechanical losses, that one charge of cryolite lasts indefinitely, that the sodium and other impurities in it are not liable to contaminate the product, and that only the alumina itself need be carefully purified. The operation is essentially a dissociation of alumina into aluminium, which collects at the cathode, and into oxygen, which combines with the anodes to form carbon monoxide, the latter escaping and being burnt to carbon dioxide outside. Theoretically 36 parts by weight of carbon are oxidized in the production of 54 parts of aluminium; practically the anodes waste at the same rate at which metal is deposited. The current density is about 700 amperes per sq. ft. of cathode surface, and the number of rods in the anode is such that each delivers 6 or 7 amperes per sq. in. of cross-sectional area. The working temperature lies between 750 deg. and 850 deg. C., and the actual yield is 1 lb of metal per 12 e.h.p. hours. The bath is heated internally with the current rather than by means of external fuel, because this arrangement permits the vessel itself to be kept comparatively cool; if it were fired from without, it would be hotter than the electrolyte, and no material suitable for the construction of the cell is competent to withstand the attack of nascent aluminium at high temperatures. Aluminium is so light that it is a matter requiring some ingenuity to select a convenient solvent through which it shall sink quickly, for if it does not sink, it short-circuits the electrolyte. The molten metal has a specific gravity of 2.54, that of molten cryolite saturated with alumina is 2.35, and that of the fluoride Al2F6.2NaF saturated with alumina 1.97. The latter therefore appears the better material, and was originally preferred by Hall; cryolite, however, dissolves more alumina, and has been finally adooted by both inventors.

Properties.

Aluminium is a white metal with a characteristic tint which most nearly resembles that of tin; when impure, or after prolonged exposure to air it has a slight violet shade. Its atomic weight is 27 (26.77, H=I, according to J. Thomson). It is trivalent. The specific gravity of cast metal is 2.583, and of rolled 2.688 at 4 deg. C. It melts at 626 deg. C. (freezing point 654.5 deg. , Heycock and Neville). It is the third most malleable and sixth most ductile metal, yielding sheets 0.000025 in. in thickness, and wires 0.004 in. in diameter. When quite pure it is somewhat harder than tin, and its hardness is considerably increased by rolling. It is not magnetic. It stands near the positive end of the list of elements arranged in electromotive series, being exceeded only by the alkalis and metals of the alkaline earths; it therefore combines eagerly, under suitable conditions, with oxygen and chlorine. Its coefficient of linear expansion by heat is 0.0000222 (Richards) or 0.0000231 (Roberts Austen) per 1 deg. C. Its mean specific heat between 0 deg. and 100 deg. is 0.227, and its latent heat of fusion 100 calories (Richards). Only silver, copper and gold surpass it as conductors of heat, its value being 31.33 (Ag= 100, Roberts-Austen). Its electrical conductivity, determined on 99.6% metal, is 60.5% that of cooper for equal volumes, or double that of copper for equal weights, and when chemically pure it exhibits a somewhat higher relative efficiency. The average strength of 98% metal is approximately shown by the following table:--

Elastic limit, Ultimate strength, Reduction tons per sq. in. tons per sq. in. of Area % Cast . . . 3 7 15 Sheet . . . 5 1/2 11 35 Bars . . . 6 1/2 12 40 Wire . . . 7-13 13-29 60

Weight for weight, therefore, aluminium is only exceeded in tensile strength by the best cast steel, and its own alloy, aluminium bronze. An absolutely clean surface becomes tarnished in damp air, an almost invisible coating of oxide being produced, just as happens with zinc; but this film is very permanent and prevents further attack. Exposure to air and rain also causes slight corrosion, but to nothing like the same extent as occurs with iron, copper or brass. Commercial electrolytic aluminium of the best quality contains as the average of a large number of tests, 0.48% of silicon and 0.46% of iron, the residue being essentially aluminium itself. The metal in mass is not affected by hot or cold water, the foil is very slowly oxidized, while the amalgam decomposes rapidly. Sulphuretted hydrogen having no action upon it, articles made of it are not blackened in foggy weather or in rooms where crude coal gas is burnt. To inorganic acids, except hydrochloric, it is highly resistant, ranking well with tin in this respect; but alkalis dissolve it quickly. Organic acids such as vinegar, common salt, the natural ingredients of food, and the various extraneous substances used as food preservatives, alone or mixed together, dissolve traces of it if boiled for any length of time in a chemically clean vessel; but when aluminium utensils are submitted to the ordinary routine of the kitchen, being used to heat or cook milk, coffee, vegetables, meat and even fruit, and are also cleaned frequently in the usual fashion, no appreciable quantity of metal passes into the food. Moreover, did it do so, the action upon the human system would be infinitely less harmful than similar doses of copper or of lead.

The highly electro-positive character of aluminium is most important. At elevated temperatures the metal decomposes nearly all other metallic oxides, wherefore it is most serviceable as a metallurgical reagent. In the casting of iron, steel and brass, the addition of a trifling proportion (0.005%) removes oxide and renders the molten metal more fluid, causing the

finished products to be more homogeneous, free from blow-holes and solid all through. On the other hand, its electro-positive nature necessitates some care in its utilization. If it be exposed to damp, to sea-water or to corrosive influences of any kind in contact with another metal, or if it be mixed with another metal so as to form an alloy which is not a true chemical compound, the other metal being highly negative to it, powerful galvanic action will be set up and the structure will quickly deteriorate. This explains the failure of boats built of commercially pure aluminium which have been put together with iron or copper rivets, and the decay of other boats built of a light alloy, in which the alloying metal (copper) has been injudiciously chosen. It also explains why aluminium is so difficult to join with low-temperature solders, for these mostly contain a large proportion of lead. This disadvantage, however, is often overestimated since in most cases other means of uniting two pieces are available.

Alloys.

The metal produces an enormous number of useful alloys, some of which, containing only 1 or 2% of other metals, combine the lightness of aluminium itself with far greater hardness and strength. Some with 90 to 99% of other metals exhibit the general properties of those metals conspicuously improved. Among the heavy alloys, the aluminium bronzes (Cu, 90-97.5%; Al, 10-2.5%) occupy the most important position, showing mean tensile strengths increasing from 20 to 41 tons per sq. in. as the percentage of aluminium rises, and all strongly resisting corrosion in air or sea-water. The light copper alloys, in which the proportions just given are practically reversed, are of considerably less utility, for although they are fairly strong, they lack power to resist galvanic action. This subject is far from being exhausted, and it is not improbable that the alloy-producing capacity of aluminium may eventually prove its most valuable characteristic. In the meantime, ternary light alloys appear the most satisfactory, and tungsten and copper, or tungsten and nickel, seem to be the best substances to add.

Uses.

The uses of aluminium are too numerous to mention. Probably the widest field is still in the purification of iron and steel. To the general public it appeals most strongly as a material for constructing cooking utensils. It is not brittle like porcelain and cast iron, not poisonous like lead-glazed earthenware and untinned copper, needs no enamel to chip off, does not rust and wear out like cheap tin-plate, and weighs but a fraction of other substances. It is largely replacing brass and copper in all departments of industry -- especially where dead weight has to be moved about, and lightness is synonymous with economy -- for instance, in bed-plates for torpedo-boat engines, internal fittings for ships instead of wood, complete boats for portage, motor-car parts and boiling-pans for confectionery and in chemical works. The British Admiralty employ it to save weight in the Navy, and the war-offices of the European powers equip their soldiers with it wherever possible, As a substitute for Solenhofen stone it is used in a modified form of lithography, which can be performed on rotary printing machines at a high speed. With the increasing price of copper, it is coming into vogue as an electrical conductor for uncovered mains; it is found that an aluminium wire 0.126 in. in diameter will carry as much current as a copper wire 0.100 in. in diameter, while the former weighs about 79 lb and the latter 162 lb per mile. Assuming the materials to be of equal tensile strength per unit of area -- hard-drawn copper is stronger, but has a lower conductivity -- the adoption of aluminium thus leads to a reduction of 52% in the weight, a gain of 60% in the strength, and an increase of 26% in the diameter of the conductor. Bare aluminium strip has recently been tried for winding-coils in electrical machines, the oxide of the metal acting as insulators between the layers. When the price of aluminium is less than double the price of copper aluminium is cheaper than copper per unit of electric current conveyed; but when insulation is necessary, the smaller size of the copper wire renders it more economical. Aluminium conductors have been employed on heavy work in many places, and for telegraphy and telephony they are in frequent demand and give perfect satisfaction. Difficulties were at first encountered in making the necessary joints, but these have been overcome by practice and experience.

Two points connected with this metal are of sufficient moment to demand a few words by way of conclusion. Its extraordinary lightness forms its chief claim to general adoption, yet is apt to cause mistakes when its price is mentioned. It is the weight of a mass of metal which governs its financial value; its industrial value, in the vast majority of cases, depends on the volume of that mass. Provided it be rigid, the bed-plate of an engine is no better for weighing 30 cwt. than for weighing 10 cwt. A saucepan is required to have a certain diameter and a certain depth in order that it may hold a certain bulk of liquid: its weight is merely an encumbrance. Copper being 3 1/3 times as heavy as aluminium, whenever the latter costs less than 3 1/2 times as much as copper it is actually cheaper. It must be remembered, too, that electrolytic aluminium only became known during the last decade of the 19th century. Samples dating from the old sodium days are still in existence, and when they exhibit unpleasant properties the defect is often ascribed to the metal instead of to the process by which it was won. Much has yet to be learnt about the practical qualities of the electrolytic product, and although every day's experience serves to place the metal in a firmer industrial position, a final verdict can only be passed after the lapse of time. The individual and collective influence of the several impurities which occur in the product of the Heroult cell is still to seek, and the importance of this inquiry will be seen when we consider that if cast iron, wrought iron and steel, the three totally distinct metals included in the generic name of ``iron'' -- which are only distinguished one from another chemically by minute differences in the proportion of certain non-metallic ingredients -- had only been in use for a comparatively few years, attempts might occasionally be made to forge cast iron, or to employ wrought iron in the manufacture of edge-tools. (E. J. R.)

Compounds of Aluminium. Aluminium oxide or alumina, Al2O3, occurs in nature as the mineral corundum (q.v.), notable for its hardness and abrasive power (see EMERY), and in well-crystallized forms it constitutes, when coloured by various metallic oxides, the gem-stones, sapphire, oriental topaz, oriental amethyst and oriental emerald. Alumina is obtained as a white amorphous powder by heating aluminium hydroxide. This powder, provided that it has not been too strongly ignited, is soluble in strong acids; by ignition it becomes denser and nearly as hard as corundum; it fuses in the oxyhydrogen flame or electric arc, and on cooling it assumes a crystalline form closely resembling the mineral species. Crystallized alumina is also obtained by heating the fluoride with boron trioxide; by fusing aluminium phosphate with sodium sulphate; by heating alumina to a dull redness in hydrochloric acid gas under pressure; and by heating alumina with lead oxide to a bright red heat. These reactions are of special interest, for they culminate in the production of artificial ruby and sapphire (see GEMS, ARTIFICIAL).

Aluminium Hydrates. -- Several hydrated forms of aluminium oxide are known. Of these hydrargillite or gibbsite, Al(OH)3, diaspore, AlO(OH), and bauxite, Al2O(OH)4, occur in the mineral kingdom. Aluminium hydrate, Al(OH)3, is obtained as a gelatinous white precipitate, soluble in potassium or sodium hydrate, but insoluble in ammonium chloride, by adding ammonia to a cold solution of an aluminium salt; from boiling solutions the precipitate is opaque. By drying at ordinary temperatures, the hydrate Al(OH)3.H2O is obtained; at 300 deg. this yields AlO(OH), which on ignition gives alumina, Al2O3. Precipitated aluminium hydrate finds considerable application in dyeing. Soluble modifications were obtained by Waiter Crum (Journ. Chem. Soc., 1854, vi. 216), and Thomas Graham (Phil. Trans., 1861, p. 163); the first named decomposing aluminium acetate from lead acetate and aluminium sulphate) with boiling water, the latter dialysing a solution of the basic chloride (obtained by dissolving the hydroxide in a solution of the normal chloride).

Both these soluble hydrates are readily coagulated by traces of a salt, acid or alkali; Crum's hydrate does not combine with dye-stuffs, neither is it soluble in excess of acid, while Graham's compound readily forms lakes, and readily dissolves when coagulated in acids.

In addition to behaving as a basic oxide, aluminium oxide (or hydrate) behaves as an acid oxide towards the strong bases with the formation of aluminates. Potassium aluminate, K2Al2O4, is obtained in solution by dissolving aluminium hydrate in caustic potash; it is also obtained, as crystals containing three molecules of water, by fusing alumina with potash, exhausting with water, and crystallizing the solution in vacuo. Sodium aluminate is obtained in the manufacture of alumina; it is used as a mordant in dyeing, and has other commercial applications. Other aluminates (in particular, of iron and magnesium), are of frequent occurrence in the mineral kingdom, e.g. spinel, gahnite, &c.

Salts of Aluminium. -- Aluminium forms one series of salts, derived from the trioxide, Al2O3. These exhibit, in certain cases, marked crystallographical and other analogies with the corresponding salts of chromium and ferric iron.

Aluminium fluoride, AlF3, obtained by dissolving the metal in hydrofluoric acid, and subliming the residue in a current of hydrogen, forms transparent, very obtuse rhombohedra, which are insoluble in water. It forms a series of double fluorides, the most important of which is cryolite (q.v.); this mineral has been applied to the commercial preparation of the metal (see above). Aluminium chloride, AlCl3, was first prepared by Oersted, who heated a mixture of carbon and alumina in a current of chlorine, a method subsequently improved by Wohler, Bunsen, Deville and others. A purer product is obtained by heating aluminium turnings in a current of dry chlorine, when the chloride distils over. So obtained, it is a white crystalline solid, which slowly sublimes just below its melting point (194 deg. ). Its vapour density at temperatures above 750 deg. corresponds to the formula AlCl3; below this point the molecules are associated. It is very hygroscopic, absorbing water with the evolution of hydrochloric acid. It combines with ammonia to form AlCl3.3NH3; and forms double compounds with phosphorus pentachloride, phosphorus oxychloride, selenium and tellurium chlorides, as well as with many metallic chlorides; sodium aluminium chloride, AlCl3.NaCl, is used in the production of the metal. As a synthetical agent in organic chemistry, aluminium chloride has rendered possible more reactions than any other substance; here we can only mention the classic syntheses of benzene homologues. Aluminium bromide, AlBr3, is prepared in the same manner as the chloride. It forms colourless crystals, melting at 90 deg. , and boiling at 265 deg. -270 deg. . Aluminium iodide, AlI3, results from the interaction of iodine and aluminium. It forms colourless crystals, melting at 185 deg. , and boiling at 360 deg. . Aluminium sulphide, Al2S3, results from the direct union of the metal with sulphur, or when carbon disulphide vapour is passed over strongly heated alumina. It forms a yellow fusible mass, which is decomposed by water into alumina and sulphuretted hydrogen. Aluminium sulphate Al(SO4)3, occurs in the mineral kingdom as keramohalite, Al2(SO4)3.18H2O, found near volcanoes and in alum-shale; aluminite or websterite is a basic salt, Al3(SO4)(OH)4.7H2O. Aluminium sulphate, known commercially as ``concentrated alum'' or ``sulphate of alumina,'' is manufactured from kaolin or china clay, which, after roasting (in order to oxidize any iron present), is heated with sulphuric acid, the clear solution run off, and evaporated. ``Alum cake'' is an impure product. Aluminium sulphate crystallizes as Al2(SO4)3.18H2O in tablets belonging to the monoclinic system. It has a sweet astringent taste, very soluble in water, but scarcely soluble in alcohol. On heating, the crystals lose water, swell up, and give the anhydrous sulphate, which, on further heating, gives alumina. It forms double salts with the sulphates of the metals of the alkalis, known as the alums (see ALUM.)

Aluminium nitride (AlN) is obtained as small yellow crystals when aluminium is strongly heated in nitrogen. The nitrate, Al(NO3)3, is obtained as deliquescent crystals (with 8H2O) by evaporating a solution of the hydroxide in nitric acid. Aluminium phosphates may be prepared by Precipitating a soluble aluminium salt with sodium phosphate. Wavellite Al8(PO4)3(OH)15.9H2O, is a naturally occurring basic phosphate, while the gem-stone turquoise (q.v.) is Al.(PO4).(OH)2.H2O, coloured by traces of copper. Aluminium silicates are widely diffused in the mineral kingdom, being present in the commonest rock-forming minerals (felspars, &c.), and in the gem-stones, topaz, beryl, garnet, &c. It also constitutes with sodium silicate the mineral lapis-lazuli and the pigment ultramarine (q.v..) Forming the basis of all clays, aluminium silicates play a prominent part in the manufacture of pottery and porcelain.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. -- The metallurgy and uses of aluminium are treated in detail in P. Moissonnier, L'Aluminium (Paris, 1903); in J. W. Richards, Aluminium (1896); and in A. Miner, Production of Aluminium, Eng. trans. by L. Waldo (1905); reference may also be made to treatises on general metallurgy, e.g. C. Schnabel, Handbook of Metalurgy, vol. ii. (1907). For the chemistry see Roscoe and Schlorlemmer, Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii. (1908); H. Moissan, Traite de chimie minerale; Abegg, Handbuch der anorgenischen Chemie; and O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie. Aluminium alloys have been studied in detail by Guillet.

ALUNITE, or ALUMSTONE, a mineral first observed in the 15th century at Tolfa, near Rome, where it is mined for the manufacture of alum. Extensive deposits are also worked in Tuscany and Hungary, and at Bulladelah in New South Wales. By repeatedly roasting and lixiviating the mineral, alum is obtained in solution, and this is crystallized out by evaporation. Alunite occurs as seams in trachytic and allied volcanic rocks, having been formed by the action of sulphureous vapours on these rocks. The white, finely granular masses somewhat resemble limestone in appearance, and the more compact kinds from Hungary are so hard and tough that they are used for millstones. Distinct crystals of alunite are rarely met with in cavities in the massive material; these are rhombohedra with interfacial angles of 90 deg. 50', so that they resemble cubes in. appearance. Minute glistening crystals have also been found loose in cavities in altered rhyolite. The hardness is 4 and the specific gravity 2.6. The mineral is a hydrated basic aluminium and potassium sulphate, KAl3(SO4)2(OH)6. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in sulphuric acid. First called aluminilite by J. C. Delametherie in 1797, this name was contracted by F. S. Beudant in 1824 to alunite. (L. J. S.)

ALUR (Lur, Luri, Lurem), a Negro people of the Nile valley, living on the north-west coast of Albert Nyanza. They are akin to the Acholi (q.v.), speaking practically the same language.

ALURE (O. Fr., from aller, to walk), an architectural term for an alley, passage, the water-way or flat gutter behind a parapet, the galleries of a clerestory, sometimes even the aisle itself of a church. The term is sometimes written valure or valoring.

ALVA, or ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREX DE TOLEDO, DUKE OF, (1508-1583), Spanish soldier, descended from one of the most illustrious families in Spain, was born in 1508. His grandfather, Ferdinand of Toledo, educated him in military science and politics; and he was engaged with distinction at the battle of Pavia while still a youth. Selected for a military command by Charles V., he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and successfully defended Perpignan against the dauphin of France. He was present at the battle of Muhlberg (1547), and the victory gained there over John of Saxony was due mainly to his exertions. He took part in the subsequent siege of Wittenberg, and presided at the court-martial which tried the elector and condemned him to death. In 1552 Alva was intrusted with the command of the army intended to invade France, and was engaged for several months in an unsuccessful siege of Metz. In consequence of the success of the French arms in Piedmont, he was made commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in Italy, and at the same time invested with unlimited power. Success did not, however, attend his first attempts, and after several unfortunate attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quarters. After the

abdication of Charles he was continued in the command by Philip II., who, however, restrained him from extreme measures. Alva had subdued the whole Campagna and was at the gates of Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to negotiate a peace. One of its terms was that the duke of Alva should in person ask forgiveness of the haughty pontiff whom he had conquered. Proud as the duke was by nature, and accustomed to treat with persons of the highest dignity, he confessed his voice failed him at the interview and his presence of mind forsook him. Not long after this (1559) he was sent at the head of a splendid embassy to Paris to espouse, in the name of his master, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, king of France. In 1567, Philip, who was a bigoted Catholic, sent Alva into the Netherlands at the head of an army of 10,000 men, with unlimited powers for the extirpation of heretics. When he arrived he soon showed how much he merited the confidence which his master reposed in him, and instantly erected a tribunal which soon became known to its victims as the ``Court of Blood,'' to try all persons who had been engaged in the late commotions which the civil and religious tyranny of Philip had excited. He imprisoned the counts Egmont and Horn, the two popular leaders of the Protestants, brought them to an unjust trial and condemned them to death. In a short time he totally annihilated every privilege of the people, and with unrelenting cruelty put multitudes of them to death. The executioner was employed in removing all those friends of freedom whom the sword had spared. In most of the considerable towns Alva built citadels. In the city of Antwerp he erected a statue of himself, which was a monument no less of his vanity than of his tyranny: he was figured trampling on the necks of two smaller statues, representing the two estates of the Low Countries. His attempt to raise money by imposing the Spanish alcabala, a tax of 5% on all sales, aroused the opposition of the Catholic Netherlands themselves. The exiles from the Low Countries, encouraged by the general resistance to his government, fitted out a fleet of privateers, and after strengthening themselves by successful depredations, ventured upon the bold exploit of seizing the town of Brielle. Thus Alva by his cruelty became the unwitting instrument of the future independence of the seven Dutch provinces. The fleet of the exiles, having met the Spanish fleet, totally defeated it, and reduced North Holland and Mons. Many cities hastened to throw off the yoke; while the states-general, assembling at Dordrecht, openly declared against Alva's government, and marshalled under the banners of the prince of Orange. Alva's preparations to oppose the gathering storm were made with his usual vigour, and he succeeded in recovering Mons, Mechlin and Zutphen, under the conduct of his son Frederick. With the exception of Zealand and Holland, he regained all the provinces; and at last his son stormed Naarden, and massacring its inhabitants, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged. Their next attack was upon Alkmaar; but the spirit of desperate resistance was raised to such a height in the breasts of the Hollanders that the Spanish veterans were repulsed with great loss and Frederick constrained reluctantly to retire. Alva's feeble state of health and continued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from the government of the Low Countries; a measure which, in all probability, was not displeasing to Philip, who was now resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In December 1573 the much-oppressed country was relieved from the presence of the duke of Alva, who, returning home accompanied by his son, made the infamous boast that during the course of six years, besides the multitudes destroyed in battle and massacred after victory, he had consigned 18,000 persons to the executioner.

On his return he was treated for some time with great distinction by Philip. A tardy and imperfect justice, however, overtook him, when he was banished from court and confined in the castle of Uzeda for complicity in certain disgraceful conduct of his son. Here he had remained two years, when the success of Don Antonio in assuming the crown of Portugal determined Philip to turn his eyes towards Alva as the person in whose fidelity and abilities he could most confide. A secretary was instantly despatched to Alva to ascertain whether his health was sufficiently vigorous to enable him to undertake the command of an army. The aged chief returned an answer full of loyal zeal, and was immediately appointed to the supreme command in Portugal. It is a striking fact, however, that the liberation and elevation of Alva were not followed by forgiveness. In 1581 Alva entered Portugal, defeated Antonio, drove him from the kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection of Philip. Entering Lisbon he seized an immense treasure, and suffered his soldiers, with their accustomed violence and rapacity, to sack the suburbs and vicinity. It is reported that Alva, being requested to give an account of the money expended on that occasion, sternly replied, ``If the king asks me for an account, I will make him a statement of kingdoms preserved or conquered, of signal victories, of successful sieges and of sixty years' service.'' Philip deemed it proper to make no further inquiries. Alva, however, did not enjoy the honours and rewards of his last expedition, for he died in January 1583 at the age of 74.

AUTHORITIES. -- See the Life, by Rustant (Madrid, 1751). His correspondence during his Flemish government has been published by M. Gachard (Brussels, 1850). See also Coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historial de Espana, vols. iv., vii., viii., xiv., xaxii. and xxxv. (Madrid); and Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic (1856).

ALVA, a police burgh of Clackmannanshire, Scotland, 3 1/2 m. N. of Alloa, terminus of a branch line of the North British railway. Pop. (1891) 5225; (1901) 4624. It is situated at the foot of three front peaks of the Ochils -- West Hill (1682 ft.), Middle Hill (1436 ft.) and Wood Hill (1723 ft.). There are spinning-mills, and manufactures of tweeds, tartans and other woollen goods. Silver, lead and other metals have been found in the hills, but not in paying quantities. The glen to the east of the town, in which are abandoned workings, is called the Silver Glen. Alva House is the seat of the Johnstones, a family which has been intimately connected with the district since the latter half of the 18th century.

ALVARADO, PEDRO DE (1495-1541), one of the Spanish leaders in the discovery and conquest of America, was born at Badajoz about 1495. He held a command in the expedition sent from Cuba against Yucatan in the spring of 1518, and returned in a few months, bearing reports of the wealth and splendour of Montezuma's empire. In February 1519 he accompanied Hernando Cortes in the expedition for the conquest of Mexico, being appointed to the command of one of the eleven vessels of the fleet. He acted as Cortes's principal officer, and on the first occupation of the city of Mexico was left there in charge. When the Spaniards had temporarily to retire before the Mexican uprising, Alvarado led the rear-guard (1st of July 1520), and the Salto de Alvarado -- a long leap with the use of his spear, by which he saved his life -- became famous. He was engaged (1523-24) in the conquest of Guatemala, of which he was subsequently appointed governor by Charles V. In 1534 he attempted to bring the province of Quito under his power, but had to content himself with the exaction of a pecuniary indemnity for the expenses of the expedition. During a visit to Spain, three years later, he had the governorship of Honduras conferred upon him in addition to that of Guatemala. He died in Guatemala in 1541.

ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO (c. 1465-1541?), Portuguese missionary and explorer, was born at Coimbra. He was a chaplain- priest and almoner to Dom Manuel, king of Portugal, and was sent in 1515 as secretary to Duarte Galvao and Rodrigo da Lima on an embassy to the negus of Abyssinia (Lebna Dengel Dawit (David) II.). The expedition having been delayed by the way, it was not until 152O that he reached Abyssinia, where he remained six years, returning to Lisbon in 1526-1527. In 1533 he was sent to Rome on an embassy to Pope Clement VII. The precise date of his death, like that of his birth, is unknown, but it must have been later than 1540, in which year he published at Lisbon under the king's patronage an account of his travels in one volume folio, entitled Yerdadera Informacam das terras do Preste Joam. This curious work was translated into Italian (G. B. Ramusio, Navagationi, vol. i., Venice, 1550); into

Spanish (Historia de las Cosas de Etiopia, by Fray Thomas de Padilla, Antwerp, 1557); into French (Historiale Description de l'Ethiopie, Christ. Plantin, Antwerp, 1558); into German (Wahrhaftiger Bericht von ... Ethiopien, Eisieben, 1566); into English (Sam. Purchas, Pilgrimes, part ii., London, 1625). The information it contains must, however, be received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does not confine himself to what came within his own observation.

ALVAREZ, DON JOSE (1768-1827), Spanish sculptor, was born at Priego, in the province of Cordova, in 1768. His full name was Jose Alvarez de Pereira y Cubero. Bred to his father's trade of a stone-mason, he devoted all his spare time to drawing and modelling. His education in art was due partly to the teaching of the French sculptor Verdiguier at Cordova, and partly to lessons at Madrid, where he attended the lectures of the academy of San Fernando. In 1799 he obtained from Charles IV. a pension of 12,000 reals to enable him to visit Paris and Rome. In the former city he executed in 1804 a statue of Ganymede, which placed him at once in the front rank of the sculptors of his time, and which is now in the sculpture gallery of the Prado. Shortly afterwards his pension was more than doubled, and he left Paris for Rome, where he remained till within a year of his death. He had married in Paris Elizabeth Bougel, by whom he had a son in 1805. This son, known as Don Jose Alvarez y Bougel, also distinguished himself as a sculptor and a painter, but he died at Burgos before he had reached the age of twenty-five, a little more than two years after his father's death in Madrid in 1827. One of the most successful works of the elder Alvarez was a group representing Antilochus and Memnon, which was commissioned in marble (1818) by Ferdinand VII., and secured for the artist the appointment of court-sculptor. It is now in the museum of Madrid. He also modelled a few portrait busts (Ferdinand VII., Rossini, the duchess of Alba), which are remarkable for their vigour and fidelity.

ALVAREZ, DON MANUEL (1727--1797), Spanish sculptor, was born at Salamanca. He followed classical models so closely that he was styled by his countrymen El Griego, ``The Greek.'' His works, which are very numerous, are chiefly to be found at Madrid.

ALVARY, MAX (1858-1898), German singer, was born at Dusseldorf. Gifted with a fine tenor voice and handsome presence he speedily made a reputation in Germany in the leading roles in Wagnerian opera, and from 1885 onwards appeared also in America and England. He was at his best in 1892, when his performances as Tristan and Siegfried at Covent Garden aroused great enthusiasm.

ALVEARY (from the Lat. alvearium), a beehive; used, like apiarium in the same sense, figuratively for a collection of hard-working people, or a scholarly work (e.g. dictionary) involving bee-like industry. By analogy the term is used for the hollow of the ear, where the wax collects.

ALVENSLEBEN, CONSTANTIN VON (1809-1892), Prussian general, was born on the 26th of August 1809 at Eichenbarleben in Prussian Saxony, and entered the Prussian guards from the cadet corps in 1827. He became first lieutenant in 1842, captain in 1849, and major on the Great General Staff in 1853, whence after seven years he went to the Ministry of War. He was soon afterwards promoted colonel, and commanded a regiment of Guard infantry up to 1864, when he became a major-general. In this rank he commanded a brigade of guards in the war of 1866. At the action of Soor (Burkersdorf) on the 28th of June he distinguished himself very greatly, and at Koniggratz, where he led the advanced guard of the Guard corps, his energy and initiative were still more conspicuous. Soon afterwards he succeeded to the command of his division, General Hiller v. Gartringen having fallen in the battle; he was promoted lieutenant-general, and retained this command after the conclusion of peace, receiving in addition the order pour le merite for his services. In 1870, on the outbreak of war with France, von Alvensleben succeeded Prince Frederick Charles in command of the III army corps which formed part of the II German Army commanded by the prince. Under their new general, the Brandenburg regiments forming the III corps proved themselves collectively the best in the whole German army, with the possible exception of the Prussian guards, and, if Prince Frederick Charles is entitled to the chief credit in training the III corps, Alvensleben had contributed in almost equal degree to the efficiency of the Guard infantry, while his actual leadership of the III corps in the battles of 1870 and 1871 showed him afresh as a fighting general of the very first rank. The battle of Spicheren, on the 6th of August, was initiated and practically directed throughout by him, and in the confusion which followed this victory, for which the superior commanders were not prepared, Alvensleben showed his energy and determination by resuming the advance on his own responsibility. This led to the great battles of the 14th, 16th and 18th of August around Metz, and again the III corps was destined, under its resolute leader, to win the chief credit. Crossing the Moselle the instant that he received permission from his army commander to do so, Alvensleben struck the flank of Bazaine's whole army (August 16th) in movement westward from Metz. The III corps attacked at once, and for many hours bore the whole brunt of the battle at Vionville. By the most resolute leading, and at the cost of very heavy losses, Alvensleben held the whole French army at bay while other corps of the I and II German Armies gradually closed up. In the battle of Gravelotte, on the 18th, the corps took little part. Its work was done, and it remained with the II Army before Metz until the surrender of Bazaine's army. Prince Frederick Charles then moved south-west to co-operate with the grand-duke of Mecklenburg on the Loire. At the battle of Beaune-la-Rolande, the corps, with its comrades of Vionville, the X corps under General v. Voigts-Rhetz, won new laurels, and it participated in the advance on Le Mans and the battle at that place on the 12th of January 1871. At the close of the war Alvensleben received the oak-leaves of the order pour le merite, the first class of the Iron Cross and a grant of 100,000 thalers. He became full general of infantry in 1873 and retired immediately afterwards. In 1889 the emperor William II. ordered that the 52nd infantry regiment (one of the distinguished regiments of Vionville) should thereafter bear Alvensleben's name, and in 1892, on the anniversary of the battle of Le Mans, the old general received the order of the Black Eagle. He died on the 28th of March 1892 at Berlin.

His brother, GUSTAV VON ALVENSLEBEN (1803-1881), Prussian general of infantry, was born at Eichenbarleben on the 30th of September 1803, entered the Guard infantry in 1821, and took part as a general staff officer in the suppression of the Baden insurrection of 1849. He became a major-general in 1858, aide-de-camp to the king in 1861, and lieutenant-general in 1863, and in the campaign of 1866 performed valuable military and political services. He was promoted general of infantry in 1868. In the war of 1870 he commanded the IV army corps, which took a conspicuous part in the action of Beaumont and afterwards served in the siege of Paris. He received the Iron Cross, the order pour le merite, and a money grant, as a reward for his services, and retired in 1872. He died at Gernrode in the Harz on the 30th of June 1881.

Another brother, ALBRECHT, COUNT von ALVENSLEBEN (1794- 1858), was a distinguished Prussian statesman.

ALVEOLATE (from Lat. alveolus), honeycombed, a word used technically in biology, &c., to mean pitted like a honeycomb.

ALVERSTONE, RICHARD EVERARD WEBSTER, IST BARON (1842- ), lord chief justice of England, was born on the 22nd of December 1842, being the second son of Thomas Webster, Q.C. He was educated at King's College and Charterhouse schools, and Trinity College, Cambridge; was called to the bar in 1868, and became Q.C. only ten years afterwards. His practice was chiefly in commercial, railway and patent cases until (June 1885) he was appointed attorney-general in the Conservative Government in the exceptional circumstances of never having been solicitor-general, and not at the time occupying a seat in parliament. He was elected for Launceston in the following month, and in November exchanged this seat

for the Isle of Wight, which he continued to represent until his elevation to the House of Lords. Except under the brief Gladstone administration of 1886, and the Gladstone-Rosebery cabinet of 1892-1895, Sir Richard Webster was attorney-general from 1885 to 1900. In 1890 he was leading counsel for The Times in the Parnell inquiry; in 1893 he represented Great Britain in the Bering Sea arbitration; in 1898 he discharged the same function in the matter of the boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela; and in 1903 was one of the members of the Alaska Boundary Commission. He was well known as an athlete in his earlier years, having represented his university as a runner, and his interest in cricket and foot-racing was kept up in later life. In the House of Commons, and outside it, he was throughout his political career prominently associated with church work; and his speeches were distinguished for gravity and earnestness. In 1900 he succeeded Sir Nathaniel Lindley as Master of the Rolls, being raised to the peerage as Baron Alverstone, and in October of the same year he was elevated to the office of lord chief justice upon the death of Lord Russell of Killowen.

ALWAR, or ULWAR, a native state of India in the Rajputana agency. It is bounded on the E. by the state of Bharatpur and the British district of Gurgaon, on the N. by Gurgaon district and the state of Patiala, on the W. by the states of Nabha and Jaipur, and on the S. by the state of Jaipur. Its configuration is irregular, the greatest length from north to south being about 80 m., and breadth from east to west about 60 m., with a total area of 3141 sq. m. The eastern portion of the state is open and highly cultivated; the western is diversified by hills and peaks, which form a continuation of the Aravalli range, from 12 to 20 m. in breadth. These hills run in rocky and precipitous parallel ridges, in some places upwards of 2200 ft. in height. The Sabhi river flows through the north-western part of the state, the only other stream of importance being the Ruparel, which rises in the Alwar hills, and flows through the state into the Bharatpur territory. The population in 1901 was 828,487, showing an increase of 8% during the decade. When compared with a heavy decrease elsewhere throughout Rajputana, this increase may be attributed to the successful administration of famine relief, under British officials. The revenue is L. 185,000. The maharaja Jai Singh, who succeeded in 1892 at the age of ten, was educated at the Mayo college, where he excelled both in sports and in knowledge of English. He came of age in 1903, when he was invested by the viceroy with full ruling powers. Alwar was the first native state to accept a currency struck at the Calcutta mint, of the same weight and assay as the imperial rupee, with the head of the British sovereign on the obverse. Imperial service troops are maintained, consisting of both cavalry and infantry, with transport. The state is traversed by the Delhi branch of the Rajputana railway. A settlement of the land revenue has been carried out by an English civilian.

The state was founded by Pratap Singh (1740-1791), a Rajput of ancient lineage, and increased by his adopted son Bakhtawar Singh. The latter joined the British against the Mahrattas, and in 1803, after the battle of Laswari (Nov. 1), signed a treaty of offensive and defensive alliance with the British government. In 1811, owing to his armed intervention in Jaipur, a fresh engagement was made, prohibiting him from political intercourse with other states without British consent. In 1857 the raja Binni Singh sent a force of Mussulmans and Rajputs to relieve the British garrison in Agra; the Mussulmans, however, deserted, and the rest were defeated by the mutineers.

The CITY OF ALWAR has a railway station on the Rajputana line, 98 m. from Delhi; pop. (1901) 56,771, showing a steady increase. It stands in a valley overhung by a fortress 1000 ft. above. It is surrounded by a rampart and moat, with five gates, and contains fine palaces, temples and tombs. The water-supply is brought from a lake 9 m. distant. It has a high school, affiliated to the Allahabad university; and a school for the sons of nobles, founded to commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The Lady Dufferin hospital is under the charge of an English lady doctor, with two female assistants.

ALYATTES, king of Lydia (609-560 B.C.), the real founder of the Lydian empire, was the son of Sadyattes, of the house of the Mermnadae. For several years he continued the war against Miletus begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention to the Medes and Babylonians. On the 28th of May 585, during a battle on the Halys between him and Cyaxares, king of Media, an eclipse of the sun took place; hostilities were suspended, peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms. Alyattes drove the Cimmerii (see SCYTIHA) from Asia, subdued the Carians, and took several Ionian cities (Smyrna, Colophon). He was succeeded by his son Croesus. His tomb still exists on the plateau between lake Gygaea and the river Hermus to the north of Sardis -- a large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones. It was excavated by Spiegelthal in 1854, who found that it covered a large vault of finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of the same stone from the south. The sarcophagus and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb, all that was left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. On the summit of the mound were large phalli of stone.

See A. von Olfers, ``Uber die lydischen Konigsgraber bei Sardes,'' Abh. Berl. Ak., 1858.

ALYPIUS, a Greek writer on music whose works, with those of six others, were collected and published with a commentary and explanatory notes (Antiquae Musicae Auctores Septem, Amstel., 1652), by Mark Meibomius (1630-1711). He is said to have written before Euclid and Ptolemy; and Cassiodorus arranges his Introduction to Music between those of Nicomachus and Gaudentius. The work consists solely of a list of symbols of the various scales and modes, and is probably only a fragment.

ALYPIUS OF ANTIOCH, a geographer of the 4th century, who was sent by the emperor Julian into Britain as first prefect, and was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypins; one inviting him to Rome, the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists.

See also Ammianus Marcellinus xxiii. 1, sec. 2.

ALYTES, the midwife toad, first discovered by P. Demours in 1741, on the border of a small pond in the Jardin des Plantes, in the very act of parturition which has rendered it famous, and described as Petit crapaud male accoucheur de sa femelle. Alytes obstetricans is of special interest as the first known example of paternal solicitude in Batrachians, and although many no less wonderful cases of nursing instinct have since been revealed to us, it remains the only one among European forms.

Alytes obstetricans is a small toad-like Batrachian, two inches in length, of dull greyish coloration, plump form with warty skin and large eyes with vertical pupils. Although toad-like it is not really related to the toads proper, but belongs to the family Discoglossidae, characterized by a circular, adherent tongue, teeth in the upper jaw and on the palate, short but distinct ribs on the anterior vertebrae, and convex-concave vertebrae. It inhabits France, Belgium, Switzerland, Western Germany (eastwards to the Weser), Spain and Portugal. A second species, A. cisternasii, occurs in Spain and Portugal.

Alytes is nocturnal and slow in its movements. It is thoroughly terrestrial, selecting for its retreat in the daytime holes made by small mammals, or interstices between stones. Towards evening it reveals its presence by a clear whistling note, which has often been compared to the sound of a little bell, or to a chime when produced by numerous individuals. The breeding season lasts throughout spring and summer, and the female is able to spawn two, three or even four times in the year. Pairing and oviposition take place on land; the male seizes the female round the waist. The eggs are large and yellow, and produced in two rosary-like strings, as if strung together by elastic filaments continuous with the gelatinous capsules. After impregnation, the male twists them round his legs and returns to his usual retreat, going about at night in order to feed himself and to keep up the moisture of the eggs, even resorting to a short immersion in the water during exceptionahy dry nights. The development of the embryo within the egg takes about three weeks. When the time for

eclosion has come, the male enters the water with his burden; the larvae, in the full tadpole condition, measuring 14 to 17 millimetres, bite their way through their tough envelope, which is not abandoned by the father until all the young are liberated, and complete in the ordinary way their metamorphosis. The tadpoles grow to a large size considering that of the adult, the body equalling in size a sparrow's or even a small pigeon's egg, and they often remain more than a year in that condition.

See A. de l'Isle, ``Memoire sur les moeurs et l'accouchement de l'Alytes obstetricans,'' Ann. Sci. Nat. (6) iii. 1876; G. A. Boulenger. Tailless Batrachians of Europe (Ray Society, 1897). (G. A. B.)

ALZEY, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of Hesse- Darmstadt, 18 m. S. of Mainz by rail. Pop. (1900) 6893. There are a Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, several high-grade schools and a teachers' seminary. Alzey has industries of dyeing and weaving, breweries, and does a considerable trade in wine. It is immortalized in the Nibelungenlied in the person of ``Volker von Alzeie,'' the warrior who in the last part of the epic plays a part second only to that of Hagen, and who ``was called the minstrel (spilman) because he could fiddle.'' It became an imperial city in 1277. In 1620 it was sacked by the Spaniards and in 1689 burnt by the French. Annexed to France during the Napoleonic wars, it passed in 1815 to the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt.

ALZOG, JOHANN BAPTIST (1808-1878), German theologian, was born at Ohlau, in Silesia, on the 29th of June 1808. He studied at Breslau and Bonn and was ordained priest at Cologne in 1834. In the following year he accepted the chairs of exegesis and church history at the seminary of Posen. He removed in 1844 to Hildesheim, where he had been appointed rector of the seminary. He became professor of church history at the university of Freiburg in the Breisgau in 1853 and held that post till his death on the 1st of March 1878. Together with Dollinger, Alzog was instrumental in convoking the famous Munich assembly of Catholic scholars in 1863. He also took part, with Bishops Hefele and Haseberg, in the preparatory work of the Vatican Council and voted in favour of the doctrine of papal infallibility but against the opportuneness of its promulgation. Alzog's fame rests mainly on his Handbuch den Caniversal-Kirchengeschichte (Mainz, 1841, often reprinted under various titles; Eng. trans. by Pabisch and Byrne, A Manual of Church History, 4 vols. Cincinnati, 1874). Based upon the foundations laid by Mohler, this manual was generally accepted as the best exposition of Catholic views, in opposition to the Protestant manual by C. A. Hase, and was translated into several languages. Besides a host of minor writings on ecclesiastical subjects, and an active collaboration in the great Kirchen- lexicon of Wetzer and Welte, Alzog was also the author of Grundriss der Patrologic (Freiburg, 1866, 4th ed. 1888), a scholarly work, though now superseded by that of O. Bardenhewer.

A full list of Alzog's writings is given in H. Hurter's Nomenclator titerarius recentioris theologiae catholicae, vol. iii. For an account of his life see the funeral oration by F. X. Kraus, entitled: Gedachtnissrede auf Johannes Alzog (Freiburg, 1879).

AMADIS DE GAULA. This famous romance of chivalry survives only in a Castilian text, but it is claimed by Portugal as well as by Spain. The date of its composition, the name of its author, and the language in which it was originally written are not yet settled. It is not even certain when the romance was first printed, for though the oldest known edition (a unique copy of which is in the British Museum) appeared at Saragossa in 1508, it is highly probable that Amadis was in print before this date: an edition is reported to have been issued at Seville in 1496. As it exists in Spanish, Amadis de Gaula consists of four books, the last of which is generally believed to be by the regidor of Medina del Campo, Garci Rodriguez de Montalvo (whose name is given as Garci Ordonez de Montalvo in all editions of Amadis later than that of 1508, and as Garci Gutierrez de Montalvo in some editions of the Sergas de Esplandian). Montalvo alleges that the first three books were arranged and corrected by him from ``the ancient originals,'' and a reference in the prologue to the siege of Granada points to the conclusion that the Spanish recast was made shortly after 1492; it is possible, however, that the prologue alone was written after 1492, and that the text itself is older. The number of these ``ancient originals'' is not stated, nor is there any mention of the language in which they were composed; Montalvo's silence on the latter point might be taken to imply that they were in Castilian, but any such inference would be hazardous. Three hooks of Areadis de Gaula are mentioned by Pero Ferrus who was living in 1379, and there is evidence that the romance was current in Castile more than a quarter of a century earlier; but again there is no information as to the language in which they were written. Gomes Eannes de Azurara, in his Chronica de Conde D. Pedro de Menezes (c. 1450), states that Amadis de Gaula was written by Vasco de Lobeira in the time of king Ferdinand of Portugal who died in 1383: as Vasco de Lobeira was knighted in 1385, it would follow that he wrote the elaborate romance in his earliest youth. This conclusion is untenable, and the suggestion that the author was Pedro de Loboira (who flourished in the 15th century) involves a glaring anachronism. A further step was taken by the historian Joao de Barros, who maintained in an unpublished work dating between 1540 and 1550 that Vasco de Lobeira wrote Amadis de Gaula in Portuguese, and that his text was translated into Castilian; this is unsupported assertion. Towards the end of the 16th century Miguel Leite Ferreira, son of the Portuguese poet, Antonio Ferreira, declared that the original manuscript of Amadis de Gaula was then in the Aveiro archives, and an Amadis de Gaula in Portuguese, which is alleged to have existed in the conde de Vimeiro's library as late as 1586, had vanished before 1726. In the absence of corroboration, these dubious details must be received with extreme reserve. A stronger argument in favour of the Portuguese case is drawn from the existing Spanish text. In book I, chapters 40 and 42, it is recorded that the Infante Alphonso of Portugal suggested a radical change in the narrative of Briolanja's relations with Amadis. This prince has been identified as the Infante Alphonso who died in 1312, or as Alphonso IV. who ascended the Portuguese throne in 1325. Were either of these identifications established, the date of composition might be referred with certainty to the beginning of the 14th century or the end of the 13th. But both identifications are conjectural. Nevertheless the passage in the Spanish text undeniably lends some support to the Portuguese claim, and recent critics have inclined to the belief that Areadis de Gaula was written by Joao de Lobeira, a Galician knight who frequented the Portuguese court between 1258 and 1285, and to whom are ascrihed two fragments of a poem in the Colocci-Brancuti Canzoniere (Nos. 240 and 240b) which reappears with some unimportant variants in Amadis de Gaula (book II, chapter 11). The coincidence may be held to account in some measure for the traditional association of a Lobeira with the authorship of Amadis de Gaula; but, though curious, it warrants no definite conclusion being drawn from it. Against the Portuguese claim it is argued that the Villancico corresponding to Joao de Lobeiro's poem is an interpolation in the Spanish text, that Portuguese prose was in a rudimentary stage of development at the period when -- ex hypothesi -- the romance was composed, and that the book was very popular in Spain almost a century before it is even mentioned in Portugal. Lastly, there is the incontrovertible fact that Amidis de Gaula exists in Castilian, while it remains to be proved that it ever existed in Portuguese. As to its substance, it is beyond dispute that much of the text derives from the French romances of the Round Table; but the evidence does not enable us to say (1) whether it was pieced together from various French romances; (2) whether it was more or less literally translated from a lost French original; or (3) whether the first Peninsular adapter or translator was a Castilian or a Portuguese. On these points judgment must be suspended. There can, however, be no hesitation in accepting Cervantes' verdict on Amadis de Gaula as the ``best of all the books of this kind that have ever been written.'' It is the prose epic of feudalism, and its romantic spirit, its high ideals, its fantastic gallantry, its ingenious adventures, its mechanism of symbolic wonders, and its flowing style have entranced readers of such various types as Francis I. and Charles V., Ariosto and Montaigne.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. -- Carolina Michaelis de Vasconcellos and Gottfried Baist in the Grundriss der romanischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1897 ), ii. Band, 2. Abteiluna, pp. 216-226 and 440-442: Ludwig Braunfels, Kritischer Versuch uber den Roman Annadie von Glallien (Leipzig, 1876); Theophilo Braga, Historia das novelas portuguezas de cavalleria (Porto, 1873), Curso de litteratura e arte portugueza (Lisboa, 1881), and Questoes de litteratura e arte portugueza (Lisboa, 1885); Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905); Eugene Baret, De l,Amadis de Glaule et de son influence sur les moeurs et la litterature au XVIe et au XVIIe siecle (Paris, 1873). (J. F. K.)

AMADOU, a soft tough substance used as tinder, derived from Polyporus fomentarius, a fungus belonging to the group Basidiomycetes and somewhat resembling a mushroom in manner of growth. It grows upon old trees, especially the oak, ash, fir and cherry. The fungus is cut into slices and then steeped in a solution of nitre. Amadou is prepared on the continent of Europe, chiefly in Germany, but the fungus is a native of Britain. Polyporus igniarius and other species are also used, but yield an inferior product.

AMAKUSA, an island belonging to Japan, 26 1/2 m. long and 13 1/2 in extreme width, situated about 32 deg. 20' N., and 130 deg. E. long., on the west of the province of Higo (island of Kiushiu), from which it is separated by the Yatsushiro-kai. It has no high mountains, but its surface being very hilly -- four of the peaks rise to a height over 1500 ft. -- the natives resort to the terrace system of cultivation with remarkable success. A number of the heads of the Christians executed in connexion with the Shimabara rebellion in the first half of the 17th century were buried in this island. Amakusa produces a little coal and fine kaolin, which was largely used in former times by the potters of Hirado and Satsuma.

AMAL, the name of the noblest family among the Ostrogoths, and that from which nearly all their kings were chosen.

AMALARIC (d. 531), king of the Visigoths, son of Alaric II., was a child when his father fell in battle against Clovis, king of the Franks (507). He was carried for safety into Spain, which country and Provence were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, Theodoric the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice- gerent, an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. In 522 the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Spain and a part of Languedoc, relinquishing Provence to his cousin Athalaric. He married Clotilda, daughter of Clovis; but his disputes with her, he being an Arian and she a Catholic, brought on him the penalty of a Frankish invasion, in which he lost his life in 531.

AMALASUNTHA or AMALASUENTHA, queen of the Ostrogoths (d. 535), daughter of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, was married in 515 to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth of the old Areal line, who had previously been living in Spain. Her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, Athalaricand Matasuentha. On the death of her father in 526, she succeeded him, acting as regent for her son, but being herself deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects. Conscious of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death, three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor Justinian with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to Constantinople. Her son's death in 534 made but little change in the posture of affairs. Amalasuntha, now queen, with a view of strengthening her position, made her cousin Theodahad partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living). The choice was unfortunate. Theodahad, notwithstanding a varnish of literary culture, was a coward and a scoundrel. He fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was murdered in her bath.

The letters of Cassiodorus, chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of Procopius and Jordanea, give us our chief information as to the character of Amalauentha.

AMALEKITES, an ancient tribe, or collection of tribes, in the south and south-east of Palestine, often mentioned in the Old Testament as foes of the Israelites. They were regarded as a branch of the Edomites (Gen. xxxvi. 12, see EDOM), and appear to have numbered among their divisions the Kenites. When the Israelites were journeying from Egypt to the land of Canaan, the Amalekites are said to have taken advantage of their weak condition to harry the stragglers in the rear, and as a judgment for their hostility it was ordained that their memory should be blotted out from under heaven (Deut. xxv. 17-19). An allusion to this appears in the account of Israel's defeat on the occasion of the attempt to force a passage from Kadesh through Hormah, evidently into Palestine (Num. xiv. 43-45, cp. Deut. i. 44-46). The statements are obscure, and elsewhere Hormah is the scene of a victory over the Canaanites by Israel (Num. xxi. 1-3), or by the tribes Judah and Simeon (Judg. i. 17). The question is further complicated by the account of Joshua's overthrow of Amalek apparently in the Sinaitic peninsula. The event was commemorated by the erection of the altar ``Yahwehnissi'' (``Yahweh my banner'' or ``memorial''), and rendered even more memorable by the utterance, ``Yahweh hath sworn: Yahweh will have war with Amalek from generation to generation'' (Ex. xvii. 8-16, on its present position, see EXODUS [BOOK]). The same sentiment recurs in Yahweh's command to Saul to destroy Amalek utterly for its hostility to Israel (1 Sam. xv.), and in David's retaliatory expedition when he distributed among his friends the spoil of the ``enemies of Yahweh'' (xxx. 26). Saul himself, according to one tradition, was slain by an Amalekite (2 Sam. i., contrast 1 Sam. xxxi.). A similar spirit appears among the prophecies ascribed to Balaam: ``Amalek, first (or chief) of nations, his latter end [will be] destruction'' (Num. xxiv. 20).

The district of Amalek lay to the south of Judah (cp. I Chron. iv. 42 seq.), probably between Kadesh and Hormah (cp. Gen. xiv. 7; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8), and the interchange of the ethnic with ``Canaanites'' and ``Amorites'' suggests that the Amalekites are merely one of Israel's traditional enemies of the older period. Hence we find them taking part with Ammonites and Midianites (Judg. iii. 13, vi. 3), and their king Agag, slain by Samuel as a sacrificial offering (1 Sam. xv. 9), was a byword for old-time might and power (Num. xxiv. 7). Even in one of the Psalms (lxxxiii. 7) Amalek is mentioned among the enemies of Israel -- just as Greek writers of the 6th century of this era applied the old term Scythians to the Goths (Noldeke), -- and the traditional hostility between Saul and Amalek is reflected still later in the book of Esther where Haman the Agagite is pitted against Mordecai the Benjamite.

Twice Amalek seems to be mentioned as occupying central Palestine (Judg. v. 14, xii. 15), but the passages are textually uncertain. The name is celebrated in Arabian tradition, but the statements regarding them are confused and conflicting, and for historical purposes are practically worthless, as has been proved by Th. Noldeke (Uleber die Amalekiter, Gottingen, 1864). On the biblical data, see also E. Meyer, Die Israeliten (Index, s.v..) (S. A. C.) AMALFI, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of Salerno, from the town of which name it is distant 12 m. W.S.W. by road, on the N. coast of the Gulf of Salerno. Pop. (1901) 6681. It lies at the mouth of a deep ravine, in a sheltered situation, at the foot of Monte Cerreto (4314 ft.), in the centre of splendid coast scenery, and is in consequence much visited by foreigners. The cathedral of S. Andrea is a structure in the Lombard-Norman style, of the 11th century; the facade in black and white stone was well restored in 1891; the bronze doors were executed at Constantinople before 1066. The campanile dates from 1276. The interior is also fine, and contains ancient columns and sarcophagi. The conspicuous Capuchin monastery on the W. with fine cloisters (partly destroyed by a landslip in 1899) is now used as an hotel. Amalfi is first mentioned in the 6th century, and soon acquired importance as a naval power; in the 9th century it shared with Venice and Gaeta the Italian trade with the East, and in 848 its fleet went to the assistance of Pope Leo IV. against the Saracens.

It was then an independent republic with a population of some 70,000, but in 1131 it was reduced by King Roger of Sicily. In 1135 and 1137 it was taken by the Pisans, and rapidly declined in importance, though its maritime code, known as the Tavole Amalfitane, was recognized in the Mediterranean until 1570. In 1343 a large part of the town was destroyed by an inundation, and its harbour is now of little importance. Its industries too, have largely disappeared, and the paper manufacture has lost ground since 1861.

AMALGAM, the name applied to alloys which contain mercury. It is said by Andreas Libavius to be a corruption of malagma; in the alchemists the form algamala is also found. Many amalgams are formed by the direct contact of a metal with mercury, sometimes with absorption, sometimes with evolution, of heat. Other methods are to place the metal and mercury together in dilute acid, to add mercury to the solution of a metallic salt, to place a metal in a solution of mercuric nitrate, or to electrolyse a metallic salt using mercury as the negative electrode. Some amalgams are liquids, especially when containing a large proportion of mercury; others assume a crystalline form. In some cases definite compounds have been isolated from amalgams which may be regarded as mixtures of one or more of such compounds with mercury in excess. In general these compounds are decomposable by heat, but some of them, such as those of gold, silver, copper and the alkali metals, even when heated above the boiling point of mercury retain mercury and leave residues of definite composition. Tin amalgam is used for ``silvering'' mirrors, gold and silver amalgam in gilding and silvering, cadmium and copper amalgam in dentistry, and an amalgam of zinc and tin for the rubbers of electrical machines; the zinc plates of electric batteries are amalgamated in order to reduce polarization.

AMALRIC, the name of two kings of Jerusalem. AMALRIC I., king from 1162 to 1174, was the son of Fulk of Jerusalem, and the brother of Baldwin III. He was twice married: by his first wife, Agnes of Edessa, he had issue a son and a daughter, Baldwin IV. and Sibylla, while his second wife, Maria Comnena, bore him a daughter Isabella, who ultimately carried the crown of Jerusalem to her fourth husband, Amalric of Lusignan (Amalric II.). The reign of Amalric I. was occupied by the Egyptian problem. It became a question between Amalric and Nureddin, which of the two should control the discordant viziers, who vied with one another for the control of the decadent caliphs of Egypt. The acquisition of Egypt had been an object of the Franks since the days of Baldwin I. (and indeed of Godfrey himself, who had promised to cede Jerusalem to the patriarch Dagobert as soon as he should himself acquire Cairo). The capture of Ascakm by Baldwin III. in 1153 made this object more feasible; and we find the Hospitallers preparing sketch-maps of the routes best suited for an invasion of Egypt, in the style of a modern war office. On the other hand, it was natural for Nureddin to attempt to secure Egypt, both because it was the terminus of the trading route which ran from Damascus and because the acquisition of Egypt would enable him to surround the Latin kingdom. For some five years a contest was waged between Amalric and Shirguh (Shirkuh), the lieutenant of Nureddin, for the possession of Egypt. Thrice (1164, 1167, 1168) Amalric penetrated into Egypt: but the contest ended in the establishment of Saladin, the nephew of Shirguh, as vizier -- a position which, on the death of the puppet caliph in 1171, was turned into that of sovereign. The extinction of the Latin kingdom might now seem imminent; and envoys were sent to the West with anxious appeals for assistance in 1169, 1171 and 1173. But though in 1170 Saladin attacked the kingdom, and captured Aila on the Red Sea, the danger was not so great as it seemed. Nureddin was jealous of his over-mighty subject, and his jealousy bound Saladin's hands. This was the position of affairs when Amalric died, in 1174; but, as Nureddin died in the same year, the position was soon altered and Saladin began the final attack on the kingdom. Amalric I., the second of the native kings of Jerusalem, had the qualities of his brother Baldwin III. (q.v.) He was something of a scholar, and it was he who set William of Tyre to work. He was perhaps still more of a lawyer: his delight was in knotty points of the law, and he knew the Assises better than any of his subjects. The Church had some doubts of him, and he laid his hands on the Church. William of Tyre was once astonished to find him questioning, on a bed of sickness, the resurrection of the body; and his taxation of clerical goods gave umbrage to the clergy generally. But he maintained the state of his kingdom with the resources which he owed to the Church; and he is the last in the fine list of the early kings of Jerusalem.

William of Tyre is our original authority: see xix. 2-3 for his sketch of Amalric. Rohricht narrates the reign of Amalric I., Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem, c. xvii.-xviii.

Amalric II., king from 1197 to 1205, was the brother of Guy of Lusignan. He had been constable of Jerusalem, but in 1194, on the death of his brother, he became king of Cyprus, as Amalric I. He married Isabella, the daughter of Amalric I. by his second marriage, and became king of Jerusalem in right of his wife in 1197. In 1198 he was able to procure a five years' truce with the Mahommedans, owing to the struggle between Saladin's brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in 1204 it was renewed for six years. Amalric died in 1205, just after his son and just before his wife. The kingdom of Cyprus passed to Hugh, his son by an earlier marriage, while that of Jerusalem passed to Maria, the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage with Conrad of Montferrat. (E. B. R.)

AMALRIC (Fr. AMAURY) OF BENA (d.c. 1204-1207), French theologian, was born in the latter part of the 12th century at Bena, a village in the diocese of Chartres. He taught philosophy and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed a great reputation as a subtle dialectician; his lectures developing the philosophy of Aristotle attracted a large circle of hearers. In 1204 his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on a personal appeal to Pope Innocent III., the sentence was ratified, Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors. His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he had been subjected. In 1209 ten of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds. The doctrines of his followers, known as the Amalricians, were formally condemned by the fourth Lateran Council in 1215. Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from Erigena (q.v.), whose principles he developed in a one-sided and strongly pantheistic form. Three propositions only can with certainty be attributed to him: (1) that God is all; (2) that every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation: (3) that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin. These three propositions were further developed by his followers, who maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the Holy Ghost. Under the pretext that a true believer could commit no sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does not appear to have long survived the death of its founder.

See W. Preger, Gleschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173); Haureau, Hist. de la phil. scol. (Paris, 1872); C. Schmidt, Hist. de l'Eglise d'Occident itendant le moyen age (Paris, 1885); Hefele, Conciliengesch. (2nd ed., Ereiburg, 1886).

AMALTEO, the name of an Italian family belonging to Oderzo, Treviso, several members of which were distinguished in literature. The best known are three brothers, Geronimo (1507-1574), Giambattista (1525-1573) and Cornelio (1530-1603), whose Latin poems were published in one collection under the title Trium Fralrum Amaltheorum Carmina (Venice, 1627; Amst., 1689). The eldest brother, Geronimo, was a celebrated physician; the second, Giambattista, accompanied a Venetian embassy to England in 1554, and was secretary to Pius IV. at the council of Trent; the third, Cornelio, was a physician and secretary to the republic of Ragusa.

AMALTEO, POMPONIO (1505-1584), Italian painter of the Venetian school, was born at San Vito in Friuli. He was a pupil and son-in-law of Pordenone, whose style he closely imitated. His works consist chiefly of frescoes and altar-pieces and many of them (e.g. in the church of Santa Maria de' Battisti, at San Vito) have suffered greatly from the ravages of time.

AMALTHEIA, in Greek mythology, the foster-mother of Zeus. She is sometimes represented as the goat which suckled the infant-god in a cave in Crete, sometimes as a nymph of uncertain parentage (daughter of Oceanus, Haemonius, Olen, Melisseus), who brought him up on the milk of a goat. This goat having broken off one of its horns, Amaltheia filled it with flowers and fruits and presented it to Zeus, who placed it together with the goat amongst the stars. According to another story, Zeus himself broke off the horn and gave it to Amaltheia, promising that it would supply whatever she desired in abundance. Amaltheia gave it to Acholous (her reputed brother), who exchanged it for his own horn which had been broken off in his contest with Heracles for the possession of Deianeira. According to ancient mythology, the owners of the horn were many and various. Speaking generally, it was regarded as the symbol of inexhaustible riches and plenty, and became the attribute of various divinities (Hades, Gaea, Demeter, Cybele, Hermes), and of rivers (the Nile) as fertilizers of the land. The term ``horn of Amaltheia'' is applied to a fertile district, and an estate belonging to Titus Pomponius Atticus was called Amaltheum. Cretan coins represent the infant Zeus being suckled by the goat; other Greek coins exhibit him suspended from its teats or carried in the arms of a nymph (Ovid, Fasti, v. 115; Metam. ix. 87).

AMANA, a township in Iowa county, Iowa, U.S.A., 19 m. S.W. (by rail) of Cedar Rapids. Pop. (1900) 1748; (1910) 1729. It is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways. The township is the home of a German religious communistic society, the Amana Society, formerly the True Inspiration Society (so called from its belief in the present inspiration of the truly godly and perfectly pious), whose members live in various villages near the Iowa river. These villages are named Amana, West Amana, South Amana, East Amana, Middle Amana, High Amana and Homestead. The houses are of brick or unpainted wood. The society has in all 26,000 acres of land, of which about 10,000 acres are covered with forests. The principal occupation of the members is farming, although they also have woollen mills (their woollens being of superior quality), a cotton print factory, flour mills, saw mills and dye shops. Each family has its own dwelling-place and a small garden; each member of a family has an annual allowance of credit at the common store and a room in the dwelling-house; and each group of families has a large garden, a common kitchen and a common dining hall where men and women eat at separate tables. Between the ages of five and fourteen education is compulsory for the entire year. In the schools nature study and manual training are prominent; German is used throughout and English is taught in upper classes only. No man is permitted to marry until twenty-four years of age, and no woman until twenty. The society's views and practices are nearly related to the teachings of Schwenkfeld and Boehme. Baptism is not practised; the Lord's Supper is celebrated only once in two years; foot-washing is held as a sacrament. At an annual spiritual examination of the members, there are mutual criticisms and public confessions of sin. The Inspirationists are opposed to war and to taking of oaths. The Society became attached to the Separatist leader, Eberhard Ludwig Gruber (d. 1728) in Wetterau in 1714; in 1842-1844 about 600 members, led by Christian Metz, the ``divine instrument'' of the Society, emigrated from Germany to the United States and settled in a colony called Ebenezer, in Erie county, near Buffalo, N.Y.; in 1855 the colony began to remove to its present home, which it named from the mountain mentioned in the Song of Solomon, iv. 8, the Hebrew word meaning ``remain true'' (or, more probably, ``fixed''), and in 1859 it was incorporated under the, name of the Amana Society. Metz died in 1864 and was succeeded by Barbara Landmann, since whose death in 1884 the community has lacked an inspired leader. Amana was the strongest in numbers of the few sectarian communities in America which outlived the 19th century. A few new members have joined the community from Switzerland and Germany in recent years. In 1905 the community won a suit brought against it for its dissolution on the ground that, having been incorporated solely as a benevolent and religious body, it was illegally carrying on a general business.

See W. R. Perkins and B. L. Wick, History of the Amana Society or Community of True Inspiration, Historical Monograph, No. 1, in State University of Iowa publications (Iowa City, 1891); R. T. Ely, ``Amana: A Study of Religious Communism,'' in Harper's Magazine for October 1902; and Bertha M. H. Shambaugh, Amana, the Community of True Inspiration (Iowa City, 1908).

AMANITA. The amanitas include some of the most showy representatives of the Agaricineae or mushroom order of fungi (q.v.). In the first stages of growth, they are completely enveloped by an outer covering called the veil. As the plant develops the veil is ruptured; the lower portion forms a sheath or volva round the base of the stem, while the upper portion persists as white patches or scales or warts on the surface of the cap. The stem usually bears an upper ring of tissue, the

Amanita muscaria. A, the young plant. g, the gills. B, the mature plant. a, the annulus, or remnant of C, longitudinal section of mature velum partiale. plant. v, remains of volva or velum p, the pileus. universale. s, the stalk.

remains of an inner veil, that stretched from the stem to the edge of the cap and broke away from the cap as the latter expanded. The presence of the volva, and the clear white gills and spores, distinguish this genus from all other agarics. They are beautiful objects in the autumn woods; Amanita muscaria, the fly fungus, formerly known as Agaricus muscarius, being especially remarkable by its bright red cap covered with white warts. Others are pure white or of varying shades of yellow or green. There are sixteen British species of Amanita; they grow on the ground in or near woods. Several of the species are very poisonous.

AMANUENSIS (a Latin word, derived from the phrase servus a manu, slave of the hand, a secretary), one who writes, from dictation or otherwise, on behalf of another.

AMAPALA, the only port on the Pacific coast of Honduras, on the northern shore of Tigre island, in the Bay of Fonseca (q.v.); in 13 deg. 3, N., and 87 deg. 94 W. Pop. (1905) about 4000. Amapala was founded in 1838, and its port was opened and declared free in 1868. The roadstead is perfectly sheltered and so deep that the largest vessels can lie within a few yards of the shore. It is the natural outlet for the commerce of some of the richest parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Salvador; and during the 19th century it exported large quantities of gold, silver and other ores, although its progress was retarded by the delay in constructing a transcontinental railway from Puerto Cortes. Its depots on the mainland, both about 30 m. distant,

are La Brea, for the line to Puerto Cortes, and San Lorenzo, for Tegucigalpa. Silver is still exported, in addition to hides, timber, coffee and indigo, and there are valuable fisheries.

AMARANTH, or AMARANG (from the Gr. amarantos, unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to certain plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. Thus Milton (Paradise Lost, iii. 353) --

``Immortal amarant, a flower which once In paradise, fast by the tree of life, Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows, And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life, And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream: With these that never fade the spirits elect Bind their resplendent locks.'' It should be noted that the proper spelling of the word is amarant; the more common spelling seems to have come from a hazy notion that the final syllable is the Greek word anthos, ``flower,'' which enters into a vast number of botanical names.

The plant genus Amarantus (natural order Amarantaceae) contains several well-known garden plants, such as love-lies- bleeding (A. caudatus), a native of India, a vigorous hardy annual, with dark purplish flowers crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another species A. hypochondriacus, is prince's feather, another Indian annual, with deeply-veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes. ``Globe amaranth'' belongs to an allied genus, Gomphrena, and is also a native of India. It is an annual about 18 in. high, with solitary round heads of flowers; the heads are violet from the colour of the bracts which surround the small flowers.

In ancient Greece the amaranth (also called chrusanthemon and elichrusos) was sacred to Ephesian Artemis. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of immortality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, Amarynthus (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of Euboea; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5).

See Lenz, Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom. (1859); J. Murr, Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol. (1890).

AMARAPURA (``the city of the gods''), formerly the capital of the Burmese kingdom, now a suburb of Mandalay, Burma, with a population in 1901 of 9103. The town was founded in 1783 to form a new capital about 6 m. to the north-east of Ava. It increased rapidly in size and population, and in 1810 was estimated to contain 170,000 inhabitants; but in that year the town was destroyed by fire, and this disaster, together with the removal of the native court to Ava in 1823, caused a decline in the prosperity of the place. In 1827 its population was estimated at only 30,000. It suffered severe calamity from an earthquake, which in 1839 destroyed the greater part of the city. It was finally abandoned in 1860, when king Mindon occupied Mandalay, 5 or 6 m. farther north. Amarapura was laid out on much the same plan as Ava. The ruins of the city wall, now overgrown with jungle, show it to have been a square with a side of about three-quarters of a mile in length. At each corner stood a solid brick pagoda about 100 ft. high. The most remarkable edifice was a celebrated temple, adorned with 250 lofty pillars of gilt wood, and containing a colossal bronze statue of Buddha. The remains of the former palace of the Burmese monarchs still survive in the centre of the town. During the time of its prosperity Amarapura was defended by a rampart and a large square citadel, with a broad moat, the walls being 7000 ft. long and 20 ft. high, with a bastion at each corner. The Burmans know it now as Myohaung, ``the old city.'' It has a station on the Rangoon-Mandalay railway, and is the junction for the line to Maymyo and the Kunlong ferry and for the Sagaing-Myitkyina railway. The group of villages called Amarapura by Europeans is known to the Burmans as Taung-myo, ``the southern city,'' as distinguished from Mandalay, the Myauk-myo, or ``northern city,'' 3 m. distant.

AMARAR, a tribe of African ``Arabs'' inhabiting the mountainous country on the west side of the Red Sea from Suakin northwards towards Kosseir. Between them and the Nile are the Ababda and Bisharin tribes and to their south dwell the Hadendoa. The country of the Amarar is called the Etbai. Their headquarters are in the Ariab district. The tribe is divided into four great famines: (1) Weled Gwilei, (2) Weled Aliab, (3) Woled Kurbab Wagadab, and (4) the Amarar proper of the Ariab district. They claim to be of Koreish blood and to be the descendants of an invading Arab army. Possibly some small bands of Koreish Arabs may have made an inroad and converted some of the Amarar to Islam. Further than this there is little to substantiate their claim.

See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905): Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (London, 1891); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (London, 1884).

AMARA SINHA (c. A.D. 375), Sanskrit grammarian and poet, of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is said to have been ``one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Vikramaditya,'' and according to the evidence of Hsuan Tsang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya that flourished about A.D. 375. Amara seems to have been a Buddhist; and an early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox Brahmins in the 5th century. The exception is the celebrated Amara-Xosha (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or the ``Tripartite.'' It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by H. T. Colebrooke, appeared at Serampore in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by A. L. A. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839.

AMARI, MICHELE (1806-1889), Italian orientalist and patriot, was born at Palermo. From his earliest youth he imbibed liberal principles from his relatives, especially from his grandfather, and although at the age of fourteen he was appointed clerk in the Bourbon civil service, he joined the Carbonari like many other young Sicilians and actively sympathized with the revolution of 1820. The movement, which was separatist in its tendencies, was quickly suppressed, but the conspiracies continued, and Amari's father, implicated in that of 1822, was arrested and condemned to death together with many others; but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment, and in 1834 he was liberated. Michele Amari still held his clerkship, but he regarded the Neapolitan government with increasing hatred, and he led a life of active physical exercise to train himself for the day of revolution. He devoted much of his time to the study of English and of history; his first literary essay was a translation of Sir Walter Scott's Marmion (1832), and in 1839 he published a work on the Sicilian Vespers, entitled Hn Periodo delle storie Siciliane del XIII. secolo, filled with political allusions reflecting unfavourably on the government. The book had an immediate success and went through many editions, but it brought the author under the suspicion of the authorities, and in 1842 he escaped from a boat just as he was about to be arrested. He settled in Paris, where he came in contact with a number of literary men, such as Michelet and Thierry, as well as with the Italian exiles. Having no private means he had to earn a precarious livelihood by literature. He was much struck with certain French translations of Arabic works on Sicily,which awoke in him a desire to read the authors in the original. With the assistance of Prof. Reinaud and Baron de Slane he soon acquired great proficiency in Arabic, and his translations and editions of oriental texts, as well as his historical essays, made him a reputation. In 1844 he began his great work La Storia dei Musulmani in Sicilia, but the revolution of 1848 plunged him into politics once more. His pamphlet, Quelques Observations sur le droit public de la Sicile, advocating the revival of the 1812 constitution for the island, met with great success, and on arriving at Palermo,

whence the Bourbon government had been expelled, he was chosen member of the war committee and appointed professor of public law at the university. At the general elections Amari was returned for Palermo and became minister of finance in the Stabile cabinet. On its fall he was sent to Paris and London to try to obtain help for the struggling island; having failed in his mission he returned to Sicily in 1849, hoping to fight. But the Neapolitan troops had re-occupied the island, the Liberals were in disagreement among themselves, and Amari with several other notables with difficulty escaped to Malta. Characteristic of his scholarly nature is the fact that he delayed his flight to take the impress of an important Arabic inscription. He returned to Paris, sad and dejected at the collapse of the movement, and devoted himself once more to his Arabic studies. He published a work on the chronology of the Koran, for which he received a prize from the Academie des Inscriptions, edited the Solwan el Mota by Ibn Zafer (a curious collection of philosophical thoughts) and Ibn Haukal's Description og Palermo, and in 1854 the first volume of his history of the Mahommedans in Sicily appeared. He received a meagre stipend for cataloguing the Arabic MSS. in the Bibliotheque Nationale, and he contributed many articles to the reviews. Although a firm friend of Mazzini, he discouraged the latter's premature conspiracies. In 1859, after the expulsion of the central Italian despots, Amari was appointed professor of Arabic at Pisa and afterwards at Florence. But when Garibaldi and his thousand had conquered Sicily, Amari returned to his native island, and was given an appointment in the government. Although intensely Sicilian in sentiment, he became one of the staunchest advocates of the union of Sicily with Italy, and was subsequently made senator of the kingdom at Cavour's instance. He was minister of education in the Farini and Minghetti cabinets, but on the fall of the latter in 1864, he resumed his professorship at Florence and spent the rest of his life in study. His circle of acquaintances, both in Italy and abroad, was very large, and his sound scholarship was appreciated in all countries. He died in 1889, loaded with honours. The last volume of his Storia dei Musulmani appeared in 1873, and in addition to the above-mentioned works he published many others on oriental and historical subjects. His work on the Sicilian Vespers was re-written as La Guerra dei Vespro (9th ed., Milan, 1886). He was the pioneer of Arabic studies in modern Italy, and he still remains the standard authority on the Mussulman domination in Sicily, though his judgment on religious questions is sometimes warped by a violently anti-clerical bias.

See A. D'Ancona, Carteggio di Michele Amari coll' elogio di lui (Turin, 1896); and Oreste Tommasini's essay in his Scritti di storial e critica (Rome, 189I). (L. V.n)

AMARYLLIS (the name of a girl in classical pastoral poetry), in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae, containing the belladonna lily (Amaryllis Belladonna), a native of South Africa, which was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the 18th century. This is a half-hardy bulbous plant, producing in the spring a number of strap-shaped, dull green leaves, 1-1 1/2 ft. long, arranged in two rows, and in autumn a solid stem, bearing at the top a cluster of 6-12 funnel-shaped flowers, of a rose colour and very fragrant. Several forms are known in cultivation. Most of the so-called Amaryllis of gardens belong to the allied genus Hippeastrum (q.v.).

AMASIA (anc. Amasia), the chief town of a sanjak in the Sivas vilayet of Asia Minor and an important trade centre on the Samsun-Sivas road, beautifully situated on the Yeshil Irmak (Iris). Pop. 30,000; Moslems about 20,000, of whom a large proportion are Kizilbash (Shia); Christians (mostly Armenians), 10,000. It was one of the chief towns of the kingdom of Trebizond and of the Seljuks, one of whose sultans, Kaikobad I., enriched it with fine buildings and restored the castle, which was thus enabled to stand a seven months' siege by Timur. It was also much favoured by the early Osmanli sultans, one of whom, Sclim I., was born there. Bayezid II. built a fine mosque. The place was modernized about a generation ago by Zia Pasha, the poet, when governor, and is now an unusually well built Turkish town with good bazaar and khans and a fine clock-tower. The Americans and the Jesuits have missionary schools for the Armenian population. Amasia has extensive orchards and fruit gardens still, as in Ibn Batuta's time, irrigated by water wheels turned by the current of the river; and there are steam flourmills. Wheat, flour and silk are exported.

Ancient Amasia has left little trace of itself except on the castle rock, on the left of the river, where the acropolis walls and a number of splendid rock-cut tombs, described by Strabo as those of the kings of Pontus, can be seen. The cliff is cut away all round these immense sepulchres so that they stand free. The finest, known from its polished surfaces as the ``Mirror Tomb,'' is about 2 m. from the modern city. Amasia rose into historical importance after the time of Alexander as the cradle of the power of Pontus; but the last king to reign there was the father of Mithradates Eupator ``The Great.'' The latter, however, made it the base of his operations against the Romans in 89, 72 and 67 B.C. Pompey made it a free city in 65, after Mithradates' fall. It was the birthplace of Strabo. (D. G. H.)

AMASIS, or AMOSIS (the Greek forms of the Egyptian name Ahmase, Ahmosi, ``the moon is born,'' often written Aahmes or Ahmes in modern works), the name of two kings of ancient Egypt.

AMASIS I., the founder of the XVIIIth dynasty, is famous for his successful wars against the Hyksos princes who still ruled in the north-east of the Delta (see EGYPT: History, sect. 1.)

AMASIS II. was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest, 570-526 B.C. Most of our information about him is derived from Herodotus (ii. 161 et seq.) and can only be imperfectly controlled by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian he was of mean origin. A revolt of the native soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning home from a disastrous expedition to Cyrene, suspected that they had been betrayed in order that Apries, the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his mercenaries, and their friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at Momemphis; the usurper treated the captive prince with great lenity, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people, by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis. Although Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the Greek world, and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration Egypt reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the temples of Lower Egypt especially with splendid monolithic shrines and other monuments (his activity here is proved by remains still existing). To the Greeks Amasis assigned the commercial colony of Naucratis on the Canopic branch of the Nile, and when the temple of Delphi was burnt he contributed 1000 talents to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named Ladice, the daughter of Battus, king of Cyrene, and he made alliances with Polycrates of Samos and Croesus of Lydia. His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the First Cataract, but to this he added Cyprus, and his influence was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by Nebuchadrezzar (568 B.C.). Cyrus left Egypt unmolested; but the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened invasion of Cambyses and by the rupture of the alliance with Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son Psammetichus III., whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after a reign of only six months.

See NAUCRATIS: also W. M. Flinders Petrie, History, vol. iii.; Breasted, History and Historical Documents, vol. iv. p. 509; Maspero, Les Empires. (F. LL. G.)

AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover), a person who takes part in any art, craft, game or sport for the sake of the pleasure afforded

by the occupation itself and not for pecuniary gain. Being thus a person for whom the pursuit in question is a recreation and not a business, and who therefore presumably devotes to it a portion only of his leisure and not his working hours, the average amateur possesses less skill than the average professional, whose livelihood and reputation depend on his proficiency, and who therefore concentrates all his energies on the task of attaining the greatest possible mastery in his chosen career. In the arts, such as music, painting and the drama, the best amateurs are outdistanced as executants not merely by the best professionals but by professionals far below the highest rank; and although the inferiority of the amateur is not perhaps so pronounced or so universal in the case of games and outdoor sports, the records of such pastimes as horse-racing, boxing, rowing, billiards, tennis and golf prove that here also the same contrast is generally to be found. Hence it has come about that the term ``amateur,'' and more especially the adjectival derivative ``amateurish,'' has acquired a secondary meaning, usually employed somewhat contemptuously, signifying inefficiency, unskilfulness, superficial knowledge or training.

The immense increase in popularity of athletic contests and games of all kinds in modern times, and especially the keen competition for ``records'' and championships, often of an international character, have made it a matter of importance to arrive at a clear and formal definition of the amateur as distinguished from the professional. The simple, straightforward definition of the amateur given above has been proved to be easily evaded. Many leading cricketers, for example, preserve their amateur status who, although they are not paid wages for each match they play like their professional colleagues, are provided with an annual income by their county or club under the guise of salary for performing the duties of ``secretary'' or some other office, leaving them free to play the game six days a week. Similarly, ``gentlemen riders'' are often presented with a cash payment described as a bet, or under some other pretext. Nor is the dividing-line between ``out-of-pocket expenses'' allowed to the amateur and the remuneration payable to the professional always strictly drawn. The various associations controlling the different branches of sport have therefore devised working regulations to be observed so far as their jurisdiction extends. Thus the Amateur Athletic Association of Great Britain defines an amateur as ``one who has never competed for a money prize or staked bet, or with or against a professional for any prize, or who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a livelihood.'' The rules of the Amateur Rowing Association are stricter, denying amateur status to anyone who has ever steered or rowed in a race with a professional for any prize, or who is or has been by trade or employment for wages a mechanic, artisan or labourer, or engaged in any menial duty, besides insisting upon the usual restrictions in regard to taking money and competing with professionals. In association football the rules are much more lax, for although amateurs are clearly distinguished from professionals, an amateur may even become a regular member, though unsalaried, of a professional team without losing his amateur status. The Rugby game was, up to 1895, entirely controlled by the Rugby Football Union, which, by the strictness of its laws, effectually prevented the growth of professionalism, but there had been much dissatisfaction in the provinces with the Union's decision against reimbursing day- working players for ``broken time,'' i.e. for that part of their wages which they lost by playing on working days, and this resulted in the formation (1895) of the Northern Union, which permits remuneration for ``broken time,'' but allows no person who works for his living to play football unless regularly employed at his particular trade.

In America the amateur question is less complicated than in Great Britain; but the intensely business-like character of American ideas of sport has encouraged the modern spirit of professionalism. All important sports in America, except baseball, football, cricket, golf and rowing, are, however, under the control of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States, the rules of which, so far as they relate to professionalism, are as follows. No person shall be eligible to compete in any athletic meeting, game or entertainment, given or sanctioned by this Union, who has (1) received or competed for compensation or reward in any form for the display, exercise or example of his skill or knowledge of any athletic exercise, or for rendering personal service of any kind to any athletic organization, or for becoming or continuing a member of any athletic organization; or (2) has entered any competition under a name other than his own, or from a club of which he was not at that time a member in good standing; or (3) has knowingly entered any competition open to any professional or professionals, or has knowingly competed with any professional for any prize or token; or (4) has issued or allowed to be issued in his behalf any challenge to compete against any professional or for money; or (5) has pawned, bartered or sold any prize won in athletic competition. It will be seen that by rule 3 the American Union enacts a standard for all athletes not much different from that of the British Amateur Rowing Association. The rules for the sports not within the Union's jurisdiction are practically the same, except that in baseball, cricket and golf amateurs may compete with professionals, though not for cash prizes. In the case of open golf competitions professional prize-winners receive cash, while amateurs are given plate to the value of their prizes as in Great Britain. There are practically no professional football players in America.

On both sides of the Atlantic the question of the employment of professional coaches has occasioned much discussion. In America it has been accepted as legal. In England the same is almost universally true, but there are certain exceptions, such as the decision of the Henley Regatta Committee, that no crew entering may be coached by a professional within two months of the race-day. Whether such a regulation be wise or the reverse is a question that depends upon the spirit in which games are regarded. Nobody wants to disparage proficiency; but if a game is conducted on business methods, the ``game'' element tends to be minimized, and if its object is pecuniary it ceases to be ``sport'' in the old sense, and the old idea of the ``amateur'' who indulges in it for love of the mere enjoyment tends to disappear.

AMATHUS, an ancient city of Cyprus, on the S. coast, about 24 m. W. of Larnaka and 6 m. E. of Limassol, among sandy hills and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek (amathos, sand). The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco-Phoenician influences (1000-600 B.C.). Amathus is identified by some (E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern, i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see CITIUM) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician ``New-Town'') in the Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 B.C.). It certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of Onesilas of Salamis which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from Persia in 500-494 B.C. (Herod. v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilas. The phil-Hellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with Citium and Soli (Diod. Sic. xiv. 98); and even after Alexander the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to Seleucus (Diod. Sic. xix. 62). Its political importance now ended, but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia) remained famous in Roman time.

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