Chapter XXII (part 3 of 3)
Japan, rise of, 82.
Java, early intercourse, 185; fertility, 189; health, 343.
Jews, contraceptive methods, 255; infanticide, 256; civilization, 452.
Kabinapek, abortion, 146; infanticide, 149.
Kaffirs, see South Africa.
Kagero, lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 175; infanticide, 180; food, 234.
Kalabar, witchcraft, 182.
Kalmucks, marriage customs, 253.
Kamtchatka, age at marriage, 196; abortion, 196; infanticide, 196.
Kenai, marriage customs, 225.
Kingsmill Islands, restriction of intercourse, 186; fertility, 188; abortion, 189; infanticide, 190, 219; war, 192.
Kirghiz, early intercourse, 254.
Knisteneaux, abortion, 146.
Konde-land, restriction of intercourse, 176.
Koniagas, infanticide, 149.
Koryak, lactation, 196.
Kuku, lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 176; fertility, 178; marriage customs, 228.
Kutchins, infanticide, 148; celibacy, 226; health, 233.
Kwakiutl, war, 151.
Lactation, influence upon fecundity, 102; among hunting and fishing races, 137; among agricultural races, 165, 174, 185, 196; among historical races, 254.
Land, claims of groups to areas of, 203; property in, 279.
Language, tradition and, 408, 412.
Laws, encouraging population, 22.
Lenda district, infanticide, 180.
Lenguas, lactation, 165; infanticide, 169, 220.
Liberia, lactation, 174; fertility, 177.
Lillooets, age at marriage, 140, 226; war, 151; division of food, 212.
Limitation of families, views of Mill, 202.
Limitation of the surface of the world, theories of population and, 20; influence upon evolution, 59.
Lind hinterland, 180.
Loango, restriction of intercourse, 176.
Loucheux, food, 233.
Macusis, fertility, 168.
Madagascar, fertility, 178; abortion, 179; witchcraft, 182.
Madi district, lactation, 174.
Magdalenian period, 123.
Makalaka, fertility, 178.
Makonde, early intercourse, 173.
Malaria, 349.
Malays, 163.
Maldive Islands, marriage customs, 226.
Malemutes, infanticide, 148; war, 151.
Malthusian theory, anticipations of, 19, 25; nature of, 28; reception of, 29; debt of Darwin and Wallace to, 34; summary of, 197; criticism of, 199.
Mandans, fertility, 167; health, 172; food, 234.
Mandingoes, fertility, 177.
Mandja, restriction of intercourse, 175; infanticide, 180; food, 234.
Mandrucos, war, 171; health, 236.
Mangbetu, early intercourse, 173; lactation, 174; fertility, 178; abortion, 179; infant mortality, 184; property, 209.
Manu, Laws of, 253.
Marquesas, fertility, 187; infanticide, 191.
Marriage, among animals, 62; influence of age at, 103; among primitive races, 139; postponement of, among hunting and fishing races, 139, 226; disparity in age at, 140; postponement of, among agricultural races, 165, 174, 185, 196; customs regarding, 224, 275; postponement of, among historical races, 251, 264, 279, 306; prohibition of, 281, 282.
Marshall Islands, war, 193.
Masai, early intercourse, 173; war, 181; marriage customs, 228.
Mayombe, lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 175.
Mbayas, infanticide, 169; health, 236.
Memory among animals, 50.
Mendelian inheritance, nature of, 71; in man, 356.
Menstruation, relation to ovulation, 90.
Mental evolution, among animals, 45; connexion with reproduction, 51; among men, 50; influence upon population problem, 80.
Mercantile theory of trade, 22.
Mexico, lactation, 165; restriction of intercourse, 166; abortion, 169; war, 170; property, 208; age at marriage, 220.
Migration, over-population and, 297; selection and, 381.
Minnetanes, war, 170.
Minoan civilization, 244.
Miri district, restriction of intercourse, 176.
Mitchell Islands, abortion, 190.
Mittelschmerz, 94.
Modifications, nature of, 68.
Mohammedanism, celibacy, 253; lactation, 254.
Mohaves, infanticide, 169.
Moioa, restriction of intercourse, 175.
Monasticism, celibacy and, 279.
Mongols, marriage, 253.
Montagnais, health, 233.
Mousterian period, 121.
Moxos, restriction of intercourse, 166; fertility, 168.
Mundas, marriage customs, 275.
Murray Islands, war, 192; infanticide, 220.
Mutations, nature of, 68; origin of, 73; among men, 81, 383.
Nagas, war, 248.
Nahuas, contraceptive methods, 167; abortion, 168.
Nandi, early intercourse, 173; lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 176.
Nandowensis, marriage customs, 229.
Natchez, marriage customs, 229; health, 236.
Natural Selection, among species in nature, 75; lethal and reproductive, 367; strength of, 369; in intermediate period, 370; in first and second periods, 371; of tradition, 417.
Navahos, early intercourse, 164; contraceptive methods, 167; abortion, 168; infanticide, 169; property, 208.
Neanderthal man, 116.
Neolithic period, 118, 123.
Neomalthusianism, early history of, 31; Bradlaugh-Besant trial, 33; in foreign countries, 33.
New Britain, early intercourse, 185; abortion, 222; celibacy, 226.
New Caledonia, early intercourse, 185; lactation, 185; restriction of intercourse, 186; fertility, 188; abortion, 189; infanticide, 191; war, 193.
New Guinea, early intercourse, 185; lactation, 185; restriction of intercourse, 186; contraceptive practices, 186; fertility, 188; abortion, 190; infanticide, 191; war, 193; head hunting, 194; witchcraft, 195.
New Hebrides, abortion, 189; infanticide, 191, 221; war, 193.
New Zealand, early intercourse, 184; restriction of intercourse, 186; fertility, 187; abortion, 189; infanticide, 190; war, 192; property, 211.
Nias, fertility, 189; abortion, 190.
Nigeria, fertility, 177; abortion, 178; war, 180; property, 209.
Nishinan, infanticide, 149.
Nissau, 190.
Nitrogen in the sea, 59.
Nootkas, fertility, 99; lactation, 138; abortion, 146; health, 159; infant mortality, 160.
Nucleus, nature of, 39; function of, 66.
Oestrous cycle, 44.
Ojebway Indians, war, 170; marriage customs, 229.
Omahas, fertility, 144; property, 208; age at marriage, 229.
Onolove, early intercourse, 173; abortion, 179.
Optimum density of population, 200, 213; approximation to, among primitive races, 230, 236, 292; among historical races, 239, 270, 293, 309; military needs and, 310.
Orthogenesis, 79.
Ostyaks, health, 196.
Otommi, abortion, 168.
Ovaherero, property, 210.
Over-population, fear of, in England, 23; among historical races, 275, 283, 284, 290, 304; migration and, 297; war and, 304; in the future, 308; unemployment and, 312.
Ovulation, see Menstruation.
Ovum, 40.
Palaeolithic period, 118
Patagonians, health, 159.
Pawumwa Indians, obligation to work, 213.
Payaguas, abortion, 146; health, 236.
Pelew Islands, early intercourse, 185; restriction of intercourse, 186; fertility, 187; war, 192; property, 211.
Persia, celibacy, 251; marriage, 253; lactation, 254; restriction of intercourse, 254; abortion, 265.
Peruvian tribes, fertility, 167; infanticide, 169; war, 170; age at marriage, 230.
Pimas, contraceptive methods, 167; abortion, 168, 221; infanticide, 169.
Pithecanthropus, 112.
Plough, invention of, 127; use of, 162.
Polygamy, influence upon fecundity, 102; among primitive races, 132.
Poor law, marriage and, 282.
Port Herald, contraceptive methods, 177.
Primates, evolution of, 109.
Primitive races, value of evidence regarding, 85, 131; intellect and, 447.
Progress, definition of, 85; rate of, 130; in different regions, 438.
Protista, reproduction among, 39.
Pueblos, contraceptive methods, 167; abortion, 168; war, 170.
Puelches, lactation, 138; fertility, 144; infanticide, 149, 218; war, 152; infant mortality, 160.
Puget Sound Indians, lactation, 138; abortion, 146.
Pure Line inheritance, 69.
Queka Indians, treatment of aged, 155.
Racial crosses, 380, 453.
Radeck, infanticide, 191, 221; health, 235.
Rarotonga, infanticide, 190; war, 192.
Ratios of increase of food and of population, 26, 198; of human population, 105.
Reflex action, 45.
Religious writers, attitude to Malthus, 30.
Reproduction, necessity for, 38; nature of, 39; methods of, 41; among species in nature and men, 52.
Reproductive organs, size among primitive races, 97.
Rome, discussion of population problem in, 18, 49; expectation of life in, 246; age at marriage in, 251; early intercourse, 254; contraceptive methods, 255; abortion, 256, 272; infanticide, 258.
Rotuma, abortion, 189; war, 192.
Rovuma River, restriction of intercourse, 176.
Salish, lactation, 138; age at marriage, 140; health, 159; property, 206.
Samoa, lactation, 185; restriction of intercourse, 186; fertility, 187; abortion, 189; infanticide, 190; war, 192; infant mortality, 195.
Samoyeds, fertility, 196; infanticide, 196; health, 196.
Sandwich Islands, infanticide, 101, 219; fertility, 187; war, 192; health, 235.
Sarawak, lactation, 185; fertility, 188; property, 211.
Savage Island, restriction of intercourse, 186; abortion, 189; infanticide, 190.
Selection, see Natural Selection.
Seri Indians, war, 152; treatment of aged, 155; division of food, 212; marriage customs, 225; elimination among, 375.
Sexual cycle in Mammals, 44; former condition in man, 92; effect of captivity upon, 94; peculiarity of, in man, 98.
Sexual instinct, 42, 43, 51; among primitive races, 97.
Sexual intercourse, before maturity, influence upon fecundity, 103; among hunting and fishing races, 135; taboo upon, among hunting and fishing races, 141; among agricultural races, 164, 172, 184; taboo upon, among agricultural races, 165, 175, 186; before maturity among historical races, 253, 263; taboo upon, among historical races, 267; restrictions upon, 315.
Shawnees, contraceptive methods, 167; health, 172.
Shekiani, feuds, 181.
Shoshones, war, 170.
Shushwap, lactation, 138; age at marriage, 144; war, 151; health, 159.
Siam, marriage, 253; lactation, 254.
Sierra Leone, property, 209.
Sioux, lactation, 165; fertility, 167; abortion, 168, 221; infanticide, 169; war, 170; infant mortality, 172.
Sitkins Indians, property, 207.
Social organization, origin of, 132; mental evolution and, 401; organic, 401; segmentary, 429.
Socialists, attitude to Malthus, 31.
Society Islands, age at marriage, 185.
Solomon Islands, lactation, 185; restriction of intercourse, 186; abortion, 189; infanticide, 191; war, 193.
Sound Indians, fertility, 144.
South Africa, lactation, 174; abortion, 179; infanticide, 180; witchcraft, 182; infant mortality, 184; property, 210; marriage customs, 227; intellect, 392.
Spermatozoa, 40, 41.
Starvation, no evidence for, among primitive races, 231; among animals, 58, 61; among plants, 59.
Stature, increase of, 340.
Sterility, in males, 89; among Australians, 99; fat and, 104.
Suggestion, inheritance of, 364; tradition and, 413.
Sumatra, fertility, 188; marriage customs, 227.
Swaheli, early intercourse, 173; restriction of intercourse, 176; fertility, 178.
Sympathy, inheritance of, 364; tradition and, 413.
Tahiti, infanticide, 190; war, 192.
Tasmanians, early intercourse, 135; lactation, 137; fertility, 141; abortion, 145; infanticide, 146; war, 149; treatment of sick, 154; health, 158; infant mortality, 159; property, 203.
Tehuelches, age at marriage, 140.
Temperament, disease and, 347; environment and, 353, 438; inheritance of, 361.
Tendas, lactation, 171; abortion, 178.
Tepecanos, infanticide, 169.
Texas tribes, fertility, 167.
Thirty Years’ War, 247.
Thlinkeet, lactation, 138; war, 151; health, 159; infant mortality, 160; property, 207.
Thompson tribes, age at marriage, 140, 226; abortion, 146; infanticide, 149; war, 151; infant mortality, 160.
Thonga, restriction of intercourse, 177; property, 210; age at marriage, 227.
Tibet, celibacy, 251.
Tikopia, infanticide, 190, 219.
Timor Laut, health, 235.
Tinneh, early intercourse, 136; lactation, 138; age at marriage, 140; fertility, 143; war, 150; infant mortality, 150; property, 206.
Todas, infanticide, 222; early intercourse, 254.
Tonga, restriction of intercourse, 186; infanticide, 190.
Topebatos, age at marriage, 224.
Torres Straits, age at marriage, 185, 227; restriction of intercourse, 186; fertility, 187; abortion, 189; infanticide, 190, 220; war, 192; food, 234.
Trent, Council of, celibacy and, 264.
Tunguses, lactation, 196; property, 211.
Turkomans, war, 248.
Turkey, lactation, 254; restriction of intercourse, 255; abortion, 256.
Uaupes, feuds, 171.
Uganda, lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 176; war, 181.
Under-population, 294, 295, 297.
Unemployment, over-population and, 312.
Unit-factors, 71.
Utilitarian school, attitude to Malthus, 29, 32.
Utis, contraceptive methods, 167.
Vaitapu, infanticide, 191, 221.
Vancouver Island, fertility, 99; age at marriage, 140; abortion, 146.
Veddahs, early intercourse, 137; age at marriage, 140; fertility, 145; infanticide, 149; infant mortality, 160; property, 207.
Venereal disease, 269. See also Gonorrhoea.
Wadschagga, lactation, 174; infant mortality, 184; abortion, 221.
Wagogo, restriction of intercourse, 176.
Wakamba, infanticide, 180.
Wamakonde, lactation, 174.
Wanika, infanticide, 180.
Wanjamuesi, early intercourse, 173; lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 176; fertility, 178.
Wapagoro, early intercourse, 173; restriction of intercourse, 176; marriage customs, 228.
War, among hunting and fishing races, 149; among agricultural races, 169, 180, 192; among historical races, 247; Christian Church and, 249; over-population and, 304; origin of, 305; selection and, 379.
Warega, early intercourse, 173; restriction of intercourse, 175; fertility, 178; abortion, 179; infant mortality, 184.
Warri district, restriction of intercourse, 175.
Wazaramo, lactation, 174.
Wealth, of different areas, 419; influence upon tradition, 421; shifting of centres of greatest, 423.
Welle district, war, 181.
West African tribes, lactation, 174.
Wheel, invention of, 127.
Witchcraft, as cause of death, 182.
Work among primitive races, obligation to, 212.
Workers’ Education Association, 239.
Woruk, infanticide, 149.
Writing, invention of, 127.
Yakuts, lactation, 196; property, 211.
Yguazas, abstention from intercourse, 141; infanticide, 149; war, 152.
Yoruba-speaking people, lactation, 174; restriction of intercourse, 175; property, 209.
Yuchi, war, 170; health, 172.
Zambala, marriage customs, 227.
Zaporos, treatment of aged, 155.
Zoroastrianism, marriage and, 253.
Zulus, war, 181; infant mortality, 184; marriage customs, 227.
Zuni, abortion, 169; infanticide, 169; property, 208.
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Footnote 1:
On this subject see Roper, Ancient Eugenics.
Footnote 2:
Roper (loc. cit., p. 12) quotes Seneca as follows: ‘We drown the weakling and the monstrosity. It is not passion, but reason, to separate the useless from the fit.’
Footnote 3:
Campanella, Civitas Solis.
Footnote 4:
Mr. Roper in his book quoted above exaggerates the attention paid in early times to quality. He says, for instance, when speaking of infanticide and similar practices, that ‘these barbaric eugenics ... were concerned with questions both of quantity and of quality’ (p. 11). As will be pointed out later, these practices were in fact primarily concerned with quantity; such bearing as they had upon quality was incidental.
Footnote 5:
See, for instance, Mill, Principles of Political Economy, vol. i, p. 389. Darwin commented upon this aspect of Mill’s work (Descent of Man, p. 98).
Footnote 6:
Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population, vol. i, p. 5.
Footnote 7:
Plato, Laws, v. 737.
Footnote 8:
Plato, Republic, v. 460.
Footnote 9:
Plato, Laws, v. 740.
Footnote 10:
This is apparently a reference to a work by Varro.
Footnote 11:
Tertullian, De Anima (Ante-Nicene Christian Library), p. 481.
Footnote 12:
The realization of the limitation of the surface of the globe—following upon the circumnavigation of the world—had no doubt an influence. The fact that the earth is spherical—or at least that it is not flat—(as a matter of fact it is somewhat tetrahedral) was of course known to Aristotle (De Caelo, ii. 14). It has been remarked that this conception was always present to the minds of the authors of all those speculations which have come down from antiquity (Bosanquet, Philosophical Theory of the State, p. 330). But it was not forced upon men’s notice until it was practically demonstrated.
Footnote 13:
Prov. xiv. 28.
Footnote 14:
Thus Montesquieu wrote: ‘Il n’y a que les grandes nations qui aient des armées’ (Grandeur et Décadence des Romains, p. 130).
Footnote 15:
The literature has been several times reviewed. I am chiefly indebted to Stangeland, ‘Pre-Malthusian Doctrines of Population’, Studies in History, Economics and Public Law—Columbia University; vol. xxi, No. 3, 1901.
Footnote 16:
Thomas Aquinas, De Regimine Principum, Bk. IV, ch. ix. (The fourth book is supposititious; nevertheless it probably represents the views of St. Thomas.)
Footnote 17:
Bodin, Six Books of a Commonweale, Bk. V, ch. ii, p. 575.
Footnote 18:
Botero, Delle Cause della Grandezza della Città, p. 5.
Footnote 19:
Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 103, from the Nouveau Dictionnaire d’Économie Politique, article ‘Population’. According to Vauban (La Dîme Royale, p. 18) ‘La grandeur des rois se mesure par le nombre de leurs sujets’.
Footnote 20:
Petty, ‘Treatise of Taxes and Contributions’ in Economic Writings, vol. i, p. 34.
Footnote 21:
Graunt, National and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality, ch. viii, section 14.
Footnote 22:
Davenant, Political and Commercial Works, vol. i, p. 16.
Footnote 23:
Child, New Discourse upon Trade, ch. x, p. 181.
Footnote 24:
Child, loc. cit., p. 179.
Footnote 25:
Temple, Observations upon the United Provinces, p. 164.
Footnote 26:
Quoted by Ferdy, Die künstliche Beschränkung der Kinderzahl, p. 85.
Footnote 27:
Quoted by Cannan, History of the Theories of Production and Distribution, p. 124.
Footnote 28:
Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 110.
Footnote 29:
Quoted by Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 234. Brückner’s work was published in 1769.
Footnote 30:
Young, Travels in France, vol. i, p. 481.
Footnote 31:
Quoted by Leroy-Beaulieu, La Question de la Population, p. 31.
Footnote 32:
Wallace, Dissertation on the Numbers of Mankind, p. 12.
Footnote 33:
Steuart, Principles of Political Economy, vol. i, p. 20.
Footnote 34:
Malthus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 3.
Footnote 35:
Mirabeau, L’Ami des Hommes, ch ii, p. 14.
Footnote 36:
‘There is a principle in human society by which population is perpetually kept down to the level of the means of subsistence,’ said Godwin in 1798 (Political Justice, Bk. VIII, p. 518). Many similar remarks are to be found in the writings of the Physiocrats. See, for instance, Turgot, Sur le Commerce, section 7, and Quesnay, Analyse du Tableau Économique, chs. xxv and xxvi.
Footnote 37:
Raleigh, History of the World, in collected Works, vol. ii, p. 25.
Footnote 38:
Machiavelli, History of Florence, Bk. I, p. 5.
Footnote 39:
Botero, loc. cit., p. 73.
Footnote 40:
Botero, loc. cit., p. 75.
Footnote 41:
Hale, Primitive Origination of Mankind, ch. viii, section 2.
Footnote 42:
Petty, Essay concerning the Increase of Mankind, p. 21.
Footnote 43:
See Stangeland, loc. cit., p. 230. There are two valuable and important books which appeared in the eighteenth century dealing with population. They do not lend themselves to quotation, but deserve mention here. Benjamin Franklin, in his Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries, pointed out the differences in the marriage-rate as between Europe and the more recently colonized countries and analysed the causes. It is interesting to note that he was led to a more or less clear recognition of the presence of the struggle for existence among all living organisms (p. 21). The second book referred to above is Adam Ferguson’s Essay on the History of Civil Society. The name of Ortes should perhaps be mentioned. His book Riflessioni sulla Popolazione, published in 1792, anticipated Malthus in almost every respect and yet aroused practically no attention.
Footnote 44:
According to Leslie Stephen’s article in the Dictionary of National Biography, the chief authorities for the life of Malthus are (1) a notice by Otter, afterwards Bishop of Chichester, prefixed to the second edition of the Political Economy published in 1836 and (2) an article by Empsen in the Edinburgh Review. Jan. 1837, p. 469 to p. 506. See also Bonar’s Malthus and his Work, to which in this and the following sections I am indebted. For some personal reminiscences see Martineau’s Autobiography, vol. i, p. 211. He is described as possessing the ‘most pleasing manners and the most benevolent heart’ (Manning, History and Antiquities of Surrey, p. 578).
Footnote 45:
In the eighteenth century it was commonly supposed that the population of England was decreasing. Arthur Young was one of the few who did not share this view. (Mirabeau indeed thought that the population of the whole of Europe was increasing.) All kinds of reasons were brought forward to explain the supposed decrease. Price thought that it was due to the enclosures; Horace Walpole suggested excessive drinking as the cause.
Footnote 46:
It is not correct to say that ‘the essay attracted comparatively little attention until 1803’ (Political History of England, vol. xi, p. 421).
Footnote 47:
Bonar, loc. cit., p. 43.
Footnote 48:
Bonar, loc. cit., p. 363.
Footnote 49:
Mill, Autobiography, p. 105. It is interesting to note that one of the reasons why Coleridge left the Utilitarians was the popularity of the Essay among them. See Benn, History of Rationalism, vol. i, p. 238.
Footnote 50:
Shelley, Preface to the Revolt of Islam, p. xi.
Footnote 51:
It is thus curious to find that the Essay was highly praised by Joseph de Maistre—one of the greatest of conservatives of this or of any age: see Du Pape, Bk. III, ch. iii, section 3, where the Essay is called ‘un profond ouvrage’ ... ‘un des livres rares après lesquels tout le monde est dispensé de traiter le même sujet’. Yet in 1856 the Dictionnaire de l’Économie Politique was put upon the Index because it supported the conclusions of the Essay.
Footnote 52:
See, for instance, Aitken’s Annual Review, vol. ii, 1803, p. 292.
Footnote 53:
Quoted by Leslie Stephen, English Utilitarians, vol. ii, p. 255.
Footnote 54:
Bonar, loc. cit., p. 1.
Footnote 55:
Luden, Handbuch der Staatsweisheit oder Politik. Von Mohl gives a useful review of the literature following upon the publication of the Essay (Die Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaften, vol. iii, p. 480, and Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, vol. ii, p. 955).
Footnote 56:
Sumner, A Treatise on the Records of Creation and the Moral Attributes of the Creator; Chalmers, On Political Economy in connexion with the Moral State and Moral Prospects of Society.
Footnote 57:
Leslie Stephen, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 180.
Footnote 58:
Greg, Enigmas of Life, ch. ii.
Footnote 59:
On this subject see Soetbeer, Die Stellung der Sozialisten zur Malthusischen Bevölkerungslehre. Soetbeer includes in his review the writings of Godwin, Henry George, and others who cannot properly be regarded as socialists.
Footnote 60:
Soetbeer, loc. cit., p. 20.
Footnote 61:
Marx, Capital, vol. ii, p. 629.
Footnote 62:
There does not seem to be any foundation whatever for the statement made by Place to the effect that Malthus recognized the advocacy of Neomalthusian methods to be the logical outcome of his position but that he shrank from their advocacy for fear of prejudice. Place, Illustrations and Proofs of the Principle of Population, p. 173.
Footnote 63:
Harriet Martineau, Illustrations to Political Economy, No. VI, Weal and Woe in Graveloch.
Footnote 64:
On this subject see Field, ‘The Early History of the Population Movement’, American Economic Review, April, 1911. I am indebted to this valuable article in what follows.
Footnote 65:
Graham Wallas, Life of Francis Place, p. 169.
Footnote 66:
For the later history of this movement see Hans Ferdy, loc. cit.; Garnier, Du Principe de la Population; and Leroy-Beaulieu, loc. cit.
Footnote 67:
Still more recently prosecutions have taken place in the United States. The publications of the eminent Danish economist Pierson may be consulted for an able advocacy of Neomalthusian methods put forward at a time when birth-control received little scientific support. See Principles of Economics, vol. ii, p. 107.
Footnote 68:
Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, vol. i, p. 83.
Footnote 69:
Haeckel, History of Creation, vol. i, p. 134.
Footnote 70:
Marchant, A. R. Wallace, Letters and Reminiscences, vol. i, p. 136.
Footnote 71:
Darwin, Origin of Species, p. 50.
Footnote 72:
Marchant, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 116.
Footnote 73:
See Sociological Papers, p. 45. Galton first proposed to use the word ‘stirpiculture’.
Footnote 74:
Among many plants and not infrequently among lower animals the sexes are not separate—both male and female generative organs being found on the same individual. This condition occurs in some fish, though examples of hermaphroditism are rare in the Vertebrates. As a general rule in such cases the two generative organs found in the same individual ripen at different times and cross-fertilization is effected. In such cases the description given above applies. Where self-fertilization occurs, the above account does not apply in detail; the occurrence of self-fertilization, however, in no way invalidates the general conclusions that will be drawn in what follows.
Footnote 75:
‘The nucleus [of the spermatozoon] is probably enclosed within sheaths of cytoplasm, although this is not usually readily visible’ (Doncaster, Cytology, p. 92).
Footnote 76:
A few bony fish, e. g. Anableps, copulate internally.
Footnote 77:
Internal copulation among the flat worms is of a very primitive type—the penis apparently, at least at times, penetrating the female at any point.
Footnote 78:
Letourneau, Evolution of Marriage, p. 8.
Footnote 79:
Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 384.
Footnote 80:
Letourneau, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 81:
Except in man—the importance of which fact is dealt with in Chapter IV.
Footnote 82:
Jennings, Behaviour of the Lower Organisms, p. 277.
Footnote 83:
Hobhouse, Development and Purpose, p. 62. In this and the following sections I am indebted to Professor Hobhouse’s review of the evolution of animal behaviour.
Footnote 84:
McDougall, Social Psychology, p. 29.
Footnote 85:
McDougall, loc. cit., p. 25.
Footnote 86:
Lloyd Morgan, Animal Behaviour, p. 84.
Footnote 87:
Hobhouse, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 88:
Thomson, Darwinism and Human Life, p. 81.
Footnote 89:
Bridge, Cambridge Natural History, vol. Fishes, p. 412.
Footnote 90:
Thomson, loc. cit., p. 82.
Footnote 91:
Darwin, Origin of Species, p. 51.
Footnote 92:
Darwin, Origin of Species, p. 49.
Footnote 93:
Darwin, Origin of Species, p. 49.
Footnote 94:
Johnstone, Conditions of Life in the Sea, p. 235.
Footnote 95:
For the sake of simplicity fecundity has been spoken of as though it was fixed at a certain strength for each species. As a matter of fact it varies within fairly wide limits—increasing with better conditions. In this fact lies the explanation of the increase of species under favourable conditions which has often been observed, although, when conditions are less favourable, there is little or no evidence of starvation among such species.
Footnote 96:
Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 19.
Footnote 97:
Brehm, Bird Life, p. 285.
Footnote 98:
That the basis of the inherited qualities is wholly situated in the chromatin cannot be considered as established beyond doubt. The element of doubt, however, has no bearing upon the argument.
Footnote 99:
In this and the following sections I am indebted to Professor Goodrich’s admirable treatment of these problems in his book. The Evolution of Living Organisms.
Footnote 100:
There is probably no actual loss—no gap in a chromosome. It may be supposed that owing to a ‘negative variation’ a factor ceases to be functional.
Footnote 101:
A certain amount of confusion has been introduced into the whole question of evolution by the manner in which in recent biological writings the function of selection has been depreciated. The followers of Darwin undoubtedly at times exaggerated the importance of selection. In particular selection has even been spoken of as though it caused variation and, as it were, drew organisms along certain paths. It is essential to remember, as has been emphasized above, that it can only act upon what is given. But without doubt there has been recently a tendency to under-estimate the importance of selection. Though the process of selection is nothing more than a process of sifting, that process is of fundamental importance; unless due weight is given to it, evolution cannot be rendered comprehensible.
Footnote 102:
Osborn, Evolution of Mammalian Molar Teeth, p. 228. One of the most valuable contributions to the discussion of orthogenesis has been made by Plate, Über die Bedeutung des Darwinischen Selectionsprinzips. Plate concludes that the evidence points to some kind of orthogenesis.
Footnote 103:
Except where otherwise stated, increase of skill—of power, that is to say, to control the environment—is taken as the criterion of ‘progress’. Except, therefore, where otherwise stated, the terms ‘civilized’ and ‘higher’ races are merely intended to convey that races so denominated have a greater power of controlling the environment than ‘uncivilized’ and ‘lower’ races. The terms ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ are thus in this book merely convenient labels used in a special sense. In a fuller sense the terms ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ would take account of innate faculties, social organization, and moral tradition, as well as of the tradition of skilled methods. It is worthy of note, so far as the argument in this book is concerned, that there is a correlation between the tradition of skilled methods and the tradition of social organization and between both of these traditions and the innate faculties. The result, therefore, of a classification of races according to the special sense of the terms ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ as given above, does not conflict so directly as might be thought with a classification according to the fuller meaning of these terms. Further reference is made to the subject in the later part of this book.
Footnote 104:
Marshall, Phil. Trans. B, cxcvi, 1904, p. 77.
Footnote 105:
Heape, Q. J. M. S., vol. xliv, p. 12.
Footnote 106:
Mayer, Über Sterilität, p. 401.
Footnote 107:
Kelly, Medical Gynecology, p. 354. See also Matthews Duncan, Sterility in Women, p. 3.
Footnote 108:
See Mosnier-Clauzel, De quelques Causes de Stérilité chez la Femme, for a summary of this question.
Footnote 109:
Except in the case of ‘identical’ twins.
Footnote 110:
Engelmann, Trans. Amer. Gyn. Soc., vol. xxvi, p. 87.
Footnote 111:
Krieger. Die Menstruation, p. 52. See also Ploss and Bartels, Das Weib, vol. i, p. 421.
Footnote 112:
Engelmann, loc. cit., p. 98.
Footnote 113:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 17.
Footnote 114:
It is a remarkable fact that the Eskimo begin to menstruate at about thirteen years of age—at an earlier age, that is to say, than the average for the United States (Kelly, loc. cit., p. 83).
Footnote 115:
Marshall, Physiology of Reproduction, p. 672.
Footnote 116:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 21.
Footnote 117:
Ibid., p. 24.
Footnote 118:
Marshall, Physiology of Reproduction, p. 63. There are considerable variations in the conditions among monkeys; the above is only generally true.
Footnote 119:
Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, p. 25; Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, ch. xxi; Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, vol. i, p. 85.
Footnote 120:
Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 121:
See Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. iii, pp. 230 ff., where this subject is discussed at length.
Footnote 122:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 34.
Footnote 123:
It may also be observed that among certain primitive races the menstrual flow is said only to occur at long intervals (Heape, loc. cit., p. 30). Among Eskimo women there is said to be no menstruation in winter (ibid., p. 29).
Footnote 124:
For further details see Croom, Trans. Edin. Obstet. Soc., vol. xxi, 1896; Havelock Ellis, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 90; Marshall, loc. cit., p. 65; and Kelly, loc. cit., ch. v.
Footnote 125:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 126:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 57.
Footnote 127:
Ibid., p. 59.
Footnote 128:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 129:
Ibid., p. 15.
Footnote 130:
This and the following examples are taken from Darwin, Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication, vol. ii, p. 90.
Footnote 131:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 596.
Footnote 132:
Ibid., p. 597.
Footnote 133:
Heape, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc., vol. x, p. 236.
Footnote 134:
The evidence is summarized by Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, ch. vi.
Footnote 135:
See Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, ch. xix, and Havelock Ellis, ‘Studies in the Psychology of Sex’, Analysis of the Sexual Impulse, p. 209. The fact is commented upon by Ratzel, History of Mankind, vol. ii, p. 17. As examples of the evidence for particular races see, for the Malays, Stevens, Zeit. für Eth., Bd. xxviii, 1896, p. 180; for the Fuegians, Hyades et Deniker, Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, Tome vii, p. 187; for the Andamanese, Portman, J. A. I., vol. xxv, p. 369.
Footnote 136:
Mayer, loc. cit., p. 409.
Footnote 137:
Stopes, Married Love, p. 68.
Footnote 138:
Curr, The Australian Race, p. 70.
Footnote 139:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 52.
Footnote 140:
Ibid., p. 264.
Footnote 141:
Murdoch, Ethnological Results of the Port Barrow Expedition, 9th A. R. B. E., p. 38.
Footnote 142:
Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 150.
Footnote 143:
Holder, Am. Jour. Obstet., vol. xxv, 1891, p. 44.
Footnote 144:
Sproat, Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, p. 94.
Footnote 145:
Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, vol. i, p. 197.
Footnote 146:
Ibid., p. 242.
Footnote 147:
Catlin, North American Indians, vol. ii, p. 228.
Footnote 148:
Matthews Duncan, Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility, p. 112.
Footnote 149:
Wattal, Population Problem in India, p. 7.
Footnote 150:
See, for instance, Eucken, Currents of Modern Thought, p. 264. When Herbert Spencer says (Principles of Biology, vol. ii, p. 431) that ‘advancing evolution must be accompanied by declining fertility’, he is apparently using the term fertility as equivalent to fecundity and is therefore misrepresenting the position. The Dean of St. Paul’s is doubtless aware of the true state of the case: nevertheless his reference to the subject is likely to be misleading. After remarking upon the fact that fecundity (which he calls fertility) decreases among animals with increasing care for the offspring, he goes on to say that ‘man is no exception to these laws’ (Outspoken Essays, p. 60). As a matter of fact, man is a remarkable exception to this ‘law’; if anything, his fecundity has increased. His position has become assimilated to that of the animals because his fertility has decreased—quite another matter.
Footnote 151:
Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 132.
Footnote 152:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 39. This is also the opinion of Havelock Ellis, see ‘Studies in the Psychology of Sex’, Analysis of the Sexual Impulse, p. 220.
Footnote 153:
Newsholme and Stevenson, J. R. S. S., vol. lix, p. 64.
Footnote 154:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People of Africa, p. 348.
Footnote 155:
Heape, loc. cit., p. 43.
Footnote 156:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 400.
Footnote 157:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 74. See also Heape, loc. cit., p. 43, and Matthews Duncan, Sterility in Women, p. 85.
Footnote 158:
Dunlop, J. R. S. S., vol. lxxvi, p. 266.
Footnote 159:
Ibid., p. 267.
Footnote 160:
Quoted by Wattal, loc. cit., p. 23.
Footnote 161:
Ibid., p. 15. See also Matthews Duncan, Fecundity, Fertility, and Sterility, pp. 277 ff.
Footnote 162:
Marshall, loc. cit., p. 595. The corpus luteum persists in the ovary of fat animals and to this fact Fraenkel (Archiv für Gynaekologie, Bd. lxviii, 1903) ascribes the barrenness that so often accompanies fatness.
Footnote 163:
Jolly, Science Progress, 1914, No. 33, p. 41, states that there are four methods of estimating the duration of the whole period, by considering (1) the thickness of the sediment, (2) the mass of the sediment, (3) the sodium contained in the sea, and (4) radioactive transformation. (1) gives about 100 to 134 million years, (2) about 87 million years, (3) about 80 to 90 million years, and (4) a much longer period.
Footnote 164:
Osborn, Old Stone Age, p. 22.
Footnote 165:
Ibid., p. 23. It is well to lay stress on the fact that all these figures are little more than guesses founded on various observations such as the rate of deposition of sediment by rivers. No conclusions with regard to evolution can be drawn from the supposed length of the whole period or from the supposed length of the subdivisions. Nevertheless the relative length of the different subdivisions as estimated has in all probability some approximation to fact, and thus, whatever may be the real length of the period, the time which elapsed between, say, the beginning of the Pleistocene and the middle of the third genial epoch was at least twice and perhaps three times longer than that which has elapsed since the beginning of the latter epoch to the present day.
Footnote 166:
The extinct Lemurs of the Lower Eocene were, it may be noticed, of a very generalized type and can only with difficulty be distinguished from Insectivores. At this time the chief features now characteristic of the various Mammalian classes had not yet appeared.
Footnote 167:
Sollas, ‘Presidential Address to the Geological Society’, 1910, p. 48 (Quart Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lxvi).
Footnote 168:
The table is based on those given by Osborn (Old Stone Age, pp. 18 and 41).
Footnote 169:
To show how the estimates vary it may be mentioned that Sollas (Ancient Hunters, ch. xiv) only allows 27,000 years since the close of the Chellean period.
Footnote 170:
Dubois, Pithecanthropus erectus: eine menschenähnliche Übergangsform aus Java. Dubois has published several other papers and the literature is very large. The earlier literature has been summarized by Klaatsch (Zoologisches Centralblatt, vol. vi, 1899, p. 217), and by Schwalbe (Zeit. für Morph. und Anth., Bd. I, 1899, p. 16). For a concise account see Duckworth, Morphology and Anthropology, pp. 510 ff. The remains consist of the upper portion of a skull, a left femur, a second left upper molar, a third right upper molar and a second left lower pre-molar. The last tooth was not found by Dubois but by subsequent excavators. The skull and the femur were not found together but some fifty feet apart. The attribution of all the remains to one individual is, however, probably justified.
Footnote 171:
Elbert (Cent. für Min., Geol. und Pal., Bd. 17, 1909, p. 513) holds that the beds are on the border between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene. Volz (Neues Jahr. für Min., Geol. und Pal.; Festband zur Feier des 100-jährigen Bestehens, 1907, p. 256) places the beds in the Middle Pleistocene. The whole problem is discussed by Selenka and Blanckenhorn. See Die Pithecanthropus-Schichten auf Java.
Footnote 172:
Osborn, Old Stone Age, p. 83.
Footnote 173:
Schoetensack, Der Unterkiefer des H. heidelbergensis.
Footnote 174:
Dawson and Woodward, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. lxix, 1913, p. 117.
Footnote 175:
The Gibraltar skull may have been discovered before the specimen from Neanderthal; it aroused no interest, however, until after the discovery of the latter.
Footnote 176:
Boule, Ann. de Pal., vol. vi, 1911, vol. vii, 1912, vol. viii, 1913.
Footnote 177:
In some cases the origin has not been clearly identified (e. g. the Gibraltar skull). It is said that remains of Neanderthal man are sometimes found associated with Acheulean instruments (in the case of the Krapina remains, for example). See Boule, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 120, and vol. vii, p. 227, and also Anthony, Bull. et Mém. Soc. d’Anth., 1913, p. 189.
Footnote 178:
The remains found at the station of Raymonden, Chancelade, and described by Testut (Bull. Soc. d’Anth. de Lyon, vol. viii, 1889), are now generally classed with Cro-Magnon man. As Testut says, Chancelade man possesses ‘tous les caractères propres aux races supérieures’. The cranial capacity was 1,710 c.c. But there are certain features in which it departs from the ordinary Cro-Magnon type and certain features in which it resembles the modern Eskimo type—particularly in the shape of the cranium, the sides of which tend to slope up and meet at an angle. The possible significance of this will be referred to later.
Footnote 179:
Thus Boule (loc. cit., vol. viii, p. 111), speaking of the Upper Palaeolithic types in general, says: ‘Tous ces hommes fossiles ne sont pas plus différents des hommes actuels que ceux-ci ne diffèrent entre eux.’
Footnote 180:
Pottery stated to be Palaeolithic has been found in Belgium. There is nothing surprising in the fact, if it is a fact, that Palaeolithic man should have possessed this art, so far as his abilities are concerned. In general, however, nomadic races (and the Palaeolithic races were, of course, nomadic) have little use for pottery. See Déchelette, Manuel d’Archéologie, vol. i, pp. 169 ff.
Footnote 181:
Reid Moir, Pre-Palaeolithic Man. Rostro-carinates are found in the Red Crag which is a Pliocene formation. Mr. Reid Moir holds that they were evolved from eoliths (p. 66).
Footnote 182:
Sollas, Ancient Hunters, ch. iii.
Footnote 183:
Breuil, L’Anthropologie, vol. xx, 1910.
Footnote 184:
Professor Wood Jones, basing his conclusions on comparative anatomy, has lately put forward a view of the course of human evolution somewhat at variance with that outlined above. He sums up his view by saying that ‘Homo is not descended from the anthropoid apes preceded by a series of Primate forms represented by Old World Monkeys, New World Monkeys, and Lemurs. For we have seen that the anatomical characters of man demand rather a recognition of the finding that his stock branched off from the very root of the Primates; that man has evolved entirely by generalized development of the brain, and that he retains the bodily simplicity only found in some such far distant progenitor as the Tarsius stock; that no matter what may be the relation of the New World and Old World Monkeys, the human race combines, in some instances, a blend of their characters; that the anthropoid apes retain a certain, and a varying, amount of the basal simplicity that belongs to man, but that the Old World Monkeys have specialized far away from this simplicity. Regarded in this way we may say that the line of Homo springs from the base of the (non-Lemurine) Primate stem and not from its systematic apex’ (‘Origin of Man’, p. 126, in Animal Life and Human Progress, edited by Dendy). In this view therefore the human stock has been separate from the rest of the primate stock since early in the Tertiary period. If this conclusion is well founded, the argument derived from the course of evolution as outlined above is certainly weakened.
Footnote 185:
Sollas, loc. cit., p. 72.
Footnote 186:
With reference to this subject Breuil says with great force that ‘si la nature, exceptionnellement sans doute, peut produire des objets aussi semblables à des types industriels parfaitement définis et connus comme tels dans leurs milieux normaux en dehors de toute possibilité d’erreur, à combien plus forte raison doit-on se montrer circonspect à l’égard des manifestations les plus élémentaires de l’activité humaine, et se montrer exigeant avant de fonder sur leur constatation si problématique des théories dépassant si formidablement ce qui est acquis d’une manière définitive et en toute évidence!’ (L’Anthropologie, vol. xxi, p. 407). For examples of the expression of similar views see Obermaier, Der Mensch der Vorzeit, p. 412, and Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 22. The weight of expert opinion is against the acceptance of eoliths as genuine. Among the more distinguished supporters of the theory may be mentioned Rutot in Belgium, Ray Lankester and Reid Moir in England, Verworn in Germany, and de Mortillet in France. Among those who are sceptical are Boule, Breuil, and Déchelette in France, Schmidt and Obermaier in Germany, and Sollas in England.
Footnote 187:
Rutot, Revue, de l’Université de Bruxelles, 1911, p. 258.
Footnote 188:
Remains of Chellean industry are widespread and are found outside Europe—in Africa, for example, from the Cape to the Sahara. See Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 88.
Footnote 189:
The admiration, justly enough aroused, for these works of art has undoubtedly led to an exaggeration of the level of social and intellectual development reached by Upper Palaeolithic man, whose times are sometimes referred to as though they were a kind of Golden Age.
Footnote 190:
Azilian remains are confined to the south of Europe; Tardenoisian remains are widely distributed in Europe. To this period also belongs the Maglemose culture from Zeeland. Some grain found in the cave of Mas d’Azil has been interpreted as showing that agriculture was practised; in all probability, however, the grain has been introduced recently—perhaps by rats. Certain curiously marked pebbles are known from Azilian times and have been taken by some authors to be evidence of the use of an alphabet. This interpretation cannot be accepted, though possibly these markings may have been signs intended to assist the memory—such as were in use in Peru, for example.
Footnote 191:
Palaeolithic man may have kept animals as pets. Many primitive races have a passion for keeping pets though they derive no economic advantage from so doing.
Footnote 192:
That agriculture is an art learnt but recently is not yet appreciated by some men of science. Thus Sir A. D. Hall in a book published in 1919 says that ‘agriculture must be almost coeval with the human race’ (Fertilizers and Manures, p. 2).
Footnote 193:
Montelius, C. I. A., 1906, vol. ii, p. 32.
Footnote 194:
Pottery from the earliest Neolithic at Cnossus was well made, and therefore this culture must have originated considerably more than 14,000 years ago.
Footnote 195:
On this subject see Déchelette, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 336.
Footnote 196:
Jade was found in the first city of Hissarlik, which must have come from the Kuen-lun (Gowland, J. A. I., vol. xlii, 1912, p. 260).
Footnote 197:
On this subject see Gowland, loc. cit., p. 236.
Footnote 198:
Handbook of American Indians: articles on Copper and Iron.
Footnote 199:
Reisner, ‘Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Dêr’, University of California Publications, 1908, p. 117.
Footnote 200:
Reisner, loc. cit., p. 127.
Footnote 201:
Ibid., p. 134.
Footnote 202:
Iron weapons are found in late Mycenean graves (Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, p. 294).
Footnote 203:
Ridgeway, Beginnings of Iron, p. 644.
Footnote 204:
Von Luschan supports this view (Zeit. für Eth., vol. xli, 1909, p. 52).
Footnote 205:
Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 254.
Footnote 206:
See on this point Breuil, ‘Les Subdivisions du Paléolithique Supérieur,’ C. I. A., 1912. With regard to the Neolithic period Déchelette says: ‘Il est permis de placer en Orient le principal centre de diffusion des accroissements successifs de la civilisation occidentale’ (loc. cit., vol. i, p. 313).
Footnote 207:
See Hrdlicka, ‘Early Man in South America’ (S. I. B. E., No. 52, 1912), ‘Skeletal Remains suggesting or attributed to Early Man in North America’ (ibid., No. 33, 1907), and ‘Recent Discoveries attributed to Early Man in America’ (ibid., No. 66, 1917).
Footnote 208:
It is interesting to note the cranial capacity of these races and to compare them with the figures given above for prehistoric races: Tasmanians, 1,225 c.c.; Australians, 1,320 c.c.; Bushmen, 1,244 c.c.; Veddahs, 1,201 to 1,336 c.c.; American Indians, 1,300 to 1,450 c.c. See Hoernes, Natur und Urgeschichte der Menschen, vol. i, p. 60.
Footnote 209:
See J. J. Atkinson, Primal Law (in Social Origins, by Lang and Atkinson).
Footnote 210:
Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, p. 164.
Footnote 211:
See, for example, Parker, Euahlayi Tribe, p. 56, and, for the tribes of Western Victoria, Brown, J. A. I., vol. xliii, p. 158.
Footnote 212:
Early betrothal is also common among other races of this group; but, unless otherwise stated, this should not be taken as meaning that cohabitation follows until after puberty. The more careful accounts usually state that it does not; for the Thompson Indians, for instance, see Teit, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. i, p. 321.
Footnote 213:
Hartland, Primitive Paternity, vol. i, p. 267. This author has dealt at some length with the prevalence of this habit.
Footnote 214:
Nansen, First Crossing of Greenland, p. 320.
Footnote 215:
Murdoch, 9th A. R. B. E., p. 419.
Footnote 216:
Turner, 11th A. R. B. E., p. 188. See, for Behring Strait Eskimos, Nelson, 18th A. R. B. E., p. 292.
Footnote 217:
Ross, A. R. S. I., 1860, p. 305.
Footnote 218:
Gibbs, U.S. Geog. and Geol. Survey, vol. i, p. 199.
Footnote 219:
Powers, ibid., vol. iii, p. 413.
Footnote 220:
Ibid., p. 157.
Footnote 221:
Ten Kate, Rev. d’Eth., vol. iv, p. 129.
Footnote 222:
Hyades and Deniker, Mission Scientifique, p. 188.
Footnote 223:
Ibid., p. 187.
Footnote 224:
Seligman, Veddahs, p. 95. It is possible that this may have been formerly forbidden (ibid., p. 96).
Footnote 225:
Ling Roth, Aborigines of Tasmania, p. 168, note.
Footnote 226:
Bonwick, Daily Life and Origin of the Tasmanians, p. 85.
Footnote 227:
Eyre, Journals, vol. ii, p. 250. See also Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 51.
Footnote 228:
Grey, Journals, vol. ii, p. 250.
Footnote 229:
Eylmann, Die Eingeborenen der Kolonie Südaustralien, p. 261.
Footnote 230:
Taplin, Native Tribes of South Australia, p. 15.
Footnote 231:
Meyer, Aborigines of the Encounter Bay Tribe, p. 187.
Footnote 232:
Curr, Recollections, p. 263. See also Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, vol. i, p. 48.
Footnote 233:
R. Brown, Geog. Journ., vol. i, p. 39.
Footnote 234:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 415.
Footnote 235:
Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 151.
Footnote 236:
Crantz, History of Greenland, vol. i, p. 162.
Footnote 237:
Bessels, Arch, für Anth., vol. viii, p. 113.
Footnote 238:
Heriot, Travels, p. 339. See also Weld, Travels, p. 373.
Footnote 239:
J. Long, Voyages, p. 60.
Footnote 240:
Dall, Alaska, p. 196.
Footnote 241:
Ross, loc. cit., p. 305.
Footnote 242:
Krause, Die Thinklit-Indianer, p. 216. See also Bancroft, Native Races, vol. i, p. 111.
Footnote 243:
Lord, Naturalist in Vancouver, vol. ii, p. 233.
Footnote 244:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 94.
Footnote 245:
Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. iii, p. 212.
Footnote 246:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 197.
Footnote 247:
Ibid., p. 242.
Footnote 248:
Ibid.
Footnote 249:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 209.
Footnote 250:
Long, loc. cit., p. 60.
Footnote 251:
Guinnard, Three Years’ Slavery among the Patagonians, p. 146.
Footnote 252:
Dobrizhoffer, Abipones, vol. ii, p. 195.
Footnote 253:
Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., vol. vii, p. 195.
Footnote 254:
Man, J. A. I., vol. xii, p. 81.
Footnote 255:
Deniker, Rev. d’Eth., vol. ii, p. 303.
Footnote 256:
For races of North-east Africa see King, Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay, vol. ii, 1890.
Footnote 257:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 52.
Footnote 258:
W. E. Roth, Ethnological Studies, p. 179.
Footnote 259:
R. H. Mathews, Ethnological Notes, p. 177.
Footnote 260:
Curr, Australian Race, vol. ii, p. 19.
Footnote 261:
W. E. Roth, loc. cit., p. 179; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 264.
Footnote 262:
Semon, Australian Bush, p. 234.
Footnote 263:
Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 134.
Footnote 264:
Malinowski, Family among Australian Aborigines, p. 134.
Footnote 265:
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 77.
Footnote 266:
Taplin, loc. cit., p. 10.
Footnote 267:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 94.
Footnote 268:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 413.
Footnote 269:
Hill Tout, J. A. I., vol. xxxiv, p. 319.
Footnote 270:
Sarasin, Forschungen aus Ceylon, vol. iii, p. 469.
Footnote 271:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158.
Footnote 272:
Hill Tout, British North America, p. 182.
Footnote 273:
Hill Tout, loc. cit., p. 190.
Footnote 274:
Teit, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. i, p. 190.
Footnote 275:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 591.
Footnote 276:
Ibid., p. 255.
Footnote 277:
Musters, Patagonians, p. 186.
Footnote 278:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 42.
Footnote 279:
See, for instance, as regards the Australians, Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 48; Tasmanians, Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 85; Bushmen, Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 46; and Chinooks, Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 241.
Footnote 280:
It is rare that the prohibition for such reasons extends over so long a period as a year. This is the period of abstinence sometimes enjoined upon the Thlinkeet Indians (Swanton, 26th A. R. B. E., p. 449). On this subject see Crawley, Mystic Rose, pp. 187, 215, and 342; Hubert and Mauss, Histoire des Religions; Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. i, p. 29; and Westermarck, loc. cit., pp. 150 ff.
Footnote 281:
Cabeça de Vaca, Narrative, p. 62.
Footnote 282:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 97.
Footnote 283:
This has, of course, often been remarked upon. See, for instance, Darwin, Descent of Man, vol. i, p. 132.
Footnote 284:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 79.
Footnote 285:
Ibid., p. 85.
Footnote 286:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 287:
Ibid., p. 85. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 387.
Footnote 288:
Dawson, Australian Aborigines, p. 39. The interesting estimate of Curr has been given on p. 99. In another place he says: ‘The number of children born, on the average, by Bangerang women I estimate at six or perhaps eight’ (Recollections, p. 252).
Footnote 289:
Lumholtz, loc. cit., p. 134.
Footnote 290:
J. Mathew, Eaglehawk and Crow, p. 165.
Footnote 291:
Grey, Journals, vol. ii, p. 250. He also remarks that, although girls are mature at twelve, ‘child-bearing does not often commence before the age of sixteen’ (ibid., p. 323).
Footnote 292:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 264.
Footnote 293:
Ibid., p. 52.
Footnote 294:
Eyre, Journals, vol. ii, p. 376.
Footnote 295:
Schürmann, Aboriginal Tribes, p. 223.
Footnote 296:
Wilhelmi, Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. v, p. 180.
Footnote 297:
Stow, Native Races, p. 50.
Footnote 298:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 44.
Footnote 299:
Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 161.
Footnote 300:
p. 99. Hutton, however, gives a high figure for the birth-rate (Eskimos of Labrador, p. 80).
Footnote 301:
p. 99.
Footnote 302:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 39. This author says further that ‘all authors who have described Eskimos of unmixed descent agree in regard to the generally small number of their offspring’ (ibid., p. 419).
Footnote 303:
Bessels, loc. cit., p. 112.
Footnote 304:
Turner, loc. cit., p. 189.
Footnote 305:
Armstrong, Personal Narrative, p. 195.
Footnote 306:
Ritter, Zeit, für all. Erd., vol. xiii, p. 265.
Footnote 307:
Hearne, Journey, p. 312.
Footnote 308:
Ross, loc. cit., p. 305.
Footnote 309:
Petroff, ‘Report of the Population of Alaska’, 10th Census of the U.S.A., p. 127.
Footnote 310:
p. 99.
Footnote 311:
S. H. Long, loc. cit., p. 19. See also Dorsey, 3rd A. R. B. E., p. 264.
Footnote 312:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 218.
Footnote 313:
Ibid., p. 156.
Footnote 314:
Keating, Narrative, p. 156.
Footnote 315:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 211.
Footnote 316:
Baegert, A. R. B. E., 1863, p. 368.
Footnote 317:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 513.
Footnote 318:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 319:
Bridges, A Voice from South America, vol. xiii, p. 202.
Footnote 320:
Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., vol. vii, p. 189.
Footnote 321:
Ibid., p. 188.
Footnote 322:
It may be observed that according to Keane the Botocudos form an exception. ‘Families’, he says, ‘are said to be comparatively large, four or five children being common enough’ (J. A. I., vol. xiii). This is, however, contradicted by von Tschudi, Reisen durch Südamerika, vol. ii, p. 284.
Footnote 323:
Man, loc. cit., p. 81.
Footnote 324:
Portman, J. A. I., vol. xxv, p. 369.
Footnote 325:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 169.
Footnote 326:
Dall, loc. cit., p. 381.
Footnote 327:
Deniker, Rev. d’Eth., vol. ii, p. 302.
Footnote 328:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 329:
See, for example, Klemm, Allgemeine Kultur-Geschichte der Menschheit, vol. i, p. 291.
Footnote 330:
Curr, Australian Race, vol. i, p. 76.
Footnote 331:
Quoted by a reviewer in the Edinburgh Review, vol. ii, 1803, p. 34.
Footnote 332:
Palmer, J. A. I., vol. xiii, p. 280.
Footnote 333:
Roth, loc. cit., p. 183.
Footnote 334:
Wells and Kelly, U.S.A. Bureau of Education, 1890, p. 19; Bessels, loc. cit., p. 112.
Footnote 335:
See Weld, loc. cit., p. 373, and Robertson, History of America, vol. i, p. 297
Footnote 336:
H. Ellis, Voyage, p. 198.
Footnote 337:
Mackenzie, Voyages, vol. i, p. 148.
Footnote 338:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.
Footnote 339:
Ibid., p. 197.
Footnote 340:
Lord, Naturalist in Vancouver, vol. ii, p. 231.
Footnote 341:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 94.
Footnote 342:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.
Footnote 343:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 584.
Footnote 344:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 199.
Footnote 345:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 242. It also occurred among the Omahas but was not common (Dorsey, loc. cit., p. 263, and Long, loc. cit., p. 20).
Footnote 346:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 207. For New Mexico see Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 590.
Footnote 347:
Castelnau, Expedition, vol. ii, p. 450. See also Azara, Voyages, p. 146.
Footnote 348:
Rengger, Reise, p. 329.
Footnote 349:
Cooper, S. I. B. E., Bull. No. 63, 1917, p. 171.
Footnote 350:
Female infanticide was brought into great prominence by MacLennan. Although he asserted that female infanticide was ‘common among savages everywhere’ (Studies in Ancient History, p. 111), he did not bring forward any considerable body of evidence.
Footnote 351:
Bonwick, loc. cit., pp. 79 and 85. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 386.
Footnote 352:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 167. This author suggests that infanticide may have increased owing to the disturbances due to the arrival of the Europeans. There is no evidence that this was so, and for the reasons given later it is most improbable that this is ever the result of European influence.
Footnote 353:
K. L. Parker, loc. cit., p. 23.
Footnote 354:
Lumholtz, loc. cit., p. 134.
Footnote 355:
Dawson, loc. cit., p. 39.
Footnote 356:
Curr, Recollections, p. 252.
Footnote 357:
Ibid., p. 263.
Footnote 358:
Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 180.
Footnote 359:
P. Beveridge, Aborigines of Victoria, p. 26.
Footnote 360:
R. H. Mathews, Ethnological Notes, p. 17.
Footnote 361:
Bonney, J. A. I., vol. xiii, p. 125.
Footnote 362:
Palmer, loc. cit., p. 280; Fison and Howitt, Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 190; Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 261; and Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 52.
Footnote 363:
Howitt, Native Tribes, p. 748.
Footnote 364:
Howitt, loc. cit., p. 749.
Footnote 365:
Ibid., p. 749.
Footnote 366:
Ibid., p. 750.
Footnote 367:
Ibid., p. 750.
Footnote 368:
Taplin, loc. cit., p. 13.
Footnote 369:
Ibid., p. 14.
Footnote 370:
Meyer, loc. cit., p. 186.
Footnote 371:
Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 372:
Gason, Manners and Customs, p. 258.
Footnote 373:
Mathew, Two Representative Tribes, p. 165.
Footnote 374:
Foelsche, J. A. I., vol. xxiv, p. 192.
Footnote 375:
Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 376. See also Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 264.
Footnote 376:
Ibid., Northern Tribes, p. 608.
Footnote 377:
Grey, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 251.
Footnote 378:
Moffat, Missionary Labours, p. 58. See also Stow, Native Races, p. 51.
Footnote 379:
Reclus, Primitive Folk, p. 34.
Footnote 380:
Nelson, loc. cit., p. 289.
Footnote 381:
Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 580.
Footnote 382:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 416.
Footnote 383:
Ibid., p. 417.
Footnote 384:
Bessels, loc. cit., p. 112.
Footnote 385:
Nansen, Greenland, p. 330. See also Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 151.
Footnote 386:
C. E. Smith, Edinburgh Medical Journal, vol. xiii, p. 859.
Footnote 387:
Rink, loc. cit., p. 35.
Footnote 388:
Dall, loc. cit., p. 399.
Footnote 389:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 81.
Footnote 390:
Kirkby, Church Missionary Intelligencer, vol. xiv, p. 115; Hardisty, A. R. S. I., 1866, p. 312; S. Jones, ibid., p. 327; MacKenzie, Voyages, vol. i, p. 148.
Footnote 391:
Woldt, Kapitän Jacobsen’s Reise, p. 393.
Footnote 392:
Lord, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 231.
Footnote 393:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 242.
Footnote 394:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.
Footnote 395:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 198; Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.
Footnote 396:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 169.
Footnote 397:
Keating, loc. cit., p. 160.
Footnote 398:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 81.
Footnote 399:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 416; Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, pp. 390 and 413.
Footnote 400:
Ibid., p. 177.
Footnote 401:
Ibid., p. 222.
Footnote 402:
Ibid., p. 328.
Footnote 403:
Ibid., p. 382.
Footnote 404:
Cabeça de Vaca, loc. cit., p. 62. According to Ten Kate (Rev. d’Eth., vol. iv) the Comanches kill one of two twins. This is not an uncommon custom; in itself, however, it can have very little effect upon the quantity of the population. For the Californians see Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, pp. 390 and 413.
Footnote 405:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 97.
Footnote 406:
Charlevoix, Histoire, vol. i, p. 405.
Footnote 407:
Keane, loc. cit., p. 206.
Footnote 408:
Church, loc. cit., p. 248.
Footnote 409:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 410:
Westermarck, loc. cit., p. 313, quoting a letter from Mr. Bridges who in another place (loc. cit., p. 181) says that deformed children are especially likely to be killed.
Footnote 411:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 469.
Footnote 412:
It should be remembered that elimination through war tells more upon males than females. Out of sixty-six cases in which there was the relevant information investigated by Professor Hobhouse and his collaborators, men only were slain in twenty cases (Hobhouse, Wheeler, and Ginsberg, Simpler Peoples, p. 232).
Footnote 413:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 83.
Footnote 414:
Wheeler, Tribe in Australia.
Footnote 415:
Ibid., pp. 116 ff.
Footnote 416:
Curr (Recollections, p. 309) says that he never heard of any one being killed in a regular battle.
Footnote 417:
Wheeler, loc. cit., p. 151.
Footnote 418:
Ibid., p. 154.
Footnote 419:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 38. Letourneau, however, says that war was common (La Guerre, p. 54).
Footnote 420:
Nelson, loc. cit., p. 327.
Footnote 421:
Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 162.
Footnote 422:
Boas, loc. cit., p. 465.
Footnote 423:
Nelson, loc. cit., p. 237.
Footnote 424:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 120.
Footnote 425:
Hall, loc. cit., p. 598.
Footnote 426:
Ellis, loc. cit., p. 182.
Footnote 427:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 91.
Footnote 428:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 57. See also ibid., vol. iii, p. 64.
Footnote 429:
Carver, Travels, p. 229. For accounts of early military training see Domenech, Seven Years’ Residence, vol. ii, p. 229, and Dodge, Hunting Grounds of the Great West, p. 256.
Footnote 430:
Harmon, Journal, p. 306. He is speaking in particular of the Carrier tribe; a good account of the methods of fighting is given.
Footnote 431:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 248; Swanton, 26th A. R. B. E., p. 449.
Footnote 432:
Niblack, A. R. S. I., 1888, p. 340; Swanton, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. v, pp. 55 ff.
Footnote 433:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 59.
Footnote 434:
Boas, A. R. B. E., 1895, p. 425.
Footnote 435:
MacKenzie, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 123–30.
Footnote 436:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 236.
Footnote 437:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 268.
Footnote 438:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 540 ff.
Footnote 439:
Ibid., p. 234.
Footnote 440:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 263.
Footnote 441:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 53.
Footnote 442:
MacKenzie, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 171.
Footnote 443:
Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 190.
Footnote 444:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 379.
Footnote 445:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 562.
Footnote 446:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 359.
Footnote 447:
MacGee, 17th A. R. B. E., pp. 157 and 273. He speaks of a ‘frequent decimation of the warriors’ (p. 273).
Footnote 448:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 499.
Footnote 449:
Cabeça de Vaca, loc. cit., p. 54.
Footnote 450:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 125.
Footnote 451:
Azara, vol. ii, p. 146.
Footnote 452:
Ibid., p. 7.
Footnote 453:
King and Fitzroy, Narrative, vol. ii, p. 183. See also Featherman, Social History, vol. iii, p. 508.
Footnote 454:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 45. To show the length to which this belief is carried, the following story may be quoted. ‘A woman, while clearing out a well, was bitten in the thumb by a black snake. It began to swell immediately, and in the short space of twenty-four hours the woman was a corpse. Still it was asserted that it was not an accident, but that the deceased had pointed out a certain aborigine as her murderer’ (Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 191). In this case no killing actually followed, though it nearly did so.
Footnote 455:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 84.
Footnote 456:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, vol. ii, p. 45.
Footnote 457:
Curr, Australian Race, vol. i, p. 86.
Footnote 458:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 477. Wheeler (loc. cit., p. 149) says that ‘warfare only arises as a result of a blood feud, due to the killing of a member of one local group by a member of another local group, nearly always by magical means. But even this ground of offence is most generally settled by one of the methods of regular procedure above described.’ Since, as we have seen, the regular procedure seldom ends in the shedding of blood, many deaths thus pass unavenged.
Footnote 459:
Thomas, Natives of Australia, p. 47; Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 379.
Footnote 460:
Curr, Recollections, p. 317.
Footnote 461:
Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 582. Similar accounts are given by other authors: see Nelson, loc. cit., p. 293; Rink, loc. cit., p. 35; Klutschak, Als Eskimo unter den Eskimos, p. 228.
Footnote 462:
For instance, the Lillooet (Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 236) and the Shastika (Powers, loc. cit., p. 29).
Footnote 463:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 348.
Footnote 464:
Niblack, loc. cit., p. 348. A somewhat similar account is given of the Zaporos (Simson, J. A. I., vol. vii, p. 506).
Footnote 465:
It is not only among these races that the aged are thought to be in the way. Bonnard, in an article in the Figaro on the Prince de Beauvais’ travels in Canada, mentions that the latter saw an enterprising Canadian township recommended by the announcement that there were ‘no old inhabitants to hinder progress’ (Figaro, March 28, 1914). The evidence for the existence of this custom has been reviewed by Westermarck, Moral Ideas, vol. ii, pp. 386 ff.
Footnote 466:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 73.
Footnote 467:
Sartori, Globus, vol. lxvii, p. 108.
Footnote 468:
See, for instance, Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes, p. 32, and Natives Tribes, p. 51.
Footnote 469:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 19.
Footnote 470:
Turner, loc. cit., p. 186.
Footnote 471:
Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 165.
Footnote 472:
Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 151.
Footnote 473:
Woldt, loc. cit., p. 57.
Footnote 474:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 205.
Footnote 475:
Willoughby, A. R. S. I., 1886, p. 274.
Footnote 476:
Long, loc. cit., p. 74.
Footnote 477:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 390.
Footnote 478:
MacGee, loc. cit., p. 157. Conditions are similar among the Yguazas: see Cabeça de Vaca, loc. cit., p. 80.
Footnote 479:
Featherman, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 503.
Footnote 480:
Simson, loc. cit., p. 507.
Footnote 481:
It is impossible to estimate the amount of elimination from this source. It is, as a rule, no doubt small. In India, although a higher degree of skill has been reached, elimination from this source is not inconsiderable owing to the prevalence of poisonous snakes. ‘In 1910, 55 persons were killed by elephants, 25 by hyenas, 109 by bears, 319 by wolves, 853 by tigers, and 688 by other animals, including wild pigs. No less than 22,478 died from the bite of poisonous snakes. The grand total of mortality is 24,878’ (Lull, Organic Evolution, p. 105). The amount of elimination will vary according to the nature of the fauna, the geographical surroundings, habits, and other factors. Thus among the Eskimo the use of the ‘kayak’ is responsible for a considerable number of deaths. See Crantz, loc. cit., p. 166; Nansen, loc. cit., p. 55; Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 433.
Footnote 482:
Cohen, Physiological Therapeutics, vol. v, p. 158.
Footnote 483:
Davidson, Geographical Pathology, vol. ii, p. 565.
Footnote 484:
Hrdlicka, S. I. B. E., Bull. 42.
Footnote 485:
Hrdlicka, S. I. B. E., Bull. 34. See also Adami, Medical Contributions, pp. 15–22.
Footnote 486:
Among many races in this group—especially in tropical countries—certain non-lethal diseases are prevalent which are of great importance from another point of view. They will be referred to again in Chapter XV.
Footnote 487:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 87.
Footnote 488:
Curr, Recollections, p. 282.
Footnote 489:
Mathew, loc. cit., p. 92. See also Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 377, and Curr, Recollections, p. 297.
Footnote 490:
Burchell, Travels, vol. ii, p. 57.
Footnote 491:
Smith, loc. cit., p. 859.
Footnote 492:
Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 39.
Footnote 493:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 166.
Footnote 494:
Heriot, loc. cit., p. 350.
Footnote 495:
Harmon, loc. cit., p. 271.
Footnote 496:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 148.
Footnote 497:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 618.
Footnote 498:
Hill Tout, British North America, p. 252.
Footnote 499:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 284.
Footnote 500:
Powers, loc. cit., p. 416.
Footnote 501:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 385.
Footnote 502:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 219.
Footnote 503:
Hardt, Geography of Brazil, p. 598.
Footnote 504:
King and Fitzroy, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 155.
Footnote 505:
Bonwick, loc. cit., pp. 78 and 85.
Footnote 506:
Turner, loc. cit., p. 189. See also Armstrong, loc. cit., p. 197, and Hutton, loc. cit., p. 80.
Footnote 507:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 162; Murdoch, loc. cit., p. 415.
Footnote 508:
Handbook of American Indians: Article, Child Life.
Footnote 509:
The absence of care and the resulting mortality is emphasized by Gerland (Über das Aussterben der Naturvölker, p. 24 to p. 39).
Footnote 510:
Handbook of American Indians: Article, Child Life. It may be noticed that, among the older authors, Robertson (loc. cit., vol. 1, p. 297) has very similar remarks on the same subject.
Footnote 511:
Heriot, loc. cit. p. 344.
Footnote 512:
Domenech, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 295.
Footnote 513:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 217. Of these people Bancroft (loc. cit., vol. i, p. 111) says that ‘when the child is able to leave its cradle, it is bathed in the ocean every day without regard to season’.
Footnote 514:
Ross, loc. cit., p. 305.
Footnote 515:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121.
Footnote 516:
Ibid., p. 201.
Footnote 517:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 178.
Footnote 518:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 368.
Footnote 519:
Dobrizhoffer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 43.
Footnote 520:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 147.
Footnote 521:
Bridges, loc. cit., p. 202.
Footnote 522:
Man, loc. cit., p. 79.
Footnote 523:
Ibid., p. 81.
Footnote 524:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 469.
Footnote 525:
Deniker, loc. cit., p. 303.
Footnote 526:
Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia, p. 137. For a general sketch of the treatment of children by parents see Steinmetz, Entwicklung der Strafe, vol. i, pp. 179 ff.
Footnote 527:
Reference has been made in Chapter V to the use of metals in America. Mr. Joyce, however, says that in spite of progress in this direction the Central American races ‘were living at the discovery practically in an age of stone’ (Mexican Archaeology, p. 304).
Footnote 528:
The importance of the plough in agriculture has been emphasized by many authors. See, for instance, Hahn, Die Entstehung der Pflugkultur.
Footnote 529:
The influence of different phases of Eur-Asiatic culture upon the races of Africa must be borne in mind. Early Egyptian civilization exerted great influence and so at a later date did the Semitic—especially on the east coast; since the time of Mohammed the influence of Eur-Asiatic culture has been marked among the more northern of the negroid races. The inhabitants of Bornu were, for instance, converted to Islam in the eleventh century.
Footnote 530:
They may have had a knowledge of iron before the migration (see Thomson, Fijians, p. 11).
Footnote 531:
The Samoyeds formerly worked iron but have now lost the art—obtaining what they want from the Russians.
Footnote 532:
Hartland, Primitive Paternity, vol. i, p. 272.
Footnote 533:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 702.
Footnote 534:
Stephen, Am. Anth., vol. vi, p. 356.
Footnote 535:
Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. v, pp. 5 and 38. For the Creeks see Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. v, p. 272.
Footnote 536:
Pöppig, Reise in Chile, vol. ii, p. 128; von Martius, Ethnographie Amerikas, vol. i, p. 112; Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 104.
Footnote 537:
Handbook of American Indians, vol. i, p. 265. Heriot (loc. cit., p. 344) mentions six to seven years as not uncommon. Schoolcraft (loc. cit., vol. v, p. 655) gives eighteen months to two years for the Oregon Indians.
Footnote 538:
Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 417.
Footnote 539:
Hawtrey, J. A. I., vol. xxi, p. 295. Grubb gives three to four years (An Unknown People, p. 142).
Footnote 540:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 633.
Footnote 541:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 281.
Footnote 542:
im Thurn, Savages of Guiana, p. 219; Joest, Int. Arch. Eth., vol. v, p. 94.
Footnote 543:
D’Orbigny, L’Homme Américain, vol. i, p. 47.
Footnote 544:
Forbes, Journ. Eth. Soc., vol. ii (new series), p. 224.
Footnote 545:
Joyce, loc. cit., p. 162.
Footnote 546:
Weld, loc. cit., p. 373.
Footnote 547:
Heriot, loc. cit., p. 339.
Footnote 548:
Le Beau, Aventures, ou Voyage curieux et nouveau, vol. ii, p. 200.
Footnote 549:
Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 5. Ashe (Travels, p. 276) says that the Shawnees abstain for nine weeks after birth.
Footnote 550:
Holder, Am. Journ. Obstet., vol. xxv, p. 44.
Footnote 551:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 281.
Footnote 552:
D’Orbigny, L’Homme Américain, vol. i, p. 47.
Footnote 553:
Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., vol. vii, p. 195.
Footnote 554:
Ashe, loc. cit., p. 272.
Footnote 555:
Hrdlicka, S. I. B. E., Bull. 34, p. 163.
Footnote 556:
Weld, loc. cit., p. 373.
Footnote 557:
Le Beau, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 199.
Footnote 558:
Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 5.
Footnote 559:
p. 99.
Footnote 560:
p. 99.
Footnote 561:
Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 415.
Footnote 562:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. v, p. 684.
Footnote 563:
Nordenskiöld, Zeit. für Eth., vol. xxxviii, p. 98.
Footnote 564:
Forbes, Journ. Eth. Soc., vol. ii, p. 224.
Footnote 565:
Spix and Martius, Travels, vol. ii, p. 246.
Footnote 566:
Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 59.
Footnote 567:
Ibid., p. 179.
Footnote 568:
Rengger, loc. cit., p. 133.
Footnote 569:
Ibid., p. 335.
Footnote 570:
von Martius, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 642.
Footnote 571:
D’Orbigny, loc. cit., vol. i, pp. 46 and 47.
Footnote 572:
Pöppig, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 323.
Footnote 573:
Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 394.
Footnote 574:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 243.
Footnote 575:
Holder, loc. cit., p. 44.
Footnote 576:
Hrdlicka, loc. cit., p. 163.
Footnote 577:
Russell, 26th A. R. B. E., p. 186.
Footnote 578:
Stevenson, 23rd A. R. B. E., p. 296.
Footnote 579:
Grinnell, Am. Anth., vol. iv, p. 15.
Footnote 580:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 183 and 269.
Footnote 581:
Von den Steinen, Durch Central-Brazilien, p. 123.
Footnote 582:
Ehrenreich, Königliches Museum zu Berlin, vol. i, Heft 2, p. 27; Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 116.
Footnote 583:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 243.
Footnote 584:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 272.
Footnote 585:
Yarrow, A. R. B. E., vol. i, p. 99.
Footnote 586:
Hrdlicka, loc. cit., p. 165.
Footnote 587:
Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 93.
Footnote 588:
Ibid., p. 116.
Footnote 589:
Hawtrey, J. A. I., vol. xxi, p. 295.
Footnote 590:
Grubb, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 591:
Bonaparte, Suriname, p. 48.
Footnote 592:
Smythe and Lowe, Narrative, p. 240.
Footnote 593:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 119.
Footnote 594:
Jones, Ojebway Indians, p. 64.
Footnote 595:
Neill, History of Minnesota, p. 68.
Footnote 596:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 42.
Footnote 597:
Neill, loc. cit., p. 70.
Footnote 598:
Matthews, U.S. Geog. and Geol. Survey, Misc. Publications, No. 7, p. 61. For the wars of the Iroquois see Perrot, Mémoires, pp. 9 ff. and pp. 78 ff.
Footnote 599:
Long, loc. cit., p. 29.
Footnote 600:
Speck, Univ. of Pennsylvania Publications, vol. i. No. 1, p. 84.
Footnote 601:
Russell, loc. cit., p. 200.
Footnote 602:
Wallace, Travels on the Amazon, p. 516. See also Church, loc. cit., p. 77.
Footnote 603:
Church, South America, pp. 78, 99, and 137. See also Von Martius, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 129.
Footnote 604:
White, J. A. I., vol. xiii, p. 244.
Footnote 605:
Grubb, loc. cit., p. 105.
Footnote 606:
Brett, Indian Tribes, p. 357.
Footnote 607:
Wallace, loc. cit., p. 500.
Footnote 608:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 228.
Footnote 609:
Le Beau, loc. cit., vol. ii, pp. 93 and 98.
Footnote 610:
Speck, loc. cit., p. 14.
Footnote 611:
Ashe, loc. cit., p. 270.
Footnote 612:
Spix and Martius, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249.
Footnote 613:
For the North American Indians see Handbook of American Indians, p. 238.
Footnote 614:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 238.
Footnote 615:
Domenech, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 295.
Footnote 616:
Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico, vol. ii, p. 90.
Footnote 617:
Heriot, Travels, p. 343. Dumarest, speaking of the Cochiti, says that ‘sometimes, in the midst of winter, the child’s father will take him out and, after breaking the ice, ... will immerse him in the river. Formerly when, in winter, children came from bathing in the river, they were not allowed to approach the fire until their hair was thawed out’ (Mem. Am. Anth. Ass., vol. vi, No. 3, p. 144). Koch-Grünberg states the mortality is heavy among the children of the Amazon tribes and that they are dipped in cold water (Zwei Jahre, vol. ii, pp. 59 and 150).
Footnote 618:
Partridge, Cross River Natives, p. 254.
Footnote 619:
Thomas, Ibo-speaking Peoples, p. 62.
Footnote 620:
Hutereau, Ann. Mus. Congo Belge, sér. 3, tome i, p. 4; Cureau, Sociétés Primitives, p. 109.
Footnote 621:
Torday and Joyce, Ann. Mus. Congo Belge, sér. 3, tome ii, p. 110.
Footnote 622:
Van Overbergh, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 4, p. 309.
Footnote 623:
Delhaise, ibid., No. 5, p. 157. He thinks, however, that the practice was introduced by the Arabs.
Footnote 624:
Rochebrune, Rev. d’Anth., vol. iv, sér. 2, p. 281.
Footnote 625:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 442.
Footnote 626:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxvi, p. 288.
Footnote 627:
Ibid., vol. xxxv, p. 420.
Footnote 628:
du Chaillu, Explorations and Adventures, p. 162.
Footnote 629:
Johnston, Uganda Protectorate, vol. ii, pp. 824 and 878.
Footnote 630:
Dundas, K. R., J. A. I., vol. xliii, p. 60.
Footnote 631:
Velten, Sitten und Gebräuche der Swaheli, p. 28.
Footnote 632:
Fabry, Globus, vol. xci, p. 221.
Footnote 633:
Weule, East Africa, p. 305.
Footnote 634:
Reichard, Z. G. E., vol. xxiv, p. 253.
Footnote 635:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 409, note.
Footnote 636:
Stannus, J. A. I., vol. xl, p. 309.
Footnote 637:
Maugham, Zambezia, p. 333.
Footnote 638:
Ellis, Ewe-Speaking Peoples, p. 206.
Footnote 639:
Ellis, Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, p. 185.
Footnote 640:
Delacour, Rev. d’Eth., 1912, p. 45.
Footnote 641:
Buttikoffer, Inter. Arch. Eth., vol. i, p. 82.
Footnote 642:
Tremearne, J. A. I., vol. xlii, p. 174.
Footnote 643:
Tremearne, Hausa Superstitions and Customs, p. 93.
Footnote 644:
Torday and Joyce, Ann. Mus. Congo Belge, sér. 3, vol. ii, p. 112.
Footnote 645:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 180.
Footnote 646:
Overbergh, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 3, p. 296.
Footnote 647:
Harris, Mem. Anth. Soc., vol. ii, p. 68.
Footnote 648:
Overbergh and Jonghe, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 2, p. 217.
Footnote 649:
Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, vol. i, p. 187.
Footnote 650:
Hollis, Nandi, p. 65.
Footnote 651:
Plas, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 6, p. 205.
Footnote 652:
Fülleborn, Nyassa- und Rowuma-Gebiet, p. 61.
Footnote 653:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 55.
Footnote 654:
Gutmann, Globus, vol. xcii.
Footnote 655:
Reichard, loc. cit., p. 257.
Footnote 656:
Burton, Central Africa, vol. i, p. 117.
Footnote 657:
Junod, Ba-Ronga, p. 19.
Footnote 658:
Felkin, Trans. Edin. Obstet. Soc., vol. ix, p. 19.
Footnote 659:
Lichtenstein, Travels, vol. i, p. 260.
Footnote 660:
Kidd, Essential Kaffir, p. 19.
Footnote 661:
Denham and Clapperton, Narrative, p. 319.
Footnote 662:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 417.
Footnote 663:
Junod, South African Tribe, p. 183.
Footnote 664:
Stannus, loc. cit., p. 310.
Footnote 665:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 347.
Footnote 666:
Ellis, Ewe-Speaking Peoples, p. 206.
Footnote 667:
Ellis, Yoruba-Speaking Peoples, p. 185.
Footnote 668:
Tremearne, J. A. I., vol. xlii, p. 174.
Footnote 669:
Ibid., vol. xxxvi, p. 93.
Footnote 670:
Ling Roth, Great Benin, p. 39.
Footnote 671:
Granville, J. A. I., vol. xxvii, p. 106.
Footnote 672:
Mungo Park, Travels, p. 402.
Footnote 673:
Tremearne, Head Hunters of Nigeria, p. 239.
Footnote 674:
Harris, loc. cit., p. 36.
Footnote 675:
Desplagnes, Plateau Central Nigerien, p. 227.
Footnote 676:
Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, p. 11.
Footnote 677:
Reade, South Africa, p. 45.
Footnote 678:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 378.
Footnote 679:
Johnston, George Grenfell and the Congo, p. 671.
Footnote 680:
Ward, J. A. I., vol. xxiv, p. 289.
Footnote 681:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 418.
Footnote 682:
Overbergh and Jonghe, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 1, p. 199.
Footnote 683:
Ibid., No. 2, p. 219.
Footnote 684:
Halkin, ibid., No. 7, p. 260.
Footnote 685:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxvi, p. 51.
Footnote 686:
Gaud, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 8, p. 154.
Footnote 687:
Delhaise, loc. cit., p. 154.
Footnote 688:
Hutereau, loc. cit., p. 46.
Footnote 689:
Plas, loc. cit., p. 203.
Footnote 690:
Ibid., p. 205.
Footnote 691:
Hollis, Nandi, p. 66.
Footnote 692:
Ibid., p. 65.
Footnote 693:
Hobley, J. A. I., vol. xxxiii, p. 358.
Footnote 694:
Wilson and Felkin, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 187.
Footnote 695:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 55. Ratzel (History, vol. iii, p. 16) gives three years.
Footnote 696:
Thomson, Geog. Journ., vol. iv, p. 73.
Footnote 697:
Velten, loc. cit., p. 73.
Footnote 698:
Dundas, J. A. I., vol. xl, p. 60.
Footnote 699:
Reichard, loc. cit., p. 257.
Footnote 700:
Fülleborn, loc. cit., p. 352.
Footnote 701:
Fabry, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 702:
Cole, J. A. I., vol. xxxii, p. 312.
Footnote 703:
Stannus, loc. cit., p. 311.
Footnote 704:
Felkin, loc. cit., p. 31.
Footnote 705:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 415.
Footnote 706:
Junod, Ba-Ronga, p. 490.
Footnote 707:
Kidd, Essential Kaffir, p. 19.
Footnote 708:
Pechuel-Loesche, Loango-Expedition, p. 31.
Footnote 709:
Junod, South African Tribe, vol. i, p. 488.
Footnote 710:
Junod, ibid. See Macdonald, J. A. I., vol. xix, p. 117.
Footnote 711:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 189.
Footnote 712:
Fülleborn, loc. cit., p. 552, note.
Footnote 713:
Junod, loc. cit., p. 55.
Footnote 714:
Fülleborn, loc. cit., p. 550.
Footnote 715:
Mungo Park, loc. cit., p. 403.
Footnote 716:
Tremearne, J. A. I., vol. xlii, p. 174.
Footnote 717:
Talbot, Shadow of the Bush, p. 12.
Footnote 718:
Burton, Abeokuta, vol. i, p. 207.
Footnote 719:
Mondière, Rev. d’Anth., vol. iv, p. 75.
Footnote 720:
Buttikoffer, loc. cit., p. 82.
Footnote 721:
Overbergh and Jonghe, loc. cit., No. 1, p. 201.
Footnote 722:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 420.
Footnote 723:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 138.
Footnote 724:
Plas, loc. cit., p. 208.
Footnote 725:
Schmitz, Coll. Mon. Eth., No. 9, p. 595.
Footnote 726:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxv, p. 51.
Footnote 727:
Delhaise, loc. cit., p. 157.
Footnote 728:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 4, p. 297.
Footnote 729:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxvi, p. 51.
Footnote 730:
Velten, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 731:
Routledge, Prehistoric People, p. 136. Owing to the fact that the families are incomplete, there is some uncertainty about these figures.
Footnote 732:
Roscoe, Man, vol. ix, p. 118. See also same author’s Northern Bantu, p. 151.
Footnote 733:
Reichard, loc. cit., p. 255.
Footnote 734:
Stannus, loc. cit., p. 310.
Footnote 735:
Elton, Journal, p. 6.
Footnote 736:
Barrow, Travels, vol. i, p. 97. See also Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 86.
Footnote 737:
Little, Madagascar, p. 64.
Footnote 738:
Delacour, loc. cit., p. 45.
Footnote 739:
Tremearne, J. A. I., vol. xlii, p. 171.
Footnote 740:
Johnston, George Grenfell and the Congo, p. 671.
Footnote 741:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 449; Overbergh and Jonghe, loc. cit., No. 1, p. 201.
Footnote 742:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxvi, p. 228.
Footnote 743:
Delhaise, loc. cit., p. 147.
Footnote 744:
Halkin, loc. cit., p. 259. Hutereau (loc. cit., p. 101) says that it is not often employed.
Footnote 745:
Rochebrune, loc. cit., p. 283.
Footnote 746:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 4, p. 298.
Footnote 747:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxvi, p. 111.
Footnote 748:
Lübbert, Mitth. der Forschungsreisenden, vol. xiv, p. 88.
Footnote 749:
Hobley, Akamba, p. 58.
Footnote 750:
Velten, loc. cit., p. 29.
Footnote 751:
Fülleborn, loc. cit., p. 352.
Footnote 752:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 417; Angus, Azimba and Chipitaland, p. 324.
Footnote 753:
Maugham, Zambezia, p. 339.
Footnote 754:
Maclean, Kaffir Laws and Customs, p. 62.
Footnote 755:
Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. i, p. 55.
Footnote 756:
Kolben, Cape of Good Hope, vol. i, p. 144.
Footnote 757:
Ellis, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 155; Little, loc. cit., p. 60.
Footnote 758:
Tremearne, Hausa Superstitions, p. 93.
Footnote 759:
Ibid., Head Hunters of Nigeria, p. 239.
Footnote 760:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 177; Ward, J. A. I., vol. xxiv, p. 291. Torday (Camp and Tramp, p. 142), when speaking of the Bayaka, mentions them as an exception to the general rule that Congo tribes kill misshapen children.
Footnote 761:
Gaud, loc. cit., p. 257.
Footnote 762:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 3, p. 241.
Footnote 763:
Halkin, loc. cit., p. 260.
Footnote 764:
Torday and Joyce, Ann. Mus. Congo Belge, sér. 3, tome ii, p. 113.
Footnote 765:
Krapf, Travels, p. 193.
Footnote 766:
Hildebrand, Recht und Sitte, p. 293.
Footnote 767:
Livingstone, Labours and Travels, p. 577.
Footnote 768:
Fülleborn, loc. cit., p. 62.
Footnote 769:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 417.
Footnote 770:
Maugham, Portuguese East Africa, p. 270.
Footnote 771:
Barrow, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 157; Kidd, Essential Kaffir, p. 202; Shooter, Kaffirs of Natal, p. 88.
Footnote 772:
Theal, History and Ethnography, vol. i, p. 48.
Footnote 773:
Harris, loc. cit., p. 27.
Footnote 774:
Ellis, Ewe-Speaking Peoples, p. 190; Maclean, Compendium, p. 62.
Footnote 775:
F. E. Forbes, Dahomey, p. 15.
Footnote 776:
Ling Roth, Great Benin, p. 125.
Footnote 777:
See Forbes, loc. cit., p. 23.
Footnote 778:
Tremearne, Head Hunters of Nigeria, passim.
Footnote 779:
Beecham, Ashantee, p. 207.
Footnote 780:
See Ellis, Ewe-Speaking Peoples, pp. 117 ff.
Footnote 781:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 348.
Footnote 782:
Weeks, Congo Cannibals, p. 222.
Footnote 783:
Du Chaillu, loc. cit., p. 161.
Footnote 784:
Ibid., p. 386.
Footnote 785:
Burrows, loc. cit., p. 38. For the Azanda and Abandia see Hutereau, loc. cit., p. 36 and p. 44.
Footnote 786:
Coquilhat, Haut-Congo, p. 287; Overbergh and Jonghe, loc. cit., No. 1, p. 413.
Footnote 787:
Torday, loc. cit., pp. 97 ff.; Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxv, p. 416.
Footnote 788:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxvi, p. 289.
Footnote 789:
Ibid., vol. xxxv, p. 49.
Footnote 790:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 346.
Footnote 791:
Hollis, Masai, passim.
Footnote 792:
Hobley, Akamba, p. 45. See also Dundas, J. A. I., vol. xliii, p. 505.
Footnote 793:
Routledge, Prehistoric People, p. 13.
Footnote 794:
Dundas, J. A. I., vol. xl, p. 51.
Footnote 795:
Roscoe, J. A. I., vol. xxxvii, p. 108.
Footnote 796:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 470.
Footnote 797:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 344.
Footnote 798:
Same author, History, vol. i, p. 38.
Footnote 799:
Kolben, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 282.
Footnote 800:
Hutchinson, Western Africa, p. 150. See also same author’s Ten Years’ Wanderings, p. 54.
Footnote 801:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 98.
Footnote 802:
Torday, loc. cit., p. 137.
Footnote 803:
Maugham, British Central Africa, p. 276.
Footnote 804:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 205.
Footnote 805:
Wilson, Western Africa, pp. 115 and 179; Beecham, loc. cit., p. 227.
Footnote 806:
Burrows, loc. cit., p. 43.
Footnote 807:
Du Chaillu, loc. cit., p. 271.
Footnote 808:
Werner, Native Races, p. 168.
Footnote 809:
Macdonald, loc. cit., p. 106.
Footnote 810:
Junod, South African Tribe, vol. i, p. 417.
Footnote 811:
Parker, G. W., J. A. I., vol. xii, p. 478.
Footnote 812:
Weeks, Congo Cannibals, p. 341.
Footnote 813:
On this subject see Davidson, Geographical Pathology; Clemow, Geography of Disease; Hirsch, Geographical and Historical Pathology; and Johnston, Negro in the New World, pp. 15 ff.
Footnote 814:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 174.
Footnote 815:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 174.
Footnote 816:
Ellenberger, Basuto, p. 295.
Footnote 817:
Barrow, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 109.
Footnote 818:
Harris, loc. cit., p. 68.
Footnote 819:
Talbot, loc. cit., p. 12.
Footnote 820:
Mungo Park, loc. cit., p. 403.
Footnote 821:
Du Chaillu, loc. cit., p. 163.
Footnote 822:
Johnston, George Grenfell and the Congo, vol. ii, p. 672.
Footnote 823:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 4, p. 297.
Footnote 824:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 418.
Footnote 825:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 3, p. 244.
Footnote 826:
Delhaise, loc. cit., p. 157.
Footnote 827:
Gutmann, loc. cit., p. 3.
Footnote 828:
Leslie, Zulus and Amatongas, p. 198.
Footnote 829:
Casalis, Basutos, p. 193.
Footnote 830:
Holden, loc. cit., p. 172.
Footnote 831:
Best, Man, vol. xiv, p. 32.
Footnote 832:
Dieffenbach, Travels, vol. ii, p. 16; Angas, Australia and New Zealand, vol. i, p. 314; Tuke, Edinburgh Medical Journal, vol. ix, part 1, p. 224; Tregear, J. A. I., vol. xix, p. 101.
Footnote 833:
Dumas, Collection des Thèses, p. 18.
Footnote 834:
Kubary, Journal des Museum Godeffroy, vol. i, p. 53. See also same author, Ethnographische Beiträge, p. 148.
Footnote 835:
Brainne, Nouvelle-Calédonie, p. 250.
Footnote 836:
Codrington, Melanesians, p. 235.
Footnote 837:
Danks, J. A. I., vol. xviii, p. 288.
Footnote 838:
Krieger, Neu-Guinea, p. 297.
Footnote 839:
Murray, Papua, p. 195.
Footnote 840:
Seligman, J. A. I., vol. xxxii, p. 302.
Footnote 841:
Epp, Holländisch-Ostindien, p. 393.
Footnote 842:
Kreutz, Zeit. Soc. Wiss., vol. ii, p. 201.
Footnote 843:
Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences, p. 141.
Footnote 844:
Ribbe, Zwei Jahre, p. 144.
Footnote 845:
Bernard, Nouvelle-Calédonie, p. 288. See also Glaumont, Rev. d’Eth., vol. vii, p. 80; Lortsch, Globus, 1885, p. 107; and Moncelon, Bull. Soc. Anth., vol. ix, p. 361.
Footnote 846:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 176.
Footnote 847:
Thurmwald, Forschungen, p. 123.
Footnote 848:
Hagen, Unter den Papuas, p. 233.
Footnote 849:
Ling Roth, Sarawak, p. 100.
Footnote 850:
Jenks, Ethnological Survey Publications, vol. i, p. 61.
Footnote 851:
Hitchcock, A. R. B. E., 1890, p. 465.
Footnote 852:
Moerenhaut, Voyages, p. 62.
Footnote 853:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. v, p. 247.
Footnote 854:
Tregear, loc. cit., p. 103.
Footnote 855:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. v, p. 199.
Footnote 856:
Thomson, Savage Island, p. 141.
Footnote 857:
Kubary, Journal des Museum Godeffroy, vol. i, p. 54.
Footnote 858:
Krämer, Samoa-Inseln, vol. i, p. 38.
Footnote 859:
Seligman, J. A. I., vol. xxxii, p. 302. See also Seligman, Melanesians, p. 86.
Footnote 860:
Schellong, Zeit. für Eth., vol. xxviii, p. 19.
Footnote 861:
Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 862:
Glaumont, loc. cit., p. 80.
Footnote 863:
Lambert, Néo-Calédoniens, p. 104.
Footnote 864:
Brown, Melanesians, p. 37.
Footnote 865:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 176.
Footnote 866:
Ibid., p. 178.
Footnote 867:
Seeman, Viti, p. 191.
Footnote 868:
Seligman, J. A. I., vol. xxxii, p. 303.
Footnote 869:
Krieger, Neu-Guinea, p. 165.
Footnote 870:
Pfeil, Studien und Beobachtungen, p. 31.
Footnote 871:
Angas, loc. cit., p. 314.
Footnote 872:
Dieffenbach, loc. cit., p. 33.
Footnote 873:
Brown, New Zealand, p. 40.
Footnote 874:
Haddon, J. A. I., vol. xix. p. 359.
Footnote 875:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. iii, p. 108.
Footnote 876:
Krämer, Die Samoa-Inseln, p. 335.
Footnote 877:
Turner, Samoa, p. 83.
Footnote 878:
Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 194.
Footnote 879:
Kubary, Journal des Museum Godeffroy, vol. i, p. 54.
Footnote 880:
Melville, Narrative, p. 213.
Footnote 881:
Tautain, L’Anthropologie, vol. ix, p. 418.
Footnote 882:
Jenkins, Voyage, p. 404.
Footnote 883:
Seligman, Melanesians, p. 80.
Footnote 884:
Stone, New Guinea, p. 93.
Footnote 885:
Krieger, loc. cit., pp. 165, 293, and 390. Neuhaus confirms this (Deutsch Neu-Guinea, vol. i, p. 150).
Footnote 886:
Brown, Melanesians, p. 37.
Footnote 887:
Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 32. See also Stephan and Graebner, Neu-Mecklenberg, p. 16.
Footnote 888:
Lortsch, loc. cit., p. 107; De Vaux, ‘Les Canaques’, Rev. d’Eth., vol. ii, p. 330.
Footnote 889:
Blyth, Glasgow Medical Journal, vol. xxviii, p. 178.
Footnote 890:
Ling Roth, Sarawak, vol. i, p. 106.
Footnote 891:
Brooke, Sarawak, vol. ii, p. 335.
Footnote 892:
Wallace, Malay Archipelago, vol. i, p. 141.
Footnote 893:
Bock, Head Hunters, p. 211.
Footnote 894:
Hagen, Unter den Papuas, p. 27.
Footnote 895:
Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 219.
Footnote 896:
Modigliani, Viaggio, p. 554.
Footnote 897:
Bickman, Travels, p. 278.
Footnote 898:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 40.
Footnote 899:
Batchelor, Ainu, p. 19.
Footnote 900:
Hitchcock, loc. cit., p. 465.
Footnote 901:
Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 12; Goldie, Trans. and Proc. N. Z. Inst., vol. xxxvii, p. 110; Tuke, loc. cit., p. 735.
Footnote 902:
Hunt, J. A. I., vol. xxviii, p. 9.
Footnote 903:
Haddon, J. A. I., vol. xix, p. 359.
Footnote 904:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. vi, p. 197.
Footnote 905:
Dumas, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 906:
Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 404; Krämer, loc. cit., p. 335; Thomson, Fijians, p. 211.
Footnote 907:
Krämer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 53; Turner, Samoa, p. 79.
Footnote 908:
Gardiner, J. A. I., vol. xxvii, p. 480.
Footnote 909:
Thomson, Savage Island, p. 141.
Footnote 910:
Pritchard, Polynesian Reminiscences, p. 423; Waterhouse, King and People of Fiji, p. 327; Thomson (Fijians, p. 180) thinks that it has been introduced lately. On the other hand Blyth says that it was formerly more prevalent than it is now (loc. cit., p. 181).
Footnote 911:
Hagen and Pineau, Rev. d’Eth., vol. vii, p. 332.
Footnote 912:
Jamieson, Aust. Med. Journ., new series, vol. vii, p. 53.
Footnote 913:
Bernard, Nouvelle-Calédonie, p. 288; Rochas, Nouvelle-Calédonie, p. 200.
Footnote 914:
Codrington, Melanesians, p. 229; Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144; Parkinson, Int. Arch. Eth., vol. xiii, p. 8; Elton, J. A. I., vol. xvii, p. 93.
Footnote 915:
Brown, Melanesians, p. 33; Danks, J. A. I., vol. xviii, p. 291; Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 313; Stephan and Graebner, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 916:
Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 194.
Footnote 917:
Riedel, Rev. Col. Inter., vol. ii, p. 71.
Footnote 918:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 165 (German New Guinea), p. 292 (British New Guinea), and p. 390 (Dutch New Guinea).
Footnote 919:
Ibid., p. 392.
Footnote 920:
Murray, Papua, p. 194.
Footnote 921:
Rosenberg, Malayische Archipel, p. 454.
Footnote 922:
Williamson, Mafulu People, p. 176.
Footnote 923:
Seligman, Melanesians, p. 135.
Footnote 924:
Ibid., p. 568.
Footnote 925:
Modigliani, loc. cit., p. 554.
Footnote 926:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 201.
Footnote 927:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 60.
Footnote 928:
Turner, Samoa, p. 280.
Footnote 929:
Angas, Australia and New Zealand, vol. i, p. 312.
Footnote 930:
Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, p. 338.
Footnote 931:
Tuke, loc. cit., p. 221.
Footnote 932:
Polack, Manners and Customs, vol. ii, p. 92. See also Meade, Ride, p. 163, and Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 16.
Footnote 933:
Brown, New Zealand, p. 41; Earle, Narrative, p. 243.
Footnote 934:
Haddon, J. A. I., vol. xix, p. 359; Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. vi, p. 107.
Footnote 935:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. vi, p. 107.
Footnote 936:
Tuituila, Journ. Pol. Soc., vol. i, p. 267.
Footnote 937:
West, Ten Years, p. 270.
Footnote 938:
Turner, Samoa, p. 79; Brown, Melanesians, p. 47.
Footnote 939:
Krämer, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 53.
Footnote 940:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 141.
Footnote 941:
Rivers, Melanesian Society, vol. i, p. 313.
Footnote 942:
Thurmwald, Zeit. für Eth., vol. xlii, p. 111.
Footnote 943:
Gill, Coral Islands, vol. ii, p. 13.
Footnote 944:
Edgeworth David, Funafuti, p. 195.
Footnote 945:
Lutteroth, Insel Tahiti, p. 12.
Footnote 946:
Ellis, Polynesian Researches, vol. i, pp. 249 ff.; same author, Tour through Hawaii, p. 325.
Footnote 947:
Kotzebue, Voyage, p. 211.
Footnote 948:
Ellis, Narrative, pp. 324 ff.; Angas, Polynesia, p. 144; Dumas, loc. cit., p. 19. The last-named author says that it was undoubtedly more prevalent before the arrival of Europeans than later.
Footnote 949:
Waterhouse, loc. cit., p. 328.
Footnote 950:
Glaumond, loc. cit., p. 79.
Footnote 951:
Bernard, loc. cit., p. 288.
Footnote 952:
Moncelin, loc. cit., p. 357.
Footnote 953:
Somerville, J. A. I., vol. xxiii, p. 4. According to Paton, ‘Infanticide is systematically practised’ (New Hebrides, p. 452).
Footnote 954:
Meinecke, Z. G. E., vol. ix, p. 340.
Footnote 955:
Codrington, Melanesians, p. 229.
Footnote 956:
Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 173.
Footnote 957:
Turner, Samoa, p. 284.
Footnote 958:
Hale, U.S. Exploring Expedition, vol. vi, p. 15.
Footnote 959:
Elton, J. A. I., vol. xvii, p. 93.
Footnote 960:
Guppy, Solomon Islands, p. 42.
Footnote 961:
Elton, loc. cit., p. 93; Somerville, J. A. I., vol. xxvi, p. 393; Parkinson, loc. cit., p. 8; Ribbe, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 962:
Verguet, Rev. d’Eth., vol. iv, p. 206.
Footnote 963:
Brown, Melanesians, p. 36; Pfeil, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 964:
Seligman, Melanesians, p. 568.
Footnote 965:
Ibid., p. 705.
Footnote 966:
Williamson, Mafulu People, p. 176.
Footnote 967:
Murray, loc. cit., p. 194.
Footnote 968:
Erdweg, Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, vol. xxxii, p. 281.
Footnote 969:
Newton, New Guinea, p. 189.
Footnote 970:
St. John, Forests of the Far East, vol. i, p. 48; Brooke, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 337.
Footnote 971:
Ratzel, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 268; Romilly, Western Pacific, p. 68.
Footnote 972:
Moerenhaut, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 30, says that ‘Tous ces peuples étaient très fréquemment en guerre’.
Footnote 973:
Dieffenbach, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 16; Tregear, J. A. I., vol. xix, p. 110.
Footnote 974:
Hunt, loc. cit., p. 10.
Footnote 975:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. iv, p. 6; vol. v, p. 229; and vol. vi, p. 189.
Footnote 976:
Ibid., vol. v, p. 298.
Footnote 977:
Ellis, Narrative, p. 4; Dumas, loc. cit., p. 19.
Footnote 978:
Ellis, Polynesian Researches, p. 293; Lutteroth, loc. cit., p. 17.
Footnote 979:
Ellis, Polynesian Researches, p. 294.
Footnote 980:
Turner, Samoa, p. 189; Pritchard, loc. cit., p. 55; Angas, Polynesia, p. 270.
Footnote 981:
Brown, Melanesians, p. 173.
Footnote 982:
Gardiner, J. A. I., vol. xxvii, p. 470.
Footnote 983:
Ibid., p. 474.
Footnote 984:
Gill, Coral Islands, vol. ii, p. 12.
Footnote 985:
Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 407.
Footnote 986:
Kubary, Journal des Museum Godeffroy, vol. i, p. 62; Wilson, Pelew Islands, p. 334.
Footnote 987:
Seligman, Melanesians, p. 671.
Footnote 988:
Williams, Fiji, p. 43.
Footnote 989:
Ibid., p. 203. He calculates the annual loss as from 1,500 to 2,000, and adds that this should be increased in order to include widows strangled on the death of their husbands (p. 53).
Footnote 990:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 86.
Footnote 991:
Hagen and Pineau, loc. cit., p. 336.
Footnote 992:
Lambert, loc. cit., pp. 173 ff.; Moncelon, loc. cit., p. 358; de Rochas, p. 304; Brainne, loc. cit., pp. 244 ff.
Footnote 993:
Guppy, loc. cit., p. 33; Verguet, loc. cit., p. 215.
Footnote 994:
Romilly, Western Pacific, p. 69.
Footnote 995:
Seligman, Melanesians, p. 121.
Footnote 996:
Abel, New Guinea, pp. 129 ff.; Williamson, Mafulu People, p. 180; Reche, Südsee-Expedition, 1908–10, p. 289.
Footnote 997:
Ling Roth, Sarawak, vol. ii, p. 117; Hose and McDougall, Pagan Tribes, pp. 158 ff.
Footnote 998:
Ling Roth, Sarawak, vol. ii, p. 120.
Footnote 999:
Batchelor, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 1000:
Chalmers, J. A. I., vol. xxxiii, p. 123.
Footnote 1001:
Thomson, British New Guinea, p. 23.
Footnote 1002:
Woodford, Head Hunters, p. 154; Guppy, loc. cit., p. 16; Romilly, Western Pacific, p. 73.
Footnote 1003:
Hickson, New Hebrides, p. 275.
Footnote 1004:
Hose and McDougall, loc. cit., p. 187.
Footnote 1005:
Ibid., p. 187.
Footnote 1006:
Gomes, Sea Dyaks, p. 5.
Footnote 1007:
Brooke, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121; Ling Roth, Sarawak, vol. ii, p. 143.
Footnote 1008:
Brooke, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121; St. John, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 68.
Footnote 1009:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 172.
Footnote 1010:
Ibid., p. 182.
Footnote 1011:
Romilly, From my Verandah, p. 52.
Footnote 1012:
Von der Sande, Nova Guinea, vol. iii, p. 270. Neuhaus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 131, attributes considerable importance to this factor.
Footnote 1013:
It is again noticeable that in the accounts of the older observers the general good health of these races is remarked upon. See, for instance, Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 129 (for the Sandwich Islands) and p. 170 (for Radeck); Cheyne, Western Pacific Ocean, p. 9 (for Island of Pines).
Footnote 1014:
Newton, loc. cit., p. 189. For New Ireland see Stephan and Graebner, loc. cit., p. 18, where the high child mortality is attributed to exposure.
Footnote 1015:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 202.
Footnote 1016:
Turner, Samoa, p. 135.
Footnote 1017:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 61. For the whole question of child mortality among primitive races see Gerland, Über das Aussterben der Naturvölker, p. 24 to p. 39.
Footnote 1018:
Bogoras, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, p. 690.
Footnote 1019:
Jochelson, ibid., vol. ix, p. 110.
Footnote 1020:
Ibid., vol. vi, p. 413.
Footnote 1021:
Ibid., vol. ix, p. 104.
Footnote 1022:
Sumner, J. A. I., vol. xxxi, p. 79.
Footnote 1023:
For instance, by Sumner, loc. cit., p. 79, for the Yakuts; by Jackson, Great Frozen Land, p. 82, for the Samoyeds; and by Georgi, Bemerkungen, vol. i, p. 265, for the Tunguses.
Footnote 1024:
Krasheninicoff, History of Kamtchatka, p. 216. De Lesseps (Travels, vol. i, p. 133) puts the average at four to five children. It may be noticed that according to Pallas (Reise, vol. iii, p. 77) the Samoyeds do not cohabit for two months after the birth of a child.
Footnote 1025:
Sograff, Arch. für Anth., vol. xiv, p. 293.
Footnote 1026:
Jochelson, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 414.
Footnote 1027:
Krasheninicoff, loc. cit., p. 217.
Footnote 1028:
Stellers, Kamtchatka, p. 349.
Footnote 1029:
Sarytschev, Collection of Voyages, vol. vi, p. 50; Bogoras, loc. cit., p. 513.
Footnote 1030:
Finsch, Reise, p. 538. See Georgi, loc. cit., p. 263, for the Tunguses and Bogoras, loc. cit., p. 33, for the Chuckee.
Footnote 1031:
See Finsch, loc. cit., p. 538, for the Ostyaks and Samoyeds; Jochelson, loc. cit., vol. vi, p. 423, for the Koryak; and Sumner, loc. cit., p. 79, for the Yakuts.
Footnote 1032:
On this subject see Cannan, Theories of Production and Distribution, ch. v. Professor Cannan’s work has been used in this and in the two following sections.
Footnote 1033:
Nicholson, Political Economy, vol. i, p. 182, note.
Footnote 1034:
Cannan, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 1035:
Cannan, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 1036:
Nicholson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 163.
Footnote 1037:
Cannan, Wealth, p. 68. This is frequently misunderstood. Thus we read that ‘occasionally, from accidental circumstances, England was for a short time under-populated, and these were the periods when ... the labourer was well off’ (Inge, loc. cit., p. 90). The evidence alluded to would tend to show that there was previously a condition of over-population. In any case a people as a whole is not better off when under-population arises.
Footnote 1038:
Cannan, Theories of Production and Distribution, p. 181.
Footnote 1039:
See Leroy-Beaulieu, Question de la Population, ch. iii.
Footnote 1040:
Quoted by Nicholson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 180.
Footnote 1041:
Ling Roth, Tasmania, p. 116.
Footnote 1042:
Bonwick, loc. cit., p. 83.
Footnote 1043:
Wheeler, Tribe in Australia, p. 35.
Footnote 1044:
Wheeler, loc. cit., p. 45. Malinowski (loc. cit., p. 152) comments on this tribal over-right, which, he says, is shadowy.
Footnote 1045:
See, for instance, Brown, J. A. I., vol. xliii, p. 144, for Western Australia; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 7, for Central Australia; and Stanbridge, Trans. Eth. Soc., new series, vol. i, p. 286, for Victoria.
Footnote 1046:
Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 156.
Footnote 1047:
Brown, J. A. I., vol. xliii, p. 145. Spencer and Gillen describe the ownership by local groups of quarries where stone suitable for making instruments is found (Native Tribes, p. 590).
Footnote 1048:
Ibid., p. 146. See, too, Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes, p. 27.
Footnote 1049:
Stanbridge, loc. cit., p. 286. See also Parker, Aborigines, p. 12.
Footnote 1050:
Brown, Geog. Journ., vol. i, p. 12.
Footnote 1051:
Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 297.
Footnote 1052:
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 145.
Footnote 1053:
Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, p. 147.
Footnote 1054:
See Grosse, Die Formen der Familie, p. 35.
Footnote 1055:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 35.
Footnote 1056:
Ibid., p. 86.
Footnote 1057:
Klutschak, loc. cit., p. 227.
Footnote 1058:
Rink, loc. cit., p. 31.
Footnote 1059:
‘Captain Cook found among the Ahts “very strict notions of their having a right to the exclusive property of everything that their country produces”, so that they claimed pay for even wood, water, and grass. The limits of their tribal property are very clearly defined, but individuals rarely claim any property in land’ (Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 191). See also Dellenbaugh, North Americans, pp. 410 ff.
Footnote 1060:
Handbook of American Indians, Article ‘Land Tenure’.
Footnote 1061:
Harmon, loc. cit., p. 255.
Footnote 1062:
Hill Tout, British North America, p. 147. See also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 118.
Footnote 1063:
Ibid., p. 157.
Footnote 1064:
Ibid., p. 159.
Footnote 1065:
Handbook of American Indians, Article ‘Property’. See Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 255, for a description of this among the Lillooet Indians; also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 230, and Niblack, loc. cit., pp. 298 and 337.
Footnote 1066:
Swanton, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. v, p. 71.
Footnote 1067:
Elliot, Arctic Province, p. 54.
Footnote 1068:
Krause, loc. cit., p. 167. Before leaving the Indians it is worth noticing that each family had, as a rule, its own store of food. Many different methods of storing food are known; the more migratory tribes of the Salish and the Tinneh stored food either in detached sheds elevated on posts several feet from the ground, or where the soil was unusually dry in well-like holes. See Hill Tout, British North America, p. 108.
Footnote 1069:
Sarasins, loc. cit., vol. iii, pp. 475 ff. See also Seligman, loc. cit., p. 106.
Footnote 1070:
Cooper, loc. cit., p. 178.
Footnote 1071:
Hobhouse, Wheeler, and Ginsberg, Institutions of the Simpler Peoples, pp. 243 ff.
Footnote 1072:
Handbook of American Indians, Article ‘Property’.
Footnote 1073:
Ibid., Article ‘Land Tenure’.
Footnote 1074:
Fletcher and La Flesche, 27th A. R. B. E., p. 269. Dorsey (loc. cit., p. 366) gives further details.
Footnote 1075:
Joyce, Mexican Archaeology, p. 116.
Footnote 1076:
Spix and Martius, vol. i, p. 83.
Footnote 1077:
Bartle Frere, J. A. I., vol. xii, p. 260.
Footnote 1078:
Ellis, Ewe-Speaking People, p. 217.
Footnote 1079:
Ibid., Yoruba-Speaking People, p. 188.
Footnote 1080:
Talbot, loc. cit., p. 262.
Footnote 1081:
Scott Elliot, J. A. I., vol. xxiii, p. 82.
Footnote 1082:
Tremearne, J. A. I., vol. xlii, p. 187.
Footnote 1083:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 123.
Footnote 1084:
Ibid., p. 129.
Footnote 1085:
Torday and Joyce, Ann. Mus. Congo Belge, sér. 3, tome ii, p. 91.
Footnote 1086:
Van Overbergh, loc. cit., No. 2, p. 465.
Footnote 1087:
Hobley, Akamba, pp. 82 and 136 ff.
Footnote 1088:
Halkin, loc. cit., p. 493.
Footnote 1089:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 15.
Footnote 1090:
Routledge, Prehistoric People, p. 39.
Footnote 1091:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 179.
Footnote 1092:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 471.
Footnote 1093:
Junod, South African Tribe, vol. i, p. 307.
Footnote 1094:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 230.
Footnote 1095:
Conder, J. A. I., vol. xvi, p. 86.
Footnote 1096:
Hahn, Z. G. E., vol. iii, p. 255. For Madagascar, where conditions are much the same, see Parker, J. A. I., vol. xii.
Footnote 1097:
Wilson, Pelew Islands, p. 297.
Footnote 1098:
Tregear, loc. cit., p. 106.
Footnote 1099:
Ling Roth, loc. cit., p. 419.
Footnote 1100:
Thomson, British New Guinea, p. 194.
Footnote 1101:
Müller, Unter Tungusen, p. 46.
Footnote 1102:
Howitt, Native Tribes, p. 759.
Footnote 1103:
Howitt, Native Tribes, p. 765.
Footnote 1104:
Ibid., p. 767.
Footnote 1105:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 41. See also Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 48.
Footnote 1106:
Nansen, Eskimo Life, p. 113.
Footnote 1107:
See, for instance, Klutschak, pp. 231 ff., and Whymper, Voyages et Aventures, p. 346.
Footnote 1108:
Rink, loc. cit., p. 31.
Footnote 1109:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 121.
Footnote 1110:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 256.
Footnote 1111:
MacGee, 17th A. R. B. E., p. 273.
Footnote 1112:
Hill Tout (British North America, p. 159) describes an exceptional case of a Salish tribe in which ‘even the food was held and the meals taken in common, the presiding elder or headsman calling a certain family each day to provide the meals for all the rest, every one taking it in turn to discharge this social duty’.
Footnote 1113:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 229.
Footnote 1114:
Angas, loc. cit., p. 373.
Footnote 1115:
Haseman, Am. Anth., vol. xiv, p. 338.
Footnote 1116:
Some authors have assumed without producing any evidence that these practices—especially infanticide—have increased, if they have not been initiated, after contact with Europeans. It is, therefore, of interest to note that according to Rivers there is definite genealogical evidence from Tikopia of the disappearance of infanticide (Melanesian Society, vol. i, p. 352).
Footnote 1117:
According to Neuhauss for instance, both abortion and infanticide were formerly prevalent in parts of New Guinea where they are now rare owing to missionary teaching. No accurate account has been given of these tribes in their former state, and thus quite possibly a modern observer might well merely record the practices as being ‘rare’—a statement which would be misleading for our present purpose but which is of the kind likely to be relied on by those who do not admit the wide prevalence of these customs (Deutsch Neu-Guinea, vol. i, p. 31).
Footnote 1118:
As will be pointed out later, this statement of Tacitus is undoubtedly incorrect.
Footnote 1119:
Curr, Recollections, p. 252.
Footnote 1120:
Curr, Recollections, p. 263.
Footnote 1121:
Taplin, loc. cit., p. 14.
Footnote 1122:
Howitt, Native Tribes, p. 748.
Footnote 1123:
Howitt, Native Tribes, p. 749.
Footnote 1124:
Bonney, J. A. I., vol. xiii, p. 125.
Footnote 1125:
Beveridge, loc. cit., p. 26.
Footnote 1126:
Wilhelmi, loc. cit., p. 181. See also Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 261.
Footnote 1127:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 608.
Footnote 1128:
Foelsche, loc. cit., p. 192.
Footnote 1129:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 264.
Footnote 1130:
Curr, Australian Race, vol. i, p. 76. In another work, however, the same author says that he often spoke to the natives on this subject, and is ‘sure that the idea of over-population never entered their heads’ (Recollections, p. 263). Smyth (loc. cit., vol. i, p. 52) thinks that there may be some fear of over-population.
Footnote 1131:
Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 1132:
Gason, loc. cit., p. 8.
Footnote 1133:
Foelsche, loc. cit., p. 192.
Footnote 1134:
Eyre, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 376.
Footnote 1135:
Mathew, Two Representative Tribes, p. 165.
Footnote 1136:
Guinnard, loc. cit., p. 143.
Footnote 1137:
Charlevoix, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 405.
Footnote 1138:
Edgeworth David, Funafuti, p. 195.
Footnote 1139:
Rivers, Melanesian Society, vol. i, p. 313.
Footnote 1140:
Neuhaus, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 150.
Footnote 1141:
Jenkins, loc. cit., p. 404. See also Krämer, loc. cit., p. 335.
Footnote 1142:
Ellis, Narrative, p. 324.
Footnote 1143:
Ibid., p. 327.
Footnote 1144:
Tuituila, loc. cit., p. 267.
Footnote 1145:
Waterhouse, loc. cit., p. 327.
Footnote 1146:
Hunt, J. A. I., vol. xxviii, p. 9.
Footnote 1147:
Codrington, loc. cit., p. 229.
Footnote 1148:
Williamson, Mafulu People, p. 177.
Footnote 1149:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. v, p. 198.
Footnote 1150:
Ibid., vol. vi, p. 107.
Footnote 1151:
Rengger, loc. cit., p. 329.
Footnote 1152:
Hawtrey, loc. cit., p. 295.
Footnote 1153:
Schoolcraft, loc. cit., vol. v, p. 272.
Footnote 1154:
Grinnell, loc. cit., p. 15.
Footnote 1155:
Keating, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 394.
Footnote 1156:
Ehrenreich, loc. cit., p. 27.
Footnote 1157:
Russell, 26th A. R. B. E., p. 186.
Footnote 1158:
Blyth, loc. cit., p. 181.
Footnote 1159:
Seeman, Viti, p. 191.
Footnote 1160:
Gutmann, loc. cit., p. 3.
Footnote 1161:
Krieger, loc. cit., p. 165. See also Parkinson, loc. cit., p. 22.
Footnote 1162:
Kotzebue, loc. cit., vol. iii, p. 173.
Footnote 1163:
Turner, Samoa, p. 284.
Footnote 1164:
Seligman, Melanesians, p. 270.
Footnote 1165:
Turner, Samoa, p. 333. According to Paton, loc. cit., p. 452, infanticide was ‘systematically practised’.
Footnote 1166:
Danks, loc. cit., p. 291.
Footnote 1167:
Rivers, Todas, p. 401.
Footnote 1168:
Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 48.
Footnote 1169:
Curr, Australian Race, vol. i, p. 110; Dawson, loc. cit., p. 35; Smyth, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 291; Malinowski, loc. cit., p. 259; Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, p. 184.
Footnote 1170:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158; Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 579.
Footnote 1171:
Crantz, loc. cit., p. 158; Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 579; Klutschak, loc. cit., p. 233; Nansen, Greenland, vol. ii, p. 230; id., Eskimo Life, p. 139; Murdoch, 9th A. R. B. E., p. 104. ‘There is a superstition’, says Dall, speaking of the Eskimos of Alaska, ‘that a youth must not marry until he has killed a deer, otherwise he will have no children’ (loc. cit., p. 196).
Footnote 1172:
Handbook of American Indians, Article ‘Marriage’.
Footnote 1173:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 134. For the Kutchins see Richardson, Arctic Searching Expedition, vol. i, p. 407, and for the inhabitants of Cadiack, Lisiansky, Voyage, p. 198.
Footnote 1174:
Swanton, Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. v, p. 50.
Footnote 1175:
MacGee, 17th A. R. B. E., p. 280. For further details of marriage by service among the Indians see Carver, loc. cit., p. 373, and Domenech, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 300.
Footnote 1176:
Skeat and Blagden, Malays, vol. ii, p. 70.
Footnote 1177:
King and Fitzroy, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 182. See also Bridges, loc. cit., p. 201.
Footnote 1178:
See Carpenter, Intermediate Types, passim.
Footnote 1179:
Richardson, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 383.
Footnote 1180:
Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 163.
Footnote 1181:
Teit, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 321.
Footnote 1182:
Ibid., vol. ii, p. 265.
Footnote 1183:
Ratzel, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 124. According to Man (loc. cit., p. 81) men among the Andamanese marry at from eighteen to twenty-three years of age; Portman (loc. cit., p. 369) says twenty-six. Deniker (Rev. d’Eth., p. 301) says that the Ghiliaks do not marry until between twenty and twenty-five years old. The Aetas of the province of Cagayan have to pass a bow and arrow shooting test before marriage (Blumentritt, Z. G. E., vol. xxvii, p. 65). The custom of wrestling for wives has been recorded for various races (Lubbock, Primitive Man, p. 106).
Footnote 1184:
Kreutz, loc. cit., p. 202.
Footnote 1185:
Jenks, loc. cit., p. 68.
Footnote 1186:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 172.
Footnote 1187:
Ibid., p. 202.
Footnote 1188:
Rosset, J. A. I., vol. xvi, p. 168.
Footnote 1189:
Christian, Geog. Journ., vol. xiii, p. 114.
Footnote 1190:
Krieger, loc. cit., pp. 172, 297.
Footnote 1191:
Danks, loc. cit., p. 288.
Footnote 1192:
Marsden, Sumatra, pp. 218, 219; Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen, p. 247.
Footnote 1193:
Reed, loc. cit., p. 56.
Footnote 1194:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. v, p. 247.
Footnote 1195:
Ibid., p. 230.
Footnote 1196:
Hickson, loc. cit., p. 275 (of the New Hebrides).
Footnote 1197:
Bock, Head Hunters, p. 216.
Footnote 1198:
Junod, South African Tribe, p. 100.
Footnote 1199:
Ibid., p. 102.
Footnote 1200:
Ibid., p. 101.
Footnote 1201:
Ibid., p. 125.
Footnote 1202:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 220.
Footnote 1203:
Junod, Ba-Ronga, p. 30.
Footnote 1204:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 129.
Footnote 1205:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 128.
Footnote 1206:
Routledge, Prehistoric People, p. 124.
Footnote 1207:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 88. The price of course varies with varying economic conditions, as Dundas notes for the Wawanga (J. A. I., vol. xliii).
Footnote 1208:
Fabry, loc. cit., p. 221.
Footnote 1209:
Plas, loc. cit., pp. 215, 219.
Footnote 1210:
Dundas, J. A. I., vol. xliii, p. 516.
Footnote 1211:
Johnston, Uganda, vol. ii, p. 822.
Footnote 1212:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 440.
Footnote 1213:
Ibid., p. 441.
Footnote 1214:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 417.
Footnote 1215:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 417.
Footnote 1216:
Talbot, loc. cit., p. 105. It will also be remembered that contraceptive practices are of importance in Africa, and that there is evidence that in the neighbourhood of Port Herald a young couple must not have children until they have built a house for themselves. See p. 177.
Footnote 1217:
Carver, loc. cit., p. 373.
Footnote 1218:
Jones, Ojebway Indians, p. 79.
Footnote 1219:
Du Pratz, loc. cit., p. 199.
Footnote 1220:
Dorsey, loc. cit., p. 259.
Footnote 1221:
Bossu, Voyages, p. 247.
Footnote 1222:
Joyce, Mexican Archaeology, p. 162. See also Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 251.
Footnote 1223:
Schomburgk, Reisen, vol. ii, p. 251.
Footnote 1224:
im Thurm, loc. cit., p. 221.
Footnote 1225:
Rivero and von Tschudi, Peruvian Antiquities, p. 185.
Footnote 1226:
Von Martius, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 109.
Footnote 1227:
Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 93.
Footnote 1228:
See Herbert Spencer, Principles of Biology, vol. ii, p. 515.
Footnote 1229:
Morgulis, American Naturalist, vol. xlvii, p. 477.
Footnote 1230:
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes, p. 44.
Footnote 1231:
Same authors, Across Australia, vol. i, p. 191.
Footnote 1232:
Ibid., vol. i, p. 197.
Footnote 1233:
Schürmann, loc. cit., p. 209.
Footnote 1234:
Curr, Recollections, p. 259.
Footnote 1235:
Semon, loc. cit., p. 217. See also Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 122.
Footnote 1236:
Thomas, Natives of Australia, p. 88. See also Eylmann, loc. cit., p. 293.
Footnote 1237:
See, for instance, Palmer, J. A. I., vol. xiii, p. 281.
Footnote 1238:
Burchell, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 422.
Footnote 1239:
Stow, loc. cit., p. 91.
Footnote 1240:
Ibid., p. 180.
Footnote 1241:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 36. See also Moffat, loc. cit., p. 57, and Campbell, Personal Narrative, p. 88.
Footnote 1242:
Thomas (loc. cit., p. 117) speaks of storing up of food. The Kurnai do not store up food, but the Dieri, who are closely allied to them, do so on a small scale (Fison and Howitt, loc. cit., p. 108).
Footnote 1243:
The beginnings of this custom are found among the Fuegians. Darwin says that ‘when they find a stranded whale, they bury large portions in the sand, and during the often recurrent famines travel from great distances for the remnants of the half putrid mass’ (Voyage, vol. i, p. 327).
Footnote 1244:
Boas, 6th A. R. B. E., p. 427. See also Rink, loc. cit., p. 186.
Footnote 1245:
Crantz, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 134.
Footnote 1246:
Bancroft, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 127. In the spring, when the winter stores are exhausted, they usually experience a lean season (ibid., p. 129).
Footnote 1247:
Swan, North-west Coast, p. 154.
Footnote 1248:
Le Jeune, Jesuit Relations, vol. vi, p. 229.
Footnote 1249:
Ibid., pp. 233, 277, and 285.
Footnote 1250:
Hardisty, loc. cit., p. 311. Other accounts describe lean periods among the northern tribes as fairly common, during which ‘they often subsist for a great length of time upon a very little food’ (Harmon, loc. cit., p. 284). See also Morgan, Houses and House Life, p. 56.
Footnote 1251:
Sproat, loc. cit., p. 53.
Footnote 1252:
Ibid., p. 22.
Footnote 1253:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 366.
Footnote 1254:
Ibid.
Footnote 1255:
Cabeça de Vaca, p. 63.
Footnote 1256:
Similar evidence is forthcoming for many other races. For the Andamanese see Man, loc. cit., pp. 342 ff.; for the Payaguas, Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 142; for the Ghiliaks, Deniker, Rev. d’Eth., vol. ii, p. 295; and for the Fuegians, Hyades and Deniker, loc. cit., pp. 122, 339.
Footnote 1257:
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition, vol. iv, p. 180.
Footnote 1258:
Ling Roth, Sarawak, vol. i, p. 422.
Footnote 1259:
Thomson, Fijians, p. 332.
Footnote 1260:
Ibid., p. 335.
Footnote 1261:
Roscoe, Baganda, p. 12.
Footnote 1262:
Ibid., p. 6.
Footnote 1263:
Cureau, loc. cit., p. 252.
Footnote 1264:
Werner, loc. cit., p. 181.
Footnote 1265:
Tremearne, J. A. I., vol. xlii, p. 180.
Footnote 1266:
Gaud, loc. cit., p. 21.
Footnote 1267:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 124.
Footnote 1268:
im Thurm, loc. cit., p. 253.
Footnote 1269:
Forbes, Timor Laut, p. 9.
Footnote 1270:
Kotzebue, loc. cit., p. 129.
Footnote 1271:
Ibid., p. 170.
Footnote 1272:
Routledge, Prehistoric People, p. 19.
Footnote 1273:
Anderson, Lake Ngami, p. 49.
Footnote 1274:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 175. See also Ellenberger, loc. cit., p. 295.
Footnote 1275:
Catlin, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 228.
Footnote 1276:
Heriot, loc. cit., p. 350.
Footnote 1277:
Du Pratz, vol. ii, p. 161.
Footnote 1278:
Azara, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 142.
Footnote 1279:
Ibid., p. 107.
Footnote 1280:
Ibid., p. 8.
Footnote 1281:
Wallace, Narrative, p. 478.
Footnote 1282:
Humboldt, Personal Narrative, vol. iii, p. 233.
Footnote 1283:
Spix and Martius, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249.
Footnote 1284:
There is evidence of an Australian tribe asking for an extension of territory. So rare, however, is evidence of this kind that it only serves to emphasize that the strict maintenance of territories was the normal condition.
Footnote 1285:
Knibbs, Census of Australia, Appendix A, vol. i, p. 31.
Footnote 1286:
There is some evidence that miscarriages are not uncommon among these races (for Australia see Grey, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 249, and for the Loucheux Indians see Hardisty, loc. cit., p. 312). If this is so, it would appear also to be due to changed conditions to which primitive races had not learnt to adapt themselves—there being no advantages in their so doing.
Footnote 1287:
Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, p. 110. So, too, Memphis was apparently a very cramped city.
Footnote 1288:
Rogers, Six Centuries, vol. i, p. 336.
Footnote 1289:
On this subject see Hirsch, Handbook of Geographical and Historical Pathology; Hecker, Epidemics of the Middle Ages; Clemow, Geography of Disease.
Footnote 1290:
The famous ‘plague’ of Athens, 430 to 428 B. C., was not plague in the technical sense; it was probably typhoid or small-pox.
Footnote 1291:
Macdonell, Biometrika, vol. ix, p. 369.
Footnote 1292:
Rogers, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 118.
Footnote 1293:
Ibid., p. 336.
Footnote 1294:
Theilhaber, Das sterile Berlin, p. 27.
Footnote 1295:
Henderson, Mortality Laws and Statistics, p. 3.
Footnote 1296:
Ibid., pp. 4, 110.
Footnote 1297:
Annual Report of the Registrar-General for 1917.
Footnote 1298:
Rogers, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 332.
Footnote 1299:
Niebuhr, Lectures in Ancient History, vol. ii, p. 234.
Footnote 1300:
Hecker, loc. cit., p. 30. The proportion of the population which perished is often said to have been greater. Rogers (loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 223) puts it at one-third of the population of England.
Footnote 1301:
Vambéry, Travels, p. 313.
Footnote 1302:
Hodson, Naga Tribes, p. 113.
Footnote 1303:
Crooke, Northern India, p. 41.
Footnote 1304:
Ibid., p. 47.
Footnote 1305:
Thus in irrigated countries, if the system of irrigation is allowed to fall into decay or if it is damaged directly or indirectly by war, famine may result. See Creswell, Man, vol. xv, p. 68.
Footnote 1306:
Lecky, European Morals, vol. ii, p. 248.
Footnote 1307:
Wattal, Population Problem, p. 20.
Footnote 1308:
Ibid., p. 21.
Footnote 1309:
Balls, Egypt, p. 224. For Chinese Tibet see Wilson, Abode of Snow, p. 193.
Footnote 1310:
See Rubin, J. R. S. S., vol. lxiii, p. 610.
Footnote 1311:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 20.
Footnote 1312:
Westermarck, Moral Ideas, vol. ii, p. 403. See on this subject Schömann, Griechische Alterthümer, vol. i, p. 271, and Plutarch, Lycurgus, p. 15.
Footnote 1313:
Macdonell, loc. cit., p. 369.
Footnote 1314:
Müller, Das Sexuelle Leben, p. 7.
Footnote 1315:
Ibid., p. 14.
Footnote 1316:
Westermarck, Moral Ideas, vol. ii, p. 407. In China there is a Golden Orchid Society, the girl members of which swear never to marry (Giles, China, p. 69).
Footnote 1317:
Monier-Williams, Buddhism, p. 269.
Footnote 1318:
Polak, Persien, vol. i, p. 205.
Footnote 1319:
Fustel de Coulanges, Cité antique, p. 50.
Footnote 1320:
Doughty, Travels, vol. i, p. 321. See also Bertherand, Médecine et Hygiène des Arabes.
Footnote 1321:
Gardner, Journ. Eth. Soc., new series, vol. ii, p. 19.
Footnote 1322:
Ross, Corea, p. 313.
Footnote 1323:
Kerr, Natives of India, p. 202.
Footnote 1324:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 3.
Footnote 1325:
Westermarck, Moral Ideals, vol. ii, p. 400.
Footnote 1326:
Ibid., p. 400.
Footnote 1327:
Monier-Williams, Buddhism, pp. 363, 364.
Footnote 1328:
Dubois, Hindu Manners, p. 214.
Footnote 1329:
Gray, China, vol. i, p. 186. See also Douglas, China, p. 85, and Giles, China, p. 189.
Footnote 1330:
Leong and Tao, Life in China, p. 10.
Footnote 1331:
Crawford, Journal, vol. ii, p. 240.
Footnote 1332:
Bock, Temples and Elephants, p. 186.
Footnote 1333:
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 201.
Footnote 1334:
Hue, Souvenirs, vol. i, p. 297.
Footnote 1335:
Pallas, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 305.
Footnote 1336:
Crooke, North-Western Provinces, p. 228.
Footnote 1337:
Risley, People of India, p. 185.
Footnote 1338:
Leopold and Weise, Sexual-Ordnung, p. 347. In the Vedic Age, however, child marriages were apparently unknown (see Bennet, Antiquities of India, p. 114).
Footnote 1339:
Eram, Accouchements en Orient, p. 69.
Footnote 1340:
Wassilief, Zentralblatt für Anthropologie, vol. x.
Footnote 1341:
Mondière, Mém. Soc. Anth., vol. ii, p. 465.
Footnote 1342:
Rivers, Todas, p. 503.
Footnote 1343:
Lenormant, Histoire ancienne, vol. iii, p. 142.
Footnote 1344:
Doughty, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 237; Burckhardt, Notes on the Bedouins, p. 96.
Footnote 1345:
Koran, ch. ii.
Footnote 1346:
Faulds, Nine Years, p. 285. See also Warnick, Archiv für Gynaekologie, vol. x, p. 574. For China see Matignon, Dix Ans, p. 318.
Footnote 1347:
Polak, loc. cit., p. 216.
Footnote 1348:
Bock, Temples and Elephants, p. 260.
Footnote 1349:
Rigler, Die Türkei, vol. i, p. 212.
Footnote 1350:
Müller, Das Sexuelle Leben, p. 6.
Footnote 1351:
Ibid., p. 29.
Footnote 1352:
Ibid., p. 37.
Footnote 1353:
Gray, China, vol. i, p. 185.
Footnote 1354:
Smith, Kinship, p. 283.
Footnote 1355:
Rigler, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 212.
Footnote 1356:
It is possible that there are traces of this custom in Persia (see Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 216).
Footnote 1357:
Theilhaber, Das sterile Berlin, p. 10. See also Theilhaber, ‘Die Geburten-Beschränkung’, Neue Generation, 1913.
Footnote 1358:
Collineau, Revue Mensuelle de l’ École d’ Anthropologie, 1899.
Footnote 1359:
Webb, Pathologia Indica, p. 258.
Footnote 1360:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 28.
Footnote 1361:
Aristotle, Politics, ii. 9.
Footnote 1362:
Wattal, loc. cit., p. 7.
Footnote 1363:
Lecky, European Morals, vol. ii, p. 21.
Footnote 1364:
Ibid., p. 21.
Footnote 1365:
Westermarck, Moral Ideals, vol. i, p. 415.
Footnote 1366:
Theilhaber, Das sterile Berlin, p. 11. See also von Siebold, Versuch einer Geschichte der Geburtshilfe.
Footnote 1367:
Eram, loc. cit., p. 45. It was forbidden by the Laws of Manu (viii. 37).
Footnote 1368:
Wilkins, Hinduism, p. 429. See also Shortt, Transactions Obstetrical Society, vol. ix; Webb, loc. cit., p. 259; and Jellinghaus, Zeit. für Eth., vol. iii, p. 365.
Footnote 1369:
Matignon, Dix Ans au Pays du Dragon, p. 318. See also the same author’s La Superstition, le Crime et la Misère en Chine, and Collineau, loc. cit., p. 352.
Footnote 1370:
Mondière, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 487.
Footnote 1371:
Warnick, loc. cit., p. 574. See also MacLennan’s quotations from Miss Bird, loc. cit., p. 105.
Footnote 1372:
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 217.
Footnote 1373:
Ploss and Bartels, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 846.
Footnote 1374:
Rique, Gaz. Méd., vol. xviii, p. 161. For the Tartars see Niemojowski, Siberian Pictures, vol. i, p. 161.
Footnote 1375:
Rigler, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 206, and vol. ii, p. 229.
Footnote 1376:
Polak, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 218.
Footnote 1377:
Sutherland, Moral Instinct, vol. i, p. 139.
Footnote 1378:
Buckle, Miscellaneous Works, vol. ii, p. 240.
Footnote 1379:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 132.
Footnote 1380:
Glotz, Études sociales, p. 187.
Footnote 1381:
Ibid., p. 188.
Footnote 1382:
Ibid., p. 191. Possibly, however, there was no public ceremony unless the father had decided to keep the child.
Footnote 1383:
Ibid., p. 212.
Footnote 1384:
Ibid., p. 224.
Footnote 1385:
Lecky, European Morals, vol. ii, p. 26.
Footnote 1386:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 136.
Footnote 1387:
Ibid., p. 137.
Footnote 1388:
Smith, Kinship, p. 279. See also Doughty, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 239, and Wilken, Das Matriarchat, p. 53.
Footnote 1389:
Smith, Kinship, p. 129. For evidence of infanticide in Mingrelia see Chardin, Travels, p. 144. The Gagas put all children to death and stole others (Battel, Strange Adventures, p. 326).
Footnote 1390:
Norman, Peoples and Politics, p. 290.
Footnote 1391:
Gray, China, vol. ii, p. 50.
Footnote 1392:
Douglas, China, p. 106.
Footnote 1393:
Abeel, Journal, p. 108.
Footnote 1394:
Ibid., p. 109. Douglas, however, says that infanticide scarcely exists in Pekin (Society in China, p. 353).
Footnote 1395:
Moule, New China, p. 179.
Footnote 1396:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 142.
Footnote 1397:
Giles, China, p. 97.
Footnote 1398:
Leong and Tao, loc. cit., p. 91.
Footnote 1399:
Faulds, loc. cit., p. 285. For Tonquin see Richard, History of Tonquin, p. 757.
Footnote 1400:
Wilkins, Hinduism, p. 431.
Footnote 1401:
Risley, loc. cit., pp. 166 and 168; Dubois, Hindu Manners, vol. ii, p. 612; Crooke, loc. cit., p. 136; Browne, Indian Infanticide, p. 612; Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 431; Russell, Central Provinces, vol. iv, p. 419.
Footnote 1402:
Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 432.
Footnote 1403:
Godden, J. A. I., vol. xxvi, p. 179; Risley, loc. cit., p. 165.
Footnote 1404:
Hodson, Man, vol. xiv, p. 98.
Footnote 1405:
Thurston, Ethnographic Notes, p. 504.
Footnote 1406:
Macpherson, Memorials of Service, p. 132; Campbell, Personal Narrative, p. 139.
Footnote 1407:
Macpherson, Religion of the Khonds, p. 65.
Footnote 1408:
Rivers, Todas, p. 478.
Footnote 1409:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 144.
Footnote 1410:
Wilkins, loc. cit., p. 431.
Footnote 1411:
Dubois, loc. cit., vol. ii, p. 612. Infanticide was sometimes committed by the Kandyans (Bailey, Trans. Eth. Soc., vol. ii, p. 296), by the Koulous (Ujfalvy, Bull. Soc. Anth., vol. v, p. 227), by the Belochis (Barton, Sindh, p. 244), and in Svanetia (Phillipps-Wolley, Savage Svanetia, vol. ii, p. 92).
Footnote 1412:
Stricker, Arch. für Anth., vol. v, p. 451. It was practised in the Vedic age (Kaegi, Rigveda, p. 16).
Footnote 1413:
Sutherland, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 138. See Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer, pp. 455 ff.
Footnote 1414:
Ibid., p. 138.
Footnote 1415:
Lubbock, Prehistoric Times, p. 176.
Footnote 1416:
Infanticide was practised by the extinct Guanches of the Canary Islands (Ploss, Das Kind, vol. ii, p. 259). Dasent says of the Norsemen that it was the father’s right to rear his children or not at his will. ‘As soon as it was born the child was laid upon the bare ground; and until the father came and looked at it ... its fate hung in the balance’ (Story of Burnt Njal, vol. i, p. xxv).
Footnote 1417:
Gönezi, ‘Die auf die Geburt und das Säugen der Kinder bezughabenden Gebräuche’, Zentralblatt für Anthropologie, vol. xii.
Footnote 1418:
Tertullian, First Book to His Wife, p. 414.
Footnote 1419:
Augustine, On the Good of Marriage, p. 285.
Footnote 1420:
Lea, Sacerdotal Celibacy, vol. i, p. 62.
Footnote 1421:
Ibid., pp. 260 and 301.
Footnote 1422:
Ibid., p. 105.
Footnote 1423:
Schönberg, Volkswirtschaftslehre, p. 868.
Footnote 1424:
Lea, loc. cit., p. 107.
Footnote 1425:
Concilium Tridentinum, Sessio 24, Can. 10. ‘Si quis dixerit statum coniugalem anteponendum esse statui virginitatis vel coelibatus, et non esse melius ac beatus manere in virginitate aut coelibatu, quam iungi matrimonio, anathema sit’ (quoted by Lea, loc. cit., vol. ii, p 204).
Footnote 1426:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 598.
Footnote 1427:
Ibid., p. 606.
Footnote 1428:
Ibid., p. 608.
Footnote 1429:
Ibid., p. 609.
Footnote 1430:
Westermarck, Human Marriage, p. 145.
Footnote 1431:
Popenoe and Johnson, Applied Eugenics, p. 136.
Footnote 1432:
See, for instance, Albertus Magnus, De Secretis Mulierum, p. 233.
Footnote 1433:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 614.
Footnote 1434:
The Declining Birth-rate, p. 20.
Footnote 1435:
Lecky, European Morals, vol. ii, p. 21.
Footnote 1436:
The Declining Birth-rate, p. 58. Leroy-Beaulieu gives a very high estimate of the number of abortions which occur yearly in France (Question de la Population, p. 330).
Footnote 1437:
Glotz, loc. cit., p. 223.
Footnote 1438:
Lecky, European Morals, vol. ii, p. 27.
Footnote 1439:
The fact that penance was imposed upon the mother who killed her child by the Council of Mentz in 852 suggests that the practice was not uncommon at that time (Westermarck, Moral Ideas, vol. i, p. 411).
Footnote 1440:
See The Declining Birth-rate, pp. 58–62.
Footnote 1441:
Among these races the evolution of the capitalist system had begun and in Babylonia had gone a considerable distance (Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians, p. 127).
Footnote 1442:
Myres, Eug. Rev., vol. vii, p. 30.
Footnote 1443:
There are often a limited number of families in each village (Barnett, Antiquities of India, p. 105).
Footnote 1444:
For particulars see Gray, China, vol. ii, p. 108.
Footnote 1445:
Leong and Tao, loc. cit., p. 10.
Footnote 1446:
Giles, loc. cit., p. 189.
Footnote 1447:
Robertson Smith, Kinship and Early Marriage, p. 36.
Footnote 1448:
For Tartar tribes see William de Rubruck, Journey, pp. 53 and 188.
Footnote 1449:
Dickson, Climate and Weather, p. 148. For a study of somewhat similar conditions in Australia see Taylor, The Australian Environment.
Footnote 1450:
Roy, Mundas, p. 346.
Footnote 1451:
Wattal, loc. cit., ch. v.
Footnote 1452:
Moule, New China and Old, p. 179. See also Bland, Recent Events and Present Policies in China.
Footnote 1453:
See p. 260.
Footnote 1454:
See Marshall, Principles of Economics, p. 186.
Footnote 1455:
Rogers, Six Centuries, vol. i, p. 47.
Footnote 1456:
Ibid., p. 45.
Footnote 1457:
Vinogradoff, Villeinage in England, p. 246.
Footnote 1458:
Pollard, Factors in Modern History, p. 135.
Footnote 1459:
Marshall, Principles of Economics, p. 186.
Footnote 1460:
Froude, Henry VIII, p. 3, note.
Footnote 1461:
Davies, Life in an English Village, p. 31.
Footnote 1462:
Rogers, Six Centuries, vol. i, p. 106.
Footnote 1463:
Tawney, Agrarian Problem, p. 105, note.
Footnote 1464:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 598.
Footnote 1465:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 597.
Footnote 1466:
Report for Inquiry into the Administration and Practical Operation of the Poor Laws, Appendix F, p. 283.
Footnote 1467:
Ibid., p. 520. For further information on this subject see the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, Article ‘Eheschliessung’. The Danish Poor Law Act of 1891 prohibits the marriage of the poor under certain circumstances.
Footnote 1468:
Cunningham, Growth of English Industry and Commerce, vol. i, p. 442.
Footnote 1469:
Pollard, loc. cit., p. 144.
Footnote 1470:
Two Centuries of Irish History, edited by Bryce, p. 21. Sir Horace Plunkett estimates that Ireland can now support about 2,500,000 agriculturalists or 500,000 families (Ireland in the New Century, p. 30). The population in 1790 was estimated at over 4,000,000. In the sixteenth century it was probably less than 1,000,000.
Footnote 1471:
Quoted by J. A. Hobson in evidence before the National Birth-Rate Commission, The Declining Birth-rate, p. 285.
Footnote 1472:
Bowley, Distribution of National Income, p. 18.
Footnote 1473:
The decline in Austria dates from 1883, in Germany, Hungary, and Italy, from 1885, in Norway from 1900.
Footnote 1474:
Thus the mean age for marriage of all husbands in England only increased from 28·43 years in 1896 to 28·88 years in 1909, while the mean age for all wives only increased from 26·21 in 1896 to 26·69 in 1909.
Footnote 1475:
For evidence that the decrease in fertility is due to artificial restraint see Stevenson, J. R. S. S., vol. lxxxiii, p. 431. There are reasons for thinking that contraceptive methods play a smaller, and restraint from intercourse a larger, part than is generally supposed (see Dr. Greenwood’s remarks on the paper quoted above, p. 440, and also Dudfield, J. R. S. S., vol. lxxi, 1908, p. 25).
Footnote 1476:
Rubin, loc. cit., p. 606.
Footnote 1477:
Hammond, Village Labourer, ch. vii.
Footnote 1478:
See Pigou, Wealth and Welfare, p. 28.
Footnote 1479:
Hobson, ‘Evidence before the National Birth-Rate Commission’, The Declining Birth-rate, p. 289.
Footnote 1480:
Myres, Eugenics Review, vol. vii, p. 21.
Footnote 1481:
Also abortion, as we have seen, is not uncommon.
Footnote 1482:
The excessive practice of infanticide in Tahiti and elsewhere in Oceania may be regarded as an example of selfish indulgence. See p. 190. So, too, the Gagas put all children to death and stole others (Battel, Strange Adventures, p. 326).
Footnote 1483:
Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace, p. 215.
Footnote 1484:
Ibid., loc. cit., p. 12.
Footnote 1485:
Haddon, Wanderings of Peoples, p. 1.
Footnote 1486:
The Declining Birth-rate, p. 43.
Footnote 1487:
Myres, Eugenics Review, vol. vii, p. 31. These authors are only repeating what has often been said in former times, as, for instance, by Bacon in the following passage: ‘Look when the world has fewest barbarous people but such as commonly will not marry, or generate, except they know means to live (as is almost everywhere at this day except Tartary) there is no danger of inundations of people. But when there be great shoals of people which go on to populate, without foreseeing means of life and sustentation, it is of necessity that once in an age or two they discharge a portion of their people upon other nations’ (Essay on the Vicissitude of Things).
Footnote 1488:
These remarks also apply to those cases in which countries at times appear to be empty. Attention is, for example, sometimes drawn to the fact that England appears to have been an ‘empty’ country in the Middle Ages. The emptiness is only apparent. Relative to the available skill and all other relevant circumstances England was fully populated in the Middle Ages; the tendency was rather towards over- than under-population.
Footnote 1489:
Except perhaps in the case of the so-called Irish migration to America after the famine in the middle of the last century. Without doubt, however, there was in this migration a large political element—the nature of which is referred to below. Further there were many peculiar features in the position, and the migration was scarcely a migration in the broad historical sense.
Footnote 1490:
Haddon, Wanderings of Peoples, p. 3.
Footnote 1491:
See especially his Pulse of Asia, and Civilization and Climate, ch. xi.
Footnote 1492:
See Gregory, Geographical Journal, vol. xliii.
Footnote 1493:
Peisker, Cambridge Mediaeval History, vol. i, p. 328.
Footnote 1494:
Frequently, no doubt, such driftings were directed towards regions previously uninhabited and uninhabitable.
Footnote 1495:
Hogarth, Ancient East, p. 78.
Footnote 1496:
Quoted by Mitchell, Evolution and the War, p. 3.
Footnote 1497:
It is only fair to say that at least one German author has recently demonstrated the falsity of this view (see Nicolai, Biology of War, p. 34).
Footnote 1498:
Mitchell, loc. cit., ch. i.
Footnote 1499:
Comte, Philosophie positive, vol. iv, p. 506.
Footnote 1500:
Nicolai, loc. cit., p. 34.
Footnote 1501:
Holland Rose, Origins of the War, p. 47.
Footnote 1502:
Evidence has lately been brought forward to show that not only is war a custom but also that it is a custom of relatively late origin (Perry, ‘Ethnological Study of Warfare’, Mem. and Proc. Man. Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. lxi). It is suggested that it is bound up with organization under kings and chiefs, and that it was introduced at a more or less definite time by a certain race. The evidence adduced would seem not to be adequate. The theory belongs to a series of attempts to show that very many customs and social institutions now widespread evolved in some one centre and spread thence. Though Professor Elliot Smith and his school may with justice insist on the fact that the multiple origin of similar customs has been too lightly assumed, it is equally unreasonable to insist upon tracing all similar customs and institutions to the same source. Those who are acquainted with the numerous and wonderful examples of convergence in the animal kingdom—the independent evolution of tracheae in the Arachnids and in the Insects, to take only one example—will have little difficulty in accepting the view that, in response to similar environmental conditions, similar customs may from time to time have been independently evolved. Other authors have urged that the apparent absence of weapons among the cultural remains of early races is evidence that they did not practise warfare (Havelock Ellis, Philosophy of Conflict, p. 49). But when so much doubt surrounds the question as to how the most common implements were used, it is dangerous to attribute much weight to this argument.
Footnote 1503:
It has been remarked that those countries which began the war were on the whole the countries with the highest birth-rate. The conclusion has been drawn that pressure of population brings about war. On the same lines as above, this conclusion may be shown to be unacceptable.
Footnote 1504:
Voltaire, Candide—the opinion of the Anabaptist Jacques.
Footnote 1505:
As an example of this increase in skill it may be noted that between 1840 and 1895 the quantity of product of various crops in America per unit of labour increased fivefold (Quaintance, American Economic Association Publications, 3rd Series, vol. v, 1904, p. 21).
Footnote 1506:
Knibbs, Scientia, vol. xii, p. 495.
Footnote 1507:
Mr. J. A. Hobson’s opinion, which is in conformity with that of the great majority of economists, may be noted: ‘there is’, he says, ‘no evidence that the world’s population is outrunning the natural resources; but on the contrary the presumption is that for their fuller utilization a larger population is necessary and thereby could be maintained with a higher standard of living’ (The Declining Birth-rate, p. 75).
Footnote 1508:
Bowley, Division of the Product of Industry, p. 49.
Footnote 1509:
Harrison, Description of England, Bk. II, ch. x, p. 215.
Footnote 1510:
Nicolai, loc. cit., p. 48.
Footnote 1511:
Problems of Population and Parenthood, p. 73. A French historian says that ‘la densité de la population fait la force des nations’ (de Morgan, Premières Civilisations, p. 111).
Footnote 1512:
Holdich, Political Frontiers, p. 256. It is interesting to note that the wheat-eating population of the world increased less rapidly in the twenty-five years preceding 1906 than the wheat area of the world. At the beginning of this period there were 283 people (more or less wheat-eaters) for every hundred acres of wheat, whereas in 1906 there were 264 such people for the same area (Agricultural Statistics, Cd. 3832, vol. xvi, part 4).
Footnote 1513:
Beveridge, Unemployment, ch. i.
Footnote 1514:
The average income per head in 1914 is given by Stamp as follows (J. R. S. S., vol. lxxxii, p. 491):
£ United States 72 United Kingdom 50 Germany 30 France 38 Italy 23 Austria-Hungary 21 Spain 11 Australia 54 Canada 40 Japan 6
The figures are only approximate. The most accurate—those for the United Kingdom and for Australia—are not likely to be inaccurate to a greater extent than 10 per cent., while the least accurate—those for Japan—may be inaccurate to a greater extent than 40 per cent. Rowntree, commenting upon the low wages in Belgium as compared with England, attributes them, not to over-population, but to a low standard of education, low degree of efficiency and productivity, to the fact that only a small proportion of workers are engaged in the production of high-class goods, and to the feebleness of the trade unions (Land and Labour, pp. 75 ff.).
Footnote 1515:
Newsholme and Stevenson, loc. cit., p. 55.
Footnote 1516:
Leroy-Beaulieu, Question de la Population, p. 55.
Footnote 1517:
The high birth-rate in certain parts of Ireland—said to be due to the influence of the Roman Catholic Church in discouraging the use of contraceptive methods—may be leading to over-population.
Footnote 1518:
Thus Marro found that children of older parents were more melancholy than those of younger parents (La Pubertà studiata nell’ uomo e nella donna).
Footnote 1519:
The Declining Birth-rate, p. 63.
Footnote 1520:
The arguments for and against are fully and fairly set out in Problems of Population and Parenthood, pp. 44–8.
Footnote 1521:
Personally I agree with the views of the Dean of St. Paul’s on this matter. Speaking of the use of these methods, ‘it seems’, he says, ‘a pis aller which high-minded persons should avoid if they can practise self-restraint. Whatever injures the feeling of “sanctification and honour” with which St. Paul bids us regard these intimacies of life, whatever tends to profane or degrade the sacraments of wedded love, is so far an evil. But this is emphatically a matter in which every man and woman must judge for themselves, and must refrain from judging others’ (Outspoken Essays, p. 74).
Footnote 1522:
Heron, Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs, No. 1, 1906. See also Stevenson, loc. cit.
Footnote 1523:
The Declining Birth-rate, p. 9.
Footnote 1524:
It is also noticeable in India (Wattal, loc. cit., p. 24). It will be remembered that in Denmark in the latter part of the mediaeval period there was some slight tendency according to Rubin for marriage to be postponed among the very highest social class; among the independent class generally marriage in those days, however, not only took place earlier than now but earlier than in the lower grades of society.
Footnote 1525:
Among the industrial classes conception before marriage is not uncommon. It is said that many men are not desirous of legal marriage until it is probable that they will have children. This is not to be regarded as evidence of loose sexual morality so much as evidence of foresight and of thought for old age when, if they have children, they will be more or less secure against extreme poverty.
Footnote 1526:
Hill, Am. Stat. Ass., vol. xiii, p. 590. An allied problem is that connected with the proportion of various racial elements among the immigrants into a new country. Thus between 1900 and 1913 Great Britain contributed roughly one-third and the United States and continental Europe two-thirds of the immigrants into Canada.
Footnote 1527:
Tucker, Progress of the U.S.A., p. 98.
Footnote 1528:
Leroy-Beaulieu estimates that, if the degree of skill in production now found in Western Europe was extended throughout the world, the population economically desirable would be from two to three times that of the present population of the world (Question de la Population, p. 174).
Footnote 1529:
These experiments have been summarized by Jenkinson (Experimental Embryology, pp. 141 ff.).
Footnote 1530:
Jenkinson, loc. cit., p. 151.
Footnote 1531:
Ibid., p. 157.
Footnote 1532:
Klebs, ‘Influence of the Environment’, in Darwinism and Modern Science, p. 227.
Footnote 1533:
MacLeod, Quantitative Method, p. 12.
Footnote 1534:
Vernon, Variation in Animals and Plants, p. 312.
Footnote 1535:
Quoted from Henslow by Vernon, ibid.
Footnote 1536:
Thomson, Animal Life, p. 407.
Footnote 1537:
Morgan, Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, p. 38.
Footnote 1538:
Stockard, Journal of Experimental Zoology, vol. vi, p. 334.
Footnote 1539:
Jenkinson, loc. cit., p. 132.
Footnote 1540:
Agar, Phil. Trans., Series B, vol. cciii, p. 319.
Footnote 1541:
Tower, Investigation of Evolution, pp. 168 ff.
Footnote 1542:
Morgan, loc. cit., p. 39.
Footnote 1543:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 219.
Footnote 1544:
Thomson, Animal Life, p. 383.
Footnote 1545:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 294.
Footnote 1546:
Thomson, Animal Life, p. 391. In the case of the Porto Santo rabbit examined by Darwin the change in colour was found to be due to the environment.
Footnote 1547:
Ibid., p. 383.
Footnote 1548:
Lock, Recent Progress, p. 317.
Footnote 1549:
Shinji, ‘Wing Development in Aphids’, Biol. Bull., vol. xxxv.
Footnote 1550:
Quoted by Vernon, loc. cit., p. 242.
Footnote 1551:
Gemmill, Teratology of Fishes, p. 44. The cyclopia found was attributed by Gemmill only partly to environmental causes.
Footnote 1552:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 213.
Footnote 1553:
Ibid., p. 215. Similarly the snail, Helix aspersa, has a variety (tenuis) with a thin shell which is found where calcareous material is scarce.
Footnote 1554:
Vernon, loc. cit., p. 261.
Footnote 1555:
Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 33.
Footnote 1556:
Mitchell, loc. cit., p. 47.
Footnote 1557:
Hansen, ‘Increase in Stature’, p. 23, in Problems in Eugenics.
Footnote 1558:
Ewart, ‘The Influence of Parental Age on Offspring’, Eugenics Review, vol. iii.
Footnote 1559:
Boas, Changes in Immigrants, p. 5.
Footnote 1560:
Sergi, ‘Variation and Heredity’, p. 18 (in Problems in Eugenics). Few anthropologists, it may be added, accept Boas’s conclusions.
Footnote 1561:
See Ammon, Natürliche Auslese beim Menschen and Zur Anthropologie der Badener.
Footnote 1562:
Levi, Anthropometria Militare.
Footnote 1563:
Huntington, World Power and Evolution, p. 173.
Footnote 1564:
Fishberg, Mem. Am. Anth. Ass., vol. i, 1905.
Footnote 1565:
Nystrom has elaborated a theory according to which the habits and customs of races profoundly affect the shape of the head, but it cannot be said that he brings forward any convincing evidence (‘Über die Formenveränderungen des menschlichen Schädels’, Arch. für Anth., Bd. 27).
Footnote 1566:
Boas, loc. cit., p. 76.
Footnote 1567:
System of Medicine, edited by Allbutt and Rolleston, vol. ii, part ii, p. 2.
Footnote 1568:
See Kohlbrugge, ‘Influence of a Tropical Climate on Europeans’, Eug. Rev., vol. iii.
Footnote 1569:
Huntingdon, Civilization and Climate. See also the same author’s ‘Climate and Evolution of Civilization’, in Evolution of the Earth and its Inhabitants, edited by Lull.
Footnote 1570:
Thus Montesquieu remarked upon the fact that greatest vigour is found in the colder climates (Esprit des Lois, Part III, Bk. XIV, ch. ii).
Footnote 1571:
Gregory, Geog. Journ., vol. xliii. There have been many studies of the influence of climate upon temperament. See, for instance, Dexter, Weather Influences.
Footnote 1572:
Darwin, Descent of Man, p. 35.
Footnote 1573:
Acton and Harvey, ‘Increase in the Number of Erythrocytes’, Biometrika, vol. viii. See also the results of the Monte Rosa and Pike’s Peaks Expeditions, Phil. Trans., vols. cciii and ccvi.
Footnote 1574:
Barrington and Pearson, Eug. Lab. Mem., No. 5, 1909.
Footnote 1575:
The results of these investigations have been summed up by Miss Elderton in a pamphlet entitled The Relative Strength of Nature and Nurture.
Footnote 1576:
See, for instance, Bridges and Coles, ‘Relation of Intelligence to Social Status’, Psychological Review, vol. xxiv.
Footnote 1577:
Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 236.
Footnote 1578:
McDougall, Social Psychology, p. 118.
Footnote 1579:
Here environment clearly means social or traditional environment.
Footnote 1580:
Leiper, ‘Some Inhabitants of Man’, p. 151 (in Animal Life and Human Progress, edited by Dendy).
Footnote 1581:
See Jones, Malaria and Greek History.
Footnote 1582:
See Fisher, ‘Genesis of Twins’, Genetics, vol. iv.
Footnote 1583:
Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 219. Curiously enough there was no similarity to be detected in handwriting—an interesting commentary on the value to be attributed to deductions drawn from handwriting as to character.
Footnote 1584:
Galton, loc. cit,. p. 226.
Footnote 1585:
Ibid., p. 231.
Footnote 1586:
Ibid.
Footnote 1587:
Ibid., p. 232.
Footnote 1588:
Ibid., p. 233.
Footnote 1589:
Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty, p. 233.
Footnote 1590:
Ibid., p. 235.
Footnote 1591:
Ibid., p. 237. The general results of Galton’s work have been confirmed in all important respects by Thorndike’s elaborate investigations (‘Measurements of Twins’ Archives of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods, vol. i, 1905).
Footnote 1592:
Ridgeway, J. A. I., vol. xl, p. 13.
Footnote 1593:
The ‘Ancestral Law of Heredity’, which attributes on the average half the germinal constitution to the parents, a quarter to the grandparents, an eighth to the great-grandparents, and so on, is not incompatible with Mendelian inheritance as a general statistical result. The conception of the nature of inheritance involved in this theory is, however, incompatible with the Mendelian conception of unit-characters, which conception, it may be said, is the only one which fits the facts.
Footnote 1594:
The fact that the germinal constitution of any one individual belonging to a species, in which biparental reproduction is taking place, differs almost always from that of any other member of the species is due on the Mendelian hypothesis to the chance mixture of factors in the zygote.
Footnote 1595:
Adami, ‘Inheritance and Disease’, p. 26 (in A System of Medicine, edited by Osler and McCrae).
Footnote 1596:
Adami, loc. cit., p. 26.
Footnote 1597:
Ibid.
Footnote 1598:
Quoted by Thomson, Heredity, p. 275.
Footnote 1599:
Tredgold found that 80 per cent. of the mentally deficient had a bad nervous inheritance (Mental Deficiency, p. 40).
Footnote 1600:
McDougall, Social Psychology, ch. iii.
Footnote 1601:
McDougall, Social Psychology, ch. iv.
Footnote 1602:
Ibid., ch. iii.
Footnote 1603:
Pearson, ‘Groundwork of Eugenics’, Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series, 1909, p. 25.
Footnote 1604:
Snow, Studies in National Deterioration, No. 7, p. 34. See also Beeton and Pearson, ‘Inheritance of the Duration of Life’, Biometrika, vol. i, 1901, and Elderton and Pearson, ‘Further Evidence of Natural Selection in Man’, Biometrika, vol. x, 1915.
Footnote 1605:
Pruner-Bey (‘Mémoire sur les Nègres’, Mém. Soc. Anth., vol. i, p. 334) has shown in detail how the peculiarities of negro structure are to be regarded as adaptations to the surrounding conditions.
Footnote 1606:
Keith, Nature, vol. civ, p. 302.
Footnote 1607:
Ibid., p. 303.
Footnote 1608:
Keith, Nature, vol. civ, p. 303.
Footnote 1609:
Ibid., p. 404.
Footnote 1610:
McGee, loc. cit., p. 157.
Footnote 1611:
For evidence that disease leads to a selective death-rate see Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., pp. 124 ff.
Footnote 1612:
See Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., ch. xi.
Footnote 1613:
There has been much discussion as to the effect upon the population of France owing to the Napoleonic wars. The facts have been summed up by Havelock Ellis (Essays in War Time, pp. 33 ff.), and it appears that without any question the average physical constitution of the French was lowered; most kinds of infirmities, for instance, became more frequent.
Footnote 1614:
Recent research bearing on this problem has been summed up by East and Jones in their book Inbreeding and Outbreeding.
Footnote 1615:
Dublin and Baker, Amer. Stat. Soc., vol. xvii, 1920. Nevertheless, as shown by an important memoir by Hrdlicka, a new variety is not being produced, at least with any rapidity, under the influence of the American environment. Hrdlicka studied representatives of the old white American stock, whose ancestors had been for four generations in the United States, and concluded that no new sub-type has yet emerged. In fact the faithful preservation of the traits of the original immigrants is the outstanding result of the study.
Footnote 1616:
An admirable summing up of what is known as to the effect of alcohol on the germinal constitution will be found in Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., ch. ii.
Footnote 1617:
Pearson, ‘Problem of Practical Eugenics’, Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series, No. 5.
Footnote 1618:
Greenwood and Yule, J. R. S. S., vol. lxxii, 1914. See Pearson’s reply ‘On the Handicapping of the First-born’, Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series, No. 10.
Footnote 1619:
Ridgeway, loc. cit., p. 18.
Footnote 1620:
Punnett, Mendelism, p. 208.
Footnote 1621:
Thomas, Natives of Australia, p. 25.
Footnote 1622:
Smyth, Aborigines, vol. i, p. 22.
Footnote 1623:
Spiller, ‘Mentality of Australian Aborigines’, Soc. Rev., vol. vi.
Footnote 1624:
Semon, Australian Bush, p. 78.
Footnote 1625:
Smyth, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 22
Footnote 1626:
Mathew, Eaglehawk and Crow, p. 78.
Footnote 1627:
Man, J. A. I., vol. xii, p. 95.
Footnote 1628:
Baegert, loc. cit., p. 378.
Footnote 1629:
Theal, Yellow- and Dark-Skinned People, p. 264.
Footnote 1630:
Theal, loc. cit., p. 265.
Footnote 1631:
Weeks, J. A. I., vol. xxxix, p. 131.
Footnote 1632:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 408.
Footnote 1633:
Junod, South African Tribe, p. 100.
Footnote 1634:
Ellis, Ewe-Speaking Peoples, p. 9.
Footnote 1635:
Torday and Joyce, J. A. I., vol. xxxv, p. 268.
Footnote 1636:
Maugham, Portuguese East Africa, p. 268.
Footnote 1637:
Weeks, Among Congo Cannibals, p. 76.
Footnote 1638:
Bryant, Eug. Rev., vol. ix., pp. 47–9.
Footnote 1639:
Olivier, White Capital and Coloured Labour, p. 59.
Footnote 1640:
Strong, Pedagogical Seminary, vol. xx, p. 501.
Footnote 1641:
Strong, loc. cit., p. 503.
Footnote 1642:
Ibid., p. 501. With regard to the disabilities under which the Negro labours in America see Booker T. Washington, Story of the Negro, vol. ii, pp. 114 ff.
Footnote 1643:
Popenoe and Johnson, loc. cit., p. 288.
Footnote 1644:
Huntington, Civilization and Climate, p. 12.
Footnote 1645:
Huntington, loc. cit., p. 14.
Footnote 1646:
McDougall, Social Psychology, p. 284.
Footnote 1647:
Ibid., p. 286.
Footnote 1648:
See McDougall, Psychology, p. 171.
Footnote 1649:
Stout, Manual of Psychology, p. 597.
Footnote 1650:
Hobhouse, Development and Purpose, p. 91.
Footnote 1651:
Hobhouse, Development and Purpose, chs. vi, vii, viii, and ix.
Footnote 1652:
Ibid., p. 96.
Footnote 1653:
Frazer, Golden Bough, London, 1911, part i, vol. i, p. 175.
Footnote 1654:
Frazer, loc. cit., part i, vol. i, p. 53. Taboo, it may be observed, is merely a kind of negative magic.
Footnote 1655:
The beginning of writing—for instance the Maya script—dates from the second period.
Footnote 1656:
McDougall, Social Psychology, p. 111.
Footnote 1657:
See on this subject, Rivers, ‘Disappearance of Useful Arts’, Festskrift tilleguad Edward Westermarck, 1912.
Footnote 1658:
There is a tendency to exaggerate the importance of tradition among animals. Thus it has been said that nest building is ‘largely’ traditional among birds. But the Curator of Birds in the New York Zoological Park raised a number of wild birds from incubated eggs, and found that these birds, although they had never had parental care or example, nevertheless learnt to fly, to build nests, and to perform all these activities—though they were sometimes slower in so doing than they would otherwise have been—that are at times said to be ‘largely’ traditional (see Lull, Organic Evolution, p. 170).
Footnote 1659:
Joubert, Pensées, p. 217.
Footnote 1660:
Marshall, Principles of Economics, p. 160.
Footnote 1661:
See Cureau, loc. cit., p. 253.
Footnote 1662:
Statements such as the following are commonplaces of anthropological literature. ‘These [Brazilians] have found life too easy, as the latter [Australians] have found it too difficult’ (Herbertson, Man and His Work, p. 3).
Footnote 1663:
Quoted by Fisher, Soc. Rev., vol. i, p. 61.
Footnote 1664:
Rivers, ‘Contact of Peoples’, Essays and Studies presented to W. Ridgeway, p. 478.
Footnote 1665:
Boas, J. A. I., vol. xl, p. 536.
Footnote 1666:
Semple, Geographic Environment, p. 357.
Footnote 1667:
See Durkheim, Travail Social, chs. vi and vii.
Footnote 1668:
Sherring, Hindu Castes and Tribes, vol. iii, p. 218.
Footnote 1669:
Hobhouse, Wheeler, and Ginsberg, loc. cit., p. 254.
Footnote 1670:
According to Delvaille (Histoire de l’Idée de Progrès, p. 405) Terrasson, writing in the eighteenth century, was the first author to emphasize the importance of tradition in the modern sense—particularly in his work La Philosophie applicable à tous les objets de la raison.
Footnote 1671:
See Am. Anth., vol. xiv, 1912, for a symposium of the views of American authorities on this point.
Footnote 1672:
Payne, History of the New World, vol. i, p. 311.
Footnote 1673:
Payne, loc. cit., vol. i, p. 289.
Footnote 1674:
The single-humped Arabian camel has never been found wild, but it is said that the double-humped Bactrian camel has been found wild in Turkestan. See Flower and Lydekker, Mammals, p. 297.
Footnote 1675:
Wild oxen were abundant in Europe in the time of Julius Caesar, and of them the Chillingham herd may be a remnant. Horses were abundant in Europe in Neolithic times. But it is probable that both oxen and horses were first domesticated in Asia. The ovine group was originally situated in the mountain region of Central Asia, though Ovis savigni, apparently allied to the Argoli, has been found fossil in the Forest Bed of Norfolk (Flower and Lydekker, loc. cit., pp. 355, 357, 367, and 382).
Footnote 1676:
Johnston, British Central Africa, p. 429.
Footnote 1677:
Elliot Smith, Presidential Address to the British Association, Section H, 1912, p. 577.
Footnote 1678:
Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 40.
Footnote 1679:
Olivier, White Capital and Coloured Labour, p. 57.
Footnote 1680:
McDougall, Group Mind, p. 119.
Footnote 1681:
McDougall, Group Mind, p. 112.
Footnote 1682:
See McDougall, Group Mind, ch. xvii.
Footnote 1683:
Leroy-Beaulieu, Israël chez les Nations, p. 77.
Footnote 1684:
Pollard, Factors in Modern History, p. 15.
Footnote 1685:
Vacher de Lapouge, Sélections sociales, pp. 293 ff.
Footnote 1686:
For a discussion of this problem see Hoernes, Naturund Urgeschichte des Menschen, vol. i, pp. 119 ff.
Footnote 1687:
Smith, Church and State in the Middle Ages, p. 83.
Footnote 1688:
Where, as in America, different racial stocks exist, differential fertility assumes greater importance. See p. 320.
Footnote 1689:
McDougall, Group Mind, p. 260.
Footnote 1690:
McDougall, Group Mind, p. 247.
Footnote 1691:
Flinders Petrie, Revolutions of Civilization.
Footnote 1692:
Galton, Eug. Rev., vol. i, p. 75.
Footnote 1693:
Lee, Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century, p. 28.
Footnote 1694:
A. E., Imagination and Reveries, p. 107.
Footnote 1695:
Marett, Psychology and Folk-Lore, p. 73.
Footnote 1696:
As, for instance, by Renan in the following passage which contains nevertheless an element of truth: ‘La guerre est, de la sorte, une des conditions du progrès, le coup de fouet qui empêche un pays de s’endormir, en forçant la médiocrité satisfaite d’elle-même à sortir de son apathie. L’homme n’est soutenu que par l’effort et la lutte.... Le jour où l’humanité deviendrait un grand empire romain pacifié et n’ayant plus d’ennemis extérieurs serait le jour où la moralité et l’intelligence courraient les plus grands dangers’ (Réforme intellectuelle et morale, p. 111).
Footnote 1697:
Wallas, Great Society, p. 80. ‘In a settled and traditional society custom is of such overwhelming weight that a law can only act in accordance with it; a sudden change in the machinery of government would break down of itself—nay, in such a society laws can hardly be passed save those that the development of tradition demands’ (Belloc, Life of Danton, p. 142).
Footnote 1698:
McDougall, Group Mind, p. 146.
Footnote 1699:
Bridges and Coles, Psychological Review, vol. xxiv, p. 29. These authors do not commit themselves to any view with regard to the interpretation of their results—a fact which commends the investigation to students of these matters as indicating that the investigation was not undertaken with any bias (a condition of things unfortunately not common in studies of this problem).
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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
● Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect retained. ● Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at the end of the last chapter. ● Enclosed italics font in underscores. ● Enclosed bold or blackletter font in =equals=.