XLII. CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS

XLII. CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS

Hall’s Expedition.--His early Life.--His reading of Arctic Adventure.--His Resolve.--His Arctic Outfit.--Sets Sail on the “George Henry.”--The Voyage.--Kudlago.--Holsteinborg, Greenland.--Population of Greenland.--Sails for Davis’s Strait.-- Character of the Innuits.--Wreck of the “Rescue.”--Ebierbing and Tookoolito.--Their Visit to England.--Hall’s first Exploration.-- European and Innuit Life in the Arctic Regions.--Building an Igloo.--Almost Starved.--Fight for Food with Dogs.--Ebierbing arrives with a Seal.--How he caught it.--A Seal-feast.--The Innuits and Seals.--The Polar Bear.--How he teaches the Innuits to catch Seals.--At a Seal-hole.--Dogs as Seal-hunters.--Dogs and Bears.--Dogs and Reindeers.--Innuits and Walruses.--More about Igloos.--Innuit Implements.--Uses of the Reindeer.--Innuit Improvidence.--A Deer-feast.--A frozen Delicacy.--Whale-skin as Food.--Whale-gum.--How to eat Whale Ligament.--Raw Meat.-- The Dress of the Innuits.--A pretty Style.--Religious Ideas of the Innuits.--Their kindly Character.--Treatment of the Aged and Infirm.--A Woman abandoned to die.--Hall’s Attempt to rescue her.--The Innuit Nomads, without any form of Government.-- Their Numbers diminishing.--A Sailor wanders away.--Hall’s Search for him.--Finds him frozen to death.--The Ship free from Ice.--Preparations to return.--Reset in the Ice-pack.--Another Arctic Winter.--Breaking up of the Ice.--Departure for Home.-- Tookoolito and her Child “Butterfly.”--Death of “Butterfly.”-- Arrival at Home.--Results of Hall’s Expedition.--Innuit Traditions.--Discovery of Frobisher Relics.--Hall undertakes a second Expedition.--His Statement of its Object and Prospects.-- Last Tidings of Hall.

Among the most remarkable expeditions ever undertaken in the Polar world is that of Charles Francis Hall, performed during the years 1860, 1861, and 1862. Its primary object was to discover the survivors of Sir John Franklin’s party; for at this time there was good reason to believe that out of the 105 who were known to be living on the 25th of April, 1848, some were still surviving. Towards the main purpose of the undertaking nothing was indeed accomplished. Hall came upon no traces of Franklin and his men; but he acquired a more accurate knowledge of the Esquimaux--or rather as they call themselves, and as we shall call them, the Innuits--a word meaning simply “men” or “people”--and their mode of life than was ever before, or is likely to be hereafter, gained by any other white man capable of telling what he saw, and a part of which he was. The remarkable book in which Mr. Hall describes his expedition[25] seems not to have come under the notice of Dr. Hartweg. It is proposed in this chapter to supplement the account of the Innuits from this work of Mr. Hall.

Up to middle life Hall had resided in the inland city of Cincinnati. He had eagerly read every thing that he could find on record of the searches made for Franklin. Large ships and small ships had been sent out. Brave hearts and stout hands had been enlisted in the search, but with no tangible result beyond ascertaining the spot where the surviving 105 were when they abandoned their ships and took to the shore, hoping to make their way to their homes. Only two of these men were proven to have died; and it was more than probable that of the 105 known to have been living in 1848, some would yet be alive in 1860, for not a few of these men, if living, would be still of middle age.

Hall had read the story of the sufferings of Kane’s party during the long months of the Arctic winter, but he had come to the conclusion that most of these resulted from the mode of life adopted by them. The Innuits, he knew, lived to a good old age through a succession of such winters, and he believed that a civilized man could live where a savage could. This conviction was confirmed by one of Kane’s companions, who told him, “When we lived like the Esquimaux, we immediately recovered, and enjoyed our usual health. If Providence had so ordered it that we should cast our lot with the Esquimaux, I have no doubt that we would have lived quite as long, and in quite as good health as in the United States or England. White men can live where Esquimaux can, and frequently when and where they can not.”

So Hall grew into the conviction that some of these lost ones could yet be found; and he writes, “It seemed to me as if I had been called, if I may so speak, to try and do the work. My heart felt sore at the thought of so great a mystery in connection with any of our fellow-creatures, especially akin to ourselves, yet remaining unsolved.” How should he obey this call? His own means, beyond a stout frame and strong will, were of the smallest. He broached the project at the West, where it was received with favor. Then he came East, and was met with like consideration. Funds were raised, and the expedition which Hall contemplated was fitted out.

This expedition consisted simply of Hall himself. The cash contributed for the outfit was just $980, of which more than a third was contributed by Henry Grinnell, of New York. In addition to this was about a quarter as much in the way of presents. “These,” says Hall, “constituted all the means and material I had to carry out the great undertaking my mind had led me to embark in.” Hall’s list of the articles on his outfit for a three years’ residence and exploration is worthy of record. It shows in what way his $980 in cash was expended.

“My outfit,” he writes, “for the voyage and the whole of my expedition, consisted of:--a boat, length twenty-eight feet, beam seven feet, depth twenty-nine and one-half inches, drawing eight inches of water when loaded with stores and a crew of six persons; one sledge; one half-ton of pemmican; two hundred pounds of Borden’s meat biscuit; twenty pounds pork scrap; one pound preserved quince; one pound preserved peaches; two hundred and fifty pounds powder; a quantity of ball, shot, and percussion caps; one rifle, six double-barrelled guns; one Colt’s revolver; beads, needles, etc., for presents; two dozen pocket-knives; some tin ware; one axe, two picks, files, etc.; tobacco and pipes; wearing apparel for self, and red shirts for natives; stationery and journal-books; watch, opera-glass, spy-glass; sextant, pocket sextant, artificial horizon, azimuth compass, common compass, two pocket compasses; three ordinary and two self-registering thermometers. Some navigation-books and several Arctic works, with my Bible and a few other volumes, formed my library.” The boat and fixtures cost one hundred and twenty-five dollars; meat, biscuit, pemmican, etc., about two hundred and fifty dollars; astronomical instruments, about one hundred dollars; guns and accoutrements, about two hundred and twenty-five dollars; clothing, fifty dollars; pipes and tobacco, twenty dollars; travelling expenses and express payments, seventy-five dollars; dog-team, bought in Greenland, fifty dollars. The other items making up the nine hundred and eighty dollars are all duly given. It will be seen that the balance left for minor, but necessary, expenditures was very small.

New London, Connecticut, is the port from which vessels mainly sail for the Arctic whale-fishery. Here was the place of business. Williams and Haven largely engaged in that enterprise. They relieved Hall of a great load of anxiety by a brief note, in which they said: “As a testimony of our personal regard, and the interest we feel in the proposed expedition, we will convey it and its required outfit, boats, sledges, provisions, instruments, etc., free of charge, on the barque ‘George Henry,’ to Northumberland Inlet; and, whenever desired, we will give the same free passage home in any of our vessels.”

On the 29th of May, 1860, the “George Henry” set sail, with a crew, officers and men, of twenty-nine souls. Accompanying as tender was a schooner, which had a history. She was now known as the “Amaret;” but under the name of the “Rescue” she had won fame in Arctic research, for in her Kane had made his first Arctic voyage. Hall always calls her by her old name, and the account of her loss forms a striking episode in his narrative.

We have said that Hall’s expedition consisted of himself alone. But when he started he had with him a companion, who he hoped would greatly aid him. This was Kudlago, an Innuit, who had acquired some knowledge of our language in Greenland from whalers, had come to the United States on a whaling-vessel, and was now anxious to return to Greenland. But he fell sick on the voyage, and died on the 1st of July. His last words were, “Do you see the ice?” for he knew that the appearance of ice at this season would show that he was near his home. He died three hundred miles at sea, and was committed to the ocean, Hall reading the funeral service. A great iceberg--the slender one represented on page 48 of this volume--was drifting close by, and Hall named it “Kudlago’s Monument.”

On the 7th of July they reached Holsteinborg, the capital of the Danish colony of Greenland, a town consisting of twenty-four houses. The entire population of Greenland is estimated at about 2450, of whom 2300 are Innuits, and the remainder Europeans. Of the Innuits, 1700 live by sealing, and 400 by fishing; the others being mainly mechanics and sailors, besides twenty native catechists. Of the Europeans, thirty-one are “First and Second Governors;” twenty-four missionaries and priests; thirty-six clerks; the others mechanics and sailors. The forty-four native and European missionaries receive, in all, 13,600 Danish paper dollars, equal to about $8500 in specie. The head-schoolmaster has one hundred and twenty-five paper dollars; three others receive one hundred dollars each; three, twenty-five dollars; two, six dollars. Of these last, one teaches his own two children, who are the only ones in his district. There are also four women, who get a dollar a year each for teaching children their letters. The sixteen Government employés get from forty to ninety dollars a year, besides provisions for themselves and their families. Bread is baked for them every fortnight. The currency of the colony is paper, the “six-skilling” note being worth about three cents.

The native Greenlanders are by no means deficient in intelligence. Mr. Hall gives a fac-simile of a wood-cut representing a woman and child drawn and engraved by one of them who had received no instruction in art, and no education of any sort beyond that of the majority of his countrymen. The great festival of Greenland is the birthday of the King of Denmark, in which all the population, native and European, who can be assembled, take part, his Majesty furnishing the cheer. Hall gives a view of this celebration, taken from a drawing made by a native. The original drawing was full of character.

The “Rescue” having rejoined her consort, the “George Henry,” from whom she had been separated on the voyage, the captain proposed to set sail for his proposed whaling-ground on the west side of Davis’s Strait. They sailed on the 24th of July, Hall accompanying. Three days after, they encountered a violent snow-storm, and were beset by icebergs. On the 8th of August they anchored in a bay in latitude 63° 20´, called by the natives Ookoolear, but by Hall named Cornelius Grinnell Bay. Here and hereabouts the whalers went to work, and Hall began his acquaintance with the Esquimaux at home.

Among these was Kookerjabin, the widow of Kudlago, and of three others. “The Innuits,” writes Hall, “are a happy people. As they crowded our decks, I one day noticed about a dozen women seated, and busily engaged at their work. Two were mending one of the boat’s sails, some were chewing seal-skins for boot-soles, others were sewing, while one was tending a cross baby. It is rare to find an Innuit child who is not very quiet, but this little fellow had eaten a piece of raw blubber, which had disordered him. Some of the amusing tricks played by these Esquimaux women are especially deserving of notice. The variety of games performed by a string tied at the ends, similar to a ‘cat’s cradle,’ completely throws into the shade our adepts at home. I never before witnessed such a number of intricate ways in which a simple string could be used. One arrangement represented a deer; another, a whale; a third, the walrus; a fourth, the seal; and so on without end.”

The short Arctic summer soon came to a close. On the morning of the 26th of September came light winds from the north-west; by noon it began to snow, the wind increasing to a gale. The whaling-boats all came in, and preparations were made for bad weather. During the night the storm grew hourly fiercer. The “Rescue” dragged her anchor, and was dashed upon the rocks an utter wreck. Hall’s little boat, upon which he had so much relied, was torn from its moorings and lost, “dooming me,” says Hall, “to a wreck of disappointment in the hopes I had cherished concerning her. The ‘George Henry’ was also in imminent peril, but outrode the tempest; but on her next voyage, eighteen months later, was lost at a point hardly a hundred miles distant.”

The “George Henry” was soon after laid up in winter-quarters, fairly blocked in by ice. Hall in the mean time had made himself acquainted with the Esquimaux of the region. Prominent among these were a couple--husband and wife--whose history is worthy of record.

One day--it was November 2--while Hall was writing in his cabin, he heard a low, sweet voice saying, “Good-morning, Sir.” Looking up, he saw a comely woman, dressed in very good imitation of civilized costume. He had heard of her before. Her name was Tookoolito. She was the wife of Ebierbing, a rather famous seal-hunter and pilot. Seven years before a British whaler had taken them to England, where they were received as the lions of the day. They dined with Prince Albert, and were introduced to the Queen. Ebierbing thought that the Queen was “very pretty;” indeed she bore no very distant likeness to his own wife. Tookoolito thought Prince Albert was a “very kind, good man.” Both agreed that the Queen had “a very fine place.” Tookoolito, as many thousands in the United States afterwards had occasion to know, spoke English almost perfectly. Her husband was less fluent, but still quite intelligible. This pair became Hall’s constant companions in the Arctic regions; came with him upon his return to the States, remained there with him for two years, and went back with him upon his second expedition, which now (September, 1869) is not completed.

Early in January Hall resolved to make an exploring expedition with the dog-team which he had bought at Holsteinborg. The party consisted of himself, Ebierbing, Tookoolito, and another Esquimaux, named Koodloo. The sledge was drawn by ten dogs--five of which belonged to Hall, and five to Ebierbing. They relied for food mainly upon the proceeds of their hunting, taking with them only a pound and a half of preserved mutton, three pounds of salt pork, fifteen pounds of sea-bread, three pounds of pork scraps for soup, and a little coffee, pepper, and molasses. The trip lasted nearly a month and a half, during which time Hall learned to live like the Esquimaux in their snow cabins, and subsisted mainly upon raw seal flesh. When he returned to the ship it was hard for him to accustom himself to the change from the pure atmosphere of a snow-house to the confined air of a small cabin.

Had Kane but known how to pass an Arctic winter, the world would never have had occasion to read one of the most pathetic accounts ever written of suffering. Buddington, the captain of the “George Henry,” had learned the lesson by dear experience. Five years before, when in command of another vessel, he had lost thirteen of his men by scurvy. “But,” said he, “I am not now afraid of losing any more men by scurvy while I have command over them. Whenever there are appearances of it on board, I will have every pork and beef barrel--salt provisions of every kind--headed up at once, and every man shall live upon bread and fresh provision, such as whale, walrus, seal, deer, bear, ptarmigan, duck, and the like. It is not a little remarkable that persons afflicted with scurvy seem madly inclined to salt provisions, which they know to be in their case absolute poisons. They will go any length to obtain salt pork, even when they have fresh food in abundance.”

Hall’s first night in an igloo may stand as a sample of many more. We cite, with much abridgment, from his journal:

“We encamped at 5 P.M., having found good material for building a snow-house. Ebierbing and Koodloo at once commenced sawing out snow-blocks, while I carried them to a suitable spot for erecting the igloo, which took us one hour to make. As soon as it was completed Tookoolito entered, and commenced placing the stone lamp in its proper position. It was trimmed, and soon a kettle of snow was over it, making water for coffee and soup. She then placed several pieces of board, which we had brought with us, on the snow platform where our beds were to be made. Upon these were placed canvas and deer-skins, and our sleeping accommodations were complete. The drying of any thing that has become wet during the day falls to the lot of the woman. She places them in a net hung over the lamp and attends to them through the night, meanwhile mending all articles of clothing that need repairs. Presently our evening meal was ready. It consisted of Cincinnati ‘crackling’ soup, a bit of raw salt pork, half a biscuit for each, and coffee.”

A snow-house, built in an hour, is abandoned when the use for it is over. The dogs are suffered to enter, and appropriate any thing that is left which suits their taste. Nothing comes amiss to them. On the third night Hall had his hair cut by Tookoolito, and the clippings were left on the floor. The dogs swallowed these, among other things. Stormy weather soon came on. There was no hunting or sealing, and the party had nothing to eat except some bits of raw, frozen whale’s-skin which they found in a cache, which a party from the ship had made a few weeks before. Not far off was an igloo belonging to an Innuit named Ugarng, whom they knew. Hall went to it hoping to find something to eat. Ugarng had just come in, having spent two whole days and a night in watching over a seal-hole without success. He had heard the seal blow, and that was all. He bore his disappointment coolly. “Away I go tomorrow again,” he said. He went next day, remained all night over the seal-hole, and came back with nothing. “This was very bad for the whole of us,” says Hall. How bad it was for the poor wife of Ugarng and her children may be inferred from her own words. They were without food or light; her infant was restless from hunger. She said simply, “Me got no milk, meat all gone, blubber too; nothing to eat, no heat; must wait till get seal.”

Hall was about as near starvation as were the Innuits. All he had to eat was a bit of the “black skin” of a whale, and this he relished; he could have eaten any thing which would have gone to keep up internal heat, and make bone and flesh. Ebierbing was away hunting. At length Tookoolito managed to extemporize a warm dinner. From the black skin she tried out enough oil to fill the lamp and heat some snow-water. This was thickened with a couple of ounces left of a quart of meal which formed a part of the stores with which they set out. The pair shared the “pudding,” and thought it excellent. The cold was severe. Within the dark igloo the thermometer stood at about zero; outside, 25° to 52° below zero. Under these circumstances Hall kept at his journal, sitting wrapped in furs to keep from freezing. So passed ten days. Ebierbing had gone back to the vessel in order to bring back some food. Day by day Hall went to the top of a hill, straining his eyes over the snowy waste in hope of seeing the approach of the messenger. On the evening of the 24th of January, fourteen days after their starting upon the expedition, they were reduced to their last ration of food, which was a piece of black skin two inches long, an inch and a half wide, and three-quarters of an inch thick.

At midnight footsteps were heard approaching; Hall sprang from his bed and opened the snow-block door. There was “Jack,” an Innuit, who had gone out on a hunt, with his spear strung with strips of seal-blubber. Hall’s favorite dog had been allowed to sleep in the igloo. The half-starved creature scented the blubber, gave a desperate leap, and grasped a portion of the food, and in spite of all the efforts of Hall and the others swallowed it. Before the door could be closed all the other dogs outside were aroused, and fighting for a share. Among them they got nearly the whole. Next morning Hall went out, and gazing in the direction from which the approach of Ebierbing was hoped for, saw something black moving over the snow. It was Ebierbing with dogs and a sledge, loaded with provisions from the ship, and also with a seal which he had caught that morning. A great seal-feast took place at once, which Hall thus describes:

“According to Innuit custom, an immediate invitation was given by the successful hunter’s family for every one to attend a seal-feast. Our igloo was soon crowded. My station was on the dais, or bed-place, so that I could watch what was going on. The first thing done was to consecrate the blubber by sprinkling water over it. Then our host proceeded to separate the blubber and skin from the meat and skeleton of the seal. The body was then opened, and the blood scooped out. The blood is considered very precious. The liver came next, cut into pieces and eaten raw, I getting a share. Then followed distributing the ribs, for social picking, also eaten raw, I doing my duty, and becoming quite an Innuit in all except in the quantity eaten. This I might challenge any white man to do. No human stomach but an Innuit’s could possibly hold what I saw these men and women devour. When the feast was ended, the company dispersed. Tookoolito then sent around bountiful gifts of seal-blubber for fire-lamps, also some seal-meat and blood. This is the usual custom among the Innuits. They share each other’s success, and bear each other’s wants. Generally if it is found that one is short of provisions, it may be known that all are so.”

The manner in which Ebierbing secured that precious seal is a striking example of Innuit patience. On his way to the ship the dogs discovered a seal-hole. He marked the spot by making a small pile of snow close by, and squirting a mouthful of tobacco-juice upon it by way of mark. On his return he found the hole, and determined to try to secure the animal. So wrapping his feet and legs in furs taken from the sledge, he took his position, spear in hand, over the seal-hole. It was buried two feet deep under the snow. He thrust his spear through the snow again and again until he found the little aperture leading through the ice; then in the dark night he seated himself close by, waiting to hear the blowing of the seal. Towards morning the welcome sound was heard. One well-aimed thrust of the spear secured the prize. Ebierbing was nearly frozen, his nose being frostbitten; but he suffered more from thirst than from cold. There was indeed snow all around, but in that intense cold the mouth does not retain sufficient caloric to melt a piece of snow placed in it. His first call when he reached the igloo was for water. To watch all night at a seal-hole would seem to be a sufficient trial of patience and endurance; but Hall notes another time when Ebierbing passed two whole days and nights without food by a hole, and then failed to secure the seal.

To the Innuit the seal is, in the broadest sense, the staff of life. It is to them all that flocks and herds, grain-fields, forests, coal mines, and petroleum wells are to dwellers in more favored lands. It furnishes to them food, fuel, and clothing. The seal is the most wary and suspicious of creatures; to capture him demands a patience and dexterity which throws into the shade all the exploits of deer-stalkers and lion-hunters. “Nutchook,” for so the Innuits name the seal, has good reason for wariness, for his chief enemy, “Ninoo,” the bear, against whom he has to keep constant watch, is a keen hunter. The Innuits acknowledge that “Ninoo” has taught them how to catch “Nutchook,” the common seal, and his big cousin “Oookgook,” the great seal. Hall, no contemptible sportsman, acknowledges that he was never able to get within rifle-shot of a seal when basking upon the ice; yet Ninoo catches them with his own paws; and the Innuits, taught by him, come within the distance of a spear’s cast.

The way Ninoo goes to work at seal-hunting upon the ice, according to Innuit accounts, is this: He sees far away upon the ice a black spot, which he knows to be a seal resting at the edge of his hole, and taking a succession of “cat naps,” hardly ten seconds long, lifting up his head between times, and narrowly surveying the whole horizon. Ninoo flings himself upon his side, and creeps along when the seal’s head is down. The moment the seal’s head is raised the bear stops short, and begins “talking” to the seal. The sound which he utters is quite distinct from his ordinary voice. The seal is charmed, suspects no harm, and down goes his head for another nap. Forward goes Ninoo, and so on for a long time, until he gets within leaping distance; then one spring, and it is all over with Nutchook. The Innuits say that if they could only talk to Nutchook as cleverly as Ninoo does, they would catch more seals. The Innuit imitates Ninoo.

Hall describes one of these hunts, the main actor being an Innuit named Koojesse: “Koojesse had ‘talk’ with seals, and it was with great interest that I watched him. He lay down on one side, and crawled by hitches or jerks towards his victim; then as the seal raised its head Koojesse would stop, and commenced pawing with his right hand and foot, while he uttered his ‘seal-talk.’ On this the seal would feel a charm, raise and shake its flippers both fore and aft, and roll over on its side and back as if perfectly delighted; after this it would drop its head to sleep. Then Koojesse would hitch along till the seal’s head would pop up again, which usually occurred every few moments.” In this particular case the seal escaped, for the Innuit had approached too near, and had thus broken the charm.

In the winter, when the seal lives under the ice, its capture requires great skill and perseverance. She, for somehow the male seal seems now not to be noticed, has a breathing-hole through the ice, to which she must come now and then for air. Upon the surface of the solid ice, which is covered with snow, the prospective mother constructs an igloo for her progeny. She scrapes off the snow until she has formed a dome, carrying away the snow down through the hole in the ice. Upon the shelf of ice surrounding the hole the young one is born, and there it is regularly visited by the mother. None but very keen-scented animals, such as the bear, fox, and dog, can discover such an igloo. The dog sometimes captures a seal. Hall describes such an event: “Ebierbing had one day been out with dogs and sledge where the ice was still firm, when suddenly a seal was noticed ahead. In an instant the dogs were off towards the prey, drawing the sledge after them at a marvellous rate. The seal for a moment acted as if frightened, and kept on the ice a second or two too long, for just as he plunged, Smile, the best seal and bear dog I ever saw, caught him by the tail and flippers. The seal struggled violently, and so did Smile; but in a moment more the other dogs laid hold, and aided in dragging the seal out of his hole, when Smile took it in charge. The prize was secured wholly by the dogs.”

Dogs seem to hunt the seal only upon their master’s account; but the fox and the bear capture him for themselves. How the fox contrives to get into a seal igloo we are not told; but as they manage to break open the best packed provision-cases, we may assume that they know how to commit burglary upon the igloo of a poor seal. If the Innuits are to be believed, the way the bear goes to work is this: When he has scented out the precise position of an igloo he goes back a little distance, so as to get a good run; and then, giving a high leap, comes down with all his weight upon the roof of the dome, crushes it in, and with his paw seizes the young seal, who was quietly asleep upon the ice-shelf. The cunning bear is not always satisfied with the little infant seal, but uses it as a bait to catch its mother. Having caught the young one, and holding it fast by the hind flippers, the bear scrapes away all the snow, and lets the young seal paddle about in the water; its cries draw the mother to the hole, and within reach of the bear’s paw, when one grab is given, and the anxious mother is secured. At all events the Innuits practise this sort of strategy with the seal, and they declare that they have learned it from the bear.

The bear is to the Innuits the embodiment of all wisdom. They tell stories of his sagacity which are hard to believe. Thus they say that when he sees a walrus basking upon the ice at the foot of a high cliff, he mounts to the summit of the cliff, and picking up a big stone flings it down with perfect aim upon the head of the walrus and crushes its thick skull. If it should happen that the walrus is only stunned, the bear crawls down the cliff, picks up a stone, and with it hammers away at the head of the walrus until the skull is broken. This story of the Innuits needs confirmation, though Hall seems to credit it.

The dog is essential to the existence of the Innuits. As they have never domesticated the reindeer, without the dog they could not travel from place to place, which they are obliged to do in order to follow the migrations of the seal and walrus, upon which they mainly subsist. Without him they could never find out the holes in the ice through which the seal comes up to breathe in the winter. Their dogs seem to be much more intelligent and docile than those of any other of the Polar tribes. When one is found to be more than usually intelligent he is carefully trained as a seal-dog. When the dog scents a seal-hole, which he does though it is covered deep under the snow, he unerringly follows the scent to the very spot.

The Innuit proceeds to “prospect” by driving the slender spear through the snow until he finds the small opening in the ice which leads to the main hole. He then withdraws the spear, taking the utmost care not to disturb the snow, and seats himself close by to await the coming of the seal. He watches for hours, and sometimes for days, before he hears the welcome “blow.” At the second or third puff, he knows that the nose of the seal is at the bottom of the breathing-hole, perhaps two yards below the spot where he is standing. The spear must be thrust with perfect accuracy; for an error of a quarter of an inch on either side would miss the hole, and the spear-point would strike the solid ice, and the seal would be away in an instant. If the blow is well-aimed and at the right instant, it pierces the head of the unseen seal, who instantly dives, and runs out the eight or ten fathoms of line which, fastened to the harpoon, is tied around the waist of the Innuit. The snow is then dug away, the breathing-hole enlarged, so as to permit the seal to be drawn through.

The dogs also take special delight in hunting the bear. When a team scent a bear it is impossible to restrain them. Once when Hall was on a journey a bear with her cub was seen on the ice at the foot of a high mountain. When within two hundred yards, the leading dog was cut loose, and he made straight for the bear; one by one the others were set free from the sledge, and all were in hot pursuit. One dog set upon the cub, and finally separated it from its mother; another caught the dam; and both rolled down a precipice, up which the bear scrambled again and escaped, for it was so steep that the dogs could not follow. All the dogs, eleven in number, now set upon the cub. Hall coming up, the young brute made at him; he ran it through with his spear. He expected that the Innuits would applaud his courage and dexterity; but they shook their heads and said nothing at the time. They soon showed the utmost determination to leave the neighborhood, and explained by saying that the old bear would come back at night, smell the blood of the cub, and become enraged, and kill them all. The Innuits avoid killing a young bear until they have dispatched the old one, for they say that knowing the death of her young makes her a hundred times more terrible. Although the liver of the seal is held to be a great delicacy, the Innuits never eat that or the head of the bear; nor, if they can prevent it, will they suffer their dogs to do so.

The Innuit dogs also sometimes hunt the reindeer. Hall’s dogs one day gave chase to a deer, and one of them, Barbekark, sprung at its throat, and bit through skin, windpipe, jugular, and tongue, taking out the piece as clearly as though it had been cut with a knife. Barbekark was brought to the United States by Mr. Hall, and died there. His stuffed skin showed him to be a noble beast of unusual size.

The walrus enters largely into the supplies of the Innuits. They manifest much courage and skill in harpooning these ungainly beasts. The hunter goes out armed with a lance and a peculiar harpoon made for that purpose. A long hide-rope is attached to the head of the harpoon, and coiled around the neck of the hunter, who crawls along until he comes within striking distance of the walrus, who lies basking upon the ice. The walrus dives at once; the hunter slips the coil off from his neck, and fastens the end of it to a spear driven into the ice; thus tethering the animal. As soon as the walrus comes up he is dispatched with a long lance. Should the Innuit fail to slip off the coil in time, he would infallibly be drawn into the water, and almost certainly lose his life; but as Hall records no instance of such a catastrophe, we infer that these rarely happen.

The Innuits show remarkable ingenuity in availing themselves of every facility afforded by their inhospitable country. Of their igloos or snow-houses we have already spoken. In half an hour a couple of men will build one of these, which answers very well for a temporary shelter. When one is to be built for a longer residence, more care is taken in the construction. A site is chosen where the snow is hard-- if possible, over a running stream, so that they can obtain water without the labor of melting the ice. A circle is marked out for the ground plan. Blocks of snow are cut with a large knife or saw. These blocks are three feet long, eighteen inches wide, and six inches thick, shaped rounding, so that each block forms the segment of a circle of the proposed diameter · of the igloo. The blocks are slightly tapered off on the inner side, and are laid spirally, one man building from within, while the other brings the blocks from without. The courses grow smaller and smaller as the dome rises, until there is only a narrow open circle, into which a block of snow is dropped by way of keystone, binding the whole dome firmly together. The man within now carefully examines every part, and if there are any openings left they are stopped up with snow. A hole for a door is then cut; and through this are passed the snow-blocks to build the divan, which forms the seats and bed. A tunnel-like passage is then dug and covered over. This is so low and narrow that one must crawl on all fours to pass through it. The outer door of the passage consists of a block of ice or hard snow fitting closely to the opening and turning upon a sort of pivot. The usual diameter of a family igloo is twelve or sixteen feet, and its height about eight. It will accommodate ten or a dozen people.

When newly built, an igloo is one of the most beautiful structures conceivable. The blocks are more transparent than the clearest alabaster and whiter than the purest marble, but they soon become defaced by the smoke and the filth of all kinds which rapidly accumulates. Apart from the divan, almost the only article of furniture is the stone lamp, which serves the purpose both of lamp and furnace. It reminds one of an implement common among civilized people, and known as an “Etna.”

The Innuits show great dexterity in the construction of their implements and in the fabrication of their clothing. Their canoes have been the admiration of every voyager in the Arctic regions, and they are wonderfully dexterous in the management of them. Their sledges have the runners made of bits of bone ingeniously tied together with the sinews of the deer. When they wish them to run very smoothly they shoe them with ice, by simply squirting from their mouths a thin stream of water upon the runner, where it congeals in an instant. The “oodloo,” or woman’s knife, is shaped like our common meat-chopper. It is made of bone, merely edged with iron; but in the hands of an Innuit woman it takes the place of the knife, hatchet, scraper, and shears of her civilized sisters. The different kinds of spears and harpoons used in capturing the seal, walrus, and whale are admirably adapted for their purpose. We doubt whether we could improve upon the design, and, with all our facilities in the way of material, very much in the way of execution. The Innuits have clearly given their whole minds to the fabrication of these weapons. They have the bow and arrow, and are quite clever in its employment; but for them it is of little use except in the shooting of birds, for a seal or walrus would not even feel an arrow shot from the strongest bow.

Although the Innuits have never domesticated the reindeer, it yet plays a great part in their economy. Their clothing and bedding is composed almost wholly of deer-skin, which is one of the best non-conductors of heat known. Even when the thermometer marks 70 degrees below the freezing-point, they never use but one for bedding; and Mr. Hall says that he has slept under a dozen of the best woollen blankets and been almost frozen, while a single slender skin kept him abundantly warm. During the summer the deer furnishes a great part of the food of the people. The grass and mosses upon which the deer live are very abundant. Nowhere, except on the prairies of the West, had Hall ever seen such luxuriant pasturage, and the deer in August were so plentiful that they were killed merely for the sake of their hides and tallow, which is a great luxury, fully equal, in Hall’s opinion, to the finest butter. If the Innuits would only store up their provisions in the season of plenty, they need never suffer from famine; but they never do this, and the consequence is that from November till May they are almost always on the verge of starvation, while during the rest of the year they revel in plenty.

As a pendant to Mr. Hall’s account of a seal-feast, we give his description of a reindeer-feast. The date is December, the season of scarcity. “Four months before, they had more deer-meat than they could eat--and the quantity that an Innuit and his dog can consume is something almost incredible. But one day a man came in from a hunting excursion bearing with him a portion of the carcasses of two deer, frozen as hard as a rock. A general invitation for a feast was of course given out; and the entire population, about thirty in all, rushed in. Sampson, the giver of the feast, acted as master of ceremonies. He first made the ladies on the bed give away, so as to clear a space whereon he might do the carving. Then he placed a huge seal-skin on this spot, by way of tablecloth, upon which the frozen carcass was laid. This he began to carve with a hatchet. Slabs of its side were chopped and peeled off; chips of ice flew here and there into the faces of the guests at each stroke of the axe. As fast as the fragments of venison rolled off, other men took the pieces, and by means of a saw and seal-knives reduced them to a size adapted for handling. Then Sampson distributed these bits, one to each, till every mill had its grist to grind. Thus for half an hour Sampson carved; then his hatchet-handle broke off close up to the head. Another axe was sent for, and meanwhile, with the half of a saw, the two saddles were divided into the proper number of pieces, ready for distribution. The carcass was then once more attacked, and the shell was broken, split, and sawed to pieces. In it was the ‘kernel,’ to which all looked with anxious eyes; this was at last divided into as many pieces as there were pieces of saddle, and then one of each was given to every guest. I received my share with gratitude, and, with a piece in each hand, began eating. I bit off a mouthful of the saddle-piece; it was good. I took a morsel of the other; it was delightful: its flavor was a kind of sorrel acid; it had an ambrosial taste; it fairly melted in my mouth. When nearly through, I had the curiosity to crowd my way to a light to see what this delicious frozen food was, for where I sat I was shaded by large forms between me and the firelight. I looked at it, rolled it over, and looked again. Behold, it was the contents of a reindeer’s paunch! On this discovery I stopped feasting for that night.”

Mr. Hall passes judgment upon various other articles of Innuit food. Seal’s blood, smoking hot, is excellent. The skin of the whale, three-quarters of an inch thick, looking like India-rubber, even when raw, is good eating; but when boiled and soused in vinegar, is most excellent. The “gum” of the whale, that is, the substance in which whalebone is set, is a special Innuit delicacy; it looks like cocoa-nut meat, and tastes like unripe chestnuts. Hall could not fully appreciate this; but he adds savingly, “If the struggle was for life, and its preservation depended upon the act, I would undoubtedly eat whale’s gum until I got something better to my liking.” Once a substance which looked like a choice bit from a turkey’s breast was handed to him. He thought he had stumbled upon a delicacy, but after vainly trying to masticate it for half an hour, he found it as solid as when he began. This substance was the ligament lying between the vertebræ of the whale. He had made a mistake in the way of disposing of it. The Innuit mode is to take a huge piece into the mouth, lubricate it thoroughly, and then bolt it whole, as the boa-constrictor swallows a deer. Hall thinks well of the Innuit practice of eating their meat raw, in a sanitary point of view; but he never quite liked it. He never fully came up to the opinion of Mansfield Parkyns, the Abyssinian traveller, who assures us that no man knows what a good beef-steak is until he has eaten it raw, before it has had time to get cold.

The costume of the Innuits is admirably adapted to the climate. The winter dress, commencing with the feet, is thus composed: Long stockings of reindeer skin, with the hairy side next to the person; socks of eider-duck skin, with the feathers on both sides, and of seal-skin with the hair outside; boots, the legs of reindeer skin with the hair outside, the soles of seal-skin. The jacket is of reindeer skin, fitting rather loosely; those of the women have long tails reaching almost to the ground. The ornamentation of the female dress depends on the means and taste of the wearer. One “very pretty style,” mentioned by Mr. Hall, had a fringe of colored beads across the neck, bowls of Britannic-metal tea-spoons down the front flap, and a double row of copper cents, surmounted by a small bell, down the tail, which was bordered by a beading of leaden shot. The jacket has no opening before or behind, but is slipped on over the head. The women’s jacket has a hood which serves a variety of purposes, among others, that of carrying the children. The breeches reach below the knee, and are fastened by a string drawn about the waist. Finger-rings and a head-band of bright brass, complete the fashionable costume.

The religious ideas of the Innuits are very vague. They believe that there is one Supreme Being who created the earth, sea, and stars; and also a secondary divinity, his daughter, who created all things having life, whether animal or vegetable. She is the tutelary deity of the Innuits. They believe in a heaven and a hell, but have no very well defined ideas about them. According to Tookoolito, heaven was upward; it is light there all the time, and there are no ice or storms. Hell is downward; no sun there, but storms and snows all the while; it is cold, and there is a great deal of ice there. Any one who has been killed by accident goes straight to heaven. They have a kind of priests, or rather conjurers, called Angekos, whose business is to charm away sickness, and secure good hunting-seasons, with an abundance of seals, walrus, and deer, and an early disappearance of the ice. When his services are called for, he is always, like a wise man, careful to get his pay in advance, and it is generally understood that the success of his incantations depends greatly upon the amount of his fee.

Upon the whole, the Innuits must be regarded as an amiable and kindly people. They are exceedingly tender parents, and not unaffectionate husbands and wives. The main exception to their general kindness is their treatment of the aged and infirm. When one, especially a woman, is hopelessly sick or infirm, she is not unfrequently abandoned. Mr. Hall relates several incidents of this kind which came within his own knowledge. In one case the husband, when he found that his wife was hopelessly sick of consumption, abandoned her, and took another while the poor creature was still alive. The deserted woman lingered several weeks, supplied with food by the neighbors. In another case a sick woman, in the depth of winter, was left behind in an igloo, with a small quantity of provisions. Hall, learning of this, made an attempt to go to her rescue. But in the mean time a heavy snow-storm had come on, and the igloo was entirely buried, so that no traces of it could be found. A few days after, Hall, accompanied by Ebierbing, made another attempt. The spot was finally found, though the snow lay level above the ice-hut, the position of which could be ascertained only by exploring with their spears. They broke through the roof, and, looking down, saw the woman frozen as solid as a marble statue. She had been dead for days, and the indications showed that she had perished from cold very soon after being abandoned. There were supplies of whale-skin for food, and blubber to keep up the fire, but she was too feeble to rise from the bed and replenish the lamp.

The Innuits of the present day are a purely nomadic race, roaming from place to place, following the seal, walrus, and deer. But their wanderings appear to be confined to the region of the coast, never extending far into the interior. Their dwellings are therefore constructed for mere temporary occupation, being snow-huts (igloos) for winter, and tents (tupics) for summer. But there are indications in the form of trenches and excavations which show that they formerly led a more settled life, and constructed more permanent habitations. Their numbers have been gradually diminishing ever since they have come into contact with the whites. How this comes to pass is a mystery. There is nothing to show that the climate has become more rigorous, or that the animals which constitute their food have grown scarcer or less easy of capture. The Indians of America have been destroyed by the occupation of their hunting-grounds, by whisky, and the small-pox, introduced by the whites. The natives of the South Sea Islands have been eaten up by nameless diseases, contracted from their licentious white visitors. There is scarcely a trace of either drunkenness or licentiousness among the Innuits. Consumption is the great destroyer among them; but we can see no reason why this should be more prevalent now than it was generations ago.

It seems that in former times there were chiefs among the Innuits, but at the present time there is no trace of any thing like government among them. In each community there is usually some one who, from age, personal prowess as a hunter, or native shrewdness, is looked up to with respect, and his opinions are regarded with deference; but he has no sort of authority except that which each person voluntarily concedes to him.

We left Mr. Hall near the close of January, 1861, when he was just returning to the ship after his first overland expedition. We do not propose to follow him through the course of his personal narrative, although it abounds with striking incidents and details of hardship and peril. Thus, one day in March, John Brown, one of the ship’s crew, in company with two Innuits, started off from an igloo a few miles distant to rejoin the ship. Somehow he got separated from his companions, but the next morning he had not arrived. The night had been intensely cold, the thermometer marking 57 degrees below freezing-point. A party of a dozen set off in the attempt to find him. In two hours they came upon the tracks of the wanderer, but only Hall and four others could hold out; the others, one by one, fell back. They kept on, following the tracks, which now began to grow faint, being partly filled up with snow. For a time the tracks went straight for the ship; then they began to waver, now in one direction, and then in another, showing that the man had lost his way. They followed the tracks, in the intense cold, 60 degrees below freezing-point. They were tormented by thirst, which they attempted to allay by the use of ice. The first fragment which Hall put into his mouth froze it fast. He managed to reduce the temperature of the ice by holding the fragments in his mittened hand, so that he could place them in his mouth. After six hours, Hall’s companions said they could go no farther and must return; for they had brought along no snow-knife, with which they could build an igloo for the night; and if a storm should spring up, they must all be inevitably lost. Hall went on alone. One of the crew named Johnston soon overtook him, saying, “Brown was my shipmate, and I loved him. I will go on with you. If I were to go back now, I shall always regret it.” They followed the tracks, which now began to run in circles, interlocking one another. There were twelve of these within less than two miles. Every little while they came upon places where the wanderer had lain down to rest. At five o’clock, nine hours after setting out, they were overtaken by Captain Buddington, with two sailors and two Innuits, accompanied by a dog-team. They all pressed on with renewed vigor, and in a few minutes came upon poor Brown, frozen dead. They could not convey the corpse to the ship, fully ten miles away, and so buried him in the snow upon the spot where he was found.

It was the middle of July before the ship was released from her icy prison. The whalers went to work, and Hall made several important expeditions by land and water, living nearly all the while with the Innuits. Towards the middle of October the captain began to prepare for returning home. But he was a few days too late. The ship was beset in the ice-pack, with no hope of escape. There was nothing left but to make up their minds to spend another winter in the ice.

We must pass wholly over the incidents and adventures of this second winter. It is the old tale of suffering and privation. On the 12th of January the thermometer fell to 72 degrees below the freezing point. One of the men who had left to visit an Innuit encampment came back, saying that he thought he had frozen his toe. Upon pulling off his boots both feet were found to be frozen stiff, and as hard as ice. The usual attempts to save the members were made in vain; mortification began, and, to save the man’s life, the captain was obliged to amputate portions of both his feet.

This year, 1862, the ice held on unusually late; but on the 8th of August it was found that the pack had broken up. The way home was apparently open; and all hands were summoned on board. The vessel spread her canvas and sailed off, the Innuits surrounding her in their canoes, and shouting farewell.

Tookoolito and Ebierbing resolved to accompany Hall to the States, taking with them Tukeliketa (“Butterfly”), their infant, a year old. The child died a few months after their arrival in the States, and lies buried in the graveyard at Groton, Connecticut. “I never saw,” says Hall, “a more animated, sweet-tempered, and engaging child.” For days the mother was delirious; then she longed to die, that she might be with her lost Butterfly. Upon his grave were laid, according to the custom of his people, all his childish playthings. They were sacred to the dead. The mother went to the grave one day, and found that one article, a gayly-painted little tin pail, had been taken away. She was inconsolable. “Poor little Butterfly,” she said, “how he will miss his beautiful pail!”

The homeward voyage was speedy and prosperous. On the 13th of September the “George Henry” dropped anchor at New London, whence she had sailed two years and three and a half months before.

The net results of Hall’s expedition were these: Many new discoveries were made in Arctic geography; much information was gathered in relation to the inhabitants; and experience acquired of immense value to all future Arctic explorers. Mr. Hall also made a very interesting discovery in regard to the fate of the expedition of Martin Frobisher, undertaken almost three centuries ago. He found a tradition among the natives that many years ago white men in ships had visited a place still called “White Man’s Island.” Hall compared these traditions with the accounts extant in books respecting this voyage, and was struck with their remarkable coincidence. He visited the place designated as the white man’s encampment, and found many things which had evidently been left by Europeans. Among these was a heap of coal amounting to several tons, a large fragment of iron, and some bricks. Every thing was covered over with moss whose thick growth showed that they must have remained there undisturbed for ages.

The bearing of this upon the possibility of revealing the whole mystery of the fate of Franklin is evident. If the Innuits have preserved tolerably accurate traditions of what took place three centuries ago, it is not to be doubted that they still have information of what took place within a single generation. It is now past hoping that any members of Franklin’s expedition are yet living; but there must be Innuits who can tell how and where they died.

To further this investigation Hall resolved upon a second expedition. He spent nearly two years in preparing his book for publication, and in making preparations for this enterprise. Abundant facilities were now placed at his disposal; and on the 30th of July, 1864, he again set sail. In the preface to his book, written on board the vessel, he says:

“I am persuaded that among the Innuits may be sought, by one competent, with every chance of complete success, the sad history of Sir John Franklin’s men. To make myself competent for this more interesting and important research, I patiently acquired the language and familiarized myself with the habits of the Esquimaux. I now return to their country able to speak with them, to live among them, to support my life in the same manner that they do theirs; to migrate with them from place to place, and to traverse and patiently explore all the region in which it is reasonable to suppose Franklin’s crew travelled and perished. I shall be accompanied by the two intelligent Esquimaux, Ebierbing and Tookoolito, who, having accompanied me on my return from my first expedition, and after remaining with me for two years, now go back with me on this second voyage. I enter upon this undertaking with the liveliest hope of success. I shall not, like previous explorers, set my foot on shore for a few days or weeks, or, like others, journey among men whose language to me is unintelligible. I shall live for two or three years among the Esquimaux, and gain their confidence; and I have the advantage of understanding their language, and of making all my wishes known to them.”

It is now (September, 1869) more than five years since Hall set out on this second expedition. Up to 1867 he wrote, as occasional opportunity offered, to his fast friend and warm supporter, Henry Grinnell; but his letters gave only faint indications of what he had been able to accomplish. In 1868, when he had hoped to return, no whaling-vessels came back to the States from the Arctic seas. A trace or two of him has been reported by English vessels, sufficient, however, to afford reason to believe that he still lives. An American whaler expected to pass the winter of 1868–9 in the region where Hall, if living would probably be, and it is hoped that in October of this year, 1869, before these pages will be before the reader, this vessel, bearing the brave explorer, will have reached the American shores.

FOOTNOTES

[1] See Chapter XXXII.

[2] In 1855, Iceland imported, among others, 65,712 pieces of timber, 148,038 lbs. of iron, 37,700 lbs. hemp, 15,179 fishing-lines, 20,342 lbs. salt, 6539 tons of coal.

The chief exportations of the same year were, tallow, 932,906 lbs., wool, 1,569,323 lbs., 69,305 pairs of stockings, 27,109 pairs of gloves, 12,712 salted sheepskins, 4116 lbs. eider-downs, 25,000 lbs. other feathers, 244 horses, and 24,079 ship’s pounds (the ship’s pound = 320 lbs.) salt fish.

[3] Barrow, “Visit to Iceland,” 1834.

[4] “Journal of a Tour in Iceland,” p. 110.

[5] All the clergymen are blacksmiths, for a reason that will be stated hereafter.

[6] Their number in 1860 was 991. During his voyage to Iceland in 1850 Prince Napoleon was named honorary president, a distinction he shares with the Bishop of Reykjavik. Among the 46 honorary members I find the name of Lord Dufferin.

[7] In 1866 the total catch of cod was 21,000,000, about 12,000,000 of which were salted (clip fish), and the remainder dried (stock-fish); each fish making on an average 2 lbs. of clip-fish, and one-fourth less of stock-fish.

[8] Within the last few years, no less than three scientific expeditions have been sent out to Spitzbergen at the expense of the Swedish Government. During the summer of 1858, Messrs. Otto Torell, Guennerstedt, and Nordenskjold visited the western parts of the archipelago. In 1861 the whole coast, from Ice Sound to Dove Bay in North-east Land was accurately investigated by Messrs. Torell, Malmgren, Chydenius, etc., and in 1864 Messrs. Nordenskjold, Duner, and Malmgren visited the southern shores and Wjde Jan’s Water. A fourth expedition has just left the port of Gothenburg (June, 1868).

[9] Reisen in Lappland, etc.

[10] The verst is about three-fifths of a mile.

[11] The poud is equal to 40 pounds. The poud is divided into 96 solotniks.

[12] A species of sturgeon highly esteemed by epicures.

[13] Humboldt likewise mentions an artisan of Breslau whose sight was so sharp as to enable him to point out the position of Jupiter’s satellites.

[14] Since last year [1867] the Russian Government has sold her American possessions to the United States, but as it is not yet known how far the interests of the Russian Fur Company have been affected by the change, I may be allowed to speak of her in the present tense.

[15] Captain Hall, who in his search after the remains of the Franklin expedition has now spent several years among the Esquimaux, has so far acquired their appetite that he is able to consume 9 lbs. of meat a day without any inconvenience.

[16]

1850–1854. “Investigator,” Captain M’Clure, } Bering’s Straits. 1850–1855. “Enterprise,” Captain Collinson, }

1850, 1851. “Resolute,” Captain Austin, } Lancaster Strait and 1850, 1851. “Assistance,” Captain Ommaney, } Cornwallis Island. Accompanied by two steam tenders, officered by Lieutenant Sherard Osborne and Lieutenant F. L. M’Clintock.

1850, 1851. “Lady Franklin,” Master Penny, accompanied by the “Sophia,” Master A. Stewart, under Admiralty Orders, to Lancaster Strait and Wellington Channel.

1850. “Prince Albert,” Captain Forsyth, belonging to Lady Franklin, to Regent’s Inlet and Beechey Island.

1850, 1851. “Advance,” Lieutenant De Haven, U.S.N.} 1850, 1851. “Rescue,” S. P. Griffin, Esq., U.S.N. } Fitted at the expense of H. Grinnell, Esq., of New York, to Lancaster Strait and Wellington Channel.

[17]

1852. “Isabel,” Captain E. Inglefield. Lady Franklin’s vessel.

1852–1854. “Assistance,” Sir Edward Belcher, to Lancaster Sound, Wellington Channel.

1852–1854. “Resolute,” Captain Kellett, Lancaster Strait, Melville, and Banks’s Island.

1852–1854. “Pioneer,” Lieutenant Sherard Osborne.

1852–1854. “Intrepid,” Captain M’Clintock.

1852–1854. “North Star,” Captain Pullen.

[18] These two vessels had been sent in the year 1847 to the Polar Sea beyond Bering’s Straits, when they discovered the “Herald” and “Plover” Islands.

[19] Rensselaer Harbor is situated 1° 46´ higher than Sir E. Belcher’s winter-quarters in Northumberland Sound, 76° 52´.

[20] “Athenæum,” Dec. 3, 1853.

[21] For an account of the similar phenomena of the “Buffadero,” on the Mexican coast, and of the “Souffleur,” Mauritius, see “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” 3d ed. p. 52.

[22] “Excursions in Newfoundland.”

[23] “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” p. 403.

[24] Voyage of the Swedish ship “Eugénie.”

[25] Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux. By CHARLES FRANCIS HALL. New York, 1866.

INDEX.

A.

Adélie, Terre, discovery of, 402.

Agouti, the, of Patagonia, 419.

Agriculture, state of, in Iceland, 79.

Aigun, treaty of, 196.

Air, remarkable moisture of the, in Taimurland, 225.

----, its perpetual motion in the Arctic zones, 225.

Akurig, eider-ducks of, 81.

Alaska, discovery of, 202.

----, climate of the, 269.

----, mountains and forests of, 269.

----, purchase of, by the Americans, 277.

----, telegraph through, 278.

----, travelling in, 278–289.

----, natives of, 278–289.

----, climate of, 284.

----, food in, 287.

Albasin, the Russian fort of, built, 195.

----, destroyed by the Chinese, but rebuilt, 196.

Albatross, wandering, of the Antarctic seas, 395.

Alcyonians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.

Aleutian Islands, causes which led to the discovery of the, 201.

----, extent of the, 270.

Aleuts, their wretched condition under their masters, 273.

----, their skill and intrepidity in hunting, 273–276.

Alexander, Cape, discovery of, 365.

---- Island, discovery of, 401.

Algerine pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, 95; and in the Westman Islands, 119.

Almannagja, description of the, 73.

Altai Mountains, crossed by the Cossacks, 195.

Alten, copper mines of, 128.

Altenfjord, vegetation of the borders of the, 128.

America, North, treeless zone of, 18–22.

----, character of the Coniferæ of, 23, 24.

----, range of the caribou, or reindeer, of, 36–39.

----, the musk-ox of, 41.

----, the white dolphin in the rivers of, 61.

----, the black dolphin of, 61.

----, walruses of the shores of, 64.

----, history of the fur-trade of, 307 et seq.

----, first discoverers and settlers of, 335.

America, North, destruction of the Greenland colonies, 335.

----, subsequent discoveries, 335 et seq.

----, attempts to discover the north-western passage to India, 342 et seq.

America, Russian, its transfer to the United States, 272, note.

Amoor, river, discovery of the, by the Russians, who relinquish it to the Chinese, 195, 196.

----, the country annexed by Russia, 196.

Anakerdluk, in North Greenland, buried forest of, 29.

Angekoks, or priests of the Esquimaux, 301.

Animals, comparatively small number of, in the Arctic regions, 25.

----, the forests the head-quarters of many, 41.

---- of the Arctic Seas, 59.

---- of the coasts of Spitzbergen, 134.

----, fur-bearing, of Siberia, 209.

----, the, of Taimurland, 227.

---- of Nishne-Kolymsk, 235.

---- of Newfoundland, 378.

----, no land, in the Antarctic region, 394.

---- of Patagonia, 418.

Aniuj, vegetation of the valley of the, 235.

----, chief resource of the people of the, 237.

Anjou, Lieut., his Arctic explorations, 233.

Archangel, foundation of, 192.

----, New, site of the town of, 272.

----, fur-trade of, 273.

----, medium of exchange at, 276.

Archers, the Ostiaks as, 187.

Arctic regions, rivers of the, 17.

----, limits of the, 18.

----, the forests of the, 18–23.

----, their treeless wastes, or Tundra, 18.

----, in summer and winter, 19.

----, their extent and boundaries, 21.

----, animal life in the, 25.

----, influence of the sea and winds on the severity of the winter of the, 27.

----, the lowest temperatures felt by man, 27, 28.

----, how man becomes accustomed to the rigors of the winter of the, 28.

----, proofs of a former milder climate in the northern regions of the globe, 29.

----, beauties of Nature in the, 31–33.

----, land quadrupeds and birds of the, 34.

----, the seas of the, 49.

---- compared with the Antarctic regions, 391.

Arctic voyages of discovery, history of, 335 et seq.

Are Thorgilson, his Icelandic works, 94.

Argali (Ovis argali) of Siberia, 41.

Arrows of the Ostiaks, 187, 188.

Ascidians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.

Ash, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.

Asia, treeless zone of, 18–22.

Athabascan Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.

Atlassoff, the Cossack, his treatment of the natives of Kamchatka, 198.

Atmosphere, transparency of the, in the Polar regions, 54, 55.

----, phenomena of, reflection and refraction, and their probable causes, 55.

Auk, the giant, its rarity at present in Iceland. 85.

Aurora borealis, 33.

----, splendor of the, in the Arctic regions, 33.

Aurora borealis, terror of the Lapps at the, 157.

----, at Nulato, 281.

Austin, Captain, his search for Franklin, 357.

Avalanches of ice in Spitzbergen, 135.

Awaklok and Myouk, their imprisonment on an iceberg, 298.

Awatscha Bay, sea-birds of, 255.

----, its magnificence and extent, 256.

B.

Baaty Khan, his subjection of Russia, 191.

Bachelor river, the, 412.

Back (Mr., afterwards Sir George), his Arctic voyages, 346, 347, 349.

----, his search for Captain Ross, 354.

----, his discovery of Great Fish River, 355.

----, voyage in 1835, 355.

Back’s river, discovery of, 355.

Badarany, desert of swamps, the, 234.

Baer, Herr von, his scientific journey to Nova Zembla, 151.

Baffin, his voyages of discovery, 343.

Baffin’s Bay, probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of, 27.

Baffin’s Bay, walruses of the coasts of, 64.

----, discovery of, 343.

Balleny, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, 401.

---- Islands, discovery of, 401.

Banks’s Land, proofs of a former milder temperature in, 29.

Bards, or Scalds, of Iceland, 94.

Barentz, William, visit of, to Spitzbergen, 138.

----, his voyages of discovery, 339.

----, his winter in Nova Zembla, 340.

----, his death, 342.

Barley, cultivation of, in Norway, 124.

Barren grounds, barrens, or tundri, Arctic belt of the, 18.

----, causes of their barrenness, 18.

----, their appearance in winter and in summer, 19.

----, indistinct and irregular boundaries of the, 21.

----, those of Newfoundland, 377.

Barrow Point, traffic of, 302.

Barter Reef, traffic of, 302.

Bear, black, muskwa (Ursus americanus), value of the fur of the, 315.

----, description of him, 315, 318.

----, brown, of North America, 315.

----, value of the skins of the young brown bear, 211.

----, grizzly, of the Rocky Mountains (Ursus ferox), 315.

----, his skin, 315.

----, the polar, his mode of hunting, 65, 446, 448.

----, his favorite food and mode of seizing it, 65, 447, 450, 451.

----, anecdote of one, 65.

----, instances of his sagacity, 65.

----, parental care of the she-bear, 65.

----, her winter nursery, 65, 66.

----, her internal store of food for her hibernation, 66.

----, immense strength of claws and teeth, 66, 67.

----, his unwelcome visits to Iceland, 81.

----, of Spitzbergen, 137.

----, of Nova Zembla, 149.

----, Lapp mode of hunting the, 164–166.

----, Esquimaux methods of hunting the, 163.

Bear of Newfoundland, 378.

----, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 258.

----, sea-, value of the skins of the, in China, 374.

----, chase of the, in the Pribilow Islands, 274.

---- families and battles, 274, 275.

----, the Austral sea-, 399.

----, hunted by dogs, 453.

Bear Island, or Cherie Island, account of, 143.

----, climate of, 144.

----, walruses of, 144.

----, boat-voyages of Norwegian sailors from, 145.

----, discovery of, 340.

----, surveyed by the Russians, 200.

Beaver (Castor fiber), its skin the standard of exchange with the Canadian Indians, 313.

----, former enormous trade in the fur of the, 317.

---- of Newfoundland, 378.

Beaver Indians, their hunting-grounds, 327.

Bee, sand (Andrena), of Nova Zembla, 154.

Beech, Antarctic (Fagus betuloides), 410.

Beechey, Captain, his voyage to Bering’s Straits, 350.

Beerenberg mountain, 146.

Bering, Titus, never passed through the straits bearing his name, 197.

----, his second voyage, 201.

----, his second voyage of discovery, 248, 249.

----, his bad conduct, 250.

----, his death, 252.

Bering Island, Bering and Steller on, 251.

---- Sea, description of the, 268.

----, barren lands at, 22.

----, seals and walruses of, 63, 64.

----, its climate, 269.

----, character of the shores of the, 270.

----, animals of the, 271.

Bering’s Straits, view of the Old and New worlds in the, 271.

----, Captain Beechey’s voyage to, 350.

Belcher, Sir Edward, his search for Franklin, 359.

Bellinghausen, his discovery of the islands Paul the First and Alexander, 401.

Bellot, Lieut., his gallant search for Franklin, 359.

----, his death and monument, 362.

Beluga, or white dolphin (Delphinus leucas), description of the, 61.

----, domain of the, 61.

Beluga Bay, visit of Von Baer’s party to, 151.

Bennet, Stephen, his visit to Bear Island, 143, 144.

Berry-gathering in Nishne-Kolymsk, 238.

Bilberries of the Arctic regions, 24.

Billings, voyage of, on the coast of Siberia, 201.

Birch, paper, value of the, in North America, 304.

Birch-trees in the Arctic regions, 24.

Birds, flights of wild, in summer months, in the Tundra, 19.

----, their migrations to and from high latitudes, 43, 44, 67.

----, the polar singing-bird, the snow-bunting, 43.

----, raptorial, of the Arctic regions, 43.

----, enormous numbers of, along the Arctic shores, 67.

----, Icelandic, 81.

---- of the coast of Norway, 124.

---- of Spitzbergen, 133, 134, 137.

---- of Nova Zembla, 154.

----, a bird bazar, 154.

----, abundance of sea-fowl on the coast of Kamchatka, 255.

----, Esquimaux mode of bird-catching, 295.

----, abundance of, on the coast of Greenland, 388.

Birds of the coasts of the Antarctic sea, 394.

---- of Patagonia, 419.

Birkarls, their final subjugation of the Lapps, 156.

Biscoe, his discovery of Enderby Land, and of Graham Land, 401.

Black death, ravages of the, in the North, 383.

Blackfeet Indians, their wars with the Tinné and Crees, 319, 320.

Bloody Falls, on the Coppermine river, 294.

Boats of the Esquimaux, 293.

----, the birch-bark canoes of North America, 304.

Bogberries of the Arctic regions, 24.

Booth, Sir Felix, his Arctic expedition, 251.

Bougainville, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.

Brandt, the Danish forester, his journey with Von Middendorff, 220.

Brandy, fondness of the Samoïedes for, 171–173.

---- drunk at Kolymsk, 238.

Brant Ysbrantzoon, his voyages of discovery, 339.

Bread of the poor Icelanders, 79.

Bredal, Eric, his education of Lapps in Christianity, 156.

Bridges, swing, of Iceland, 111.

Browne, T. Ross, 74, 95, 104, 115.

Buchan, Captain, his Arctic voyage, 344.

Bunting, its migrations to and from the north, 43.

----, the Lapland (Centrophanes Lapponicus), latitudes inhabited by the, 43, 44.

Bunting, the snow, the polar singing-bird, 44.

Bunting, its nest and food, 44.

---- of Iceland, 81.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

Burglars, treatment of, in Russia, 206.

Burrough, Stephen, his voyage to discover the north-eastern passage, 336.

Busa, Jelissei, his ascent of the rivers Lena and Olekma, 195.

----, his discovery of the Tana, 195.

----, his residence among the Jukahirs, 195.

Butter made from the reindeer milk, 36.

Butterflies in Taimurland, 227.

Byron, Commodore, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.

C.

Cabot, John and Sebastian, their re-discovery of parts of North America, 335.

----, their re-discovery of Newfoundland, 379.

Canada, enterprise of the French settlers in, 306.

----, results of the English conquest of, 306.

----, history of the fur-trade of, 307.

Cano, Sebastian el, his voyage round the globe, 413.

Canoes, birch-bark, of North America, 304, 305.

Cape, North, description of the, 129, 130.

Caribou, or reindeer of North America, range of the, 36.

Carrancha, the, of Patagonia, 419, 420.

Cartier, Jacques, his voyages, 335.

Caryophyllæ, the, of the treeless zone, 21.

Cascades of Iceland, 78.

Castor and Pollux river, discovery of, 356.

Castrén, Matthias Alexander, account of him and of his journeys, 168–178.

Catherine’s Foreland, Queen, 409.

Cattle, value of, to the Icelands, 80.

Cavendish, his voyages, 414.

Chancellor, his discovery of the passage from England to the White Sea, 192.

Chancellor, his voyage to discover the north-eastern route to China, 336.

----, his visit to Moscow, and subsequent fate, 336.

Charles IX., King of Sweden, his kindness to the Lapps, 156.

Chatanga river, scanty population of the, 220.

----, Middendorff’s journey to the, 220, 221.

Chatangsk, Middendorff’s journey to, 221

Cheese made from reindeer milk, 36.

Cherie Island, account of, 144.

Chess-players of the Tungusi, 246.

Chickweed, the, on the Mary Minturn river, 20.

Chimengo, the, of Patagonia, 419.

China, Castrén’s journey over the mountains into, 177.

Chinese take the Russian fort of Albasin, 195; and make the treaty of Nertschinsk with the Russians, 196.

----, the treaty broken by the Russians, who compel the Chinese to give them the Amoor, 196.

Chinga (Mephitis chinga), its fœtid secretion, 316.

Christian IV., King of Denmark, his treatment of the Lapp priests and sorcerers, 156.

----, his expedition to Greenland, 383.

Christianity, introduction of, into Iceland, 92.

Churches of the Icelanders, 104.

Clavering, his voyage to Greenland, 386.

Clergy of the Lapps, their poverty and self-denial, 157.

----, their sermons, 157.

----, those of Iceland all blacksmiths, 101, note, 106.

----, their poverty, 106.

Coal, does not exist in Iceland, 88.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

---- in Coal Bay, 145.

Coal Bay, 145.

Cochlearia fenestrata, the only esculent plant in Spitzbergen, 136, 142.

Cod and cod-fishing of the coast of Iceland, 86, 87.

----, the, called stockfish, 87.

----, the cod-fishery of Norway, 125–130.

----, wretched state of the fishermen, 127.

----, exports of, to various countries, 129.

----, cod-fishery of Greenland, 388.

----, value of the cod-fishery of Newfoundland, 379, 380.

----, mode of fishing and curing the cod, 380.

----, dangers of the fishery, 381.

----, immense numbers of, 381.

Cod-liver oil of Tromsö, 128.

Collinson, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359, 361.

Commodore Islands, chase of the sea-bear on the, 274.

Condor, the, of Patagonia, 420.

Coniferæ, Arctic forests almost confined to the, 24.

----, difference between the European and Asiatic and American species, 24.

Constitution, Cape, discovery of, 369.

Cook, his attempt to discover the northwest passage, 344.

Cook, Captain, his discovery of South Georgia, 393.

----, his Antarctic voyages, 401.

Copper mines near Drontheim, 124.

---- of Alten, 128.

---- of Raipass, 128.

Coppermine river, Dr. Richardson’s voyage to the, 349.

Cornelius Ryp, his voyages of discovery, 340, 341.

Cornelius Corneliszoon, his voyages of discovery, 339.

Corniculariæ, carpets of, and the treeless zone, 21.

Cortereal, his voyages of discovery, 325.

Cossacks, Don, their depredations, 192.

----, their conquest of Siberia for the Czar, 193.

----, their privileges and duties in Nishne-Kolymsk, 236.

Coureur des bois, the, of North America, 304.

Cranberries of the Arctic regions, 24.

Cree Indians, uses of the paper-birch-tree to the, 305.

----, range of the various tribes of, 319.

----, their conquests of the Tinné, but subsequent defeat, 319, 320.

----, their wars with the Blackfeet, 320, 321

----, their character, 321.

----, their customs, habits, and dress, 321, 322, 323.

----, their wives and families, 323.

----, their cradles, 323.

----, their wigwams, or tents, 324.

----, their medicine-men and vapor-baths, 324.

----, their games and sports, 324, 325.

----, their wooden figures for worship, 325.

----, their malicious or capricious spirit, called Kepoochican, 325.

----, their notion of the Great Spirit and of the Deluge, 325.

----, their Tartarus and Elysium, 325.

----, prospects of Christianity amongst them, 326.

Cross, the game of, of the Cree Indians, 325.

Crowe, Mr., his copper mines at Alten, 128.

Crozier, Captain, his last voyage, 356.

----, the last heard of him, 364.

----, his Antarctic voyages, 402.

Cruciferæ, the, of the treeless zone, 20.

Crustaceans, immense numbers of, on the coast of Greenland, 59.

Cumberland Strait, Davis’s discovery of, 337, 338.

Currents, magnificent system of, and their effects on the accumulation of ice, 56, 57.

D.

Dances of the Tchuktchi, 266.

Darwin, Mr., his ascent of Mount Tarn, 411.

Davis, John, his voyages to discover an Arctic passage to India, 337.

----, his visit to Labrador, 338.

----, his subsequent life, 338.

Davis’s Straits, probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of, 27.

----, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, 335.

Dead, reverence paid to the, by the Samoïedes, 181.

Dease, Peter Warren, his land Arctic expedition, 355.

Death, black, its ravages in Iceland, 95.

Deception Island, account of, 393.

Deer, red (Cervus elaphus), its habitat and uses to man, 40.

Deer of Vogelsang and Treurenberg Bay, 137.

Deluge, Cree legend of the, 325.

Demidoff, foundation of the family of, 219.

----, their enormous wealth, 219.

Deschnew, Semen, his the first and last voyage through Bering’s Strait, 197.

Desolation, South, 412.

Detti-foss, an Icelandic cascade, Mr. Gould’s description of the, 78.

Disco bay, icebergs formed in, 49.

Divers, their migrations to and from the north, 42.

Dog-rib Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.

----, their character, dress, and customs, 327, 329.

----, their want of hospitality, 329.

----, their honesty, 329.

----, their notions of a future life, 329.

Dog, the reindeer of the Lapps, 161.

----, Wrangell’s dog-sledges on the Polar sea, 239.

----, Icelandic, 80.

----, the, of the people of Kolymsk, 236.

----, the Kamchatkan, and dog-sledges, 258, 259.

----, their mode of foretelling storms, 259.

----, mode of training sledge-dogs, 259.

----, trained by Esquimaux to attack the bear, 297.

----, description of the, and dog-sledges of the Esquimaux, 299.

----, Dr. Kane’s Newfoundland and Esquimaux, 367.

----, epidemic amongst the Esquimaux, 372.

Dolgorouky, Prince, his exile to Siberia, 205.

Dolphin, white, or beluga, of Nova Zembla, 155.

----, Greenland fishery of the, 387.

Dolphins of the Polar seas, 61, 398.

----, the beluga, or white dolphin, 61.

----, the black dolphin, “ca’ing” whale, or grind, 61.

----, the orc, or grampus, 62.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

Drake, Sir Francis, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.

Drifanda Foss, an icelandic cascade, 114.

Drontheim, the red deer near, 40.

----, description of, 124.

Ducks, wild, of the Arctic regions, 19.

----, their migrations to and from the north, 42.

---- of Iceland, 81, 84.

Dudinka, Castrén’s visit to, 176.

Dungeness, Point, 409.

Durfoorth, his voyage and death, 336.

D’Urville, Dumont, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, 402.

Dutch, their expeditions to discover an Arctic passage to India, 339.

E.

Eagle, the sea- (Haliætus albicilla), of the north, 44.

----, his food, 44.

----, white-tailed, of Iceland, 85.

----, value of the skins of the, 85.

----, the, on the coast of Norway, 125.

----, in the Tundra in summer, 19.

Ebierbing, 441, 466.

Egede, Hans, his voyage to Greenland, 384.

Egg-väre of the coast of Norway, 124.

Egilson, Olaf, the Westman clergyman, his slavery in Algiers, 118.

Eider-duck, its migrations to and from the north, 43.

---- of Iceland, 81.

----, breeding of, 83.

----, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to one of its head-quarters, 83.

Elder, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.

Elephant, sea-, of the Antarctic ocean, 399.

Elk, or moose deer, of the forests of the north, 38.

----, Cæsar’s account of it, 39.

----, its food and present habitat, 40.

Elk, its mode of defending itself, 40.

Enara, Lake of, the Fisher Lapps of, 166.

----, description of the, 169.

Enderby Land, discovery of, 401.

English pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, 95.

Erebus, mount, eruption of, 403.

Eric the Red, his visit to Greenland, 382.

Ermine (Mustela erminea) beauty and importance of the fur of the, 210.

----, those of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, 316.

Esk, volcano, 146.

Esquimaux (see also Innuits), their wide extension, 290.

----, their own name of Innuit, 290.

----, character of the regions they inhabit, 290.

----, their physical character, habits, and manners, 290, 291.

---- women, 291.

----, their dress and snow-huts, 291, 292.

----, their boat, the kayak or baidar, 293.

----, their weapons, and fishing and hunting implements, 293, 294.

----, enmity between them and the Red Indians, 294.

----, their chase of the reindeer, and bird-catching, 295.

----, their whale and seal hunts, 295, 296.

----, their “keep kuttuk,” 296.

----, their bear and walrus hunts, 296, 298.

----, their dogs and dog-sledges, 299.

----, their games and sports, 300.

----, constitution of their society, 300.

----, their angekoks, or priests, 300, 301.

----, their moral character, self-reliance, and intelligence, 301, 302.

----, their maps, and predilection for commercial pursuits, 302.

----, their voracity, and seasons of abundance and distress, 302, 303.

----, their dépôts of food, 302, 303.

----, their wars with the Kutchin Indians, 333.

----, their attack of Franklin’s boats, 349.

----, their hunting expeditions with Dr. Kane’s party, 370.

----, their ravages on the Greenland coast, 383.

Europe, treeless zone of, 18–24.

Evil Spirit of the woods of the Laplanders, 157.

Exiles, Siberian, 204, 205.

----, annual number of, 206.

Eyjafialla, eruption of, in 1821, 96.

Eystein, King, his benevolence, 126.

F.

Faeroe Islands, chase of the black dolphin, or “ca’ing” whale, in the, 61.

Falkland Islands, climate of, 394.

Famine, Port, rich vegetation of, 410, 414.

Festuca of the Arctic regions, 20.

Finback whales of Spitzbergen, 137.

Finches in the Tundra in summer, 19.

Finmark, trade and fisheries of the coast of, 129.

Finnur Johnson, the Icelander, his “Ecclesiastical History of Iceland,” 98.

Fir, different species of, in Europe, Asia, and America, 24.

Fish, and fishing season of Iceland, 86.

----, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 255.

---- of Newfoundland, 379.

---- of Greenland, 387.

Fish river, Great, Back’s discovery of, 355.

Fisher Lapps, account of the, 166.

Fiskernasset, cod-fishery of, 388.

Fitzroy, Captain, his surveys of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, 415.

Fjall Lappars, or Mountain Lapps, account of the, 159.

Flatey, eider-ducks of, 81, 82.

Flat-fish, abundance of, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.

Floki, the Viking, his visit to Iceland, 90.

Flora of Spitzbergen, 136.

Flowers of the Arctic regions, 20.

---- of the island of St. Lawrence, 271.

---- of Taimurland, 226.

---- of Unalaschka, 269.

Fogs of the Arctic seas in summer, 54.

---- near the island of St. Lawrence, 270.

---- off Newfoundland, 380.

Food, amount of, required by man in the Arctic regions, 28.

Forest regions, Arctic, 18.

----, extent of the, 22.

----, character of the trees of the, 24.

----, distinctive character of the forests, 25.

----, characters of the Arctic forests of the Miocene period, 28, 29.

----, legions of gnats in the, 25.

----, changes being effected by the agency of man, 25.

Forests, the, head-quarters of many of the Arctic fauna, 41.

----, more in than above the earth in Nova Zembla, 153.

----, of Newfoundland, 376.

Forget-me-not found in Nova Zembla, 153.

Forster, Captain, his expedition to the Antarctic sea, 393.

Fossils, Arctic, in New Siberia, 203.

Foulke, Port, Dr. Hayes’s winter at, 372.

Fox, the Arctic (Canis lagopus), its mode of protecting itself from the most intense cold, 42.

Fox, the Arctic, its food and enemies, 42.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

---- in Nova Zembla, 154.

---- found in Taimurland, 227.

---- of Newfoundland, 378.

----, black, of Siberia, value of the fur of the, 211.

----, the Brazilian (Canis Azaræ), of Patagonia, 419.

---- red (Vulpes fulvus), the, 211, 317.

---- value of the fur of the, 317.

Fox Islands, discovery of the, 201.

France, right of the people of, to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, 379.

Franklin, Lieut. (afterwards Sir John), his first Arctic voyage, 344.

----, his first land journey, 346.

----, his second land journey to the shores of the Polar sea, 349.

----, loss of his first wife, 350.

----, his last voyage, 356.

----, searching expeditions sent for him, 356.

----, his fate and that of his companions, 362–364.

Franklin Island, discovery of, 403.

Fraser river, voyage of Mackenzie down the, 308.

Frederick II., King of Denmark, his expedition to Greenland, 383.

Frederick IV., his foundation of the Finmark mission, 156.

Friedrich, the Saxon bishop, introduces Christianity into Iceland, 92.

Fritillaria Sarrana, used as food in Kamchatka, 258.

Frobisher, Martin, his endeavors to discover an Arctic passage to India, 337.

----, discovery of relics of, 466.

----, his subsequent career, 337.

Froward, Cape, scenery of, 410.

Frozen sailor, 464.

Fruits of the Arctic regions, 21.

Fuego, Tierra del, climate of, 393.

----, origin of the name, 413.

----, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, 415.

----, account of the Fuegians, 425.

----, degradation of the Fuegians, 425, 426.

----, their powers as mimics, 426.

----, their notions of trade, 427.

----, causes of their low state of civilization, 427.

----, their food, 428.

----, their dress, huts, arms, and ornaments, 428, 429.

----, their cannibalism, 430.

----, their language, 430.

----, Captain Fitzroy’s three Fuegians, 430, 431.

----, missionary labors, 431.

----, Captain Gardiner, 431.

Fuel, kinds of, used in Iceland, 89.

Fur, account of the Russian Fur Company, and its operations, 272.

----, account of the fur-trade of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 304 et seq.

----, trade in, at the fair of Obdorsk, 189.

---- of Siberia, 208.

----, importance of the trade in, 212.

---- of the Tchuktchi, 264.

G.

Gabriel Channel, williwaws of, 412.

Gadflies which attack the reindeer, 38.

Galictis vittata, the, of Patagonia, 418.

Gambling of the Cree Indians, 324.

Gardar, the northern pirate, his the first circumnavigation of Iceland, 90.

Gardar’s Holm, or Gadar’s Island, Iceland so called, 90.

Gardiner, Captain, his mission to Fuegia, and melancholy end, 431.

Gawrilow, produce of the gold mine of, 218.

Geese, wild, of the Arctic regions, 19.

----, snow, their migrations to and from the north, 43.

---- of Iceland, 81.

“George Henry,” the ship, 436.

George, St., climate of the island of, 270.

----, sea-lions and guillemots of, 271.

Georgia, South, discovery of, 393.

Germany, the elk or moose-deer of, in the time of Cæsar, 39.

Geysir, the Great, description of the, 71.

Gheritz, Dirck, his discovery of the New Shetland Islands, 392.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, takes possession of Newfoundland, 379.

Ginkloti, or children’s disease, in the Westman Islands, 118.

Gissur, his work on his voyages to the East, 94.

----, the Icelander, his learning and travels, 98.

Gjas, or chasms, in Iceland, 76, 77.

Glacier, the great, in the Gulf of Penas, 394.

Glaciers, enormous dimensions of the, of the polar regions, 50.

Glaciers of Magdalena Bay, 135; ice cliffs and avalanches of, 135.

---- of the Beerenberg mountain, 146.

Glottoff, Stephen, his discovery of Kadiak, 202.

Gloves, reindeer, of Tornea, 37.

Glutton, or wolverine, strength and fierceness of the, 37.

Glutton, its attack of the reindeer, 37, 38.

----, its voracity, 38.

----, found in Taimurland, 227.

----, those of North America, 316.

----, value and uses of the fur of the, 316.

Gnats, legions of, in the forests and swamps, 26.

Goda-foss, the, an Icelandic cascade, 78.

Gold diggings of Eastern Siberia, 208.

----, description of the gold-fields, 214.

Gomez, his voyages of discovery, 335.

Goose, bean (Anser segetum), of Nova Zembla, 155.

Goose, Brent, its migrations to and from the north, 43.

----, its rapid flight, 43.

Graah, Captain, his explorations of the coast of Greenland, 386.

Graham Land, discovery of, 401.

Grampus, or orc (Delphinus orca), description of the, 62.

----, his ferocity and mode of ploughing the seas, 62.

---- of Nova Zembla, 155.

---- of the Antarctic Ocean, 398.

----, conflict of one with a whale, 398.

Grasses, tufted, of the Arctic regions, 20.

---- of the treeless zone, 21.

----, paramount importance of the grasses in Iceland, 79.

---- of Taimurland, 226.

Greenland, vast ice-fields of, 27.

----, proofs of a former milder climate in, 29.

----, enormous dimensions of the glaciers of, 50.

----, the, whale, 60.

----, transparency of the water on the coast of, 59.

----, abundance of animal life in the seas of, 60.

----, walruses of the coasts of the north of, 64.

----, Kane’s sledge journey along the coast of, 367.

----, unknown extent of, 382.

----, ancient Scandinavian colonists of, 382.

----, the name of, given to it, 382.

----, introduction of Christianity in, 382.

----, decline and fall of the country, 383.

----, subsequent explorations of, 383.

----, Hans Egede, the pastor, his voyage to, 384.

----, foundation of Godthaab in, 384.

----, arrival of Herrenhuth missionaries in, 384.

----, explorations of the coast of, 385.

----, present Danish settlements of, 386.

----, scanty population of, 386.

----, mode of life of the people of, 386, 387, 389.

----, fisheries of, 388.

----, poorness of the land in, 388.

----, quantities of drift-wood at, 388.

----, minerals of, 389.

----, Christianity in, 389.

----, climate, mountains, and fjords of, 389.

----, ice-caves of the coast of, 390.

----, the capital of, 437.

Greenlanders, their discovery of, and colonies in America, 335.

----, destruction of their colonies, 335.

----, their habits, 437.

Greiffenfeld, his imprisonment in Munkholm, 124.

Grinds. See Dolphins, black.

Grinnell Land, vegetation of, 20.

----, Dr. Hayes’s discoveries in, 372–374.

Guanaco, the, of Patagonia, 419.

Guano, circumstances which favor the deposit of, 418.

Guillemot, on the Pribilow Islands, 271.

Gulf Stream, influence of, on the south and west coasts of Iceland, 79; and on the climate of Norway, 121.

Gull, Ross’s, distance north at which it has been seen, 67.

Gull, ivory, in Taimurland, 227.

Gustavus I., King of Sweden, his kind treatment of the Lapps, 156.

Gustavus Adolphus, his foundation of a school for the Lapps, 156.

H.

Haddocks, abundance of, on the coast of Iceland, 87.

Hakon, King of Norway, his annexation of Iceland, 95.

Hall, Charles Francis, his Arctic expedition, 433–467.

----, James, his voyage to Greenland, 383.

Hammerfest, description of the town of, 129.

----, traffic of, 129.

----, the people of, 129.

----, cargoes of walruses and seals brought from Spitzbergen, 143.

Hare, the fur of the, of Siberia, 212.

----, ice (Lepus glacialis), 317.

----found in Taimurland, 227.

Hare Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.

----, their women, 328.

Harold Haafager, or the Fair-haired, his establishment of an absolute monarchy in Norway, 90.

----, exodus caused by his tyranny, 91.

Harp-seal of the Polar seas, 62.

Hatherton, Cape, discovery of, 365.

Haven, Lieut, de, his search for Franklin, 357, 358.

Hawks in the Tundra, in summer, 19.

Hayes, Dr., his sledge journey over Kennedy Channel, 368.

----, his Arctic voyage in 1860, 372–374.

----, his opinion as to what may be done in the Arctic regions, 374.

Hecla, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95–97.

“Hecla” and “Fury” Straits, discovery of, 348.

Heemskerk, his voyages of discovery, 340.

Heineson, Mogens, the “sea-cock,” his voyage towards Greenland, 383.

Hepburn, John, the sailor, his overland journey, 346.

Herald Island, discovery of, 360.

Heimaey, or Home Island, description of, 116.

Herring, the fishery of the coast of Norway, 125.

----, food for the rorqual, or fin-whales, 61.

----, abundance of the, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.

Hesperis, the, on the Mary Minturn river, 20.

Hildringen, agriculture of, 124.

Hobson, Lieut., his search for Franklin, 362, 364.

Holme, the, of Norway, 124.

Hood, Robert, his Arctic journey, 346.

----, murdered, 347.

Horn, Cape, discovery of the passage round, 414.

Horse, the, in Iceland, 80.

---- of the Jakuts, 230–232.

Hrafnagja, 75.

Hudson, Henry, visit of, to Spitzbergen, 138.

----, his the first attempt to sail across the North Pole, 342.

----, his subsequent voyages and discoveries, 342.

----, his melancholy end, 343.

Hudson’s Bay, barren lands of, 22.

----, characters of the Coniferæ of, 24.

----, walruses of the coasts of, 64.

----, discovery of, 312.

Hudson’s Bay Company, account of the fur-trade of the, 304.

----, the old coureur des bois and the modern voyageur of, 304, 305.

----, history of the, 307.

----, formation of a rival company, and subsequent amalgamation of the two, 307–310.

----, palmy days of the, 310.

----, its reconstruction in 1863, 310.

----, its trading-posts, and their management, 310, 311.

----, its efforts to civilize the native tribes, 312.

----, the standard of exchange, the beaver-skin, 313.

----, extent of the fur-trade of, 313.

----, account of the fur-bearing animals of the Territory, 313, 314.

Hudson river, discovery of the, 342.

Hudson’s Straits, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, 335.

Humboldt Glacier, the Great, 50.

----, Kane’s description of the, 367.

Humming-bird on the peninsula of Aliaska, 269.

---- in Newfoundland, 378.

---- of Patagonia, 420.

Huts of the Esquimaux, 293.

---- of the Icelanders, 102.

Hvalö, island of, 129.

Hvita river, in Iceland, 78.

I.

Ice, vast fields of, in the plateaus of Spitzbergen, Greenland, and Nova Zembla, 27.

----, floating masses of, in the Polar seas, 45.

----, enormous extent of the Polar glaciers, 49, 50.

----, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, 55, 56.

----, a bad conductor of heat, 57.

----, ice-fields of Iceland, 69.

----, glaciers, ice-cliffs, and avalanches of Spitzbergen, 135, 136.

----, impediments offered by the hummocks to travellers on the Polar sea, 240.

----, icebergs of the Antarctic sea, 392.

----, ice-caves of Greenland, 390.

----, the great ice-barrier of the Antarctic Ocean, 403.

----, pack-ice of the Antarctic Ocean, 404, 405.

Icebergs, 46.

----, forms and size of, 48.

----, origin of, 48.

----, localities in which most of the icebergs of the North Atlantic are formed, 49.

----, Dr. Hayes’s description of, in a midnight sun, 50.

----, how distinguished at night and in fogs, 52.

----, dangers of collisions with, 52.

----, protection to ships afforded by, 53.

----, dangers of anchoring to, 53.

Icebergs, “calving” of, 54.

----, crumbling of, 54.

Ice-blink, description of the phenomenon of, 54.

----, its advantages to the Arctic navigator, 54.

Ice-fields, 46.

----, hummocks on, 46.

----, collision of, 48.

----, dangers caused by, to ships, 48.

Ice-grotto of Surts-hellir, 77.

Iceland, volcanic origin of, 68.

----, the country in winter and in summer, 68, 79.

----, sterile portions of the island, 69.

----, its immense ice-fields, 69.

----, its lava-streams, 69, 77.

----, the burning mountains of Krisuvik, 69.

----, the mud-caldrons and hot springs, 70.

----, the Great Geysir, 71.

----, the Strokkr, 72.

----, crystal pools, 73.

----, the Almannagja, 73, 74.

----, the Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, 77.

----, rivers and cascades of, 78.

----, influence of the ocean currents on the climate, 78.

----, mean annual temperature, 79.

----, absence of trees in, 79.

----, vegetation and condition of agriculture, 79.

----, indigenous land quadrupeds, 80.

----, cattle of the Icelanders, 80.

----, beverages, 80.

----, mode of shearing sheep, 80.

----, characteristics and number of horses, 80.

----, the reindeer, 80, 81.

----, the polar bear, 81.

----, the eider-duck, 81, 88.

----, the giant auk, 85, 86.

----, Icelandic fish and fishing season, 86, 87.

----, hospitality of the people, 87.

----, minerals of the country, 88.

----, fuel used by the Icelanders, 88.

----, history of, 89.

----, Naddodr’s discovery of the Ice Land, 89; which he named Snowland, 99.

----, circumnavigated by the pirate Gadar, and called by him Gardar’s holm, 90.

----, visited by the viking Floki, and called by him Iceland, 90.

----, foundation of Reykjavik by Ingolfr and Leif, 90.

----, exodus from Norway to, 91.

----, introduction of the Norwegian language and customs, 91.

----, code of laws of Uffliot the Wise, 91.

----, the ancient Althing at Thingvalla, 91, 92.

----, introduction of Christianity into the island, 92.

----, the golden age of Icelandic literature, 94.

----, history of, annexation of the island to Norway, 95.

----, its subsequent misfortunes, 95.

----, volcanic eruptions, 95.

----, misery caused by the curse of monopoly, 97.

----, hope for the future of the islanders, 97.

----, account of the Icelanders of the present day, 98.

----, Skalkott, the former capital of the island, 98.

----, the present capital, Reykjavik, 100.

----, state of trade in, 100.

----, the merchant and the peasant, 101.

----, temperate habits of the people, 101.

----, condition of agriculture, 102.

Iceland, a harvest home, 102.

----, winter life, 102, 108, 109.

----, huts of the Icelanders, 102, 103.

----, churches, 104.

----, clergymen all blacksmiths, 101, note, 106; their poverty, 106–108.

----, the Iceland poet, John Thorlakson, 107.

----, education of the clergy and children, 108, 109.

----, industry and thirst for knowledge of the people, 109; their language, 109.

----, the library of Reykjavik, 109.

----, the Icelandic Literary Society, 110.

----, Icelandic newspapers, 110.

----, health of the people, 110.

----, difficulties and expense of travelling, 110–113.

---- moss, eaten and exported by the Icelanders, 79.

---- moss, food for the deer of Spitzbergen, 137.

----, in the treeless zone, 21.

Idols of the Samoïedes, 180.

Igloolik, island of, 348.

Iligliuk, the Esquimaux, her intelligence and passion for music, 348.

Indians, Red, their enmity with the Esquimaux, 294.

----, their decimation by smallpox and drunkenness, 308.

----, efforts of the Hudson’s Bay Company to civilize them, 312, 313.

----, the beaver skin their standard of exchange with the Company, 313.

Inglefield, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359.

----, his discoveries, 365.

Ingolfr, the Norwegian yarl, his visit to Iceland, and foundation of Reykjavik, 90.

Innuits, the, see also Esquimaux, 433, 467.

----, their character, 439, 461.

----, amusement of, 440.

----, their dwellings, 443, 457, 462.

----, distress in winter, 444.

----, seal, feasts of, 445.

----, mode of capturing seals, 446, 448, 452.

----, their dogs, 445, 450, 454.

----, their opinion of the bear, 451.

----, mode of hunting the walrus, 454.

----, their implements, 456.

----, mode of constructing an igloo, 457.

----, their use of the reindeer, 458.

----, their clothing, 460.

----, reindeer feasts, 459.

----, food and mode of eating, 460.

----, their religious ideas, 460.

----, treatment of the sick, 461.

----, gradual extinction, 462.

Insects of Taimurland, 227.

Irish colonists on the Westman Islands, 115.

Irkutsk, extreme cold of, 208.

----, Wrangell’s visit to, 233.

----, summer flowers of, 233.

Iron mines near Drontheim, 124.

Isabella, Cape, discovery of, 365.

Ishemsk, Castrén’s visit to, 174.

----, the Isprawnik of, and his wife, 174, 176.

Islands within the Arctic Circle, barren grounds of the, 18.

Isleif, the oldest chronicler of the North, 98.

Issakow, of Kem, rounds the north-eastern extremity of Nova Zembla, 150.

Itälmenes, cruelty of their conquerors, the Russians, 198.

Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., first Czar of Russia, his defeat of the Tartars, 191.

Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., subdues the Great Novgorod, 191.

----, becomes head of the Greek orthodox Church and the first Czar, 192.

----, Chancellor’s visit to him at Moscow, 336.

Ivan Wasiljewitsch II., his conquest of Kasan, 192.

----, his surname of the Terrible, 192.

Ivory, fossil, in the islands of New Siberia, 202.

Iwalo river, in Lapland, Castrén’s journey on the, 169.

J.

Jakowlew family, 219.

----, their enormous wealth in gold mines, 219.

Jakuts, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.

----, their snares and traps, 213.

----, their energy and cunning, 228.

----, their language, origin, character, and personal appearance, 228.

----, their summer and winter huts, 229.

----, their horses, 230.

----, their powers of endurance and sharpness of vision, 230.

----, their manufactures and articles of dress, 231.

----, their gluttony, 231.

----, the universal carriers to the east of the Lena, 231.

----, their superstitions, 232.

----, their offerings of horsehair to the spirit of the mountains, 232.

----, their songs, 232.

----, wretched condition of the river, 252.

Jakutsk, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, 27.

----, extreme cold of, 208.

----, gloomy appearance of the town, 233.

----, trade of, 233.

Jan Meyen, description of, 146.

Jelly, made from the horns and claws of the reindeer, 37.

Jelly-fish (Pleurobrachia pileus) in the sea of Kara, 151.

Jenissei river, Castrén’s journey to the, 176.

Jeniseisk, Castrén’s visit to, 177.

----, the ostrog of, founded, 195.

Jyrfalcon (Falco gyrfalco), its head-quarters in Iceland, 85.

----, former trade in the, 85.

Jilibeambaertje, or Num, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, 179.

“John, Gentleman,” the English pirate, 118.

John’s, St., capital of Newfoundland, 378.

Jökuls, or ice-mountains of Iceland, 68.

Jökulsa i Axarfirdi river, in Iceland, 78.

Jökulsa river, in Iceland, 78.

Jones’s Sound, discovery of the entrance to, 343.

Jukahires, chief resource of those of the Aniuj, 237.

----, Jelissei Busa’s residence among the, 195.

K.

Kadiak, island of, discovery of the, 202.

Kaiak, island of, landing of Stella on the, 249.

“Kalewala,” Castrén’s Swedish translation of the, 170.

Kamchatka, subjugation of, by the Russians, 198.

----, cruelty of the conquerors, 198.

Kamchatka, Steller’s scientific journey to, 248.

----, its climate and fertility, 254.

----, abundance of fish in the rivers, 255.

----, bird-catchers of, 255.

----, population, 255.

----, mountain chain and volcanoes, 256.

----, climate and mineral springs, 256.

----, harbors and population, 256.

----, healthiness of the people, 257.

----, their food, 258.

----, their animals, 258, 260.

----, character of the people, 260, 261.

Kane, Dr., his Arctic voyages, 365.

----, his account of his first winter in Rensselaer Bay, 365.

----, his description of the Polar night, 366.

----, his sledge journey along the coast of Greenland, 367.

----, his illness on the voyage and recovery, 368.

----, resolves to winter a second time in Rensselaer Bay, 369.

----, departure and return of part of his crew, 369, 370.

----, sufferings of his party, 371.

----, abandonment of his ship, and boat journey to Upernavik, 371.

----, his return to New York, and death, 372.

Kara Gate, reached by Stephen Burrough, 336.

Kara, Sea of, 147.

----, expeditions to the, 147.

Kasan, Russian conquest of, 192.

Kellett, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359.

Kendall, Lieut., his voyage to the Coppermine river, 349.

----, his account of Deception Island, 393.

Kennedy, William, his search for Franklin, 358.

----, his sledge journey with Bellot, 359.

Kennedy Channel, Dr. Hayes’s sledge journey across, 368.

----, his voyage across, 373.

Kerguelen Land, climate of, 393.

Khipsack, destruction of the empire of the Khans of, 191.

King, Captain, his survey of the Magellan Strait, 415.

King William’s Island, coast of, traced by Mr. Thomas Simpson, 356.

Klofa jökul, extent of the, 69.

Knight, John, his melancholy Arctic voyage, 341.

----, murdered by the Esquimaux, 342.

Koldewey, Captain, his journey towards the North Pole, 374.

Kolwa, Castrén’s visit to, 174.

Kolyma river, inundations of the, 237.

Kolymsk, Nishnei, foundation of the town of, 197.

----, Wrangell’s visit to, 234.

----, situation and climate of, 234.

----, vegetable and animal life, 235.

----, population of the district, 236.

----, dwellings of the Russian residents, 236.

----, mode of life of the natives, 236, 237.

----, their dogs, 236, 237.

----, berry-gathering in the district, 238.

----, famine of the people, 238.

----, social parties at, 238.

Koriaks, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.

Koronnoie Filippowskoi, Von Middendorff’s journey to, 221.

Kostin Schar, visit of Von Baer to, 152.

----, storm in, 152.

Kötlugja, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95, 97.

Krasnojarsk, Castrén’s visit to, 175, 176.

----, extravagance of the gold aristocracy of, 218.

Krenitzin, his discovery of the peninsula of Aljaska, 202.

Kresdowosdwishensk, produce of the gold mine of, 218.

Krisuvik, burning mountains of, 69.

Krotow, Lieutenant, lost off Nova Zembla, 147.

Kutchin Indians, their dwelling-place, 331.

----, their personal appearance and dress, 331.

----, their medium of exchange, 331.

----, their women and children, 332.

----, their amusements, 332.

----, their wars with the Esquimaux, 333.

----, their suspicious and timorous lives, 333.

----, their mode of pounding the moose-deer, 333.

----, their frequent distress, 334.

----, their huts, 334.

Kutchum Khan, his conquest of Siberia, 192.

----, defeated by Yermak the robber, at Tobolsk, 193, 194.

----, his revenge, 194.

L.

Labrador, barren lands of, 22.

----, effect of the icy seas and cold currents on the climate of, 22.

----, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, 335.

Lächow Islands, discovery of the, 202.

Lagarfliot river, in Iceland, 78.

Lakes of Newfoundland, 377.

Lambert, M. Gustave, his opinion as to the route to the Pole, 375.

Lancaster Sound, discovery of the entrance to, 343.

Lapps, their history and conversion to Christianity, 156.

----, poverty and self-denial of their clergy, 157.

----, their ancient gods and present superstitions, 156, 157.

----, Evil Spirit of the woods, 157.

----, sorcery and witchcraft, 158.

----, their personal appearance, 158.

Lappars, the Fjall, or Mountain Lapps, 159.

----, their dwellings, 159.

----, their reindeer pens, 160.

----, their summer and winter encampments, 161.

----, their sledges and skates, 161.

----, natural beauties of their country, 162.

----, their love of home, 162.

----, their mode of hunting the bear and the wolf, 163, 164.

----, the wealthy, and their mode of living, 164.

----, their annual visits to the fairs, 165.

----, their drunkenness, 165.

----, their worship of mammon, treasure hoarding, 165.

----, their fondness for brandy and tobacco, 165.

----, their affectionate disposition, 166.

----, the Skogslappars, or Forest Lapps, 166.

----, the Fisher, 166.

Laptew, Lieut. Cheriton, his explorations of the coasts of Taimurland, 200.

----, his explorations to the east of the Lena, 200.

Larch, the, of Siberia, 24.

----, of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, 24.

Lawrence, St., climate and vegetation of the island of, 271.

Lava streams of Iceland, 69, 77.

----, streams of, thrown out by the great eruption of Skaptar Jökul, 95–97.

Laxaa, or Salmon river, abundance of fish caught in the, 87.

Leif, the Norwegian jarl, his visit to Iceland, 90.

----, murdered by his Irish slaves, 91.

Lemming, its habitat and food. 42.

----, exaggerations of Olaus Magnus and Pontoppidan respecting the, 42.

----, its enemies, and accidents to which it is liable, 42.

----of New Siberia, 27.

----of Nova Zembla, 154.

Lena river, ascended by the Cossacks, 195.

----, importance of the, 17.

----, barren grounds near the, 22.

----, Wrangell’s journey down the, 233.

Leprosy, or “likthra,” of Iceland, 110.

Lichens, gray, of the “barren grounds,” 18.

----, food for the reindeer, 27.

----, the Lichen rangiferinus, the food of the reindeer, 36.

----of Nova Zembla, 153.

----of the Pribilow Islands, 271.

Liddon, Lieut. M., his Arctic voyages, 345.

Lindenow, Godske, his voyage to Greenland, 383.

Lion, sea- (Otaria Stelleri), value of the skin of the, 276.

----, the sea-, of the Antarctic Ocean, 399.

Lister, Cape, discovery of, 385.

Lithuania, the elk of, 39.

Loaisa, Garcia de, his voyage round the globe, 413.

Lofoten Islands, the, 125.

----, cod-fishery of the, 125, 126.

Looming objects in the Arctic regions, 55.

Loschkin, the walrus-hunter, his voyage on the coast of Nova Zembla, 147.

Löstadius, the Lapp priest, his self-denial and poverty, 157.

Loucheux. See Kutchin Indians.

Louis-Philippe Terre, discovery of, 402.

Lovunnen, puffins of, 125.

Löwenorn, his voyage to Greenland, 385.

Lütke, Admiral, his endeavors to penetrate along the coast of Nova Zembla, 147.

Lychnis, purple, of the Arctic regions, 20.

Lynx, Canada, or pishu (Lynx Canadensis), 317.

----, value of the fur of the, 212, 317.

Lyon, Captain, his unsuccessful voyage, 348.

M.

Mackenzie, Alexander, his voyages of discovery in North America, 308.

Mackenzie river, importance of the, 17.

----, forests and barren lands near the, 22.

----, influence of the southerly winds on the temperature of the valley of the, 27.

----, discovery of the, 308.

Maesnikow, Nikita, his gold-fields in Eastern Siberia, 214, 217, 218.

Magdalena Bay, description of, 133.

Magellan, Strait of, 408.

----, description of the, 408.

----, entrances to, 409.

----, opening into the Pacific, 411.

----, discovery of the, by Magellan, 413.

----, Sir J. Narborough’s chart, 414.

----, Captains King and Fitzroy’s surveys of, 415.

Magerö, island of, 129.

Magicians of the Samoïedes, 180, 181.

Malewinsky, Lieutenant, his gold mine of Olginsk, 218.

Maelstrom, the, 126.

Mammoth, fossil remains of the, in New Siberia, 202.

Man, his difficulty in establishing a footing in the Arctic regions, 17.

----, how he is able to stand the rigors of an Arctic winter, 28.

Maps of the Esquimaux, 302.

Mariinsk, station of, built by the Russians, 196.

----, gold mine of, 217.

Marshes of Newfoundland, 377.

Marten, pine (Martes abietum), the, 316.

----, value of the fur of the, 316.

Mary Minturn river, flowers of, 20.

Matiuschkin, his sledge journey over the Polar Sea, 241.

Matoschkin Schar, visits to, 147–152.

Matthew, St., island of, inhospitable character of the, 271.

Matthew’s Straits, visited by Rosmysslow, Pachtussow, and Herr von Baer, 147–152.

McClintock, Lieut. (now Sir Leopold), his search for Franklin, 360.

----, his voyage in the “Fox,” and discovery of the fate of Franklin and his companions, 362–364.

McClure, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359–361.

----, his discovery of the north-west passage, 360.

Mecham, Lieut., his search for Franklin, 360.

Mediterranean, dried codfish sent to the, 129.

Medusæ, enormous numbers of, in the Polar world, 59.

----, in the seas off Spitzbergen, 133.

Melville Bay, enormous glaciers of, 49, 50.

Melville Island, discovery of, 345.

Mentschikoff, Prince, his exile and death in Siberia, 205.

----, his son restored to the honors of his house, 205.

Mercy Bay, discovery of, 361.

Mercy, harbor of, 412.

Middendorff, Von, his adventures in Taimurland, 220.

----, his visit to the Chatanga river, 221.

----, his journey down the Taimur river to the Polar Sea, 221–223.

----, his return journey and illness, 223–225.

----, gratitude of the Samoïedes, 224.

----, his observations on the climate and natural productions of Taimurland, 225.

Midnight, silence of, in Spitzbergen, 135.

Milk of the reindeer, 36.

Minerals of Iceland, 88.

Mink (Vison Americanus), value of the fur of the, 316.

Misery, Mount, 145.

Mollusca, small, of the Polar Seas, 59.

Moonlight nights in the Arctic regions, 32, 33.

Morse. See Walrus.

Morton, one of Dr. Kane’s crew, his illness, 368.

----, his discovery of Washington Land, 369.

Mosquitoes of Nishne-Kolymsk, 235.

Mosses, dingy, of the “barren grounds,” 18.

---- of Nova Zembla, 153.

---- of the Pribilow Islands, 270, 271.

Mourawieff, Count Nicholas, his annexation of the Amoor, 196.

Mouse, field, of Spitzbergen, 137.

Muchamor, the fungus, used as food by the Kamchatkans, 258.

Mud-springs, boiling, of Iceland, 70.

Münich, Marshal, his exile to Siberia, 205.

----, his return and subsequent life, 206.

Munk, Jens, his voyages, 343.

Munkholm, castle of, 124.

Murderers, treatment of, in Russia, 206.

Muscovy Company, its endeavors to discover a north-east passage to India, 336.

Musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), description of the, 40.

----, its former and present habitat, 40, 41.

Musquash, musk-rat, or ondatra (Fiber zibethicus), 317.

----, villages, 318.

----, modes of catching the animal, 318.

----, value of the fur of the, 318.

Mussels on the coast of Greenland, 59.

Myvatn, ducks of the, 84.

N.

Naddodr, the Norwegian pirate, his discovery of Iceland, 89.

Námar, or boiling mud-springs of Iceland, 70.

Narborough, Sir John, his chart of the Strait of Magellan, 414.

Narwhal, or sea-unicorn, domain of the, 60.

----, its tusk, 61.

----, Greenland fishery of the, 387.

Narym, Castrén’s visit to, 175.

Necromancy of the Samoïedes, 180.

Nertschinsk, treaty of, 196.

----, criminals at the mines of, 206.

Ness, Castrén’s visit to the Samoïede village of, 172.

Newfoundland, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, 335.

----, its desolate appearance, 376.

----, its forests, marshes, and barrens, 376, 377.

----, its lakes and ponds, 377, 378.

----, its fur-bearing animals, 378.

----, its reindeer and wolves, 378.

----, its climate and inhabitants, 378.

----, its capital, St. John’s, 378, 379.

----, history of the island, 379.

----, taken possession of by the English, 379.

----, right of the French and Americans to fish on the banks of, 379.

----, the French town of Placentia, 379.

----, the whole island ceded to England, 379.

----, importance of the cod-fisheries, 379.

----, the great banks of, 380.

----, account of the mode of fishing, 380.

----, fogs and storms, 380, 381.

----, seal-catching, 381.

Newspapers of Iceland, 110.

Night of a Polar winter, Kane’s description of, 366.

Nicolayevsk, station of, built by the Russians, 196.

Noiba, gold-diggings on the, 216.

Norfolk Bay, position and fur-trade of, 272.

North-eastern route to India and China, Sebastian Cabot’s idea of, 335.

----, attempts to discover it, 335–337.

North Pole, the first attempt to sail across the, 342.

----, the plan first suggested by Thorne, 342.

----, Scoresby’s near approach to the, 344.

----, Parry’s boat and sledge journey towards the, 350.

----, Dr. Hayes’s opinion as to the practicability of reaching the, across Kennedy Channel, 374.

North Pole, opinions of other scientific authorities as to the best way to reach, 374.

North-west passage to India, attempts to discover the, 342, 343.

----, M’Clure’s discovery of the, 360.

---- Company of Canada, formation and trade of the, 307.

----, its wars with the Hudson’s Bay Company, and final amalgamation, 308–310.

Northumberland Sound, temperature of, 28.

Notothenia, the, of the Antarctic seas, 400.

Norway, the lemming of the Dovrefjeld, in, 42.

----, an absolute monarchy established by Harold Haarfager in, 90.

----, causes of the mild climate of the coast of, 121.

----, condition of the soil, and of the cultivators of it, 121–123.

----, constitution of, and education of the people, 121.

----, population of, 121.

----, coast scenery of, 123.

----, Drontheim and its industry, 124.

----, birds of the coast of, 124, 125.

----, the herring and cod fisheries of, 125–128.

Nova Zembla, investigations of the shores of, 147.

----, circumnavigated by Pachtussow, 147, 148.

----, meteorological observations of Ziwolka, 150.

----, the climate of, 151.

----, Von Baer’s scientific journey, 151.

----, scientific results of his journey, 152, 153.

----, vegetation of, 153.

----, solitude and silence of, 154.

----, rarity of insects in, 154.

----, lemmings and foxes of, 154.

----, birds of, 154.

----, other animals of, 154, 155.

----, wintering of the Dutch under Barentz at, 340.

Novgorod, the Great, subdued by the Czar Ivan I., 191.

Nowodsikoff, Michael, his discoveries, 201.

Nudibranchiata, enormous numbers of, in the Polar seas, 59.

Nullipores on the coast of Greenland, 59.

Nun, or Jilibeambaertje, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, 179.

O.

Obdorsk, Castrén’s visit to, 174.

----, description of the town, 188.

----, the fair at, 189.

Obi river, importance of, 17.

----, barren grounds near the, 22.

----, its importance to the Ostiaks, 185.

----, Castrén’s journey to the, 174.

----, misery caused by the overflow of the, 175.

----, inhabitants of the banks of the, 175.

Ochota river, the, 246.

Ochotsk, sea of, reached by a party of Cossacks, 195.

----, description of the town, 246.

Olaf Truggeson, King of Norway, sends a missionary to Iceland, 93, 94.

Olginsk, gold mine of, 218.

Olonez, number of bears killed for their skins every year in, 212.

Ommaney, Captain, his search for Franklin, 357.

----, his discovery of Franklin’s first winter-quarters, 357.

Onkilon, or sedentary Tchuktchi, 267.

----, their mode of life, 267.

Oraefa Jökul, height of, 69.

----, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95.

Orange Island, visited by Barentz, 339.

Orc. See Grampus.

Osborne, Captain Sherard, his opinion as to the method of reaching the North Pole, 374.

Ostiaks, their fishing-grounds on the Obi, 175.

----, their summer huts and mode of life, 185, 186.

----, their poverty, 186.

----, their winter huts, 186.

----, their attachment to their ancient customs, 186, 187.

----, their clans, and princes, or chieftains, 187.

----, their excellence as archers, 187.

----, their personal appearance, and customs, 188.

----, annual tribute levied by Yermak, the robber, on them, 194.

----, confirmed by the Czar in the possession of their lands, 199.

Ostrich, Darwin’s, of Patagonia, 420.

Ostrownoje, town and fair of, 263–265.

Otter, the sea-, or kalan (Enhydris lutris), value of the fur of the, 211, 212.

----, description of, 211.

----, chase of the, in Kamchatka, 258.

---- hunting of the Aleuts, 273.

Otter, the fish- (Lutra Canadensis), 317.

----, fur of the, 317.

Owl, its favorite food, 43.

----, its winter in the highest latitudes, 43.

Ox, the, in Iceland, 80.

Oyster, most northerly limit where found, 126.

P.

Pachtussow, his circumnavigation of the southern island of Nova Zembla, 148.

----, his second voyage and death, 149, 150.

Pack-ice, 46.

----, its tendency to separate in calm weather, 54.

Paikoff, his discovery of the Fox Islands, 201.

Parrots of Patagonia, 420.

Parry, Lieut. W. E. (afterwards Admiral Sir), his Arctic voyages, 344.

----, his second voyage, 348.

----, his third voyage, 349.

----, abandonment of the “Fury,” 349.

----, his boat and sledge journey towards the Pole, 350.

----, his subsequent career, 351.

Parry, Mount, discovery of, 369.

----, Dr. Hayes’s journey to, 373, 374.

----, Mountains, discovery of the, 403.

Päsina river, scanty population of the, 220.

Patagonia, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, 415.

----, the people of, 417, 420.

----, difference of climate between the east and west, 417.

----, aridity of the east of, 417, 418.

----, large rivers of, 418.

----, animals of, 418, 419.

----, introduction of the horse, 424.

----, fashions of the Patagonians, 421.

----, their religious ideas, 421.

----, their superstitions and astronomical knowledge, 422.

----, their division into tribes, 422.

----, their huts, 422.

----, their trading routes, 423.

Patagonians, their system of government, and great cacique, 423.

----, their arms, amusements, and character, 424.

Paul, St., climate of the island, 271.

----, chase of the sea-bear on the, 313.

Paul the First, discovery of the Island of, 274.

Pekan, or woodshock (Martes Canadensis), fur of the, 316.

Penas, gulf of, glacier at the, 394.

Penguin, the, of the Antarctic seas, 395.

----, its food, 397.

Penny, Master, his search for Franklin, 357, 358.

Peruvian current, influence of the, 394.

Petermann, Dr. Augustus, his view of the route to the Pole, 374.

Petrel, the giant (Procellaria gigantea), of the Antarctic seas, 394.

Petropavlosk, its population, 257.

----, unsuccessful attack of the English and French on, 256.

Petschora river, 149.

Philip’s bay, 409.

Phipps, Captain (afterwards Lord Mulgrave), his voyage to discover the north-west passage, 344.

Pipit (Anthus pratensis), the, of Iceland, 81.

Plachina, Castrén’s residence and study at, 176.

Plover island, discovery of, 360.

Plovers of Iceland, 81.

Poland, the elk of, 39, 40.

Pole, North, probable condition of the land (if any) at the, 27.

Popow, Fedor, his discovery of the gold fields of Eastern Siberia, 214.

Population of Norway, 122.

Potato, cultivation of, in Norway, 124.

Pribilow Islands, climate of, 271.

----, sea-lions and guillemots of, 271.

----, chase of the sea-bear, 274.

Prontschischtschew, his fruitless endeavors to double the capes of Taimurland, 200.

----, death of him and his wife, 20.

Prussia, East, the elk of, 39, 40.

Ptarmigan (Lagopus albus), its residence in the highest latitudes in winter, 43.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

----, its summer visits to Taimurland, 227.

---- in the Tundra in summer, 19.

Pteropods, food for the Greenland whale, 60.

Puffins of Lovunnen island, 125.

----, mode of catching them, 125.

Punta Arenas, colony of Germans at, 416.

Pustosersk, visit of Castrén to, 171, 173.

Pym, Lieut., his sledge journey of search for Franklin, 360.

R.

Racoon (Procyon lotor), 315, 378.

----, value and trade in the skins of the, 316.

Rae, Dr., his search for Sir John Richardson, 357.

----, his discoveries in the Arctic seas, 357.

----, his discovery of the fate of Franklin and his crew, 362.

Raipass, copper mines at, 128.

Ranunculus, snow (Ranunculus nivalis), of Nova Zembla, 153.

Rat, musk-. See Musquash.

Ravens of Iceland, 84.

----, in Scandinavian mythology, 84, 85.

----, superstitions of the Icelanders respecting the, 85.

Razor-bill, its nests on the most northern rocks, 67.

Red-knife Indians, their hunting-grounds, 327.

Red-pole, the, of Spitzbergen, 137.

Red river colony, destruction of the, 308.

Red sharks of Iceland, 81.

Reindeer, its summer and winter quarters in the Arctic regions, 19.

----, food found by the, in Spitzbergen, 27.

----, its importance to man in the northern regions, 34.

----, its formation and adaptation to the circumstances in which it is placed, 34.

----, clattering sound of its feet, 34.

----, its antlers, 34.

----, its young, 35.

----, its milk, 36.

----, its food and olfactory powers, 36.

----, the caribou of North America, 36.

----, its geographical range in the Old and New World, 36.

----, its love of a cold climate, 36.

----, its services to man, 37.

----, its enemies, and disorders to which it is liable, 37, 38.

----, a nuisance in Iceland, 81.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

----, the, pens of the Lapps, 160.

----, milking the, 160.

----, the, sledges of the Lapps, 161.

----, attempt made to acclimatize the, in Scotland, 162.

----, ravages of wolves in herds of, 164.

----, rich Lapp owners of herds of, 164.

----, Lapp mode of killing the, 164.

----, its two annual migrations, 237.

---- hunts of the Jukahires of the Aniuj, 237, 238.

---- races of the Tchuktchi, 266.

---- hunting of the Esquimaux, 295.

----, the Kutchin Indian mode of pounding the, 333.

----, chase of the, in Greenland, 388.

Rensselaer bay, temperature of, in mid-winter, 19, 20.

----, Kane’s winters at, 365, 369.

Resanow, Jakin, his gold-fields, 214.

“Rescue,” wreck of the, 440.

Reykjahlid, boiling mud-caldrons of, 70.

Reykjavik, mean annual temperature of, 78.

----, the present capital of Iceland, 91.

----, account of, 99, 100.

----, the annual fair of, 100.

----, salary of the bishop of, 106.

----, schools and library of, 108, 109.

----, the Icelandic Literary Society, 110.

Rhinoceros remains found on the coast of Northern Siberia, 203.

Richardson, Dr. (afterwards Sir John), his Arctic land voyages, 346, 349.

----, dreadful sufferings of the party, 346, 347.

----, his search for Sir John Franklin, 356.

Rivers discharging their waters into the Polar ocean, 17.

---- of Iceland, 78.

Rocky Mountains, the wild sheep of the, 41.

Roebuck, near Lake Baikal, 40.

Rorquals, or fin-whales, habitat and size of the, 60.

----, their food, 60.

Rosmysslow, his investigations of the shores of Nova Zembla, 147.

Ross, Capt. (afterwards Sir John), Arctic voyages of, 344.

Ross, Sir John, his second journey, 351.

----, his five years in the Arctic Ocean, 351–354.

----, his return home and honors, 354.

----, Sir James, his Arctic voyages, 351.

----, his search for Franklin, 357.

----, his discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean, 402.

----, collision between his ships, the “Erebus” and “Terror,” 405, 406.

----, his danger between two icebergs, 406.

Rum, effects of, on an Iceland clergyman, 101.

Rupert’s Land, held by the Hudson’s Bay Company, 310.

Russia, character of the coniferæ of, 23, 24.

----, the elk of the woods of the northern parts of, 40.

----, conquest of, by the Tartars under Baaty Khan, 191.

----, liberated from the Tartar yoke by Ivan I., 191.

----, advances of, in Siberia, 195.

----, annexes the country of the Amoor, 196.

----, condition of the natives under the yoke of, 197, 198.

----, exiles from, to Siberia, 204–206.

----, value of the skins annually imported by, 212, 213.

----, life and dwellings in Nishne-Kolymsk, 236.

----, first treaty of commerce between England and, 336.

----, Company, patent granted to the, to fish off Greenland, 138.

Russian Fur Company, account of the, and its trade, 272.

S.

Sabine, Mount, discovery of, 402.

Sable, value of the, to the Cossack conquerors of Siberia, 195.

----, importance and beauty of the fur of the, 209.

----, hunting, 210.

Sabrina Land, discovery of, 401, 402.

Sagamen, or historians, of Iceland, 94.

Sajan Mountains, Castrén’s journey over the, 177.

Salmon, Alpine (Salmo alpinus), immense numbers of, in Nova Zembla, 155.

Salmon, shoals of, in the rivers of the Arctic regions, 19.

----, abundance of, in Iceland, 87.

----, of the Sea of Ochotsk, 246, 247.

----, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 255.

Samoïedes, European, Castrén’s journey among the, 170.

----, their drunkenness, 171.

----, their impatience of confinement, 171–173.

----, their barbarism, 179.

----, their Supreme Being, Num, or Jilibeambaertje, 179.

----, their recourse to incantations, 180.

----, their idols, 180, 181.

----, their reverence paid to the dead, 181.

----, their mode of taking an oath, 182.

----, their personal appearance and habits, 182.

----, their wealth in reindeer, 183, 184.

----, their entire number in Europe and Asia, 184.

----, their traditions of ancient heroes, 184.

----, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.

----, the companions of Von Middendorff on his journey, 221, 225.

Sämund Frode, his Icelandic works, 94.

Sand-bee (Andrena) of Nova Zembla, 154.

Sand-reed bread used in Iceland, 79.

Sarmiento, Pedro, his voyage, 414.

Sawina river, 148.

Saxifragas, the, of the treeless zone, 20.

Scalds, or bards, of Iceland, 94.

Scandinavia, character of the coniferæ of, 22.

Schalaurow, his journeys on the coast of Siberia, 201.

Scharostin, his residence at Spitzbergen, 142.

Schelagskoi, Cape, rounded by Count Michael Staduchin, 197.

----, reached by Schalaurow, 201.

Scoresby, Dr., his visit to Spitzbergen, 132.

----, Captain, his near approach to the North Pole, 344.

----, his voyage to Greenland, 385, 386.

Scotia, Nova, discovered and colonized by Greenlanders, 335.

Scurvy in Spitzbergen, 140–142.

----, preservative against, 141.

----, Lapp mode of preventing the, 166.

Sea, influence of the, on the severity of the Arctic winter, 27.

Sea, Antarctic, compared with the Arctic regions, 391.

----, absence of vegetation in the, 391.

----, causes of the inferiority of the Antarctic climate, 391, 392.

----, immensity of the icebergs of the, 392.

----, the Peruvian current, 394.

----, birds of the coasts, 394.

----, cetaceans, 397–399.

----, Austral fishes, 400.

----, voyages of discovery, 401.

----, storms and pack-ice, 404 et seq.

Seas, Arctic, dangers peculiar to the, 45.

----, floating masses of ice, 45, 46.

----, ice-blink, 54.

----, summer fogs, 54.

----, clearness of the atmosphere and apparent nearness of objects, 55.

----, phenomena of reflection and refraction of the atmosphere, 55.

----, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, 55–57.

----, the animals of the, 40, 43, 44, 59.

----, Russian discoveries off the Siberian coast, 201 et seq.

----, Von Middendorff’s journey down the Taimur river to the Polar sea, 221.

----, Wrangell’s nights on the Polar sea, 239.

----, his observations on the Polar sea, 240.

----, Matiuschkin’s sledge journey, 241.

----, voyages of the English and Dutch, 335 et seq.

Sea-bear of Bering’s sea, 62.

Sea-eagles of the coast of Norway, 125.

Sea-elephant of the Antarctic Ocean. 398, 399.

Sea-gulls of the coast of Norway, 124, 125.

Sea-lion of Bering sea, 62.

---- of the Pribilow Islands, 271.

Seal-fishing at Spitzbergen, 142.

---- of Nova Zembla, 155.

---- hunts of the Esquimaux, 295, 296.

---- catching at Newfoundland, 381.

---- hunting on the coasts of Greenland, 384, 446.

Seals, the, of the Polar seas, 62.

----, their uses to man, 62, 446.

----, the Antarctic, 399, 400.

----, their igloos, 449.

Sea-otter, value of the skin and former numbers of the, 201, 202.

Sedger river, romantic scenery of the, 410.

Semple, Governor, murder of, 308.

Sertularians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.

Service-trees in the Arctic regions, 24.

Shark, basking, on the northern coasts of Iceland, 87.

----, its uses to the islanders, 87.

----, oil manufactured from its liver, 87.

----, the northern (Scymnus microcephalus), abundance of, off Spitzbergen, 137.

----, fishery of, on the coast of Greenland, 387.

Sheep, wild (Ovis montana), of the Rocky Mountains, description of the, 41.

----, the, of Iceland, and their enemies, 80.

----, mode of sheep-shearing, 80.

Shetland Islands, New, account of the, 392, 393.

Shrimps off Spitzbergen, 133.

Siberia, extent of the treeless zone of, 22.

----, character of the coniferæ of, 23, 24.

----, the elk of, 39.

----, the roebuck and red deer of, 40.

----, the argali, or wild sheep of, 41.

----, the white dolphin in the rivers of, 61.

----, conquest of, by the Cossacks, for the Russians, 193, 194.

----, final conquest of, by the Russians, and foundation of Tobolsk, 195 et seq.

----, condition of the natives of, under the dominion of Russia, 197, 198.

----, scientific expeditions sent to, 200 et seq.

----, its past ages, 203.

----, its extent and capabilities, 204.

----, the exiles sent there, 204–206.

----, their condition there, 206.

----, condition of the West Siberian peasants, 207, 208.

----, resources of the country, 208.

----, extremes of heat and cold, 208.

----, fur-bearing animals, 209 et seq.

----, the gold-fields of Eastern, and the miners, 214–216.

----, value of the produce of some of the mines, 217, 218.

----, entire value of the produce of gold in 1856 and 1860, 218.

----, luxury and extravagance caused by the wealthy gold speculators, 218, 219.

----, the gold of the Ural, 219.

----, New, lemmings of, 27.

----, discovery of the islands of, 201, 202.

----, fossil ivory of, 202.

Sibir, the capital of the Tartars in Siberia, 192.

----, taken by Yermak, the robber, for the Czar, 194.

Simpson, Mr. Thomas, his Arctic land voyage, 355.

----, his discoveries, 356.

----, assassinated, 356.

Sirowatsky, his discovery of the Archipelago of New Siberia, 203.

Skalholt, the ancient capital of Iceland, account of, 98.

----, its present condition, 99.

----, its meadow lands and scenery, 99.

Skaptar jökul, 69.

----, the great eruption of, in 1783, 95.

Skates of Lapps, 161.

Skeidara, Mr. Holland’s journey across the, 111, 112.

Skjalfandafljot river in Iceland, 78.

Skogslappar, or Forest Lapps, account of the, 166.

Sledges of the Lapps, 161.

----, the sacred sledge, Hahengau, of the Samoïedes, 180.

Smith’s Sound, temperature of, 27.

----, icebergs formed in, 48.

----, discovery of the entrance to, 343, 365.

“Smoke, valley of,” in Iceland, 70.

Snorri Sturleson, the Herodotus of the North, account of him and his “Heimskringla,” 94, 95.

Snow-buntings of the “barren grounds,” 18.

Snow, its protection of the vegetation of the Arctic regions, 19.

----, warmth caused by, 19.

----, no land yet found covered to the water’s edge with eternal snow, 27.

----, amount of the fall of, in Taimurland, 225, 226.

----, probable diminution of the fall of, advancing towards the pole, 226.

----, its protection against cold, 226.

Socialism among the Dog-rib Indians, 329.

Solfataras of Iceland and Sicily compared, 88.

Solovetskoi, convent of, 180.

Sorcery of the Laplanders, 158.

----, of the Samoïedes, 180.

Spain, salted cod-fish imported into, 129.

Spasy, produce of the gold mine of, 218.

Spirits, invisible, of the Samoïedes, 180, 181.

Spitzbergen, flowers of, 20.

----, vast fields of ice in the plateau of, 27.

----, food of the reindeer of, 27.

----, proofs of a former milder climate in, 29, 30.

----, birds of, 43, 44.

----, apparent nearness of objects at, in clear weather, 54.

----, the walrus of the coast of, 64.

----, description of the archipelago of, 131, 132.

----, the west coast, 132.

----, Scoresby’s ascent of a mountain, and excursion along the coast, 132, 133.

----, Magdalena bay, 133–136.

----, ice-cliffs and avalanches of ice, 135.

----, scientific exploring expeditions sent to, 136.

----, flora and fauna of, 136, 137.

----, fisheries of, 139.

----, coal and drift-wood of, 137, 138.

----, history of, 138.

----, attempts made to colonize it, 139–141.

----, Russian hunters’ mode of wintering at, 142.

----, walrus and seal-fishing at, 142.

----, discovery of, 340.

Spout, the, of Newfoundland, 376.

Springs, hot, of Iceland, 70.

----, the Geysir, 71.

----, the Strokkr, 72.

Spruce fir of the Hudson’s Bay territory, 24.

Squirrel, value of the fur of the, 212.

Stadolski Island, visit of Pachtussow to, 148.

Staduchin, Count Michael, his foundation of the town of Nishnei-Kolymsk, 196, 197.

---- navigates the sea eastward of Cape Schelagskoi, 197.

Stawinen river, 148.

Steller, G. W., notice of him, 248.

----, his scientific journey to Kamchatka, 248.

----, ill-treated by Bering, 250.

----, his sufferings on Bering’s Island, 251.

----, death of his commander, Bering, 252.

----, his return to Kamchatka, 252.

----, persecuted by the Siberian authorities, 253.

----, his death, 253.

Stockfish of Iceland, 87.

Storms on the White Sea, 169.

---- of the Tundras, 172, 173.

---- of the Arctic zone, 225, 226.

---- off Newfoundland, 381.

---- in the Antarctic ocean, 404, 405.

----, the williwaws, or hurricane squalls, of the Strait of Magellan, 412.

Strogonoff, foundation of the Russian family of, 192, 193.

Strokkr, description of the, 72.

Strongbow Indians of the Rocky Mountains, the, 327.

Sukkertoppen, seen by Davis, 337.

Sulphur of Iceland, 88.

----, compared with that of Sicily, 88.

Summer, the perpetual daylight of, 36.

----, fogs of, 54.

---- in Taimurland, 225.

Sun, the midnight, effect of, on icebergs, 50–52.

Sunset, magnificence of a, 32.

Surgut, Castrén’s visit to, 175.

Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, description of, 77.

Suslik, the, of Siberia, 212.

----, value of its fur, 212.

Sviatoinoss, Cape, fossil ivory at, 202.

Sviatoi-noss, doubled by the Russians, 200.

Swans of Iceland, 81, 84.

T.

Tabin, the imaginary Cape, of the Dutch navigators, 339.

Tadibes, or sorcerers of the Samoïedes, 180.

----, their dress and incantations, 180.

Tagilsk, Nishne, the gold-producing town of, 219.

Taiga, melancholy character of the, 230.

----, gold-fields of the, 213.

Taimur Lake, visited by Lieut. Laptew, 200.

----, storm on the, 223.

Taimur river, visited by Lieut. Laptew, 200.

----, Von Middendorff’s journey to the, 221–223.

Taimurland, endeavors of Prontschischtschew to double the capes of, 200.

----, Middendorff’s adventures in, 220, 221.

----, his observations on the climate and natural productions of, 225.

----, amount of the fall of snow in, 225, 226.

Tana river, discovery of the, by Jelissei Busa, 195.

Tarn Mount, Darwin’s ascent of, 411.

Tartars, their subjection of the Russians, 191.

---- driven out by Ivan I., 191.

---- permanently overthrown by Ivan II., 192.

Tattooing, Cree Indian mode of, 323.

Tchendoma, the, visited by Jelissei Busa, 195.

Tchuktchi, barren grounds in the land of the, 21, 22.

----, the land of the, 262.

----, pipes of, 264.

----, their short summer, 262.

----, their independence and commercial enterprise, 263.

---- ladies, Matiuschkin’s visit to some, 265.

----, amusements of the people, 266.

----, the wandering and sedentary, 267.

----, their mode of life, 267.

----, population of the land of the, 267.

Tea-parties at Nishne-Kolymsk, 238.

Temperature of Rensselaer bay in mid-winter, 19, 20.

----, effect of the sea on, of the Arctic regions, 27.

Temperature, influence of the winds on, 27.

----, former milder, of the Arctic regions, 29.

----, probable causes of the changes in the Arctic climate, 29.

----, the lowest ever felt by man, 28.

----, how man is enabled to bear extraordinary low, 28.

---- of Iceland at different places, 78.

Tennyson’s Monument, Dr. Kane’s description of, 367.

Terror, Mount, 403.

Terski Lapps, Castrén’s attempted journey to the, 170.

Thangbrand, Christian missionary to Iceland, 93, 94.

Thingvalla, plain of, 76.

----, site of the ancient Icelandic Althing at, 91, 92.

----, pastor of, 104.

----, church of, 105.

Thingvalla Lake, in Iceland, 92.

Thiorsa river, in Iceland, 78.

Thorlakson, Jon, the poet of Iceland, account of him and his works, 107.

Thorne, Robert, his suggestion for sailing across the North Pole, 342.

Thorwald the traveller, the first Christian Icelander, his career, 92, 93.

Tides, effect of the, in preventing the accumulation of Polar ice, 57.

Tinné Indians, defeated by the Crees, 319.

----, their retaliation, 320.

----, their wars with the Blackfeet, 320.

----, their wigwams, or tents, 324.

----, various tribes of the, and their range, 327.

----, their appearance, manners, and customs, 327–329.

----, improvements in their condition, 329, 330.

----, their wives and children, 330.

----, their cruelty to the aged, 330.

Tjumen, the first settlement of Russians in Siberia, 195.

----, Steller’s grave at, 253.

Tobacco, fondness of the Lapps for, 165, 167.

----, eagerness of the wild tribes of the North for, 264.

Tobolsk, battle of, 193, 195.

----, foundation of the city of, 195.

----, condition of the southern part, 207, 208.

Tolstoi Ness, Castrén’s visit to, 177.

Tolstych, Adrian, his discoveries, 201.

Tomsk, criminals of, 206, 207.

Tornea, reindeer gloves of, 37.

Torsteinson Jon, the martyr of the Westman Islands, 118.

Tookoolito, 442, 466.

Train-oil of Tromsö, 128.

Transbaikalia, Castrén’s visit to, 177.

Travelling in Iceland, 110, 111.

Treeless zone of Europe, Asia, and America, 18–22.

Treurenberg bay, deer of, 137.

Trölladyngja, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95.

Tromsö, cod-fishery and cod-liver oil of, 128.

----, description of the town and island, 128.

Tschirigow, his voyages, 201.

Tucutuco (Ctenomys Magellanica), the, of Patagonia, 419.

Tundri, or barren grounds of the Arctic regions, 18, 19.

---- of the European Samoïedes, 171.

Tundri, storms of the Tundras, 172.

Tung-ower, or hot spring at Reikholt, in Iceland, 70.

Tungusi, the, their relationship to the Mantchou, 244.

----, their conquests and final subjugation by the Russians, 244.

----, their intellectual development, 244.

----, their tribes and population, 244.

----, their wretchedness, 244.

----, their manners and customs, 245.

Tunguska river, gold-fields of the Upper, 214.

Turkey-buzzard, the, of Patagonia, 419.

Turuchansk, Castrén’s visits to, 176, 177.

Tyndall glacier, enormous size of, 50.

U.

Uffliot the Wise, his first code of laws in Iceland, 91.

Unalaschka, climate of, 269.

----, vegetation of, 269, 270.

----, people of, 273.

Union, Cape, Dr. Hayes’s sledge voyage to, 373, 374.

United States, right of, to fish on the banks of Newfoundland, 379.

Ural Mountains, Castrén’s passage of the, 174.

----, first discovery of gold in the, 214.

----, quantity of gold found in the, 219.

Ustsylmsk, Castrén’s visit to, and ill-treatment at, 173, 174.

Utzjoki, the pastor of, 169.

Uusa river, Castrén’s journey up the, 174.

V.

Vaage, cod-fishery of, 126.

----, ancient importance of, 126.

Vancouver’s Island, placed under the management of the Hudson’s Bay Company, 310.

Vapor baths of the Cree Indians, 324.

Väre, the, of Norway, 124.

Vegetation, protection afforded by snow to, 19.

----, distinctive characters of the Arctic forests, 22–24.

---- of the “barren grounds,” 18, 21, 22.

----, length of time necessary for the formation of even small stems of trees in the Arctic regions, 25.

----, harmless character of the Arctic plants, 25.

----, no land yet discovered in which it is entirely subdued by winter, 27.

----, former, of the northern regions of the globe, 29.

---- of Spitzbergen, 136.

---- of Nova Zembla, 152.

---- of Taimurland, 226.

---- of Kamchatka, 254.

---- of the Bay of Awatscha, 256.

---- of the Pribilow Islands, 271.

---- of Newfoundland, 376.

---- of Greenland, 388.

----, absence of, in the Antarctic regions, 391.

---- of Port Famine, 410.

Verchnei Ostrog, in Kamchatka, built, 198.

Verazzani, his voyages, 335.

Vestfjord, cod-fishery of the, 126.

Victoria Land, discovery of, 402.

Videy, eider-ducks of, 81, 82.

Vigr, eider-ducks of, 83.

----, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to, 83, 84.

Vikings, their courage and discoveries, 89.

Virgins, Cape, 409.

Vogelsang, deer of, 137.

Volcanic eruptions in Iceland since its colonization, 95.

Volcanoes giving birth to Iceland, 68.

----, those now existing there, 69.

----, the Esk, on Jan Meyen, 146.

----, of Kamchatka, 256.

----, eruption of Mount Erebus, 403.

Vole, field (Arvicola œconomus), indigenous to Iceland, 80.

Voyageur, the, of North America, 304.

----, his life and character, 304, 305.

W.

Walrus, or morse (Trichechus rosmarus), description of the, 62–64.

----, its affectionate temper, 64.

----, its parental love, 64.

----, its chief resorts and food, 64.

---- fishing at Spitzbergen, 144.

---- hunted on Bear Island, 144.

---- of Nova Zembla, 155.

---- hunting on the coast of Aliaska, 275.

----, pieces of skin of, a medium of exchange, 276.

----, Esquimaux mode of hunting it, 298.

Washington Land, discovery of, 369.

----, Dr. Hayes’s journey to, 373.

Wassiljew, his visit to the Lena, 195.

Waygatz, island of, the sacred island of the Samoïedes 180.

Weasel, the Siberian (Viverra Siberica), the fur of, 211.

Weddell, Captain, his Antarctic voyages, 401.

Welden, his visit to Bear Island, 144.

Wellington Channel, temperature of, 28.

----, discovery of, 345.

Wenjamin, the Archimandrite, 170.

Western, Thomas, preaches Christianity to the Lapps, 156.

Westman Islands, description of the, 114.

----, difficulty of access of the, 114.

----, how they became colonized, 115.

----, Heimaey, or Home Island, 116.

----, food and trade of the people, 117.

----, population and mortality of the children, 118.

----, their sufferings from pirates, 118, 119.

Weymouth, his voyage to Hudson’s Bay, 341.

Whale, the Greenland (Balæna mysticetus), or smooth-back, 60.

---- off Nova Zembla, 155.

----, the white, or beluga, 61.

----, the “ca’ing,” 62.

----, a stranded, at Spitzbergen, 133.

----, the fin-back, 59, 60.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

---- off Nova Zembla, 155.

----, smooth-backed, of the Antarctic seas, 397.

----, sperm, of the Antarctic Ocean, 398.

Whalers, their dangers, in the Arctic seas, 48.

----, depressing effect of the summer fogs, 54.

----, their operations in the Polar seas, 59.

----, whale chases of the Aleuts, 275.

----, whale-hunts of the Esquimaux, 295.

----, abundance of whales in the Antarctic seas, 397.

----, battle between a whale and a grampus, 398.

Whale Sound, enormous glaciers of, 50.

White-fish, or Coregonus, of North America, 310, 311.

White Sea, Castrén’s journey to the, 170.

----, Chancellor’s discovery of the passage from England to the, 192.

----, an English expedition in the, 336.

Whymper, Frederick, travels in Alaska, 277–289.

Wilkes, Captain, his discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean, 402.

Wilkes’s Land, discovery of, 402.

Williwaws of the Strait of Magellan, 412.

Willoughby, Sir Hugh, his voyage and death, 336.

Willow, polar (Salix polaris), of Nova Zembla, 153.

----, dwarf, of the treeless zone, 21.

----, dwarf, on the shores of the rivers and lakes, 24.

Wind-hole Strait of the Dutch navigators, 339.

Winds, effects of the cold sea-winds on vegetation, 22.

----, influence of the, on an Arctic climate, 27.

Winter Harbor, Parry’s winter in, 345.

Winteria aromatica, the, 410.

Witchcraft and witches of the Laplanders, 158.

Wolf, its attack of the reindeer, 37, 38.

----, Lapp mode of hunting the, 164.

---- in Newfoundland, 378.

Wolverine. See Glutton.

----, fur of the, 316.

Wood, length of time necessary for the formation of, in the Arctic regions, 25.

Woman, dying, abandoned, 462.

Wrangell, Lieut. von, his services as an Arctic explorer, 233.

Wrangell, his journey to the shores of the Polar sea, 234.

----, his winters at Kolymsk, 238.

----, his night on the Polar sea, 239.

----, his danger, and return to St. Petersburg, 241–243.

Wrestling for a wife among the Tinné Indians, 330; and among the Kutchin Indians, 332.

Y.

Yenisei river, importance of, 17.

Yermak Timodajeff, the Cossack robber, 192.

----, his conquest of Siberia and death, 194.

----, his monument in Tobolsk, 194, 195.

York roads, beauty of, 412.

Yukon river, 278–289.

----, ice in, 283.

Yukon, fort, 284.

Z.

Zembla, Nova, vast ice-fields of, 27.

----, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, 27.

----, the narwhal of the seas of, 60.

----, the walruses of the coasts of, 64.

Zinzendorf, Count, his interest in Greenland, 384.

Ziwolka, the Russian steersman, his voyages, 149, 150.

----, his meteorological observations, 150.

THE END.

HARPER & BROTHERS’

LIST OF NEW BOOKS.

☞ HARPER & BROTHERS _will send any of the following books by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the price_.

HARPER’S CATALOGUE, with CLASSIFIED INDEX OF CONTENTS, sent by mail on receipt of Five Cents, or it may be obtained gratuitously on application to the Publishers personally.

LOSSING’S WAR OF 1812. The Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812; or, Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of the Last War for American Independence. By BENSON J. LOSSING, Author of “The Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution.” With 882 Illustrations, engraved on Wood by Lossing & Barritt, chiefly from Original Sketches by the Author. Complete in One Volume, 1084 pages, large 8vo. Price, in Cloth, $7 00; Sheep, $8 50; Full Roan, $9 00; Half Calf or Half Morocco extra, $10 00.

Mr. Lossing not only writes excellent history, but he collects the materials from which that history is made; and we are reminded of Herodotus, who traveled into many lands to obtain the materials from which his immortal work was composed, and whose skillfulness in acquiring knowledge, and sagacity and truthfulness in using his acquisitions, modern research and criticism are putting beyond all question, thus refuting that ignorance which would have it that the Father of History was the Father of Lies. Mr. Lossing’s industry is equaled only by his conscientiousness, which leads him to treat all parties to the War of 1812 with the utmost impartiality, and to give all the facts that throw light upon the contest, which is a novelty in writing about it, for never was the history of an important war told in a more partisan manner than that of our second conflict with England. * * * The time has come when it is possible to write of it with candor as well as with spirit, as Mr. Lossing writes its history; and the time has come, too, when we are beginning to understand its real effect on the country, and when it is possible to discuss its character and its consequences in a philosophical manner, as Mr. Lossing discusses them. * * * It is proper that the history of such a contest should be given in a sound manner; and such is the work that Mr. Lossing has placed before his countrymen, after immense exertions to make it worthy of their approbation. That they will well appreciate what he has done so thoroughly is a thing of course. For young persons who would have correct views of their country’s history, no better book can be named. Its minuteness, its liveliness, its accuracy, its high tone, and its exhaustive character, render it a fine opening work for youthful readers, whose minds are always injured by the perusal of superficial histories. * * * The volume is perfectly printed, no European or American book ever having come from the press in a more elegant state. The paper and the binding are faultless. In fact, the book pleases the eye as much as it affords food for the mind. It should be in every library, public and private, and in the hands of all persons who would understand American history, and who would acquire knowledge thereof from the highest available sources.--Boston Traveller.

Worthy of the highest praise for its full and vivid recital of the stirring events on land and sea that ended with the Battle of New Orleans, and for its valuable summary of political affairs from the close of the Revolution to the Peace of Ghent.--Evening Post.

HARTWIG’S POLAR WORLD. The Polar World: a Popular Description of Man and Nature in the Arctic and Antarctic Regions of the Globe. By Dr. G. HARTWIG, Author of “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” “The Harmonies of Nature,” and “The Tropical World.” With Additional Chapters and 160 Illustrations by the American Editor. 8vo, Cloth.

Those of our readers who are acquainted with Dr. Hartwig’s former books on Physical Geography, especially his “Tropical World,” will not be disappointed by his description of man and nature in the Arctic and Antarctic regions of the globe. Whereas within the tropics the variety and abundance of nature throw man and his works into the shade, in the “Polar World” man becomes the most important and interesting animal. A great part of Dr. Hartwig’s book is taken up with the adventures and hair-breadth escapes of discoverers by land and sea--Norsemen, Finns, Cossacks, Russians, Dutch, English, and Americans. Among these, the Finn philologist Castrén is perhaps the most interesting. He wore out his life traveling across the frozen deserts of Northern Europe and Asia, from Lapland to Lake Baikal, studying the languages of the most remote tribes, and died soon after his return to the University of Helsingfors. Equally interesting is the account of the Cossack conquest of Siberia by the adventurous robber Yermak Timodajeff. The book contains several lively sketches of the natives of these inclement regions, including not only the Lapps, Samoyedes, Jakuts, etc., of Europe and Asia, but also the Esquimaux and Indians of Arctic America.--Pall Mall Gazette.

SCOTT’S FISHING-BOOK. Fishing in American Waters. By GENIO C. SCOTT. 170 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $3 50.

Contains a vast amount of information concerning the sea and fresh-water fishes of our American waters, the various methods of capturing them, the tackle to be employed, etc. Important in respect of fish-culture. This book, like the author of it, is eminently practical, and every angler ought to have it. We doubt whether there is another man in America capable of writing and illustrating, as Mr. Scott has done, such a book as this.--Spirit of the Times.

The author is a skillful votary of the fascinating art, to which he has given many years of successful practice, not only with an unusual knowledge of the subject, but with a keen sense of its manifold enjoyments. * * * Describes the principal varieties of the American salt and fresh water fishes, offers minute directions for the most feasible methods of capture, and enlivens his statements by relations of personal adventures in many waters, and picturesque descriptions of nature.--N. Y. Tribune.

The book has certainly been got up with painstaking care and a devoted love of the subject, and it unquestionably contains a vast mass of valuable information and innumerable useful directions.--N. Y. Citizen.

UPHAM’S MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. Mental Philosophy; embracing the Three Departments of the Intellect, Sensibilities, and Will. By THOMAS C. UPHAM, D.D., Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy in Bowdoin College. In Two Volumes. Vol. I.: Intellect, Language; Vol. II.: Sensibilities, Will. 12mo, Cloth, $1 75 per volume.

HARPER’S HAND-BOOK OF FOREIGN TRAVEL. Harper’s Hand-Book for Travellers in Europe and the East. Being a Guide through France, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Austria, Italy, Egypt, Syria, Turkey, Greece, Switzerland, Tyrol, Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Spain, and Great Britain and Ireland. With a Railroad Map corrected up to 1869. By W. PEMBROKE FETRIDGE. Revised Edition: Eighth Year. Large 12mo, Leather, Pocket-Book Form, $7 50.

HARPER’S PHRASE-BOOK; or Hand-Book of Travel Talk for Travellers and Schools. Being a Guide to Conversations in English, French, German, and Italian, on a New and Improved Method. Intended to accompany “Harper’s Hand-Book for Travellers.” By W. PEMBROKE FETRIDGE. Assisted by Professors of Heidelberg University. With concise and explicit Rules for the Pronunciation of the different Languages. Square 16mo, Flexible Cloth, $1 50.

WALLACE’S MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise. A Narrative of Travel. 1854–1862. With Studies of Man and Nature. By ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE. With Ten Maps and Fifty-one Elegant Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $3 50.

Mr. Wallace’s style is as charming as Darwin’s, and greater praise it could not have. His scientific observations are as interesting as other people’s adventures: he is a truly intelligent writer--one who has the power to interest others in his pursuits, investigations, and speculations. Those who have read Mr. Darwin’s “Voyage of a Naturalist,” a book too little known, will find in this a companion volume as absorbingly interesting and as clear and instructive as that.--N. Y. Evening Post.

In short, no book of travels, adventure, and observations of our time can be pronounced superior to this, in which Mr. Wallace gives an accurate account of that rich and wonderful part of the globe, the great and lavishly-endowed Malay Archipelago, and which the American publishers have reproduced in admirable style.--Boston Traveller.

A vivid picture of tropical life, which may be read with unflagging interest, and a sufficient account of his scientific conclusions to stimulate our appetite without wearying us by detail. In short, we may safely say that we have seldom read a more agreeable book of its kind.--Saturday Review.

ABBOTT’S NEW TESTAMENT TRUTHS. Old Testament Shadows of New Testament Truths. By LYMAN ABBOTT, Author of “Jesus of Nazareth, his Life and Teachings,” &c. Elegantly Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth. (Nearly Ready.)

ABBOTT’S JOSEPH BONAPARTE. The History of Joseph Bonaparte, King of Naples and of Italy. By JOHN S. C. ABBOTT, Author of “The History of Napoleon Bonaparte,” “The French Revolution,” &c. 16mo, Cloth, $1 20. Uniform with

ABBOTTS’ ILLUSTRATED HISTORIES.

By JACOB ABBOTT and JOHN S. C. ABBOTT. 16mo, Cloth, $1 20 per Volume.

Cyrus the Great, Darius the Great, Xerxes, Alexander the Great, Romulus, Hannibal, Pyrrhus, Julius Cæsar, Cleopatra, Nero, Alfred the Great, William the Conqueror, Richard I., Richard II., Richard III., Mary Queen of Scots, Queen Elizabeth, Charles I., Charles II., Josephine, Maria Antoinette, Madame Roland, Henry IV., Peter the Great, Genghis Khan, King Philip, Hernando Cortez, Margaret of Anjou.

LOOMIS’S ASTRONOMY. Elements of Astronomy. Designed for Academies and High Schools. By ELIAS LOOMIS, LL.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale College, and Author of a “Course of Mathematics.” 12mo, Sheep, $1 50.

We took up Prof. Loomis’s Elements of Astronomy, confident that we should here find, brought within the comprehension of unscientific minds, the higher truths of a science whose grandeur is lost to the common people by the technicalities in which it is enshrined. We have not been disappointed. We know of no treatise on Astronomy to which we should turn for an explanation of any of its elementary principles with such confident assurance of receiving real satisfaction, and none which we should so soon place in the hands of a young person who desired an introduction to this study.--New Monthly Magazine.

NEVIUS’S CHINA. China and the Chinese: a General Description of the Country and its Inhabitants; its Civilization and Form of Government; its Religious and Social Institutions; its Intercourse with other Nations; and its Present Condition and Prospects. By the Rev. JOHN L. NEVIUS, Ten Years a Missionary in China. With a Map and Illustrations. l2mo, Cloth, $1 75.

The great merit of the book seems to be that it undertakes to tell, in a plain and practical manner, those main things which intelligent people desire to learn about China, its people, life, customs, religions, etc., and does it without encumbering itself with overmuch of detail or profundity. Reading it is much like having a series of talks with a Chinaman who is able freely to answer all those questions which a curious Yankee is prompted to ask about his nation, and who does so. We incline to think it the best book yet published in our language for giving a general description of China and its people, without being overburdened in any direction with details.--Congregationalist.

When Mr. Nevius tells us about the fashions, the ways of talking, shopping, teaching, trading, praying, eating, marrying, burying, gambling, reading, writing, which he saw among them, he makes the scenes life-life; the interests treated he makes altogether human: and so he leads us on in a path almost as entertaining as a journey of our own.--N. Y. Evening Post.

ROOSEVELT’S FIVE ACRES TOO MUCH. Five Acres Too Much. A Truthful Elucidation of the Attractions of the Country, and a Careful Consideration of the Question of Profit and Loss as involved in Amateur Farming, with much Valuable Advice and Instruction to those about Purchasing Large or Small Places in the Rural Districts. By ROBERT B. ROOSEVELT, Author of “Game Fish of North America,” “Superior Fishing,” “Game Birds,” &c. With Characteristic Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1 50.

One of the pleasantest bits of satire we have read for some time. The author has written the book for the purpose of having a good-humored fling at the writers of works which profess to show how, out of half a dozen acres of land any where, the veriest novice can make splendid profit and good time as a practical farmer. So Mr. Roosevelt tells us how, fired with the noble inspiration these books suggest, he got his five acres, built his house, bought his horse, cows, pigs, and poultry, and went to work to convert himself into a successful agriculturist. His experiences are very droll, and the financial results he arrives at highly ingenious and satisfactory. There is not too much extravagance in the book--just enough to make one laugh, not enough to convert the mirth into broad farce and grotesquerie.--Independent.

An injunction should be put upon the sale of this book, for we consider it a dangerous thing to be let loose upon the community. This opinion is formed from its effect upon ourselves. Though progressive in most matters, we have some old fogy notions about books, and one of these is to read them before noticing them. We read “Five Acres Too Much,” and when we laid it down felt as lame and sore as if we had done a hard day’s work at mowing or rowing. Is a book which makes one laugh until he cries, laugh until he is tired and can not laugh any more, a safe thing? We call the attention of the Board of Health to the Harpers, and give ours to the book. It is the story of a city lawyer who went to the country to farm it on five acres, and contains an account of the blunders of a novice. There is a perfect breeze of fun through the whole, not boisterous fun, but charming and irresistible, and it is marked by a genial appreciation of the ludicrous. We have not for a long time been so thorougly amused as in reading this book, and laughed none the less at the gentle digs he gives us as editors in general, and of the Agriculturist in particular.--American Agriculturist.

BOURNE’S LONDON MERCHANTS. Famous London Merchants. A Book for Boys. By H. R. FOX BOURNE. With Portrait of George Peabody and 24 Illustrations, 16mo, Cloth, $1 00.

Tells pleasantly, and with much casual information about commerce and foreign countries, the story of the lives of thirteen London merchants, from famous Dick Whittington to our honored countryman, George Peabody. Most of them were self-made men, and surely no better incentives to a proper ambition can be placed before boys than these simple stories of real and honored lives. It is a book, too, which boys will seize upon gladly, since it allows the subjects to speak for themselves, and attempts no moralizing. We know of no book which a father could better buy for his boys.--N. Y. Evening Mail.

GUICCIOLI’S RECOLLECTIONS OF LORD BYRON. My Recollections of Lord Byron: and those of Eye-Witnesses of his Life. By the COUNTESS GUICCIOLI. Translated by HUBERT E. H. JERNINGHAM. Portrait, 12mo, Cloth, $1 75.

This book is of great value; for it collects the various opinions of Lord Byron’s biographers, presents them at one glance, illustrates them by the letters and journal of the poet himself, and subjects them to a final criticism.--Pall Mall Gazette.

FLAGG’S EUROPEAN VINEYARDS. Three Seasons in European Vineyards. Treating of Vine-Culture; Vine Disease and its Cure; Wine-Making and Wines, Red and White; Wine-Drinking, as affecting Health and Morals. By WILLIAM J. FLAGG. 12mo, Cloth, $1 50.

A pleasant, gossipy book of travels through those portions of France rarely visited by tourists, with fresh pictures, touches of historical lore, glimpses of ancient chateaux buried in trees, of the queer characters one meets with in a diligence, of rural amusements, of firesides in the inn kitchens, of quaint customs and odd sayings, and all related in a simple and natural way, with here and there a touch of humor, must always be acceptable to the general reader. He holds the book lightly in his hand, as if he could lay it down at any moment; but he does not lay it down--a smile lingers on his lips, and he enjoys it to the last page. * * * Such a book is the one now before us, and if this were its only merit, we should say no more. But interwoven with the narrative of travel are some suggestions, hints, and thoughts drawn from acute observation, which enhance the value of the book ten--or rather ten times ten--fold. His theme is, Vine-Culture in Europe. His object is to use the long experience of the old world in this branch of science for the promotion of Vine-Culture in America. Thus, like a true master, he makes his narrative pleasant to attract readers, his description of Vine-Culture in Europe minute, accurate, and valuable; and the application of his suggestions to our own methods of this growing branch of home industry he leaves to the sagacity of the reader to use or to improve upon. * * * There is probably no person better qualified in this country to write upon this subject.--Evening Post.

Besides being a summary of useful information concerning the produce of the grape, the present book contains an extremely pleasant sketch of travel, interspersed with reflections of much interest and observations of considerable originality, affording a picture of a certain phase of French life unknown and unseen by ordinary tourists. It is full of that kind of entertaining reading which Sir Philip Sidney styles “trifles triflingly handled;” and congenial fancy kindles over descriptions of the beautiful scenery, the oddities of local customs, the luxurious vineyards, the genial atmosphere, “the incense of fruitful summer, the incense of fruit-time,” the village feasts and pastimes, and, rarest of all, the happy peasantry, not yet rendered unhappy by demagogues and visionaries.--Round Table.

A livelier, racier, more entertaining volume on a practical subject has not yet been written. Mr. Flagg shows such a hearty delight in his subject that the most indifferent reader can not escape the infection; while all his willful, irrepressible play of humor, his flashes of personal tastes and prejudices, his occasional misconceptions of character and customs, leave untouched the sharp, clear perception, and shrewd common-sense which form the staple of the book.--N. Y. Tribune.

WHYMPER’S ALASKA. Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, formerly Russian America, now Ceded to the United States--and in various other Parts of the North Pacific. By FREDERICK WHYMPER. Map and Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50.

This agreeable book of travel and adventure. * * * The purchase of Alaska by the United States Government has awakened a lively interest in that region; and whatever relates to its natural features, its inhabitants, its existing state, and its possible resources, comes to us with the two-fold charm of novelty and material interest. Mr. Whymper was able to take with him the requisite qualifications for breaking ground in that new and, in many respects, rough and uncivilized quarter, as the results of his exploration in the clearly-written and cleverly-illustrated volume before us testify. * * * All that is most original and striking in his narrative centres in his experiences of life in the lately-ceded territory, and in the estimate which his graphic pictures of its physical aspects and of its people encourage us to draw for the future.--Saturday Review.

THE STUDENTS OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. The Old Testament History. From the Creation to the Return of the Jews from Captivity. Edited by WM. SMITH, LL.D. With Maps and Woodcuts. Large 12mo, Cloth, $2 00. (Uniform with the Student’s New Testament History.)

The history of the Jews is here told in a better manner than in any other work of the same size, and all the results of the deep and accurate inquiries into that history are incorporated with the narrative. It is, indeed, a popular, though grave and learned commentary on the Old Testament, a commentary taking the form of regular historical writing, and written with force and clearness.--Boston Traveller.

In the preparation of the text it is evident that great care has been taken to render the work one that, while reverent and recognizing the sanctity and claims of Revelation, should be suitable for the characteristic criticism and exegesis of the age. It is an excellent condensation of nearly all the valuable matter that criticism, historical, ethnographical, topographical, and chronological investigations have accumulated round the Old Testament Word of God.--Presbyterian (Chicago).

THE STUDENT’S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. The New Testament History. With an Introduction, connecting the History of the Old and New Testaments. Edited by WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D., Classical Examiner in the University of London. With Maps and Woodcuts. Large 12mo, 780 pages, Cloth, $2 00.

A valuable and cheap compendium of accurate information drawn from the most recent results of scholarship.--Advance.

Those who have read the New Testament only in a desultory fashion, or in the disorderly method in which it is arranged in our version, will find a new light cast upon it by the study of the Book in its chronological order, and with such helps as Dr. Smith has here presented.--American Presbyterian (Philadelphia).

Sabbath-school teachers, and the more advanced pupils of Sabbath-schools, as well as intelligent private students of the Scriptures, will find this a helpful and remunerative volume.--Congregationalist.

HALPINE’S POEMS. (MILES O’REILLY.) The Poetical Works of CHARLES G. HALPINE (Miles O’Reilly). Consisting of Odes, Poems, Sonnets, Epics, and Lyrical Effusions which have not heretofore been collected together. With a Biographical Sketch and Explanatory Notes. Edited by ROBERT B. ROOSEVELT. Portrait on Steel. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50.

His poetry will not be soon neglected or forgotten. There is a charm about his verses which must make them ever welcome. Tenderness, sentiment, and humor abound in them; the absence of malice or bitterness is characteristic of the writer’s whole-souled nature. * * * Few can read the poems without pleasure--none can read them without interest.--N. Y. Herald.

MRS. HALE’S WOMAN’S RECORD; or, Biographical Sketches of all Distinguished Women, from the Creation to the Present Time. Arranged in Four Eras, with Selections from Female Writers of each Era. By Mrs. S. J. HALE. Illustrated with more than 200 Portraits, engraved by Benson J. Lossing. A New Edition, with Additions. 8vo, Cloth. (Nearly Ready.)

HAYDN’S DICTIONARY OF DATES, relating to all Ages and Nations. For Universal Reference. Edited by BENJAMIN VINCENT, Assistant Secretary and Keeper of the Library of the Royal Institution of Great Britain; and Revised for the Use of American Readers. 8vo, Cloth. (Nearly Ready.)

HAVEN’S RHETORIC. Rhetoric: a Text-Book, designed for Use in Schools and Colleges, and for Private Study. By Rev. E. O. HAVEN, D.D., LL.D., President of the Northwestern University, Evanston, and late President of Michigan University, 12mo, Cloth, $1 50.

I welcome the book heartily, and shall adopt it in my classes here.

Dr. Haven seems to me to have aimed to produce a useful book rather than a showy one. Too many who deal with the subject are only theoretical rhetoricians: on every page of Dr. Haven’s book I find the good effects of his being also a practical rhetorician. Hitting the happy mean between the excess and the total rejection of the old technical phraseology, he has given to us a series of just such sensible, suggestive, and helpful talks about writing and speaking the English language as one would expect from a man of his great experience as a speaker, writer, and teacher. This, after all, is precisely what American students need.

Upon the whole, the book has these great merits: it is a growth, and not a manufacture; it is fresh, sincere, lively, clear, practical; finally, instead of being, like so many text-books on this subject, dry and deadening, it will prove throughout positively interesting to the student--it will stimulate, cheer, and guide him.--MOSES COIT TAYLOR, M.A., Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, University of Michigan.

Concise, direct, lucid, and arranged in a natural order of topics.--Advance.

This book, by President Haven, had its growth in a class-room. This accounts for its character, which is decidedly practical. It is no high-flying treatise or deeply-profound discussion on this subject of rhetoric. It is plain and concise, and every way a good statement of those principles and rules which must be observed in order to a correct and happy expression of one’s thoughts and feelings.--Watchman and Reflector.

I have carefully read “Haven’s Rhetoric.” It is a good elementary book, and has the merit of presenting many new illustrations instead of the hackneyed quotations usually found in compilations.--WM. PRESTON JOHNSTON, Professor of History and English Literature, Washington College, Va.

WOOD’S WEDDING DAY IN ALL AGES. The Wedding Day in all Ages and Countries. By EDWARD J. WOOD, Author of “The Curiosities of Clocks and Watches from the Earliest Times,” and “Giants and Dwarfs.” l2mo, Cloth, $1 25.

One of the most curious books we have seen for a long time. It is packed full of facts. Beginning with the institution of marriage, the author successively treats of all the strange and picturesque customs by which different peoples have given character and interest to the marriage ceremony. The past has been ransacked, and the present investigated. History, poetry, philosophy, archæology, have all been drawn upon, and the result is one of the most entertaining books we have seen for a long time.--N. Y. Commercial Advertiser.

A compilation of historical facts relating to the marriage ceremony as it has been conducted in ancient and modern times among all the peoples of the earth. A great deal of antiquarian research has been expended upon it, and the curious reader will find the topics of the wedding ring, the marriage bells, the bridal cake, flinging the old shoe, etc., etc., fully treated by the author.--N. Y. Evening Post.

MARCH’S PARSER AND ANALYZER. A Parser and Analyzer for Beginners, with Diagrams and Suggestive Pictures. By FRANCIS A. MARCH, Professor of the English Language and Comparative Philology in Lafayette College, Author of “Method of Philological Study of the English Language,” “Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language,” &c. 16mo, Flexible Cloth, 40 cents.

The volume is small, but compact and serviceable. Its design is to introduce beginners to the laws of the English Language by appealing directly to their rational powers, and as little as possible to memory. It abolishes mere recitation, and makes the work of learning more nearly recreative than any attempt yet brought to our notice. The teacher can easily perceive its scope and purpose. It will not relieve him of care, but will so change his duty that, instead of sitting and hearing tasks, he will be called upon to stimulate and guide development. The work unites the pupil and teacher in their theme, and the processes of teaching and learning take an identity which does away with estrangement and begets naturalness. It combines all the benefits of object-teaching, by fullness of illustration, with that active inquiry common to youth when matters touching history, biography, geography, or every-day occurrences are suggested. It is more and more seen that the duty of education is to bring the pupil into direct relation with things, that he may reflect or exercise judgment upon them. The lessons or suggestions in this work are so arranged as to keep as nearly as possible an even pace with healthful development. * * * A look into it will prove almost as profitable as a glance at nature. They can learn without memorizing to a harmful extent, and what they learn will not be forgotten. We commend the work to general attention upon its merits. Its author is one of the first philologists in the land, and no man has a keener appreciation of our language, or understands better the true methods of introducing the young mind to its beauties.--Philadelphia Press.

Beginning with the definitions of simple nouns, the lessons ascend by easy stages to the highest form of grammatical construction. The diagram analysis and illustrations are admirable aids to the student in the lessons, impressing them upon the mind.--N. Y. Herald.

BARNES’S NOTES ON THE PSALMS. Notes, Critical, Explanatory, and Practical, on the Book of Psalms. By ALBERT BARNES, Author of “Notes on the New Testament,” “Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity,” &c. Three Volumes. 12mo, Cloth, $1 50 per volume.

* * * There is the same blending of the critical and the practical, with constant expression of devout feelings and sentiments, which, in a work on the Psalms, is peculiarly congruous with the book which Mr. Barnes is interpreting.--Presbyterian (Philadelphia).

These Notes on the Psalms are characterized by the excellences which made Mr. Barnes’s earlier expository works so eminently successful.--American Presbyterian.

BALDWIN’S PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS. Pre-Historic Nations; or, Inquiries concerning some of the Great Peoples and Civilizations of Antiquity, and their Probable Relation to a still Older Civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia. By JOHN D. BALDWIN, Member of the American Oriental Society. 12mo, Cloth, $1 75.

Mr. Baldwin has treated an interesting subject with great lucidity and breadth, while his reading and research are apparent on every page.--Examiner and London Review.

Both instructive and suggestive.--Nation.

SIGHTS AND SENSATIONS in France, Germany, and Switzerland; or, Experiences of an American Journalist in Europe. By EDWARD GOULD BUFFUM, Author of “Six Months in the Gold Mines,” &c. 12mo, Cloth, $1 50.

* * * A book at once entertaining and instructive. * * * Fashionable tourists who are leaving this port for a trip to Europe will find Mr. Buffum’s “Sights and Sensations in France, Germany, and Switzerland” a delightful and serviceable traveling companion. At the same time the thousands who are to spend the summer at home, either in town, in the country, or on the sea-shore, may, by the help of this little book, enjoy many of the pleasures of foreign travel while they escape its annoyances. * * * It will doubtless be more heartily welcomed by the public than any similar work which has appeared.--N. Y. Herald.

A refreshing and entertaining book, which will interest every body.--N. Y. Evening Mail.

Mr. Buffum’s style is remarkably good and graphic, and his descriptions of the scenes he has witnessed are among the best we have seen--so simple, animated, and to the point. He seems to have had a genius for observation and the happy management of facts, and every thing he sees is distinctly seen by the reader as well.--N. Y. Times.

It differs from the common run of books of modern travel by looking at life from a more practical--it might be said, literal--side, and by describing things not often touched in a sparkling and instructive way.--Conpregationalist.

It is one’s self walking about, as it were, and saying these things in his own ears with unexpected and most admired cleverness. The story of the Mont Cenis Tunnel is quite the best description of that incredible miracle which has fallen under our observation. Baden-Baden and Homburg seem as familiar to us, on this bright traveler’s introduction, as Long Branch or Rockaway, and much more interesting.--N. Y. Tribune.

MOTLEY’S DUTCH REPUBLIC. The Rise of the Dutch Republic. A History. By JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY, LL.D., D.C.L. With a Portrait of William of Orange. New Edition. 3 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $10 50.

MOTLEY’S UNITED NETHERLANDS. History of the United Netherlands: from the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years’ Truce--1609. With a full View of the English-Dutch Struggle against Spain, and of the Origin and Destruction of the Spanish Armada. By JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY, LL.D., D.C.L. New Edition. 4 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $14 00.

GREENWOOD’S SEVEN CURSES OF LONDON. The Seven Curses of London. By JAMES GREENWOOD, the “Amateur Casual,” Author of “The True History of a Little Ragamuffin,” “Reuben Davidger,” “Wild Sports of the World,” &c. 8vo, Paper, 25 cents.

James Greenwood, the “Amateur Casual,” whose revelations of “A Night in a Workhouse” created so much excitement in England two or three years since, in “The Seven Curses of London” discloses many startling facts concerning the social life of the lower classes. The seven curses treated of by the author are: I. Neglected Children; II. Professional Thieves; III. Professional Beggars; IV. Fallen Women; V. The Curse of Drunkenness; VI. Betting Gamblers; VII. Waste of Charity.

ABBOTT’S LIFE OF CHRIST. Jesus of Nazareth: his Life and Teachings; founded on the Four Gospels, and Illustrated by Reference to the Manners, Customs, Religious Beliefs, and Political Institutions of his Times. By LYMAN ABBOTT. With Designs by Doré, De Laroche, Fenn, and others. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Beveled Edges, $3 50.

This is remarkable for its valuable endeavors, first to prepare the way for the intelligent comprehension of the life of the Redeemer, by four preliminary chapters, which discuss: (1) the peculiarities, physical and otherwise, of the Holy Land itself; (2) the Jewish Commonwealth, its religious sanctions and moral precepts, its judicial peculiarities, its measure of popular education, its political economy, its national Church, and its Scriptures; (3) the decay of that Commonwealth, the captivity, and the Roman subjugation; (4) the civilization of the Jews, and the whole manner of their dress, food, manners, pursuits, and daily life. The way thus being prepared, and the background painted in, the Christ is outlined and then colored upon it, from Bethlehem to Calvary. Second, for the extremely fresh and interesting way in which the events of Christ’s life are told. And third, for the temper of the book, which is unaffectedly written from the Christian stand-point, as Renan’s was from that of rationalism.--Congregationalist.

The simplicity of the plan specially pleases me. Yet you really accomplish, in its execution, more than I find in some other lives of Christ which make a good deal more pretension. You have hit upon a very valuable combination of Biblical resources with researches in related fields. It is a real pleasure to be able to turn to a life of Christ which stimulates thought and refreshes the heart.--Prof. AUSTIN PHELPS, of Andover.

BEECHER’S (HENRY WARD) SERMONS. Sermons by HENRY WARD BEECHER, Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. Selected from Published and Unpublished Discourses, and Revised by their Author. In two Volumes, with Steel Portrait by Halpin. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

The published sermons of the Plymouth pastor, like wind-wafted seed, have carried the germs of a new life to all quarters of the world, and have awakened the immortal longings of the hunter in his prairie cabin, and the sailor on the distant sea. No one needs that we should speak of the exuberance of illustration and the felicity of expression that make these books as fascinating as the pages of old Thomas Fuller or the essays of “Elia.” Every body has come under the glamour of Mr. Beecher’s style, and every one of these pages abounds in his peculiar beauties. Here is no garden, but (according to the author’s own lavish idea of the desirable) a whole prairie of flowers.--N. Y. Times.

Judged as the free utterance of a great and loving heart, as the spontaneous appeals of a powerful, emotional man, striving with all his strength to lift his hearers from the dominion of sin and sorrow to the highest and noblest plane of human feeling and action, their wisdom and healthful influence will be appreciated: while their usefulness will be increased by the fact that to so many readers the written word will be vivified by the recollection of the ringing voice, the vehement action, and the vast amount of magnetic energy which lies enchained and inspired within the auditorium of Plymouth Church.--N. Y. Evening Post.

YONGE’S ENGLISH-GREEK LEXICON: Containing all the Greek Words used by Writers of good Authority, in Chronological Order, for every Word used; explaining the Construction, and giving the Declension or Conjugation of each Word when Irregular, and marking the Quantities of all Doubtful Syllables. Edited, with large Additions, by HENRY DRISLER, LL.D., Professor of Latin in Columbia College, N. Y. Royal 8vo, Sheep extra. (In Press.)

ROMANCE OF SPANISH HISTORY. By JOHN S. C. ABBOTT, Author of “The French Revolution,” “The History of Napoleon Bonaparte,” &c. With Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth. (In Press.)

SANDS’S PHILOSOPHY OF TEACHING. The Teacher, the Pupil, the School. By NATHANIEL SANDS. 8vo, Cloth, $1 00.

A thoughtful book on a subject of the highest importance.-- Worcester Spy.

There are many excellent suggestions in this little treatise of Mr. Sands, who has evidently given much thought to the philosophy and the process of education. He would have a radical change in the system of teaching, by which there shall be less stuffing and more feeding; fewer books, and more of the living instructor’s effort. It is a small volume, but compact with thought.--New Bedford Mercury.

* * * Contains many valuable suggestions deserving of earnest consideration by parents and teachers. The work of the teacher is a high, honorable, and important one. Education is essential to the stability of our institutions and the success of our industries. Mr. Sands would develop, not cram the intellect; he would furnish the nutriment necessary to the natural growth of the mind, not retard it by a forcing process. He would place before the scholar the aliment of everyday life. He would teach him practical science and useful art. He would open before him the beauties of the world, and show him the laws of growth every where. We are told now that dead languages are necessary to the discipline of the mind, and so we go back among the catacombs and study the laws of speech of the ancient departed. These laws are necessary. Linguistic science is one of the most valuable in the world. But why should it be made the basis of educational systems? It is time that scientific training should be awarded the high place which of right belongs to it in mental culture, and that linguistic lore should be left to its proper sphere, as the foundation simply of the knowledge of language and the relations of nations.--Albany Evening Journal.

DIXON’S HER MAJESTY’S TOWER. Her Majesty’s Tower. Historic Studies in the Tower of London. With Frontispiece Plan of the Tower. By WM. HEPWORTH DIXON. l2mo, Cloth, 60 cents.

A valuable and attractive addition to our historical literature: one which, from the nature of its materials and its bright and vivid method of treatment, is certain to interest as well as to instruct the reader.--London Review.

From first to last, this volume overflows with new information and original thought, with poetry and picture. In these fascinating pages Mr. Dixon discharges alternately the functions of the historian and the historic biographer, with the insight, art, humor, and accurate knowledge which never fail him.--Morning Post.

THOMSON’S (W. M.) LAND AND BOOK. The Land and the Book; or, Biblical Illustrations drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and the Scenery of the Holy Land. By W. M. THOMSON, D.D., Twenty-five Years a Missionary of the A.B.C.F.M. in Syria and Palestine. With two elaborate Maps of Palestine, an accurate Plan of Jerusalem, and several Hundred Engravings, representing the Scenery, Topography, and Productions of the Holy Land, and the Costumes, Manners, and Habits of the People. Two elegant Large l2mo Volumes, Cloth, $5 00. (New Edition, just Ready.)

VALUABLE STANDARD WORKS

FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES,

PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK.

☞ For a full List of Books suitable for Libraries, see HARPER & BROTHERS’ TRADE-LIST and CATALOGUE, which may be had gratuitously on application to the Publishers personally, or by letter enclosing Five Cents.

HARPER & BROTHERS will send any of the following works by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the price.

MOTLEY’S DUTCH REPUBLIC. The Rise of the Dutch Republic. A History. By JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY, LL.D., D.C.L. With a Portrait of William of Orange. 3 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $10 50.

MOTLEY’S UNITED NETHERLANDS. History of the United Netherlands: from the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years’ Truce--1609. With a full View of the English-Dutch Struggle against Spain, and of the Origin and Destruction of the Spanish Armada. By JOHN LOTHROP MOTLEY, LL.D., D.C.L., Author of “The Rise of the Dutch Republic.” Portraits. 4 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $14 00.

ABBOTT’S LIFE OF CHRIST. Jesus of Nazareth: his Life and Teachings; Founded on the Four Gospels, and Illustrated by Reference to the Manners, Customs, Religious Beliefs, and Political Institutions of his Times. By LYMAN ABBOTT. With Designs by Doré, De Laroche, Fenn, and others. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Beveled Edges, $3 50.

NAPOLEON’S LIFE OF CÆSAR. The History of Julius Cæsar. By His Imperial Majesty NAPOLEON III. Volumes I. and II. now ready. Library Edition, 8vo, Cloth, $3 50 per vol.

Maps to Vols. I. and II. sold separately. Price $1 50 each, NET.

HENRY WARD BEECHER’S SERMONS. Sermons by HENRY WARD BEECHER, Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. Selected from Published and Unpublished Discourses, and Revised by their Author. With Steel Portrait by Halpin. Complete in Two Vols., 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

LYMAN BEECHER’S AUTOBIOGRAPHY, &c. Autobiography, Correspondence, &c., of Lyman Beecher, D.D. Edited by his Son, CHARLES BEECHER. With Three Steel Portraits, and Engravings on Wood. In Two Vols., 12mo, Cloth, $5 00.

BALDWIN’S PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS. Pre-Historic Nations; or, Inquiries concerning some of the Great Peoples and Civilizations of Antiquity, and their Probable Relation to a still Older Civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia. By JOHN D. BALDWIN, Member of the American Oriental Society. 12mo, Cloth, $1 75.

WHYMPER’S ALASKA. Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, formerly Russian America--now Ceded to the United States--and in various other parts of the North Pacific. By FREDERICK WHYMPER. With Map and Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50.

DILKE’S GREATER BRITAIN. Greater Britain: a Record of Travel in English-speaking Countries during 1866 and 1867. By CHARLES WENTWORTH DILKE. With Maps and Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1 00.

ALFORD’S GREEK TESTAMENT. The Greek Testament: with a critically-revised Text; a Digest of Various Readings; Marginal References to Verbal and Idiomatic Usage; Prolegomena; and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. For the Use of Theological Students and Ministers. By HENRY ALFORD, D.D., Dean of Canterbury. Vol. I., containing the Four Gospels. 944 pages, 8vo, Cloth, $6 00; Sheep, $6 50.

LOSSING’S FIELD-BOOK OF THE WAR OF 1812. Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812; or, Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of the Last War for American Independence. By BENSON J. LOSSING. With several hundred Engravings on Wood, by Lossing and Barritt, chiefly from Original Sketches by the Author. 1088 pages, 8vo, Cloth, $7 00.

LOSSING’S FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION. Pictorial Field-Book of the Revolution; or, Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of the War for Independence. By BENSON J. LOSSING. 2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $14 00; Sheep, $15 00; Half Calf, $18 00; Full Turkey Morocco, $22 00.

WHITE’S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew: Preceded by a History of the Religious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX. By HENRY WHITE, M.A. With Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $1 75.

SMILES’S SELF-HELP. Self-Help; with Illustrations of Character and Conduct. By SAMUEL SMILES. 12mo, Cloth, $1 25.

SMILES’S HISTORY OF THE HUGUENOTS. The Huguenots: their Settlements, Churches, and Industries in England and Ireland. By SAMUEL SMILES, Author of “Self-Help,” &c. With an Appendix relating to the Huguenots in America. Crown 8vo, Cloth, Beveled, $1 75.

ABBOTT’S HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. The French Revolution of 1789, as viewed in the Light of Republican Institutions. By JOHN S. C. ABBOTT. With 100 Engravings. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

ABBOTT’S NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The History of Napoleon Bonaparte. By JOHN S. C. ABBOTT. With Maps, Woodcuts, and Portraits on Steel. 2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $10 00.

ABBOTT’S NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA; or, Interesting Anecdotes and Remarkable Conversations of the Emperor during the Five and a Half Years of his Captivity. Collected from the Memorials of Las Casas, O’Meara, Montholon, Antommarchi, and others. By JOHN S. C. ABBOTT. With Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

ADDISON’S COMPLETE WORKS. The Works of Joseph Addison, embracing the whole of the “Spectator.” Complete in 3 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $6 00.

ALCOCK’S JAPAN. The Capital of the Tycoon: a Narrative of a Three Years’ Residence in Japan. By Sir RUTHERFORD ALCOCK, K.C.B., Her Majesty’s Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Japan. With Maps and Engravings. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50.

ALISON’S HISTORY OF EUROPE. FIRST SERIES: From the Commencement of the French Revolution, in 1789, to the Restoration of the Bourbons, in 1815. [In addition to the Notes on Chapter LXXVI., which correct the errors of the original work concerning the United States, a copious Analytical Index has been appended to this American edition.] SECOND SERIES: From the Fall of Napoleon, in 1815, to the Accession of Louis Napoleon, in 1852. 8 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $16 00.

DRAPER’S CIVIL WAR. History of the American Civil War. By JOHN W. DRAPER, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New York. In Three Vols. Vol. II. just published. 8vo, Cloth, $3 50 per vol.

DRAPER’S INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE. A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe. By JOHN W. DRAPER, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New York. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

DRAPER’S AMERICAN CIVIL POLICY. Thoughts on the Future Civil Policy of America. By JOHN W. DRAPER, M.D., LL.D. Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New York, Author of a “Treatise on Human Physiology,” “A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe,” &c. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50.

BANCROFT’S MISCELLANIES. Literary and Historical Miscellanies. By GEORGE BANCROFT. 8vo, Cloth, $3 00.

BARTH’S NORTH AND CENTRAL AFRICA. Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa: being a Journal of an Expedition undertaken under the Auspices of H.B.M.’s Government, in the Years 1849–1855. By HENRY BARTH, Ph.D., D.C.L. Illustrated. Complete in Three Vols., 8vo, Cloth, $12 00.

BELLOWS’S OLD WORLD. The Old World in its New Face: Impressions of Europe in 1867–1868. By HENRY W. BELLOWS. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50.

BOSWELL’S JOHNSON. The Life of Samuel Johnson. LL.D. Including a Journey to the Hebrides. By JAMES BOSWELL, Esq. A New Edition, with numerous Additions and Notes. By JOHN WILSON CROKER, LL.D., F.R.S. Portrait of Boswell. 2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $4 00.

BRODHEAD’S HISTORY OF NEW YORK. History of the State of New York. By JOHN ROMEYN BRODHEAD. First Period, 1609–1664. 8vo, Cloth, $3 00.

BULWER’S PROSE WORKS. Miscellaneous Prose Works of Edward Bulwer, Lord Lytton. In Two Vols. 12mo, Cloth, $3 50.

BURNS’S LIFE AND WORKS. The Life and Works of Robert Burns. Edited by ROBERT CHAMBERS. 4 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $6 00.

CARLYLE’S FREDERICK THE GREAT. History of Friedrich II., called Frederick the Great. By THOMAS CARLYLE. Portraits, Maps, Plans, &c. 6 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $12 00.

CARLYLE’S FRENCH REVOLUTION. History of the French Revolution. Newly Revised by the Author, with Index, &c. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50.

CARLYLE’S OLIVER CROMWELL. Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. With Elucidations and Connecting Narrative. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50.

CHALMERS’S POSTHUMOUS WORKS. The Posthumous Works of Dr. Chalmers. Edited by his Son-in-Law, Rev. WILLIAM HANNA, LL.D. Complete in Nine Vols., 12mo, Cloth, $13 50.

CLAYTON’S QUEENS OF SONG. Queens of Song: being Memoirs of some of the most celebrated Female Vocalists who have performed on the Lyric Stage from the Earliest Days of Opera to the Present Time. To which is added a Chronological List of all the Operas that have been performed in Europe. By ELLEN CREATHORNE CLAYTON. With Portraits. 8vo, Cloth, $3 00.

COLERIDGE’S COMPLETE WORKS. The Complete Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge. With an Introductory Essay upon his Philosophical and Theological Opinions. Edited by Professor SHEDD. Complete in Seven Vols. With a fine Portrait. Small 8vo, Cloth, $10 50.

CURTIS’S HISTORY OF THE CONSTITUTION. History of the Origin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States. By GEORGE TICKNOR CURTIS. Complete in Two large and handsome Octavo Volumes, Cloth, $6 00.

DU CHAILLU’S AFRICA. Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa: with Accounts of the Manners and Customs of the People, and of the Chase of the Gorilla, the Crocodile, Leopard, Elephant, Hippopotamus, and other Animals. By PAUL B. DU CHAILLU, Corresponding Member of the American Ethnological Society; of the Geographical and Statistical Society of New York; and of the Boston Society of Natural History. With numerous Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

DU CHAILLU’S ASHANGO LAND. A Journey to Ashango Land: and Further Penetration into Equatorial Africa. By PAUL B. DU CHAILLU, Author of “Discoveries in Equatorial Africa,” &c. New Edition. Handsomely Illustrated. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00.

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ROBINSON’S GREEK LEXICON OF THE TESTAMENT. A Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament. By EDWARD ROBINSON, D.D., LL.D., late Professor of Biblical Literature in the Union Theological Seminary, New York. A New Edition, Revised, and in great part Rewritten. Royal 8vo, Cloth, $6 00.

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Transcriber’s Notes

Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they were not changed. Inconsistent hyphenation was not changed.

Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left unbalanced.

Numbers corresponding to those in the List of Illustration have been added to the captions as an aid when reading versions of this eBook that do not support hyperlinks.

Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of pages, have been renumbered, collected, and placed just before the Index.

The index was not systematically checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references. The entry and sub-entries for “Alaska” were out-of-sequence, and were moved by Transcriber.

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