IX. THE NEXT STAGE IN HISTORY

IX. THE NEXT STAGE IN HISTORY

XLI

THE POSSIBLE UNIFICATION OF THE WORLD INTO ONE COMMUNITY OF KNOWLEDGE AND WILL

§1. The Possible Unification of Men’s Wills in Political Matters. §2. How a Federal World Government may come about. §3. Some Fundamental Characteristics of a Modern World State. §4. What this World might be were it under one Law and Justice. §5. The Stages Beyond.

§ 1

We have brought this Outline of History up to our own times, but we have brought it to no conclusion. It breaks off at a dramatic phase of expectation. The story of life which began inestimable millions of years ago, the adventure of mankind which was already afoot half a million years ago, rises to a crisis in the immense interrogation of to-day. The drama becomes ourselves. It is you, it is I, it is all that is happening to us and all that we are doing which will supply the next chapter of this continually expanding adventure.

Our history has traced a steady growth of the social and political units into which men have combined. In the brief period of ten thousand years these units have grown from the small family tribe of the early neolithic culture to the vast united realms--vast yet still too small and partial--of the present time. And this change in size of the state--a change manifestly incomplete--has been accompanied by profound changes in its nature. Compulsion and servitude have given way to ideas of associated freedom, and the sovereignty that was once concentrated in an autocratic king and god has been widely diffused throughout the community. Until the Roman republic extended itself to all Italy, there had been no free community larger than a city state; all great communities were communities of obedience under a monarch. The great united republic of the United States would have been impossible before the printing press and the railway. The telegraph and telephone, the aeroplane, the continual progress of land and sea transit, are now insisting upon a still larger political organization.

If our Outline has been faithfully drawn, and if these brief conclusions are sound, it follows that we are engaged upon an immense task of adjustment to these great lines upon which our affairs are moving. Our wars, our social conflict, our enormous economic stresses, are all aspects of that adjustment. The loyalties and allegiances to-day are at best provisional loyalties and allegiances. Our true State, this state that is already beginning, this state to which every man owes his utmost political effort, must be now this nascent Federal World State to which human necessities point. Our true God now is the God of all men. Nationalism as a God must follow the tribal gods to limbo. Our true nationality is mankind.

How far will modern men lay hold upon and identify themselves with this necessity and set themselves to revise their ideas, remake their institutions, and educate the coming generations to this final extension of citizenship? How far will they remain dark, obdurate, habitual, and traditional, resisting the convergent forces that offer them either unity or misery? Sooner or later that unity must come or else plainly men must perish by their own inventions. We, because we believe in the power of reason and in the increasing good-will in men, find ourselves compelled to reject the latter possibility. But the way to the former may be very long and tedious, very tragic and wearisome, a martyrdom of many generations, or it may be travelled over almost swiftly in the course of a generation or so. That depends upon forces whose nature we understand to some extent now, but not their power. There has to be a great process of education, by precept and by information and by experience, but there are as yet no quantitative measures of education to tell us how much has to be learnt or how soon that learning can be done. Our estimates vary with our moods; the time may be much longer than our hopes and much shorter than our fears.

The terrible experiences of the Great War have made very many men who once took political things lightly take them now very gravely. To a certain small number of men and women the attainment of a world peace has become the supreme work in life, has become a religious self-devotion. To a much greater number it has become at least a ruling motive. Many such people now are seeking ways of working for this great end, or they are already working for this great end, by pen and persuasion, in schools and colleges and books, and in the highways and byways of public life. Perhaps now most human beings in the world are well-disposed towards such efforts, but rather confusedly disposed; they are without any clear sense of what must be done and what ought to be prevented, that human solidarity may be advanced. The world-wide outbreak of faith and hope in President Wilson, before he began to wilt and fail us, was a very significant thing indeed for the future of mankind. Set against these motives of unity indeed are other motives entirely antagonistic, the fear and hatred of strange things and peoples, love of and trust in the old traditional thing, patriotisms, race prejudices, suspicions, distrusts--and the elements of spite, scoundrelism, and utter selfishness that are so strong still in every human soul.

The overriding powers that hitherto in the individual soul and in the community have struggled and prevailed against the ferocious, base, and individual impulses that divide us from one another, have been the powers of religion and education. Religion and education, those closely interwoven influences, have made possible the greater human societies whose growth we have traced in this Outline; they have been the chief synthetic forces throughout this great story of enlarging human coöperations that we have traced from its beginnings. We have found in the intellectual and theological conflicts of the nineteenth century the explanation of that curious exceptional disentanglement of religious teaching from formal education which is a distinctive feature of our age, and we have traced the consequences of this phase of religious disputation and confusion in the reversion of international politics towards a brutal nationalism and in the backward drift of industrial and business life towards harsh, selfish, and uncreative profit-seeking. There has been a slipping off of ancient restraints; a real de-civilization of men’s minds. We would lay stress here on the suggestion that this divorce of religious teaching from organized education is necessarily a temporary one, a transitory dislocation, and that presently education must become again in intention and spirit religious, and that the impulse to devotion, to universal service and to a complete escape from self, which has been the common underlying force in all the great religions of the last five and twenty centuries, an impulse which ebbed so perceptibly during the prosperity, laxity, disillusionment, and scepticism of the past seventy or eighty years, will reappear again, stripped and plain, as the recognized fundamental structural impulse in human society.

Education is the preparation of the individual for the community, and his religious training is the core of that preparation. With the great intellectual restatements and expansions of the nineteenth century, and educational break-up, a confusion and loss of aim in education was inevitable. We can no longer prepare the individual for a community when our ideas of a community are shattered and undergoing reconstruction. The old loyalties, the old too limited and narrow political and social assumptions, the old too elaborate religious formulæ, have lost their power of conviction, and the greater ideas of a world state and of an economic commonweal have been winning their way only very slowly to recognition. So far they have swayed only a minority of exceptional people. But out of the trouble and tragedy of this present time there may emerge a moral and intellectual revival, a religious revival, of a simplicity and scope to draw together men of alien races and now discrete traditions into one common and sustained way of living for the world’s service. We cannot foretell the scope and power of such a revival; we cannot even produce evidence of its onset. The beginnings of such things are never conspicuous. Great movements of the racial soul come at first “like a thief in the night,” and then suddenly are discovered to be powerful and world-wide. Religious emotion--stripped of corruptions and freed from its last priestly entanglements--may presently blow through life again like a great wind, bursting the doors and flinging open the shutters of the individual life, and making many things possible and easy that in these present days of exhaustion seem almost too difficult to desire.[528]

§ 2

If we suppose a sufficient righteousness and intelligence in men to produce presently, from the tremendous lessons of history, an effective will for a world peace--that is to say, an effective will for a world law under a world government--for in no other fashion is a secure world peace conceivable--in what manner may we expect things to move towards this end? That movement will certainly not go on equally in every country, nor is it likely to take at first one uniform mode of expression. Here it will find a congenial and stimulating atmosphere, here it will find itself antagonistic to deep tradition or racial idiosyncrasy or well-organized base oppositions. In some cases those to whom the call of the new order has come will be living in a state almost ready to serve the ends of the greater political synthesis, in others they will have to fight like conspirators against the rule of evil laws. There is little in the political constitution of such countries as the United States or Switzerland that would impede their coalescence upon terms of frank give and take with other equally civilized confederations; political systems involving dependent areas and “subject peoples” such as the Turkish Empire was before the Great War, seem to require something in the nature of a breaking up before they can be adapted to a federal world system. Any state obsessed by traditions of an aggressive foreign policy will be difficult to assimilate into a world combination. But though here the government may be helpful, and here dark and hostile, the essential task of men of goodwill in all states and countries remains the same; it is an educational task, and its very essence is to bring to the minds of all men everywhere, as a necessary basis for world coöperation, a new telling and interpretation, a common interpretation, of history.

Does this League of Nations which has been created by the covenant of 1919 contain within it the germ of any permanent federation of human effort? Will it grow into something for which, as Stallybrass says, men will be ready to “work whole-heartedly and, if necessary, fight”--as hitherto they have been willing to fight for their country and their own people? There are few intimations of any such enthusiasm for the League at the present time. The League does not even seem to know how to talk to common men. It has gone into official buildings, and comparatively few people in the world understand or care what it is doing there. It may be that the League is no more than a first project of union, exemplary only in its insufficiencies and dangers, destined to be superseded by something closer and completer as were the United States Articles of Confederation by the Federal Constitution (see chapter xxxvii, § 5). The League is at present a mere partial league of governments and states. It emphasizes nationality; it defers to sovereignty. What the world needs is no such league of nations as this nor even a mere league of peoples, but a world league of men. The world perishes unless sovereignty is merged and nationality subordinated. And for that the minds of men must first be prepared by experience and knowledge and thought. The supreme task before men at the present time is political education.

It may be that several partial leagues may precede any world league. The common misfortunes and urgent common needs of Europe and Asia may be more efficacious in bringing the European and Asiatic states to reason and a sort of unity, than the mere intellectual and sentimental ties of the United States and Great Britain and France. A United States of the Old World is a possibility to set against the possibility of an Atlantic union. Moreover, there is much to be said for an American experiment, a Pan-American league, in which the New World European colonies would play an in-and-out part as Luxembourg did for a time in the German confederation.

We will not attempt to weigh here what share may be taken in the recasting and consolidation of human affairs by the teachings and propaganda of labour internationalism, by the studies and needs of international finance, or by such boundary-destroying powers as science and art and historical teaching. All these things may exert a combined pressure, in which it may never be possible to apportion the exact shares. Opposition may dissolve, antagonistic cults flatten out to a common culture, almost imperceptibly. The bold idealism of to-day may seem mere common sense to-morrow. And the problem of a forecast is complicated by the possibilities of interludes and backwaters. History has never gone simply forward. More particularly are the years after a great war apt to be years of apparent retrocession; men are too weary to see what has been done, what has been cleared away, and what has been made possible.

Among the things that seem to move commandingly towards an adequate world control at the present time are these:--

(1) The increasing destructiveness and intolerableness of war waged with the new powers of science.

(2) The inevitable fusion of the world’s economic affairs into one system, leading necessarily, it would seem, to some common control of currency, and demanding safe and uninterrupted communications, and a free movement of goods and people by sea and land throughout the whole world. The satisfaction of these needs will require a world control of very considerable authority and powers of enforcement.

(3) The need, because of the increasing mobility of peoples, of effectual controls of health everywhere.

(4) The urgent need of some equalization of labour conditions, and of the minimum standard of life throughout the world. This seems to carry with it, as a necessary corollary, the establishment of some minimum standard of education for everyone.

(5) The impossibility of developing the enormous benefits of flying without a world control of the air-ways.

The necessity and logic of such diverse considerations as these push the mind irresistibly, in spite of the clashes of race and tradition and the huge difficulties created by differences in language, towards the belief that a conscious struggle to establish or prevent a political world community will be the next stage in human history. The things that require that world community are permanent needs, one or other of these needs appeals to nearly everyone, and against their continuing persistence are only mortal difficulties, great no doubt, but mortal; prejudices, passions, animosities, delusions about race and country, egotisms, and such-like fluctuating and evanescent things, set up in men’s minds by education and suggestion; none of them things that make now for the welfare and survival of the individuals who are under their sway nor of the states and towns and associations in which they prevail.

§ 3

Our Outline of History has been ill written if it has failed to convey our conviction of the character of the state towards which the world is moving. Let us summarize here, very briefly, the main lines to which the developments of history seem to point as the necessary lines of that world organization. The attainment of this world state may be impeded and may be opposed to-day by many apparently vast forces; but it has, urging it on, a much more powerful force, that of the free and growing common intelligence of mankind. To-day there is in the world a small but increasing number of men, historians, archæologists, ethnologists, economists, sociologists, psychologists, educationists, and the like, who are doing for human institutions that same task of creative analysis which the scientific men of the seventeenth and eighteenth century did for the materials and mechanism of human life; and just as these latter, almost unaware of what they were doing, made telegraphy, swift transit on sea and land, flying and a thousand hitherto impossible things possible, so the former may be doing more than the world suspects, or than they themselves suspect, to clear up and make plain the thing to do and the way to do it, in the greater and more urgent human affairs.

Let us ape Roger Bacon in his prophetic mood, and set down what we believe will be the broad fundamentals of the coming world state.

(i) It will be based upon a common world religion, very much simplified and universalized and better understood. This will not be Christianity nor Islam nor Buddhism nor any such specialized form of religion, but religion itself pure and undefiled; the Eightfold Way, the Kingdom of Heaven, brotherhood, creative service, and self-forgetfulness. Throughout the world men’s thoughts and motives will be turned by education, example, and the circle of ideas about them, from the obsession of self to the cheerful service of human knowledge, human power, and human unity.

(ii) And this world state will be sustained by a universal education, organized upon a scale and of a penetration and quality beyond all present experience. The whole race, and not simply classes and peoples, will be educated. Most parents will have a technical knowledge of teaching. Quite apart from the duties of parentage, perhaps ten per cent. or more of the adult population will, at some time or other in their lives, be workers in the world’s educational organization. And education, as the new age will conceive it, will go on throughout life; it will not cease at any particular age. Men and women will simply become self-educators and individual students and student teachers as they grow older.

(iii) There will be no armies, no navies, and no classes of unemployed people, wealthy or poor.

(iv) The world-state’s organization of scientific research and record compared with that of to-day will be like an ocean liner beside the dug-out canoe of some early heliolithic wanderer.

(v) There will be a vast free literature of criticism and discussion.

(vi) The world’s political organization will be democratic, that is to say, the government and direction of affairs will be in immediate touch with and responsive to the general thought of the educated whole population.

(vii) Its economic organization will be an exploitation of all natural wealth and every fresh possibility science reveals, by the agents and servants of the common government for the common good. Private enterprise will be the servant--a useful, valued, and well-rewarded servant--and no longer the robber master of the commonweal.

(viii) And this implies two achievements that seem very difficult to us to-day. They are matters of mechanism, but they are as essential to the world’s well-being as it is to a soldier’s, no matter how brave he may be, that his machine gun should not jam, and to an aeronaut’s that his steering-gear should not fail him in mid-air. Political well-being demands that electoral methods shall be used, and economic well-being requires that a currency shall be used, safeguarded or proof against the contrivances and manipulations of clever, dishonest men.

§ 4

There can be little question that the attainment of a federation of all humanity, together with a sufficient measure of social justice, to insure health, education, and a rough equality of opportunity to most of the children born into the world, would mean such a release and increase of human energy as to open a new phase in human history. The enormous waste caused by military preparation and the mutual annoyance of competing great powers, and the still more enormous waste due to the under-productiveness of great masses of people, either because they are too wealthy for stimulus or too poor for efficiency, would cease. There would be a vast increase in the supply of human necessities, a rise in the standard of life and in what is considered a necessity, a development of transport and every kind of convenience; and a multitude of people would be transferred from low-grade production to such higher work as art of all kinds, teaching, scientific research, and the like. All over the world there would be a setting free of human capacity, such as has occurred hitherto only in small places and through precious limited phases of prosperity and security. Unless we are to suppose that spontaneous outbreaks of super-men have occurred in the past, it is reasonable to conclude that the Athens of Pericles, the Florence of the Medici, Elizabethan England, the great deeds of Asoka, the Tang and Ming periods in art, are but samples of what a whole world of sustained security would yield continuously and cumulatively. Without supposing any change in human quality, but merely its release from the present system of inordinate waste, history justifies this expectation.

We have seen how, since the liberation of human thought in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a comparatively few curious and intelligent men, chiefly in western Europe, have produced a vision of the world and a body of science that is now, on the material side, revolutionizing life. Mostly these men have worked against great discouragement, with insufficient funds and small help or support from the mass of mankind. It is impossible to believe that these men were the maximum intellectual harvest of their generation. England alone in the last three centuries must have produced scores of Newtons who never learnt to read, hundreds of Daltons, Darwins, Bacons, and Huxleys, who died stunted in hovels, or never got a chance of proving their quality. All the world over, there must have been myriads of potential first-class investigators, splendid artists, creative minds, who never caught a gleam of inspiration or opportunity, for every one of that kind who has left his mark upon the world. In the trenches of the Western front alone during the late war thousands of potential great men died unfulfilled. But a world with something like a secure international peace and something like social justice, will fish for capacity with the fine net of universal education, and may expect a yield beyond comparison greater than any yield of able and brilliant men that the world has known hitherto.

It is such considerations as this indeed which justify the concentration of effort in the near future upon the making of a new world state of righteousness out of our present confusions. War is a horrible thing, and constantly more horrible and dreadful, so that unless it is ended it will certainly end human society; social injustice, and the sight of the limited and cramped human beings it produces, torment the soul; but the strongest incentive to constructive political and social work for an imaginative spirit lies not so much in the mere hope of escaping evils as in the opportunity for great adventures that their suppression will open to our race. We want to get rid of the militarist not simply because he hurts and kills, but because he is an intolerable thick-voiced blockhead who stands hectoring and blustering in our way to achievement. We want to abolish many extravagances of private ownership just as we should want to abolish some idiot guardian who refused us admission to a studio in which there were fine things to do.

There are people who seem to imagine that a world order and one universal law of justice would end human adventure. It would but begin it. But instead of the adventure of the past, the “romance” of the cinematograph world, the perpetual reiterated harping upon the trite reactions of sex and combat and the hunt for gold, it would be an unending exploration upon the edge of experience. Hitherto man has been living in a slum, amidst quarrels, revenges, vanities, shames and taints, hot desires, and urgent appetites. He has scarcely tasted sweet air yet and the great freedoms of the world that science has enlarged for him.

To picture to ourselves something of the wider life that world unity would open to men is a very attractive speculation. Life will certainly go with a stronger pulse, it will breathe a deeper breath, because it will have dispelled and conquered a hundred infections of body and mind that now reduce it to invalidism and squalor. We have already laid stress on the vast elimination of drudgery from human life through the creation of a new race of slaves, the machines. This--and the disappearance of war and the smoothing out of endless restraints and contentions by juster social and economic arrangements--will lift the burthen of toilsome work and routine work, that has been the price of human security since the dawn of the first civilizations, from the shoulders of our children. Which does not mean that they will cease to work, but that they will cease to do irksome work under pressure, and will work freely, planning, making, creating, according to their gifts and instincts. They will fight nature no longer as dull conscripts of the pick and plough, but for a splendid conquest. Only the spiritlessness of our present depression blinds us to the clear intimations of our reason that in the course of a few generations every little country town could become an Athens, every human being could be gentle in breeding and healthy in body and mind, the whole solid earth man’s mine and its uttermost regions his playground.

In this Outline we have sought to show two great systems of development interacting in the story of human society. We have seen, growing out of that later special neolithic culture, the heliolithic culture, and arising out of this in the warmer alluvial parts of the world, the great primordial civilizations, fecund systems of subjugation and obedience, vast multiplications of industrious and subservient men. We have shown the necessary relationship of these early civilizations to the early temples and to king-gods and god-kings. At the same time we have traced the development from a simpler neolithic level of the wanderer peoples, who became the nomadic peoples, in those great groups the Aryans and the Hun-Mongol peoples of the north-west and the north-east and (from a heliolithic phase) the Semites of the Arabian deserts. Our history has told of a repeated overrunning and refreshment of the originally brunet civilizations by these hardier, bolder, free-spirited peoples of the steppes and desert. We have pointed out how these constantly recurring nomadic injections have steadily altered the primordial civilizations both in blood and in spirit; and how the world religions of to-day, and what we now call democracy, the boldness of modern scientific inquiry and a universal restlessness, are due to this “nomadization” of civilization. The old civilizations created tradition, and lived by tradition. To-day the power of tradition is destroyed.[529] The body of our state is civilization still, but its spirit is the spirit of the nomadic world. It is the spirit of the great plains and the high seas.

So that it is difficult to resist the persuasion that so soon as one law runs in the earth and the fierceness of frontiers ceases to distress us, that urgency in our nature that stirs us in spring and autumn to be up and travelling, will have its way with us. We shall obey the call of the summer pastures and the winter pastures in our blood, the call of the mountains, the desert, and the sea. For some of us also, who may be of a different lineage, there is the call of the forest, and there are those who would hunt in the summer and return to the fields for the harvest and the plough. But this does not mean that men will have become homeless and all adrift. The normal nomadic life is not a homeless one, but a movement between homes. The Kalmucks to-day, like the swallows, go yearly a thousand miles from one home to another. The beautiful and convenient cities of the coming age, we conclude, will have their seasons when they will be full of life and seasons when they will seem asleep. Life will ebb and flow to and from every region seasonally as the interest of that region rises or declines.

There will be little drudgery in this better-ordered world. Natural power harnessed in machines will be the general drudge. What drudgery is inevitable will be done as a service and duty for a few years or months out of each life; it will not consume nor degrade the whole life of anyone. And not only drudges, but many other sorts of men and ways of living which loom large in the current social scheme will necessarily have dwindled in importance or passed away altogether. There will be few professional fighting men or none at all, no custom-house officers; the increased multitude of teachers will have abolished large police forces and large jail staffs, mad-houses will be rare or non-existent; a worldwide sanitation will have diminished the proportion of hospitals, nurses, sick-room attendants, and the like; a world-wide economic justice, the floating population of cheats, sharpers, gamblers, forestallers, parasites, and speculators generally. But there will be no diminution of adventure or romance in this world of the days to come. Sea fisheries and the incessant insurrection of the sea, for example, will call for their own stalwart types of men; the high air will clamour for manhood, the deep and dangerous secret places of nature. Men will turn again with renewed interest to the animal world. In these disordered days a stupid, uncontrollable massacre of animal species goes on--from certain angles of vision it is a thing almost more tragic than human miseries; in the nineteenth century dozens of animal species, and some of them very interesting species, were exterminated; but one of the first fruits of an effective world state would be the better protection of what are now wild beasts. It is a strange thing in human history to note how little has been done since the Bronze Age in taming, using, befriending, and appreciating the animal life about us. But that mere witless killing which is called sport to-day, would inevitably give place in a better educated world community to a modification of the primitive instincts that find expression in this way, changing them into an interest not in the deaths, but in the lives of beasts, and leading to fresh and perhaps very strange and beautiful attempts to befriend these pathetic, kindred lower creatures we no longer fear as enemies, hate as rivals, or need as slaves. And a world state and universal justice does not mean the imprisonment of our race in any bleak institutional orderliness. There will still be mountains and the sea, there will be jungles and great forests, cared for indeed and treasured and protected; the great plains will still spread before us and the wild winds blow. But men will not hate so much, fear so much, nor cheat so desperately--and they will keep their minds and bodies cleaner.

There are unhopeful prophets who see in the gathering together of men into one community the possibility of violent race conflicts, conflicts for “ascendancy,” but that is to suppose that civilization is incapable of adjustments by which men of different qualities and temperaments and appearances will live side by side, following different rôles and contributing diverse gifts. The weaving of mankind into one community does not imply the creation of a homogeneous community, but rather the reverse; the welcome and the adequate utilization of distinctive quality in an atmosphere of understanding. It is the almost universal bad manners of the present age which make race intolerable to race. The community to which we may be moving will be more mixed--which does not necessarily mean more interbred--more various and more interesting than any existing community. Communities all to one pattern, like boxes of toy soldiers, are things of the past rather than the future.

But one of the hardest, most impossible tasks a writer can set himself, is to picture the life of people better educated, happier in their circumstances, more free and more healthy than he is himself. We know enough to-day to know that there is infinite room for betterment in every human concern. Nothing is needed but collective effort. Our poverty, our restraints, our infections and indigestions, our quarrels and misunderstandings, are all things controllable and removable by concerted human action, but we know as little how life would feel without them as some poor dirty, ill-treated, fierce-souled creature born and bred amidst the cruel and dingy surroundings of a European back street can know what it is to bathe every day, always to be clad beautifully, to climb mountains for pleasure, to fly, to meet none but agreeable, well-mannered people, to conduct researches or make delightful things. Yet a time when all such good things will be for all men may be coming more nearly than we think. Each one who believes that brings the good time nearer; each heart that fails delays it.

One cannot foretell the surprises or disappointments the future has in store. Before this chapter of the World State can begin fairly in our histories, other chapters as yet unsuspected may still need to be written, as long and as full of conflict as our account of the growth and rivalries of the Great Powers. There may be tragic economic struggles, grim grapplings of race with race and class with class. We do not know; we cannot tell. These are unnecessary disasters, but they may be unavoidable disasters. Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe. Against the unifying effort of Christendom and against the unifying influence of the mechanical revolution, catastrophe won. New falsities may arise and hold men in some unrighteous and fated scheme of order for a time, before they collapse amidst the misery and slaughter of generations. Yet, clumsily or smoothly, the world, it seems, progresses and will progress. In this Outline, in our account of Palæolithic men, we have borrowed a description from Mr. Worthington Smith of the very highest life in the world some fifty thousand years ago. It was a bestial life. We have sketched too the gathering for a human sacrifice, some fifteen thousand years ago. That scene again is almost incredibly cruel to a modern civilized reader. Yet it is not more than five hundred years since the great empire of the Aztecs still believed that it could live only by the shedding of blood. Every year in Mexico hundreds of human victims died in this fashion: the body was bent like a bow over the curved stone of sacrifice, the breast was slashed open with a knife of obsidian, and the priest tore out the beating heart of the still living victim. The day may be close at hand when we shall no longer tear out the hearts of men, even for the sake of our national gods. Let the reader but refer to the earlier time charts we have given in this history, and he will see the true measure and transitoriness of all the conflicts, deprivations, and miseries of this present period of painful and yet hopeful change.

§ 5

History is and must always be no more than an account of beginnings. We can venture to prophesy that the next chapters to be written will tell, though perhaps with long interludes of set-back and disaster, of the final achievement of world-wide political and social unity. But when that is attained, it will mean no resting stage, nor even a breathing stage, before the development of a new struggle and of new and vaster efforts. Men will unify only to intensify the search for knowledge and power, and live as ever for new occasions. Animal and vegetable life, the obscure processes of psychology, the intimate structure of matter and the interior of our earth, will yield their secrets and endow their conqueror. Life begins perpetually. Gathered together at last under the leadership of man, the student-teacher of the universe, unified, disciplined, armed with the secret powers of the atom and with knowledge as yet beyond dreaming, Life, for ever dying to be born afresh, for ever young and eager, will presently stand upon this earth as upon a footstool, and stretch out its realm amidst the stars.

TIME CHARTS

AND

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

To conclude this Outline, we give here a Table of Leading Events from the year 800 B.C. to 1920 A.D. With it we give five time diagrams covering the period from 1000 B.C. onward, which present the trend of events in a graphic form.

It is well that the reader should keep in mind an idea of the true proportions of historical to geological time. The scale of these five diagrams is such that by it the time diagram on page 196, vol. i, would be about 8½ times as long, that is to say about 4 feet; that on page 97, showing the length of time since the first true men, about 55 feet long; that on page 60, showing the interval since the Eoliths, 555 feet; and that on page 14, representing the whole of geological time, would be somewhere between 12 and, at the longest and most probable estimate, 260 miles! Let the reader therefore take one of these chronological tables we give, and imagine it extended upon a long strip of paper to a distance of 55 feet. He would have to get up and walk about that distance to note the date of the painting of the Altamira caves, and he would have to go ten times that distance by the side of the same narrow strip to reach the earlier Neanderthalers. A mile or so from home, but probably much further away, the strip might be recording the last of the dinosaurs. And this on a scale which represents the time from Columbus to ourselves by three inches of space!

Chronology only begins to be precise enough to specify the exact year of any event after the establishment of the eras of the First Olympiad and the building of Rome.

About the year 1000 B.C. the Aryan peoples were establishing themselves in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and the Balkans, and they were established in North India, Cnossos was already destroyed and the spacious times of Egypt, of Thothmes III, Amenophis III, and Rameses II were three or four centuries away. Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty were ruling in the Nile Valley. Israel was united under her early kings; Saul or David or possibly even Solomon may have been reigning. Sargon I (2750 B.C.) of the Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote memory in Babylonian history, more remote than is Constantine the Great from the world of the present day. Hammurabi had been dead a thousand years. The Assyrians were already dominating the less military Babylonians. In 1100 B.C. Tiglath Pileser I had taken Babylon. But there was no permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were still separate empires. In China the new Chow Dynasty was flourishing. Stonehenge in England was already a thousand years old.

The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of Solomon, the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy, and Asia Minor, and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central Italy. We may begin our list of ascertainable dates with--

B.C.

800. The building of Carthage.

790. The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth Dynasty).

776. First Olympiad.

753. Rome built.

745. Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the New Assyrian Empire.

738. Menahem, king of Israel, bought off Tiglath Pileser III.

735. Greeks settling in Sicily.

722. Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.

721. He deported the Israelites.

704. Sennacherib.

701. His army destroyed by pestilence on its way to Egypt.

680. Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian XXVth Dynasty).

667. Sardanapalus.

664. Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded the XXVIth Dynasty (to 610). He was assisted against Assyria by Lydian troops sent by Gyges.

608. Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the Battle of Megiddo.

606. Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes. Foundation of the Chaldean Empire.

604. Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by Nebuchadnezzar II. Josiah fell with him.

586. Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon. Many fled to Egypt and settled there.

550. Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede. Cyrus conquered Crœsus. Buddha lived about this time. So also did Confucius and Lao Tse.

539. Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.

527. Peisistratus died.

525. Cambyses conquered Egypt.

521. Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont to the Indus. His expedition to Scythia.

490. Battle of Marathon.

484. Herodotus born. Æschylus won his first prize for tragedy.

480. Battles of Thermopylæ and Salamis.

479. The Battles of Platæa and Mycale completed the repulse of Persia.

474. Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.

470. Voyage of Hanno.

466. Pericles.

465. Xerxes murdered.

438. Herodotus recited his History in Athens.

431. Peloponnesian War began (to 404).

428. Pericles died. Herodotus died.

427. Aristophanes began his career. Plato born. He lived to 347.

401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.

390. Brennus sacked Rome.

366. Camillus built the Temple of Concord.

359. Philip became king of Macedonia.

338. Battle of Chæronea.

336. Macedonian troops crossed into Asia. Philip murdered.

334. Battle of the Granicus.

333. Battle of Issus.

332. Alexander in Egypt.

331. Battle of Arbela.

330. Darius III killed.

323. Death of Alexander the Great.

321. Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab. The Romans completely beaten by the Samnites at the battle of the Caudine Forks.

303. Chandragupta repulsed Seleucus.

285. Ptolemy Soter died.

281. Pyrrhus invaded Italy.

280. Battle of Heraclea.

279. Battle of Ausculum.

278. Gauls’ raid into Asia Minor and settlement in Galatia.

275. Pyrrhus left Italy.

264. First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar--to 227.) First gladiatorial games in Rome.

260. Battle of Mylæ.

256. Battle of Ecnomus.

246. Shi-Hwang-ti became king of Ch’in.

242. Battle of Ægatian Isles.

241. End of First Punic War.

225. Battle of Telamon. Roman armies in Illyria.

220. Shi-Hwang-ti became emperor of China.

219. Second Punic War.

216. Battle of Cannæ.

214. Great Wall of China begun.

210. Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.

202. Battle of Zama.

201. End of Second Punic War.

200-197. Rome at war with Macedonia.

192. War with the Seleucids.

190. Battle of Magnesia.

149. Third Punic War. (The Yueh-Chi came into Western Turkestan.)

146. Carthage destroyed. Corinth destroyed.

133. Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome. Tiberius Gracchus killed.

121. Caius Gracchus killed.

118. War with Jugurtha.

106. War with Jugurtha ended.

102. Marius drove back Germans.

100. Triumph of Marius. (Wu-ti conquering the Tarim Valley.)

91. Social war.

89. All Italians became Roman citizens.

86. Death of Marius.

78. Death of Sulla.

73. The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.

71. Defeat and end of Spartacus.

66. Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates. He encountered the Alani.

64. Mithridates of Pontus died.

53. Crassus killed at Carrhæ. Mongolian elements with Parthians.

48. Julius Cæsar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.

44. Julius Cæsar assassinated.

31. Battle of Actium.

27. Augustus Cæsar princeps (until 14 A.D.).

4. True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.

A.D. Christian Era began.

6. Province of Mœsia established.

9. Province of Pannonia established. Imperial boundary carried to the Danube.

14. Augustus died. Tiberius emperor.

30. Jesus of Nazareth crucified.

37. Caligula succeeded Tiberius.

41. Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.

54. Nero succeeded Claudius.

61. Boadicea massacred Roman garrison in Britain.

68. Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in succession.)

69. Vespasian began the so-called Flavian dynasty.

79. Titus succeeded Vespasian.

81. Domitian.

84. North Britain annexed.

96. Nerva began the so-called dynasty of the Antonines.

98. Trajan succeeded Nerva.

102. Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea. (Indo-Scythians invading North India.)

117. Hadrian succeeded Trajan. Roman Empire at its greatest extent.

138. Antoninus Pius succeeded Hadrian. (The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the last traces of Hellenic rule in India.)

150. [About this time Kanishka reigned in India, Kashgar, Yarkand, and Kotan.]

161. Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.

164. Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius (180). This also devastated all Asia.

180. Death of Marcus Aurelius. (Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman Empire.)

220. End of the Han dynasty. Beginning of four hundred years of division in China.

227. Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line in Persia.

242. Mani began his teaching.

247. Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.

251. Great victory of Goths. Emperor Decius killed.

260. Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured the Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from Asia Minor by Odenathus of Palmyra.

269. The Emperor Claudius defeated the Goths at Nish.

270. Aurelian became emperor.

272. Zenobia carried captive to Rome. End of the brief glories of Palmyra.

275. Probus succeeded Aurelian.

276. Goths in Pontus. The Emperor Probus forced back Franks and Alemanni.

277. Mani crucified in Persia.

284. Diocletian became emperor.

303. Diocletian persecuted the Christians.

311. Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.

312. Constantine the Great became emperor.

313. Constantine presided over a Christian Council at Arles.

321. Fresh Gothic raids driven back.

323. Constantine presided over the Council of Nicæa.

337. Vandals driven by Goths obtained leave to settle in Pannonia. Constantine baptized on his death-bed.

354. St. Augustine born.

361-3. Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism for Christianity.

379. Theodosius the Great (a Spaniard) emperor.

390. The statue of Serapis at Alexandria broken up.

392. Theodosius the Great, emperor of east and west.

395. Theodosius the Great died. Honorius and Arcadius redivided the empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters and protectors.

410. The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.

425. Vandals settling in south of Spain. Huns in Pannonia, Goths in Dalmatia. Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and North Spain. English invading Britain.

429. Vandals under Genseric invaded Africa.

439. Vandals took Carthage.

448. Priscus visited Attila.

451. Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni, and Romans at Troyes.

453. Death of Attila.

455. Vandals sacked Rome.

470. Ephthalites’ raid into India.

476. Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed Constantinople that there was no emperor in the West. End of the Western Empire.

480. St. Benedict born.

481. Clovis in France. The Merovingians.

483. Nestorian church broke away from the Orthodox Christian church.

493. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King of Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople. (Gothic kings in Italy. Goths settled on special confiscated lands as a garrison.)

527. Justinian emperor.

528. Mihiragula, the (Ephthalite) Attila of India, overthrown.

529. Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished nearly a thousand years. Belisarius (Justinian’s general) took Naples.

531. Chosroes I began to reign.

543. Great plague in Constantinople.

544. St. Benedict died.

553. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian. Cassiodorus founded his monastery.

565. Justinian died. The Lombards conquered most of North Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome Byzantine). The Turks broke up the Ephthalites in Western Turkestan.

570. Muhammad born.

579. Chosroes I died. (The Lombards dominant in Italy.)

590. Plague raged in Rome. (Gregory the Great--Gregory I--and the vision of St. Angelo.) Chosroes II began to reign.

610. Heraclius began to reign.

619. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and had armies on Hellespont. Tang dynasty began in China.

622. The Hegira.

623. Battle of Badr.

627. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius. The Meccan Allies besieged Medina. Tai-tsung became Emperor of China.

628. Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II. Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.

629. Yuan Chwang started for India. Muhammad entered Mecca.

631. Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.

632. Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.

634. Battle of the Yarmuk. Moslems took Syria. Omar second Caliph.

637. Battle of Kadessia.

638. Jerusalem surrendered to Omar.

642. Heraclius died.

643. Othman third Caliph.

645. Yuan Chwang returned to Singan.

655. Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.

656. Othman murdered at Medina.

661. Ali murdered.

662. Moawija Caliph. (First of the Omayyad caliphs.)

668. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea--Theodore of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury.

675. Last of the sea attacks by Moawija on Constantinople.

687. Pepin of Heristhal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia and Neustria.

711. Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.

714. Charles Martel mayor of the palace.

715. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the Pyrenees to China.

717-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take Constantinople. The Omayyad line passed its climax.

732. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.

735. Death of the Venerable Bede.

743. Walid II Caliph,--the unbelieving Caliph.

749. Overthrow of the Omayyads. Abdul Abbas, the first Abbasid Caliph. Spain remained Omayyad. Beginning of the break-up of the Arab Empire.

751. Pepin crowned King of the French.

755. Martyrdom of St. Boniface.

768. Pepin died.

771. Charlemagne sole king.

774. Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.

776. Charlemagne in Dalmatia.

786. Haroun al Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).

795. Leo III became Pope (to 816).

800. Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.

802. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charlemagne, established himself as King of Wessex.

810. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.

814. Charlemagne died, Louis the Pious succeeds him.

828. Egbert became first King of England.

843. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to pieces. Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy Roman Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently.

850. About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod and Kieff.

852. Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).

865. The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened Constantinople.

886. The Treaty of Alfred of England and Guthrum the Dane, establishing the Danes in the Danelaw.

904. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.

912. Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.

919. Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.

928. Marozia imprisoned Pope John X.

931. John XI Pope (to 936).

936. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father, Henry the Fowler.

941. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.

955. John XII Pope.

960. Northern Sung Dynasty began in China.

962. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon Emperor) by John XII.

963. Otto deposed John XII.

969. Separate Fatimite Caliphate set up in Egypt.

973. Otto II.

983. Otto III.

987. Hugh Capet became King of France. End of the Carlovingian line of French kings.

1013. Canute became King of England, Denmark, and Norway.

1037. Avicenna of Bokhara, the Prince of Physicians, died.

1043. Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.

1066. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.

1071. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks. Battle of Melasgird.

1073. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.

1082. Robert Guiscard captured Durazzo.

1084. Robert Guiscard sacked Rome.

1087-99. Urban II Pope.

1094. Pestilence.

1095. Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.

1096. Massacre of the People’s Crusade.

1099. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem. Paschal II Pope (to 1118).

1138. Kin Empire flourished. The Sung capital shifted from Nanking to Hang Chau.

1147. The Second Crusade. Foundation of the Christian Kingdom of Portugal.

1169. Saladin Sultan of Egypt.

1176. Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the Pope (Alexander III) at Venice.

1187. Saladin captured Jerusalem.

1189. The Third Crusade.

1198. Averroes of Cordoba, the Arab philosopher, died. Innocent III Pope (to 1216). Frederick II (aged four), King of Sicily, became his ward.

1202. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.

1204. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.

1206. Kutub founded Moslem state at Delhi.

1212. The Children’s Crusade.

1214. Jengis Khan took Peking.

1215. Magna Carta signed.

1216. Honorius III Pope.

1218. Jengis Khan invaded Kharismia.

1221. Failure and return of the Fifth Crusade. St. Dominic died. (The Dominicans.)

1226. St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)

1227. Jengis Khan died, Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific, and was succeeded by Ogdai Khan.

1227. Gregory IX Pope.

1228. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired Jerusalem.

1234. Mongols completed conquest of the Kin Empire with the help of the Sung Empire.

1239. Frederick II excommunicated for the second time.

1240. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.

1241. Mongol victory at Liegnitz in Silesia.

1244. The Egyptian Sultan recaptured Jerusalem. This led to the Seventh Crusade.

1245. Frederick II re-excommunicated. The men of Schwyz burnt the castle of New Habsburg.

1250. St. Louis of France ransomed. Frederick II, the last Hohenstaufen Emperor, died. German interregnum until 1273.

1251. Mangu Khan became Great Khan. Kublai Khan governor of China.

1258. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.

1260. Kublai Khan became Great Khan. Ketboga defeated in Palestine.

1261. The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.

1269. Kublai Khan sent a message of inquiry to the Pope by the older Polos.

1271. Marco Polo started upon his travels.

1273. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor. The Swiss formed their Everlasting League.

1280. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty in China.

1292. Death of Kublai Khan.

1293. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.

1294. Boniface VIII Pope (to 1303).

1295. Marco Polo returned to Venice.

1303. Death of Pope Boniface VIII after the outrage of Anagni by Guillaume de Nogaret.

1305. Clement V Pope. The papal court set up at Avignon.

1308. Duns Scotus died.

1318. Four Franciscans burnt for heresy at Marseilles.

1347. Occam died.

1348. The Great Plague, the Black Death.

1358. The Jacquerie in France.

1360. In China the Mongol (Yuan) Dynasty fell, and was succeeded by the Ming Dynasty (to 1644).

1367. Timurlane assumed the title of Great Khan.

1377. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.

1378. The Great Schism. Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at Avignon.

1381. Peasant revolt in England. Wat Tyler murdered in the presence of King Richard II.

1384. Wycliffe died.

1398. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.

1405. Death of Timurlane.

1414-18. The Council of Constance. Huss burnt (1415).

1417. The Great Schism ended, Martin V Pope.

1420. The Hussites revolted. Martin V preached a crusade against them.

1431. The Catholic Crusaders dissolved before the Hussites at Domazlice. The Council of Basle met.

1436. The Hussites came to terms with the church.

1439. Council of Basle created a fresh schism in the church.

1445. Discovery of Cape Verde by the Portuguese.

1446. First printed books (Coster in Haarlem).

1449. End of the Council of Basle.

1453. Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.

1480. Ivan III, Grand-duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol allegiance.

1481. Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the conquest of Italy. Bayazid II Turkish Sultan (to 1512).

1486. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

1492. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America. Rodrigo Borgia, Alexander VI, Pope (to 1503).

1493. Maximilian I became Emperor.

1498. Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.

1499. Switzerland became an independent republic.

1500. Charles V born.

1509. Henry VIII King of England.

1512. Selim Sultan (to 1520). He bought the title of Caliph. Fall of Soderini (and Machiavelli) in Florence.

1513. Leo X Pope.

1515. Francis I King of France.

1517. Selim annexed Egypt. Luther propounded his theses at Wittenberg.

1519. Leonardo da Vinci died. Magellan’s expedition started to sail round the world. Cortez entered Mexico city.

1520. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from Bagdad to Hungary. Charles V Emperor.

1521. Luther at the Diet of Worms. Loyola wounded at Pampeluna.

1525. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and founded the Mogul Empire.

1527. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon, took and pillaged Rome.

1529. Suleiman besieged Vienna.

1530. Pizarro invaded Peru. Charles V crowned by the Pope. Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy.

1532. The Anabaptists seized Münster.

1535. Fall of the Anabaptist rule in Münster.

1539. The Company of Jesus founded.

1543. Copernicus died.

1545. The Council of Trent (to 1563) assembled to put the church in order.

1546. Martin Luther died.

1547. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the title of Tsar of Russia. Francis I died.

1549. First Jesuit missions arrived in South America.

1552. Treaty of Passau. Temporary pacification of Germany.

1556. Charles V abdicated. Akbar Great Mogul (to 1605). Ignatius of Loyola died.

1558. Death of Charles V.

1563. End of the Council of Trent and the reform of the Catholic Church.

1564. Galileo born.

1566. Suleiman the Magnificent died.

1567. Revolt of the Netherlands.

1568. Execution of Counts Egmont and Horn.

1571. Kepler born.

1573. Siege of Alkmaar.

1578. Harvey born.

1583. Sir Walter Raleigh’s expedition to Virginia.

1601. Tycho Brahe died.

1603. James I King of England and Scotland. Dr. Gilbert died.

1605. Jehangir Great Mogul.

1606. Virginia Company founded.

1609. Holland independent.

1618. Thirty Years War began.

1620. Mayflower expedition founded New Plymouth. First negro slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).

1625. Charles I of England.

1626. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.

1628. Shah Jehan Great Mogul. The English Petition of Right.

1629. Charles I of England began his eleven years of rule without a parliament.

1630. Kepler died.

1632. Leeuwenhoek born. Gustavus Adolphus killed at the Battle of Lützen.

1634. Wallenstein murdered.

1638. Japan closed to Europeans (until 1865).

1640. Charles I of England summoned the Long Parliament.

1641. Massacre of the English in Ireland.

1642. Galileo died. Newton born.

1643. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two years.

1644. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.

1645. Swine pens in the inner town of Leipzig pulled down.

1648. Treaty of Westphalia. Thereby Holland and Switzerland were recognized as free republics and Prussia became important. The treaty gave a complete victory neither to the Imperial Crown nor to the Princes. War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory of the French crown.

1649. Execution of Charles I of England.

1658. Aurungzeb Great Mogul. Cromwell died.

1660. Charles II of England.

1674. Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and was renamed New York.

1683. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III of Poland.

1688. The British Revolution. Flight of James II. William and Mary began to reign.

1689. Peter the Great of Russia (to 1725).

1690. Battle of the Boyne in Ireland.

1694. Voltaire born.

1701. Frederick I first King of Prussia.

1704. John Locke, the father of modern democratic theory, died.

1707. Death of Aurungzeb. The empire of the Great Mogul disintegrated.

1713. Frederick the Great of Prussia born.

1714. George I of Britain.

1715. Louis XV of France.

1727. Newton died. George II of Britain.

1732. Oglethorpe founded Georgia.

1736. Nadir Shah raided India. (The beginning of twenty years of raiding and disorder in India.)

1740. Maria-Theresa began to reign. (Being a woman, she could not be empress. Her husband, Francis I, was emperor until his death in 1765, when her son, Joseph II, succeeded him.)

1740. Accession of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia.

1741. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia began to reign.

1755-63. Britain and France struggled for America and India. France in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia and Britain (1756-63); the Seven Years’ War.

1757. Battle of Plassey.

1759. The British general Wolfe took Quebec.

1760. George III of Britain.

1762. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia died. Murder of the Tsar Paul, and accession of Catherine the Great of Russia (to 1796).

1763. Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain. British dominant in India.

1764. Battle of Buxar.

1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born.

1774. Louis XVI began his reign. Suicide of Clive. The American revolutionary drama began.

1775. Battle of Lexington.

1776. Declaration of Independence by the United States of America.

1778. J. J. Rousseau, the creator of modern democratic sentiment, died.

1780. End of the reign of Maria-Theresa. The Emperor Joseph (1765 to 1790) succeeded her in the hereditary Habsburg dominions.

1783. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States of America. Quaco set free in Massachusetts.

1787. The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the Federal Government of the United States. France discovered to be bankrupt. The Assembly of the Notables.

1788. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.

1789. The French States-General assembled. Storming of the Bastille.

1791. The Jacobin Revolution. Flight to Varennes.

1792. France declared war on Austria; Prussia declared war on France. Battle of Valmy. France became a republic.

1793. Louis XVI beheaded.

1794. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic. Rule of the Convention.

1795. The Directory. Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went to Italy as commander-in-chief.

1797. By the Peace of Campo Formio Bonaparte destroyed the Republic of Venice.

1798. Bonaparte went to Egypt. Battle of the Nile.

1799. Bonaparte returned. He became First Consul with enormous powers.

1800. Legislative union of Ireland and England enacted January 1st, 1801.

1800. Napoleon’s campaign against Austria. Battles of Marengo (in Italy) and Hohenlinden (Moreau’s victory).

1801. Preliminaries of peace between France, England, and Austria signed.

1803. Bonaparte occupied Switzerland, and so precipitated war.

1804. Bonaparte became Emperor. Francis II took the title of Emperor of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the title of Holy Roman Emperor. So the “Holy Roman Empire” came to an end.

1805. Battle of Trafalgar. Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz.

1806. Prussia overthrown at Jena.

1807. Battles of Eylau and Friedland and Treaty of Tilsit.

1808. Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.

1810. Spanish America became republican.

1811. Alexander withdrew from the “Continental System.”

1812. Moscow.

1814. Abdication of Napoleon. Louis XVIII.

1815. The Waterloo campaign. The Treaty of Vienna.

1819. The First Factory Act passed through the efforts of Robert Owen.

1821. The Greek revolt.

1824. Charles X of France.

1825. Nicholas I of Russia.

1827. Battle of Navarino.

1829. Greece independent.

1830. A year of disturbance. Louis Philippe ousted Charles X. Belgium broke away from Holland. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became king of this new country, Belgium. Russian Poland revolted ineffectually. First railway (Liverpool to Manchester).

1832. The First Reform Bill in Britain restored the democratic character of the British Parliament.

1835. The word socialism first used.

1837. Queen Victoria.

1840. Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.

1848. Another year of disturbance. Republics in France and Rome. The Pan-slavic conference at Prague. All Germany united in a parliament at Frankfort. German unity destroyed by the King of Prussia.

1851. The Great Exhibition of London.

1852. Napoleon III Emperor of the French.

1854. Perry (second expedition) landed in Japan. Nicholas I occupied the Danubian provinces of Turkey.

1854-56. Crimean War.

1856. Alexander II of Russia.

1857. The Indian Mutiny.

1858. Robert Owen died.

1859. Franco-Austrian war. Battles of Magenta and Solferino.

1861. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy. Abraham Lincoln became President U.S.A. The American Civil War began.

1863. British bombarded a Japanese town.

1864. Maximilian became Emperor of Mexico.

1865. Surrender of Appomattox Court House. Japan opened to the world.

1866. Prussia and Italy attacked Austria (and the south German states in alliance with her). Battle of Sadowa.

1867. The Emperor Maximilian shot.

1870. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.

1871. Paris surrendered (January). The King of Prussia became William I, “German Emperor.” The Hohenzollern Peace of Frankfort.

1875. The “Bulgarian atrocities.”

1877. Russo-Turkish War. Treaty of San Stefano. Queen Victoria became Empress of India.

1878. The Treaty of Berlin. The Armed Peace of forty-six years began in western Europe.

1881. The Battle of Majuba Hill. The Transvaal free.

1883. Britain occupied Egypt.

1886. Gladstone’s first Irish Home Rule Bill.

1888. Frederick II (March), William II (June), German Emperors.

1890. Bismarck dismissed. Heligoland ceded to Germany by Lord Salisbury.

1894-95. Japanese war with China.

1895. “Unionist” (Imperialist) government in Britain.

1896. Battle of Adowa.

1898. The Fashoda quarrel between France and Britain. Germany acquired Kiau-Chau.

1899. The war in South Africa began (Boer war).

1900. The Boxer risings in China. Siege of the Legations at Peking.

1904. The British invaded Tibet.

1904-5. Russo-Japanese war.

1906. The “Unionist” (Imperialist) party in Great Britain defeated by the Liberals upon the question of tariffs.

1907. The Confederation of South Africa established.

1908. Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.

1909. M. Bleriot flew in an aeroplane from France to England.

1911. Italy made war on Turkey and seized Tripoli.

1912. China became a republic.

1913. The Balkan league made war on Turkey. Bloodshed at Londonderry in Ireland caused by “Unionist” gun running.

1914. The Great War in Europe began (for which see special time chart on pp. 528-29).

1917. The two Russian revolutions. Establishment of the Bolshevik régime in Russia.

1919-20. The Clemenceau Peace of Versailles.

1920. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany, Austria, Russia, and Turkey were excluded, and at which the United States was not represented.

And here our Outline breaks off.

INDEX

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

VOWELS

ä as in far (fär), father (fä’ thũr), mikado (mi kä’ dō).

ă “ “ fat (făt), ample (ămpl), abstinence (ăb’ stin ens).

ā “ “ fate (fāt), wait (wāt), deign (dān), jade (jād).

aw “ “ fall (fawl), appal (a pawl’), broad (brawd).

â “ “ fair (fâr), bear (bâr), where (hwâr).

e “ “ bell (bel), bury (ber’ i).

ē “ “ beef (bēf), thief (thēf), idea (ī dē’ ă), beer (bēr), casino (kă sē’ nō).

i “ “ bit (bit), lily (lil’ ī), nymph (nimf), build (bild).

ī “ “ bite (bīt), analyze (ăn’ ă līz), light (līt).

o “ “ not (not), watch (woch), cough (kof), sorry (sor’ i).

ō “ “ no (nō), blow (blō), brooch (brōch).

ô “ “ north (nôrth), absorb (ăb sôrb’).

oo “ “ food (food), do (doo), prove (proov), blue (bloo), strew (stroo).

u “ “ bull (bul), good (gud), would (wud).

ŭ “ “ sun (sŭn), love (lŭv), enough (ē nŭf’).

ū “ “ muse (mūs), stew (stū), cure (kūr).

ũ “ “ her (hũr), search (sũrch), word (wũrd), bird (bũrd).

ou “ “ bout (bout), bough (bou), crowd (kroud).

oi “ “ join (join), joy (joi), buoy (boi).

A short mark placed over italic a, e, o, or u (ă, ĕ, ŏ, ŭ), signifies that the vowel has an obscure, indeterminate, or slurred sound, as in:--

advice (_ă_d vīs, current (kŭr’ _ĕ_nt), notion (nō’ sh_ŭ_n), breakable (brā’ k_ă_ bl), sailor (sā’ l_ŏ_r), pleasure (plezh’ _ŭ_r).

CONSONANTS

“s” is used only for the sibilant “s” (as in “toast,” tōst, “place,” plās); the sonant “s” (as in “toes,” “plays”) is printed “z” (tōz, plāz).

“c” (except in the combinations “ch” and “ch”), “q” and “x” are not used.

b, d, f, h (but see the combinations below), k, l, m, n (see n below), p, r, t, v, z, and w and y when used as consonants have their usual values.

ch as in church (chũrch), batch (băch), capriccio (kä prē’ chō).

ch “ “ loch (lo_ch_), coronach (kor’ o nä_ch_), clachan (klă_ch_’ än).

g “ “ get (get), finger (fing’ gũr).

j “ “ join (join), judge (jŭj), germ (jũrm), ginger (jin’ jĕr).

gh (in List of Proper Names only) as in Ludwig (lut’ vigh).

hl ( “ “ “ “ ) “ “ Llandeilo (hlăn dī’ lō).

hw as in white (hwīt), nowhere (nō’ hwâr).

n “ “ cabochon (kä bō sho_n_’), congé (ko_n_’ shā).

sh “ “ shawl (shawl), mention (men’ shŭn).

zh “ “ measure (mezh’ _ŭ_r), vision (vizh’ _ŏ_n).

th “ “ thin (thin), breath (breth).

th “ “ thine (_th_īn), breathe (brē_th_).

The accent (’) follows the syllable to be stressed.

Aar (ār) VALLEY, ii, 199

Aaronson, Aaron, i, 184

Abbasids (ă băs’ īdz), ii, 30-36, 61, 64, 70, 106, 126, 613

Abbott, E., i, 6

Abbott, W. J. Lewis, i, 68

Abd Manif (äbd män ēf’), ii, 5

Abdal Malik (äbd äl mä’ lik), ii, 28

Abelard, P., ii, 171

Aboukir (ä boo kēr’), ii, 352, 353

Aboukir, cruiser, ii, 520

Abraham the Patriarch, i, 196, 278, 282, 293-94, 576, ii, 6

Absolution, ii, 216

Abu Bekr (ä’ boo bek’ _ĕ_r), ii, 6, 7, 8, 13-22, 34, 612

Abul Abbas, ii, 30, 31, 613

Abul Fazl (ā’ bool fā’ zl), ii, 135

Abydos (ă bī’ dos), i, 335, 340

Abyssinia, i, 156, 160, 359, ii, 461

Abyssinian Christians, i, 603, 618, ii, 3, 8; language, i, 154

Académie des Sciences, ii, 239

Academy, Greek, i, 351, 354-57

Academy of Inscriptions, ii, 312

Achilles (ä kil’ ēz), i, 177

Acre, i, 212, ii, 353

Acropolis (ă krop’ ŏ lis), i, 306, 337

Act of Union, ii, 492

Actium (ăk’ ti _ŭ_m), battle of, i, 514, ii, 609

Acts of the Apostles, i, 587, 589

Adam and Eve, ii, 418

Adams, Prof. G. B., ii, 46

Adams, John, ii, 300, 303

Adams, Samuel, ii, 290, 303

Adams, W. P., ii, 532

Adams, William, ii, 465

Addington, ii, 359

Aden, i, 160, 197, ii, 32, 471

Adowa (ă’ dō wă), battle of, ii, 461, 469, 500, 624

Adrianople, i, 554, ii, 122, 502; Treaty of, ii, 382

Adriatic, i, 274, 389, 452, 461, 471, 540, 561, 606, 616, ii, 54, 80, 364, 509

Adriatic river, i, 119, 120

Ægatian Isles, i, 471, ii, 608

Ægean (ē jē’ _ă_n), cities, i, 234; civilization, i, 213-16, 281, 300; Dark Whites, i, 447; hunters, i, 317

Ægina (ē jī’ n_ă_), i, 337

Æneid (ē’ nē id), the, i, 448

Æolic dialect, i, 300

Aeroplanes, i, 5, ii, 392, 519, 523

Æschylus (ēs’ ki l_ŭ_s), i, 221, 355, ii, 607

Afghanistan, i, 153, 201, 396, 431, 433, 627-28, 643, ii, 133, 257

Africa, i, 57, 74, 109, 120, 145, 154-56, 162, 281, 489, 509, ii, 114, 139, 153; peoples of, i, 86, 109, 138, 141, 149, 158-60, 195-201, 206, 234; languages of, i, 161-62; early trade with, i, 217, 273; Moslems in, i, 217, 565, ii, 22, 24, 30, 31, 41, 51, 64, 65, 613; voyages and travels in, i, 218, 509, ii, 185-88, 252; Phœnicians in, i, 448, 482-84, 513, 570, 640; Roman, i, 470, 478-79, 498, 540, 560, 606; Vandals in, i, 556, 606, 615, ii, 611; slavery in, ii, 193, 225, 306; modern exploitation of, ii, 451, 458-60, 484

Africa, Central, i, 158, 558; East, i, 42, 178; South (see South Africa); West, i, 219, ii, 193

African lung fish, i, 25

Aga Khan (ä’ gä kän’), ii, 473

Agincourt, ii, 179

Agriculture, early, i, 104, 108, 113-14, 116, 133, 137, 158, 171, 190, 254, 317; slaves in, i, 259; Arab knowledge of, ii, 38; in Great Britain, ii, 272, 273

Agriculturists, i, 264, 267, 271

Agrigentum (ăg ri gen’ t_ŭ_m), i, 469

Agrippina (ăg ri pī’ n_ă_), i, 525

Ahriman (ă’ ri män), i, 625, 626

Ainu (ī’ noo), i, 139, 148, ii, 262, 464

Air, the, i, 5, 23, 36

Air Force, ii, 570

Aisne (ān), ii, 515; battle of the, ii, 48

Aix-la-Chapelle, ii, 60, 63

Akbar (äk’ bũr), ii, 133-37, 256, 618

Akhnaton (äk nä’ ton). (See Amenophis IV)

Akkadia (and Akkadians), i, 191, 245

Akkadian-Sumerian Empire, i, 196, 279, ii, 606

Akki, i, 279

Alabama, the, ii, 443-44

Alamanni, i, 553, ii, 48, 610

Alans, i, 549-54, 627-28, ii, 609

Alaric (ăl’ ă rik), i, 554, 561, ii, 611

Alaska, ii, 505

Alban, St., ii, 50

Alban Mount, i, 448

Albania, ii, 522

Albert, Prince Consort, ii, 436, 486, 622

Albertus Magnus, ii, 171

Albigenses (ăl bi jen’ sēz), ii, 92, 95, 219

Alcarez (ăl cär’ ez), ii, 208

Alchemists, ii, 174

Alcibiades (ăl si bī’ ă dēz), i, 351

Alcmæonidæ (ălk mē on’ i dē), i, 314

Alcohol, discovery of, ii, 38

Alcuin (ăl’ kwin), ii, 59

Alemanni. (See Alamanni)

Aleppo, ii, 76

Alexander the Great, i, 133, 195, 198, 200, 205, 217, 252, 253, 277, 345, 352, 357-59, 366-99, 412, 428, 430, 445, 452, 467, 484, 507, 510, 512, 522, 542, 546, 562, 597, 615-16, 643, ii, 20, 51, 78, 114, 145, 199, 303, 608; empire of (maps), i, 393, 398; mother of, i, 452

Alexander, son of Alexander the Great, i, 394

Alexander II, king of Egypt, i, 500

Alexander I, tsar of Russia, ii, 362-66, 370-76, 382, 405, 411, 476-77, 622

Alexander II, tsar of Russia, ii, 623

Alexander III (pope), ii, 97, 615

Alexander VI (pope), ii, 195, 617

Alexandretta, i, 379, 383

Alexandria, i, 13, 383, 389, 395-96, 428, 463 497, 515, 532, 538, 562, 587, 601, 602, 604, ii, 36, 91, 168, 351, 611; museum at, i, 359, 402-13, 476, 490, 636; culture and religion of, i, 401-14, 590-91, 602, ii, 37; library at, i, 405, 411; Serapeum, i, 413, 414

Alexandrian cities, i, 273

Alexius Comnenus (ă lek’ si ŭs kom nē’n_ŭ_s), ii, 72-80

Alfred, king, ii, 54, 148, 614

Algæ, i, 10

Algebra (ăl’ je br_ă_), i, 219, ii, 37, 88

Algeria, i, 102, 217, 565, ii, 501

Algiers, ii, 126, 225, 470

Ali (ā’ lē), nephew of Muhammad, ii, 6-8, 13, 26-31, 64, 613

Alkmaar (älk mär’), siege of, ii, 230-32

Allah, ii, 9-20, 24, 26

Alleghany mountains, ii, 280

Allen, Grant, i, 131

Allen, W. A. C., i, 294

Alp Arslan (älp ärs län’), ii. 72

Alphabets, i, 228, 304, 422, 627, 638-40

Alpine race, i, 146

Alps, the, i, 35, 52, 75, 471, 475, 508, 606, ii, 58, 63, 69, 194

Alsace, i, 553, ii, 200, 236, 244, 446

Alstadt, ii, 180

Altai (äl’ tī), the, i, 546, 633

Altamira (al tă mër’ ă), cave of, i, 93, ii, 605

Aluminium, ii, 389

Alva, General, ii, 229-32

Alyattes (ă li ăt’ ēz), i, 316

Amadis (ăm’ ă dis) de Gaul, ii, 165, 166

Ambar, ii, 136

Amber, i, 105, 532

Amenophis (ăm ĕ nō’ fis) III, i, 200, 220, 245, 250, 288

Amenophis IV, i, 196, 220, 245, 250, 251, 255, 281, 288, 412, 446, ii, 605

America, i, 56, 59, 100, 219, ii, 254, 400; prehistoric, i, 100, 102-03, 107, 148, 207, 208; races of, i, 100, 102-03, 138, 141, 158; languages of, i, 150, 158, 164; discovery of, i, 635, 640, ii, 53, 84, 117, 185 sqq., 193, 251-52, 269, 617; European settlements in, ii, 252-55, 271, 273, 278-94, 304, 619. (See also United States)

America, Central, drawings, i, 207

America, South, i, 207, ii, 166, 187, 192-93, 200, 378, 457, 622

American Indians, i, 113, 124, 137, 143, 157-60, 207, 225, ii, 166, 187, 189, 254, 292, 304-05, 464

American king-crab, i, 10; picture writing, i, 207

Amiens, ii, 530; Peace of, ii, 355, 359

Amir, ii, 124

Amman (Philadelphia), i, 621-22

Ammianus, i, 607

Ammon, i, 249-52, 383, 399, 412, 602

Ammonites, i, 46

Ammonites, a people, i, 294

Amœba (ă mē’ bȧ), i, 16

Amorites, i, 191, 279

Amos the prophet, i, 294

Amphibia, i, 26, 28, 38, 52, 55

Amphictyonies (ăm fik’ ti _ŏ_n iz), i, 313, ii, 3, 8

Amphion, cruiser, ii, 512

Amphipolis (ăm fip’ ŏ lis), i, 371, 372

Amritzar (ăm rit’ s_ă_r), ii, 456

Amur (ă moor´), ii, 261

Anabaptists, ii, 156, 157, 162, 618

Anabasis (ă năb´ ă sis), the, i, 342

Anagni (ä nän´ yē), ii, 99, 616

Anatolia, ii, 72, 121

Anatolian peninsula, i, 623

Anatomy, i, 402-04, ii, 177

Anaxagoras (ăn _ă_k săg´ ŏ răs), i, 349, 358, 364

Andaman (ăn´ d_ă_ măn) Islands, i, 139

Andes, i, 35, 52

Andronicus (ăn dr_ŏ_ nī´ k_ŭ_s), ii, 124

Angelo, St., ii, 612

Angles, i, 554, 605, ii, 50, 54, 66

Anglia, East, ii, 40

Anglicanism, ii, 163

Anglo-Norman feudalism, ii, 43

“Anglo-Saxon,” ii, 487-88

Anglo-Saxons, i, 564, 605, 612, ii, 47, 130, 149

Animals, i, 10, 16-23, 25-27, 52-57, 64, 66, 67, 102, 105, 112, 116, 128, 254. (See also Mammals)

Anio, the, i, 458, 610

Anna Comnena (kom nē´ n_ă_), ii, 79

Annam, i, 634, 640, ii, 262, 467, 470

Anne, queen, ii, 226

Anselm, St., ii, 171

Antarctic birds, i, 44

Antigonus (ăn tig´ ō n_ŭ_s), i, 395

Antimony, i, 106

Antioch, i, 529, 589, 598, 604, 617-21, ii, 19, 78-81, 610

Antiochus (ăn tī´ ȯ k_ŭ_s) III, i, 474, 482, 483

Antiochus IV, i, 572

Antonines, i, 526-31, 537-40, ii, 610

Antoninus (ăn tō nī´ n_ŭ_s), Marcus Aurelius, i, 526-28, 540, ii, 153, 610

Antoninus Pius, i, 526, 530, ii, 610

Antony, i, 512, 514, 515

Antwerp, ii, 180, 184

Anu, i, 245

Anubis (ă nū´ bis), Egyptian god, i, 236

Anytus(ăn´ i t_ŭ_s), i, 352

Apamea (ăp ă mē´ ă), i, 621

Apes, i, 65-67, 230; anthropoid, i, 57, 63, 65-66, 73

Aphelion, i, 30-34

Apion, i, 500

Apis (ā´ pis), i, 382, 412, 413, 590

Apollinaris Sidonius, i, 607

Apollo, i, 313, 325, 376, 611

Apollonius (ă p_ŏ_ lō´ ni _ŭ_s), i, 402

Appian Way, i, 461, 505

Apples, i, 113

Appomattox Court House, ii, 444, 623

Apuleius (ăp ū lē´ _ŭ_s), i, 607

Aquileia (ă kwē lā´ y_ă_), i, 461, 559

Aquinas (ă kwī´ n_ă_s), ii, 168, 171

Arabia, i, 37, 109, 121, 154, 156, 160, 184, 196, 197, 218, 229, 273, 281, 295, 401, 533, 618, 624, 634, ii, 1-6, 11, 17, 18, 24, 51, 75, 105. (See also Arabs)

Arabian Nights, the, ii, 32

Arabic language and literature, i, 148, 153, 530-31, 623, ii, 3-4, 22, 29, 31, 34-35, 159

Arabs, i, 188, 217, 327, 565, 570, 634, ii, 1-8, 15-21, 28, 32, 39, 41, 61, 67, 114, 149, 159, 257, 613; culture of, i, 636, ii, 34-39, 88, 149, 168, 174-75

Aral sea, i, 153, 159, 387

Aral-Caspian region, i, 317

Arameans, i, 192, 218, 258, 259, 265, 570, 631, ii, 1

Arbela (är bē´ l_ă_), battle of, i, 384, 479, ii, 608

Arcadius, i, 554, ii, 611

Archæopteryx (är kē op´ t_ĕ_r iks), i, 45

Archæozoic (är kē ō zō´ ik) period, i, 9. (See also Azoic)

Archer, William, ii, 473

Archers, i, 370

Archimedes (är ki mē´ dēz), i, 402, 476, 534

Architecture, ii, 60, 179

Arctic birds, i, 44; Circle, i, 632; Ocean, i, 153; seas, ii, 142

Ardashir (ar dă shēr´) I, i, 617, 625, ii, 610

Ardennes, ii, 514

Argentine republic, i, 161, ii, 457

Argon, ii, 119

Argonne, ii, 329

Argos, i, 453, 454

Ariadne (ăr i ăd´ ni), i, 216

Arians (är´ i _ă_nz), i, 592, 601

Aridæus (ăr i dē´ _ŭ_s), i, 375, 394

Aristagoras (ăr is tăg´ ŏ răs), i, 341, 342

Aristarchus, i, 384

Aristides (ăr is tī´ dēz), i, 312, 313, 337, 346

Aristocracy, i, 188, 265, 308

Aristodemus (ăr is t_ŏ_ dē´ m_ŭ_s), i, 336

Aristophanes (ăr is tof´ ă nēz), i, 221, 355, ii, 607

Aristotle, i, 220, 305, 314, 357-59, 379, 383, 392, 397, 402, 411, 434, 493, 530, 562, ii, 35, 37, 88, 146, 168-69, 173, 245, 419, 432; Politics of, i, 308, 309, 462, 467, ii, 169

Arithmetic, i, 219

Arius (ȧ rī´ ŭs), i, 592, 600, 648

Arizona, ii, 505

Ark of bulrushes, i, 209

Ark of the Covenant, i, 245, 284-88

Arles (arl), i, 600, 601, 609, ii, 611

Armadillo, giant, i, 102, 207

Armenia (and the Armenians), i, 169, 318, 395, 505, 523, 526, 548, 549, 603, 616, 620, ii, 21, 64, 72, 114, 118, 121, 125, 153

Armenian language, i, 151, 169, ii, 138

Arno, i, 451, 460, 461

Arras, ii, 324, 517

Arrow, i, 508, 549

Arrow heads, i, 104, 107, 114, 130

Arrow straighteners, i, 90, 99

Arsacids (ăr săs’ idz), i, 523, 616, ii, 610

Arses, i, 342

Art, Buddhist, i, 428; Cretan, i, 215; Neolithic, i, 130; Palæolithic, i, 92-99, 123

Artabanus (ăr tă bā’ nŭs), i, 335

Artaxerxes II, i, 342, 363

Artaxerxes III, i, 342

Arthur, king, i, 531

Artillery, i, 372, ii, 124

Artisans, i, 264-269

Artois (ă twă’), Count of. (See Charles X)

Aryan, definition of, i, 298; languages and literature, i, 133, 151-55, 161-64, 167-69, 173, 298, 387, 446, ii, 247; peoples and civilisations, i, 152, 160, 167 sqq., 189, 194, 201, 232-33, 243-44, 247, 281-82, 298-300, 305, 315-18, 387, 415-16, 446-48, 545, 549-51, 558, ii, 144, 168, 184, 190, 490, 605

Aryan Way, the, i, 417, 424, 433, 440, 449

As, Roman coin, i, 471

Ascalon, i, 282

Asceticism, i, 418, 420

Ashdod, i, 245, 282

Ashley, Sir W., ii, 287

Ashtaroth (ăsh’ tă roth), i, 282, 286, 288

Asia, general and early period, i, 56, 59, 75, 77, 86, 100, 102, 108, 109, 118, 153, 157-160, 195, 273, 299, 317, 318, 536, 542-49, 551, 557, 624, 627, ii, 69, 98, 105-08, 114, 153, 168, 185, 247, 449, 464, 610; Greeks in, i, 327, 375, 390, 396; Romans in, i, 397, 482, 501, 533, 539; tribes and people of, i, 508, 545-52, ii, 113, 127, 134, 137, 259, 266; Christianity in, i, 517, 597, 604, 617, ii, 79, 114, 116, 117; Turks in, i, 618-23, ii, 24, 28, 51, 64, 66, 121, 123; voyages and travels in, i, 627-29, 642-43, ii, 187, 193, 194, 462

Asia, Central, i, 102, 138, 159, 160, 298, 541, 547, ii, 32, 139, 194, 261; tribes, people, and civilization of, i, 184, 387, 507, 604, ii, 127

Asia, Eastern, i, 140-41

Asia, South-eastern, languages of, i, 157

Asia, Western, i, 89, 145, ii, 106, 168; tribes, people, and civilization of, i, 141, 145, 218, 234, ii, 168

Asia Minor, i, 107, 109, 153, 196, 220, 265, 298, 318, 327, 395, 503-06, 509, 617, 622, ii, 28, 114, 137, 153; tribes and people of, i, 189, 213, 298, 315-17, 388, 447-48; Greeks in, i, 300, 302, 304, 308, 315-16, 340, ii, 606; Gauls in, i, 395, 449, ii, 608; Turks in, ii, 31, 33, 72, 106, 114, 121

Asiatics, intellectual status of, ii, 462

Asoka (ă shō’ ka), King, i, 196, 411, 431, 432, 489, 628, 646, ii, 133, 608

Aspasia (ăs pā’ shi ȧ), i, 345-6, 349-50, 355

Asquith, Rt. Hon. H. H., ii, 432, 496, 518

Ass, wild, i, 217

Assam, ii, 453

Assisi (ă sē’ zi), ii, 93

Assur, i, 192, 412

Assurbanipal. (See Sardanapalus)

Assyria (and Assyrians), i, 192-94, 199, 205, 216, 225, 240, 243-47, 256, 262, 277, 290-95, 300, 315-17, 319, 327, 342, 383, 384, 446, 526, 570, ii, 1, 244, 606

Assyrian language and writing, i, 153, 228

Asteroids, i, 4

Astrologers, ii, 175

Astronomy, i, 5, 240, 364, ii, 37, 114, 175-76

Athanasius, i, 592, 601, 648

Atheism, ii, 333

Athene (ă thē’ nē), i, 348

Athens, i, 262, 302-13, 330-52, 372, 378, 385, 457, 461, 467, 536, 589, 623, ii, 483, 502, 524; social and political, i, 220, 309-12, 348, 352-57, 368, 460, ii, 147; literature and learning, i, 343-66, 404, 405, 409, 613, 618, 637, 645, ii, 54, 612

Atkinson, C. F., ii, 332

Atkinson, J. J., i, 79, 125, 257, ii, 341

Atlantic Ocean, i, 75-76, 119, 120, 138, 153, 532, 640, ii, 22, 84, 193, 267; navigation of, i, 217, ii, 185-88, 192, 387, 617

Atlantosaurus (ăt lăn to saw’ rŭs), i, 42

Atmosphere, i, 4, 5, 34

Aton (ä’ ton), Egyptian god, i, 250

Atonement, i, 575, 588

Attalus (ăt’ ă l_ŭ_s), i, 375

Attalus I, i, 396

Attalus III, i, 397, 483, 499, ii, 609

Attica (ăt’ i k_ă_), i, 332-33, 457

Attila (ăt’ i l_ă_), i, 174, 557-59, 608, 628-29, ii, 42, 611

Aughrim, battle of, ii, 492

Augsburg, ii, 206, 210

Augurs, Roman, i, 464

Augustine, St., Bishop of Hippo, i, 592, 598, 604, 607, 612, ii, 56, 73, 611

Augustus Cæsar, Roman Emperor, i, 513-18, 522, 523, 535, 542, 598, ii, 75, 609

Aurangzeb. (See Aurungzeb)

Aurelian, emperor, i, 528, 535, 553, 602, 617, ii, 610

Aurignac, i, 96

Aurignacian (aw rig nā’ sh_ŭ_n) age, i, 96, 97, 173

Aurochs (aw’ roks), i, 76, 92, 101

Aurungzeb (aw rŭng zāb’), ii, 133, 256, 453, 620

Ausculum, battle of, i, 453, ii, 608

Ausonius (aw sō’ ni ŭs), i, 607

Austerlitz, ii, 362, 622

Austin, Mary, i, 264

Australia, i, 37, 82, 206, 635, ii, 451, 456, 471, 472; aborigines of, i, 98, 139-40, 172

Australian language, i, 162; lung-fish, i, 25; throwing-stick, i, 90

Australoids, i, 139, 141, 148, 159, 206

Austrasia, ii, 45, 47, 48, 613

Austria, ii, 200, 204, 233, 240-44, 251, 278, 314, 320, 327, 378-80, 400, 446-47; wars with France, ii, 327, 332, 351, 355, 361, 368, 441, 621; war with Prussia, ii, 442-45, 623; in Great War, ii, 510, 531, 566, 624

Autocracy, i, 342, ii, 220

Automobiles, ii, 392

Avars, i, 560, 564, 616, 620, ii, 24, 48, 69, 113

Avebury, i, 110, 183, 196, 448

Avebury, Lord, i, 80, 106-07, 110, 115, 118, 134, ii, 426

Averroes (ă ver’ ō ēz), ii, 37, 88, 168, 171, 615

Avicenna (ăv i sen’ ă), ii, 37, 168, 614

Avignon (ă vē nyo_n_’), ii, 84, 99, 127, 148, 617

Axes, ancient, i, 104-07, 112-14, 132

Axis of earth, i, 57

Ayesha (I’ ĕ shă), ii, 12, 26

Azilian age, i, 90, 94, 97, 101, 120, 133, 152

Azoic (ă zo’ ik) period, i, 9, 14, 17, 30

Azores, ii, 185

Aztecs, ii, 189-90

B

Baal, i, 237, 283, 292

Baalbek (bäl bek’), i, 621, ii, 3

Babel, Tower of, i, 190

Baber, ii, 133, 200, 256, 618

Baboons, i, 65, 67, 230

Babylon (and Babylonia), i, 192-201, 218-23, 228, 245-60, 263-67, 277-79, 290-95, 315, 317, 319-20, 326, 342, 364, 383, 385, 389, 394, 411-12, 416, 424, 436, 449, 483, 497, 508, 509, 533, 570, 583, 619-23, 631, 632, ii, 1, 71, 130, 276, 342, 606, 607; religion of, i, 238-42, 245-48, 278, 296, 400, 431

Bacchus, i, 515

Bacharach, ii, 180

Back Bay, ii, 290

Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, i, 358, ii, 166, 176, 619

Bacon, Roger, ii, 168, 172-77, 385, 616

Bactria (and Bactrians), i, 385, 387-90, 396, 549, 616, ii, 138

Baden, ii, 445

Badr (bäd’ _ĕ_r), battle of, ii, 8, 28, 612

Baedeker, ii, 242

Baganda, i, 206

Bagaudæ, ii, 157

Bagdad, ii, 31-38, 61, 64, 70, 71, 76, 80, 106, 113, 126, 130, 522, 613, 618

Bagoas (bă gō’ ăs), i, 342

Bahamas, ii, 254, 255, 471

Baikal (bī käl’), ii, 108

Baldwin of Flanders, ii, 81, 168, 229

Balearic Isles, i, 556

Balfour, Rt. Hon. A. J., ii, 552

Balkan peninsula, i, 102, 153, 196, 298, 300, 317, 395, 451, ii, 58, 122, 139, 184, 446, 501, 509, 606, 624

Balkash, lake, ii, 108

Balkh, ii, 118

Ball, Dyer, i, 642

Ball, John, ii, 155, 156

Ball, Sir Robert, i, 30

Balliol College, ii, 96

Balloons, i, 5

Baltic Sea, i, 59, 102, 153, 159, 171, 510, 533, 539, 549-53, 641, ii, 53, 65, 71, 129, 182, 233, 235-36, 251, 266, 526

Baltimore, Lord, ii, 281

Baluchistan. (See Beluchistan)

Bambyce (băm bī´ sē), i, 621

Bannockburn, ii, 175

Bantu, i, 158, 162, 189

Barbados, ii, 254

Barbarians, ii, 267-69

Barbarossa, Frederick. (See Frederick I, emperor)

Barber, M. H., ii, 503

Barbusse, ii, 513

Barca family, i, 472, 473

Barcelona, ii, 51, 180

Bards, i, 172, 230

Baring, Maurice, ii, 503

Barley, i, 113, 172, 558

Baroda (bă rō´ d_ă_), ii, 257

Barons, Revolt of the, ii, 219

Barras (bä rä´), ii, 339, 350

Barrows, i, 109, 117, 144, 168, 171, 175, 176, 183, 196, 197

Barry, Comtesse du. (See Du Barry)

Basle, Council of, ii, 100, 153, 617

Basque language, i, 161, 162, 167, 189; race, i, 161, 162, 168, ii, 490

Basra, ii, 36, 522

Bassett, ii, 282

Bassompierre, ii, 318

Bastille, ii, 313, 621

Basu, Bhupendranath, i, 179, 181, 182

Basutoland, ii, 472

Batavian Republic, ii, 347

Bateman, T., i, 134

Bats, i, 43

Bauer, i, 359

Bauernstand, i, 268

Bavaria (and Bavarians), ii, 48, 57, 178, 445, 485

Bayezid (bï ĕ zēd´) II, Sultan, ii, 126, 617

Baylen, ii, 364

Bazaine, General, ii, 445

Beaconsfield, Earl of, ii, 227, 426, 430, 436, 447, 455, 487

Beal, i, 642 \

Bears, i, 69, 76, 78, 93, 94

Beauharnais, Josephine de, ii, 350, 364, 374

Beauty, artistic, i, 215

Beaver, European, i, 69

Beazley, Raymond, ii, 67, 129, 185

Bede, the Venerable, i, 608, ii, 50, 613

Bedouins, i, 264, 278, 622, ii, 3, 8, 10, 17, 24

Beech, fossil, i, 51

Beer, G. L., ii, 287

Bees, i, 51

Behar, ii, 608

Behring Straits, i, 57, 102, 159, 160

Bektashi, order of dervishes, ii, 122

Bel, i, 245, 246, 283, 326

Belgium, ii, 46, 78, 199, 230, 327, 331, 332, 339, 347, 371, 381, 509-14, 622

Belisarius, i, 611, ii, 612

Bellarmine (bel´ ăr mēn), card., ii, 164

Bellerophon (b_ĕ_ ler´ ŏ fon), frigate, ii, 372

Bel-Marduk (bel mär´ dook), i, 245-52, 385, 412, 602

Belshazzar, i, 247, 326

Beluchistan (bel oo chi stän´), ii, 471; languages of, i, 189

Benaiah, i, 287

Benares (be nä´ rēz), i, 417-22, 427, 449, 548, 628

Benedict, St., i, 610-14, ii, 35, 97, 611, 612

Benedictines, i, 612-13, ii, 149, 165

Beneventum, i, 454

Bengal, i, 181, 388, 416, 419, ii, 133, 257, 258

Bengal, Bay of, i, 160

Benin, i, 489

Benjamin, tribe of, i, 284

Benson, Hugh, i, 591

Beowulf (bā´ ō wulf), i, 176, 182, 198

Berar, ii, 133

Berber language, i, 154, 161, 168

Berbers, i, 206, 472, 565, ii, 41

Bergen, ii, 180, 182, 185

Berkeley, George, ii, 492

Berlière, i, 612

Berlin, Treaty of, ii, 447, 475, 558, 623

Bermuda, ii, 471

Bernard, brother, ii, 94

Bes, Egyptian god, i, 236

Bessemer process, ii, 388

Bessus, satrap, i, 385-86

Bethlehem, i, 574

Beth-shan, i, 286

Bhurtpur (bhũrt poor´), ii, 256

Bible, the, i, 193, 281, 282, 290, 402, 411, 570, 572, ii, 60, 92, 96, 150, 151, 159, 162, 167, 211, 244

Bigg, C., i, 625

Birch tree, i, 51

Birds, i, 5, 43, 44, 45, 54

Birkenhead, Lord. (See Smith, Sir F. E.)

Birkett, ii, 129

Birth-rate in ancient Athens, i, 314

Biscay, Bay of, ii, 361

Bismarck, Prince, ii, 442-46, 482, 483, 623

Bison (bī´ s_ŏ_n), i, 69, 70, 76, 92, 93, 101, 207

Bithynia, i, 395, 483, 500-06, 511, 560, 600

Black Death, ii, 153-54, 617

Black Friars, ii, 95

Black Hundred, ii, 424

Black lead, i, 9

Black Prince, ii, 179

Black Sea, i, 120, 153, 159, 196, 260, 299, 300, 316, 340, 346, 395, 508, 510, 549-53, 600, 606, 621, ii, 66, 71, 76, 110

Blake, Admiral, ii, 225, 257

Bleriot, M., ii, 624

Blind bards, i, 174

Blood sacrifice, i, 588, 590, ii, 149

Blue Mountains, ii, 280

Blücher, Marshal, ii, 371

Blues, faction of the, ii, 247

Blumenbach, i, 141

Blunt, W. S., i, 146, ii, 500

Bo Tree, i, 421, 432

Boadicea (bō ă di sē´ ă), i, 526, ii, 609

Boars, i, 69

Boats, i, 209-12. (See also Ships)

Body, painting of, i, 93, 99, 100

Bœtia (bē ō´ shi ă), i, 337

Boer Republics, ii, 460, 483, 489

Boer War, i, 485, ii, 424, 460, 623

Boethius (bō ē´ thi ŭs), ii. 37

Bohemia (and Bohemians), i, 554, ii, 51, 76, 152, 153, 162, 234

Bohemond, ii, 79

Bokhara (bō khä´ rä), i, 546, ii, 37, 110, 118

Boleyn, Anne, ii, 206

Bolivar (bol´ i vär), General, ii, 378

Bologna (bō lōn´ yă), ii, 167, 168, 180, 205

Bolshevists, ii, 411, 527, 536, 539, 624

Bombay, ii, 258

Bonaparte, Joseph, ii, 361, 364, 378, 622

Bonaparte, Louis, ii, 361

Bonaparte, Lucien, ii, 354

Bonaparte, Napoleon. (See Napoleon I)

Boncelles (bo_n_ sel´), i, 67

Bone carvings, i, 95-99; implements, i, 90, 96-99, 114

Boniface, St., ii, 48, 51, 613

Boniface VIII, Pope, ii, 99, 616

Boniface, Roman Governor, i, 556

Book-keeping, Aramean, i, 258

Books, i, 253, 405-09, ii, 159. (See also Printing)

Bordeaux, ii, 180

Borgia, Alexander. (See Alexander VI, Pope)

Borgia, Cæsar and Lucrezia, ii, 195-96

Boris, king of Bulgaria, ii, 70, 614

Borneo, i, 147, 148, 640

Bosnia, ii, 484, 624

Bosphorus, i, 120, 153, 302, 303, 315, 327, 329, 334, 340, 380, 395, 561, 600, 619, 621, ii, 29, 31, 78, 122

Bosses, American, i, 308

Boston, Mass., ii, 289-94

Bostra, i, 623

Botany Bay, ii, 451

Botticelli (bot i chel’ i), ii, 184

Boulogne, ii, 180, 362

Bourbon, Constable of, ii, 204, 618

Bourbon, Duke of, ii, 314

Bourbons, ii, 327, 356, 370, 371

Bourgeois (boor zhwä’), Léon, ii, 560

Bournville, ii, 406

Bow and arrow, i, 98, 114, 507-08

Bowmen, Mongol, ii, 119

Boxer rising, ii, 463, 624

Boyle, Robert, ii, 390, 492

Boyne, battle of the, ii, 492, 620

Brachiopods (brăk’ i ō podz), i, 10, 21

Brachycephalic (brăk i s_ĕ_ făl’ ik) skull, i, 142, 143

Brahe (brä’ h_ĕ_), Tycho, ii, 175, 619

Brahma, i, 437, ii, 134

Brahminism (and Brahmins), i, 269-72, 416-17, 427, 430, 440, 629, 645-48, ii, 108, 137, 256, 454

Brailsford, ii, 543

Brain, i, 56, 79, 87

Brandenburg, elector of, ii, 236

Brass, i, 106

Brazil, ii, 192, 193, 200, 444

Bread in Neolithic Age, i, 113

Bread-fruit tree, i, 51

Breasted, J. H., i, 248, 256, 294

Breathing, i, 23-28

Bréhier, L., ii, 61

Bremen, ii, 69, 180, 182

Brennus, i, 450, ii, 607

Breslau, ii, 180

Brest-Litovsk (brest lē tovsk’), ii, 530

Breton language, i, 168

Briareus (brī’ ă roos), i, 274

Brienne, ii, 349

Brindisi (brēn’ dē zē), ii, 67

Bristol, ii, 154

Britain, i, 59, 113, 145, 196, 273, 489, 534, 613, ii, 41, 51, 66; invasions of, ii, 554, 605, ii, 130, 610, 611; Roman, i, 219, 507, 509, 522, 525, 526, 564, i, 40, 50, 610; Keltic, i, 299, 554. (See also England and Great Britain)

British Army, officers of, ii, 516

British Association, ii, 420

British Channel, i, 170

British Civil Air Transport Commission, ii, 392

British Empire (1815), ii, 451; (1914), ii, 470-72

British Empire, political life of, i, 493

British Museum, i, 630, ii, 398

“British” nationality, ii, 488-89

“British schools,” ii, 396

Britons, ancient. (See Britain)

Brittany, i, 147, 171, 554, ii, 52, 200

Broglie, Marshal de, ii, 313

Brontosaurus (bron tö saw’ rŭs), i, 40

Bronze, i, 106, 118, 172, 173, 207; Chinese vessels of, i, 204; ornaments, i, 114; weapons, i, 106

Bronze Age, i, 97, 108, 132, 133, 196, 197, 213

Brown, Campbell, ii, 38

Browne, Jukes, i, 50, 119

Bruce, Robert the, ii, 179

Bruges (broozh), ii, 180, 182, 229

Brunellesco (broo ne les’ kō), ii, 183

Brunswick, Duke of, ii, 327, 330

Brussels, ii, 331, 514

Brutus, i, 490, 513

Bryce, ii, 54

Bubonic plague, i, 608

Buch, C. D., i, 300

Bucknall, i, 50

Buda-Pesth (boo’ dă pest), ii, 205

Buddha (bood’ă), i, 196, 270, 420, 422, 433, 438, 449, 533, 573-74, 582, 586, 591, 610, 624, 626, 645, 646-47, ii, 13, 93, 263, 296, 607; life of, i, 416 sqq.; teaching of, i, 422 sqq., 436, ii, 16, 402

Buddhism, i, 270, 411, 416 sqq., 582, 610, 626, 629, 632, 639, 645, 646, ii, 6, 106, 108, 114, 119, 127, 261. (See also Buddha)

Buddhist art, i, 428

Budge, Wallis, i, 197, 198, 249

Buffon, Comte de, ii, 419, 426

Building, i, 197

Bulgaria (and Bulgarians), i, 328, 522, 553, 606, ii, 24, 58, 69-72, 92, 97, 122-24, 130, 446, 501, 502, 522, 531, 614

Bulgarian atrocities, ii, 623

Bulgarian language, i, 168

Bull fights, Cretan, i, 274

Bunbury, i, 217

Bürgerstand, i, 268

Burgoyne, General, ii, 292

Burgundy (and Burgundians), i, 554, 606, ii, 48, 178, 200, 229, 244, 320

Burial, early, i, 84. 93, 109, 117, 123, 130, 167, 171, 175, 197, 545

Burke, Edmund, ii, 289, 492

Burmah (and Burmese), i, 114, 203, ii, 119, 262, 471

Burmese language, i, 157

Burnet, i, 349

Burning the dead, i, 171

Burrell, Prof., i, 6

Burton, Richard, i, 189

Bury, J. B., i, 305, 327, 454, 464, ii, 112

Bushman language, i, 162

Bushmen, i, 68, 95, 98, 141, 224

Butler, M. E., i, 85

Butler, Samuel, i, 150

Butter in Neolithic Age, i, 112

Butterflies, i, 17, 51

Buxar, ii, 258, 621

Byng, L. C., i, 541

Byzantine architecture, ii, 60

Byzantine church. (See Greek Church)

Byzantine Empire, i, 522, 562, 606, 617, 636, ii, 17-21, 24, 28, 39, 42, 53, 58, 60, 64-69, 72, 76, 79, 80, 81, 182, 613, 614

Byzantium (bi zăn’ tyŭm), i, 380, 634, ii, 18, 31, 35, 57, 62, 74, 105, 126, 129, 247. (See also Constantinople)

Cabul (kä’ bul), i, 386, ii, 133

Cadbury, Messrs., ii, 406

Cadiz (kā’ diz), ii, 352

Caen (kā_n_), ii, 325

Cæsar, title, etc., i, 526, 564, 581, 589, 594, ii, 56, 59

Cæsar, Julius, i, 113, 133, 196, 399, 465, 487, 493, 505, 510-17, 529, 534, 542, ii, 51, 351, 353, 609

Cæsars, the, i, 526, 538, 560

Cahors, ii, 202

Caiaphas (kī’ ă făs), i, 585

Caillaux, M., ii, 510

Cainozoic (kī n_ŏ_ zō’ ik) period, i, 12, 13, 14, 35, 37, 46, 49-56, 66

Cairo, ii, 36, 37

Calabria, i, 476, ii, 67, 68

Calcutta, ii, 258; University Commission, ii, 137

Calder, Admiral, ii, 362

Calendar, the, i, 129

Calicut, ii, 187, 257

California, i, 264

Californian Indians, i, 98

Caligula (kă lig’ ū lă), i, 525, ii, 609

Caliphs, ii, 17, 18, 24-34, 41, 61, 64, 71, 126, 144, 612, 613, 618

Callicratidas (kă li krā’ ti dăs), i, 378

Callimachus (kă lim´ ă kŭs), i, 405

Callisthenes (kă lis´ th_ĕ_ nēz), i, 392

Calmette, ii, 510

Calonne, ii, 312, 323

Calvinism, ii, 164

Cambodia, i, 640

Cambridge, ii, 180; University of, i, 530, ii, 437, 486

Cambridge, Mass., ii, 291

“Cambulac,” ii, 118

Cambyses (kăm bī´ sēz), i, 326, 382, ii, 607

Camels, i, 56, 217, 323

Camillus (că mil´ ŭs), i, 459, 483, 499, 502, ii, 607

Campanella, ii, 211

Campo Formio, peace of, ii, 351, 621

Camptosaurus (kămp tō saw´ rus) i, 40

Canaan (and the Canaanites), i, 278-83, ii, 1

Canada, i, 9, 161, ii, 254, 279, 285, 292, 451, 457, 471, 472, 621

Canadian dawn animal, i, 9

Canary Isles, ii, 185

Candahar, i, 389

Candles, ceremonial, i, 413, 414

Candolle (kä_n_ dōl´), de, i, 184

Cannæ (kăn´ ē), battle of, i, 476, 479, ii, 608

Cannes, ii, 371

Cannibalism, i, 167, ii, 156, 189, 190

Canning, George, ii, 436

Cannon, ii, 235, 268

Canoes, i, 210

Canterbury, ii, 50; archbishops of, ii, 50, 613

Canton, i, 634, 642, 647

Canusium (că nūz´ i ŭm), i, 536

Canute, ii, 66, 614

Cape Colony, ii, 460

Capernaum, i, 584

Capet (kă pā´), Hugh, ii, 62, 178, 614

Capitalism, ii, 168, 276, 398-99, 407-08, 535

Caporetto, battle of, ii, 529

Cappadocia, i, 323, 395, 620, 623

Capua (kăp´ ū ă), i, 476, 505

Carboniferous rocks, i, 29

Cardinals, ii, 100, 127

Caria (kā´ ri ă), i, 375, 621

Caribou (kăr i boo´), i, 78, 124, 137

Carlovingians, ii, 62, 614

Carlyle, Thomas, ii, 240, 307, 313 sqq., 336

Carnac, i, 109, 171

Carnivores, early type of, i, 56

Carnivorous animals, i, 43

Carnot (kär nō´), L. N. M., ii, 339, 350

Carolana, ii, 282

Carolina, ii, 253, 282, 283, 284, 290

Carpathians, ii, 69

Carrhæ, i, 508, 540, 616, ii, 609

Carson, Sir Edward, i, 312, ii, 424, 497, 498, 499

Carthage (and the Carthaginians), i, 196, 212, 216-18, 241, 274, 294, 303, 352, 382, 401, 445, 448, 453, 497, 509-14, 532, 550, 556, 560, 569, 571, ii, 41, 89, 144c, 184, 606, 608; war with Rome, i, 453, 467-85

Carvings, Palæolithic. (See Art)

Casement, Sir Roger, ii, 499

Cash, Chinese, i, 631

Caspian Sea, i, 120, 153, 159, 196, 299, 317, 318, 327, 387, 507, 509, 542, 549, 553, 627, 634, ii, 67, 110, 154, 609, 610, 615

Caspian-Pamir region, i, 549

Cassander, i, 395

Cassiodorus (kăs i ō dōr´ ŭs), i, 612, 614, ii, 36, 40, 612

Cassiterides (kăs i ter´ i dēz), i, 217

Cassius, Spurius, i, 458

Caste, i, 268-71, 416, 431

Castelmaine, Lady, ii, 226

Castile, ii, 188, 200

Cat, i, 56, 230

Catalonians, ii, 185

Catapult, i, 372

Caterpillars, i, 83

Cathars, ii, 92

“Cathay,” ii, 118

Catherine the Great, ii, 242, 264, 267, 303, 620

Catherine II, ii, 251, 363

Catholicism, ii, 142, 147-50, 160 sqq., 164, 171, 194, 211, 234, 239, 248, 281, 490-94

Catiline, i, 511

Cato, Marcus Porcius, i, 473, 477, 479, 486, 489, 498, 528

Cattle, i, 69, 105, 219. (See also Animals)

Caucasian languages, i, 151, 189

Caucasians, i, 141-42, 151-159, ii, 142

Caucasus (kaw´ kă sŭs), i, 106, 141, 161, 327, 620

Caudine Forks, ii, 608

Cavaliers, ii, 222-23

Cavalry, i, 370

Cave drawings, i, 93, 94; dwellings, i, 167; men, i, 66, 72, 76, 78, 88

Cavour, ii, 441

Cawnpore, ii, 455

Caxton, William, ii, 159

Celebes (sel’ e bēz), pile dwellings, i, 109

Celibacy, i, 414, ii, 74, 149

Celsus, i, 403

Celt-Iberian script, i, 228

Celtic. (See Keltic)

Celts, bronze, i, 132

Cenotaph (Whitehall), ii, 568

Cephalus (sef’ ă lŭs), i, 306

Ceremonies, early use of, i, 127

Cervantes (sũr văn’ tēz), ii, 140

Ceylon, i, 421, 432, 533, 643, ii, 257, 471

Chadwick, i, 177

Chæronea (kēr ō nē’ ă), battle of, i, 369, 372, ii, 607

Chalcedon (kăl sē’ d_ŏ_n), i, 602, 618

Chaldea (and the Chaldeans), i, 194, 200, 247, 265, 291, 319, 344, 385, 508, ii, 1, 607

Chaldean writing, i, 228

Chalons, ii, 322

Champagne, depart., ii, 330, 517, 527

Chancellor, Lord, of England, ii, 162

Chandernagore, ii, 258

Chandragupta (chăn dră goop’ t_ă_), i, 430, 445, ii, 608

Chang Daoling, i, 433

Chang-tu, i, 434

Channa, the charioteer, i, 417

Channing, ii, 278, 280, 294, 338

Chapman, G., i, 175

Charcoal, ii, 275

Chariots, i, 177, 192, 370, 384

Charlemagne, emperor, i, 433, 560, 632, 633, ii, 47-48, 51-54, 56-62, 69, 97, 98, 116, 133, 148, 199, 208, 215, 238, 360, 361, 614

Charles V, emperor, ii, 140, 164, 182, 199 sqq., 229, 232, 242, 376, 618

Charles I, king of England, ii, 217-25, 236, 240, 253, 281-82, 317, 376

Charles II, king of England, ii, 177, 225, 238, 243, 253, 281-82, 376

Charles VII, king of France, ii, 179

Charles IX, king of France, ii, 282

Charles X, king of France, ii, 314, 378, 622

Charles III, king of Spain, ii, 267

Charlotte Dundas, steamboat, ii, 387

Charmides (kär’ mi dēz), i, 351

Charon, i, 489

Charter House, London, ii, 154

Château Thierry, ii, 531

Châteauroux, Duchess of, ii, 240

Chatham, Earl of. (See Pitt, William)

Chaucer, ii, 160

Cheese, i, 112

Chellean age, i, 60, 70, 78-81, 87

Chelles, i, 78

Chemistry, ii, 38

Chemosh (kē’ mosh), i, 288

Chen, L. Y., i, 208, 211, 253, 641

Chen Tuan, i, 433

Cheops (kē’ ops), i, 198

Chephren (kef’ ren), i, 198, 248-49

Cherry-tree, i, 505

Chieftains, i, 134, 178

Child labour, ii, 404-05

Chimpanzee, i, 63, 67-74, 218

Chin, absence of, i, 72

China, i, 83, 106, 114, 160, 432, 532, 626, 627, ii, 17, 117, 134, 179, 194, 261-62; history (early history and Great age of), i, 196, 201-06, 252-53, 271-72, 388, 449, 508, 528, 541-43, 545-50, 617, 630-36, ii, 606, 610, 612; (10th to 18th century), ii, 106, 108-14, 127-28, 130, 134, 154, 261-62, 266, 616, 617; (20th century), ii, 461-69, 624; Christianity in, i, 604, ii, 116-17, 119, 166; civilization and culture, i, 147, 148, 183, 196, 201-03, 208, 271-72, 307, 408, 541, 543, 626-27, 630-31, 633 sqq., ii, 38, 106, 147, 159; other religions of, i, 252, 428-29, 433, 437, ii, 261; social, i, 181, 269-70, 271-72, 497, 630, ii, 464. (See also Chow, Han, Kin, Ming, Shang, Sung, Suy, Tang, Tsing, Wei, and Yuan dynasties)

China, Great Wall of, i, 205, 272, 526, 643, ii, 608

Chinese, the, i, 63, 157; classics, i, 225, 639; coinage, i, 631; emperor, i, 240, 252, 557; language, i, 157, 158, 162, 224-26, 638; script, i, 224-27, 272, 638-40, ii, 262

Chios (kī’ os), ii, 79

Chnemu, Egyptian god, i, 239

Chosroes (koz’ rō ēz) I, i, 618, ii, 22, 211, 612

Chosroes II, i, 523, 618-19, 624, ii, 3, 17, 82, 612

Chow dynasty, i, 196, 204, 205, 253, 433, ii, 606

Christ. (See Jesus of Nazareth)

Christ Church, Oxford, ii, 427

Christian IX, ii, 442

Christian era, ii, 609

Christian science, ii, 169

Christianity, i, 296, 519, 569, 617, ii, 129, 161, 244, 264-65, 421, 422; history (early), i, 491, 586 sqq., 601-05, ii, 51, 53-54, 611; (middle ages), ii, 50 sqq., 63, 71-75, 84-86, 95-96, 151-53; and Buddhism, i, 429, 441; and Islam, ii, 14-16, 20-21, 28-34, 41 sqq., 63-64, 80 sqq., 114-15, 149; and Judaism, ii, 149; and learning, i, 609 sqq.; missions and propaganda, i, 488, 617, 625, 634, ii, 3-6, 48-54, 70, 114-22, 126-27, 134, 146-47, 357, 394-96, 465; official, i, 601 sqq., ii, 54, 265, 418, 425; ritual of, i, 413-14, 441, 538-39, 591-92, ii, 90-91, 148-152; sects, i, 592, ii, 35, 106, 116-17; spirit of, i, 414, 538-39, 576-77, ii, 157-58, 402. (See also Jesus of Nazareth)

Chronicles, book of the, i, 282

Chronology, ii, 51

Ch’u, state of, i, 205

Chu Hsi, i, 641

Church, the, i, 600-05, ii, 38, 85-88, 91, 92, 97-101, 150, 164, 176, 177-78, 272, 617

Church, Sir A. H., i, 7

Churches, orientation of, i, 238

Churchill, Rt. Hon. Winston, ii, 523

Cicero, M. Tullius, i, 131, 487, 491, 513, 516

Cilicia, i, 487, 620, ii, 72, 79, 118

Cilician Gates, ii, 32, 78

Cimmerians, i, 300, 316, 318, 388, 543, ii, 121

Cincinnatus, Order of, ii, 357

Circumcision, i, 147

Cistercian order, ii, 150

Citizenship, i, 309, 311-12

City States, Chinese, i, 204; Greek, i, 305-14, 362, 363, 370, 454; Sumerian, i, 191

Civilization, i, 635 sqq., ii, 138, 144, 157-58, 216; Aegean, i, 213-16; Hellenic, i, 302 sqq.; prehistoric, i, 145, 169 sqq., 175-78; primitive, i, 182-208, ii, 143. (See also Culture)

Clans, i, 171

Class consciousness, ii, 399, 407-08; distinction, i, 188, 267-68; war, i, 168

Classes, social, i, 263-72

Classics, study of the, ii, 390, 428

Classification, ii, 169

Claudian, the historian, i, 607

Claudius, emperor (A.D. 41-54), i, 525, 528, ii, 609

Claudius, emperor (A.D. 268-270), i, 553, ii, 610

Claudius, Appius, decemvir, i, 458

Claudius, Appius, the Censor, i, 461-466

Claudius, Consul, i, 468

Clay documents, i, 190, 197-98, 246; modelling, Palæolithic, i, 95, 99

Clemenceau, G. B., ii, 552-56, 566, 624

Clement V (pope), ii, 99, 616

Clement VII (anti-pope), ii, 100, 617

Cleon, i, 350

Cleopatra, i, 510-15

Cleopatra (wife of Philip II), i, 374, 376

Clergy, taxation of, ii, 86

Clermont, ii, 74, 615

Clermont, steamer, ii, 387

Cleveland, President, ii, 505

Climate, change of, i, 18, 20, 30-37, 46, 51, 52, 57, 100, 108, 170, 177, 317, 545, 550; effect of, i, 35-36, 232, 317

Clitus (klī’ tŭs), i, 392, ii, 145

Clive, Robert, Lord, ii, 258, 453, 487, 621

Clodius, i, 511

Clothing, i, 99, 109, 114

Clovis, ii, 46, 47, 611

Cluniac order, ii, 150

Clyde, Firth of, ii, 387

Cnossos (nos’ os), i, 196, 213-16, 223, 234, 257, 264, 281, 300, 303, 315, 318, 354, 446, 447, ii, 605

Coal, i, 28, 29, 34, 38, 635, ii, 275, 386, 392

Cockroaches, i, 28

Code Napoléon, ii, 358

Cogul, i, 354

Coinage, earliest, i, 220; Athenian, i, 220; Bactrian, i, 396; Carthaginian, i, 468; Ephthalite, i, 629; Lydian, i, 316; pre-Roman British, i, 396; Roman, i, 455, 471

Coinage of stamped leather, ii, 89

Coke, ii, 275

Cole, Langton, i, 212

Collectivism, ii, 412

Cologne, ii, 60, 180, 182

Colonies, British, ii, 279-83, 471; scramble for, ii, 449-61

Colorado, i, 39

Colosseum, i, 609, ii, 41

Columba, St., ii, 50

Columbus, Bartholomew, ii, 186

Columbus, Christopher, ii, 185 sqq., 200, 605, 617

Comedy, Greek, i, 363

Comet, i, 4, 608

Commagene (kom ă jē’ nē), i, 621

Commodus (kom’ ŏ dŭs), i, 527-29

Commons, House of, ii, 219-28, 236, 286, 298, 313, 400

Commune, French Revolution, ii, 328, 336

Communism, ii, 153-58, 270 sqq., 341, 410, 412

Communities, i, 171, ii, 142-48

Community of obedience, ii, 296; of will, ii, 296

Comnena, Anna. (See Anna)

Comnenus, Alexius. (See Alexius)

“Companions,” equestrian order, i, 369, 371

Compass, i, 635, ii, 193

Concert of Europe, ii, 373, 377, 384

Concord, Mass., ii, 290, 294

Concord, Temple of, i, 499, ii, 607

Condor, the, i, 5

Condorcet (ko_n_ dôr sā’), ii, 358

Confucianism, i, 433-40, 642

Confucius, i, 196, 270, 433-40, 449, 582, 618, 624, 636, ii, 607

Congo, i, 159, ii, 460

Congregationalism, ii, 163

Congress, American, ii, 300

Congress, 1st Colonial, ii, 290

Conifers, i, 38

Connecticut, ii, 281, 282, 290, 296

Conrad II, ii, 63

Conrad III, ii, 63, 80

Constance, ii, 151

Constance, Council of, ii, 96, 100, 151, 617

Constantine I the Great, i, 433, 488, 517, 529, 553, 560, 594, 597, 602, 615, 617, 618, 625, 647, 648, ii, 82, 133, 136, 268, 611, 612

Constantine, King of Greece, ii, 524

Constantinople, i, 554, 557, 559-65, 600-08, 614-19, ii, 2, 18-20, 24, 28, 57, 67, 70-72, 76-82, 97, 110, 118-24, 141, 168, 182, 247, 440, 483, 502, 509, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617. (See also Byzantium)

Consuls, Roman, i, 455

Convicts sent to New England, ii, 284

Cooking, i, 105, 106, 113

Co-operative Societies, ii, 406

Copernicus (kō per’ ni kŭs), ii, 175, 618

Copper, i, 4, 105, 207, 217, ii, 189, 389

Copper axes, i, 132

Coptic language, i, 154

Coracles, i, 209

Corday, Charlotte, ii, 325

Cordoba (kôr’ dō bă), ii, 36, 37

Corfinium, i, 464

Corfu (kôr foo’), ii, 180

Corinth (and Corinthians), i, 303, 321, 336, 375, 382, 485, 491, 497, 509, 511, 536, 560, 589, ii, 608

Corinth, isthmus of, i, 336

Cornish people, i, 152

“Cornstalks,” i, 143

Cornwall, i, 106, 217, 605, ii, 40, 51, 225

Cornwallis, General, ii, 292

Corrosive sublimate, ii, 38

Corsets, i, 214

Corsica, i, 471, 556, ii, 348-49

Cortez, ii, 189-90, 618

Corvus, the, i, 470

Cossacks, ii, 129, 244, 259-61

Coster, printer, ii, 159, 617

Cotton industry, ii, 275

Cotylosaur (kot’ i lō sawr), i, 27

Councils, Church, ii, 74, 95, 100, 151, 153, 167, 611, 617

Counting, i, 151

“Counts of Asia Minor,” ii, 137

Court system, i, 263

Couvade (ku väd’), i, 147

Cow, sacred to Brahmins, ii, 454

Cow deities, i, 237

Cox, Hippesley, i, 110

Crab-apples, i, 113

Crabs, i, 10

Crabtree, Rev. W., i, 189

Cranach, ii, 203

Cranium, of apes, i, 72; Piltdown. (See Piltdown)

Crassus, i, 352, 478, 507-11, 549, 616, ii, 19, 609

Crawley, A. E., i, 131

Creation, story of, i, 278, 293, ii, 418-20

Crécy, ii, 179

Crediton, ii, 51

Creeds, Christian, i, 592, 609, ii, 73, 611

Cremation, i, 171

Cressy, cruiser, ii, 520

Cretan Labyrinth, i, 214-16; language, i, 162, 289; script, i, 228

Crete (and Cretans), i, 104, 189, 196, 212-16, 234, 274, 282, 315, 316

Crimea, ii, 118, 153

Crimean War, ii, 440, 623

Criminals, Roman, i, 490-91; used for vivisection, i, 403, 404

Crispus, son of Constantine, i, 599

Critias, i, 331

Croatia, i, 616

Crocodiles, i, 41, 46

Crœsus (krē’ sŭs), i, 220, 314, 320-26, 416, ii, 607

Croll, i, 30

Cro-Magnon race, i, 87, 88-95, 99-100

Cromwell, Oliver, ii, 222-25, 284, 287, 491

Cromwell, Thomas, ii, 197

Cross, in Buddhist ritual, i, 429; true, i, 618, ii, 21, 82

Crown, the power of the, ii, 228

Crucifixion, i, 550, 590

Crusades, ii, 34, 75 sqq., 80-84, 94, 97, 124, 152, 179, 229, 397, 615, 616, 617

Crustaceans, i, 25

Crystal Palace, ii, 437

Crystals, i, 9, 17

Ctesiphon (tes’ i fon), i, 618, 622, 624, 626, 634, ii, 22, 31, 82, 129, 522

Cuba, ii, 193, 451, 506

Cubit, length of, i, 290

Culture, Aryan, i, 171-82; Heliolithic, i, 147-49, 162, 171, 177, 184, 188, 196, 201, 207-13, 223, 415; Neolithic, i, 104-5, 107-8, 110 sqq., 128, 146, 149, 152, 172-73, 184-88, 197, 203, 205-8, 415; prehistoric and primitive, i, 76 sqq., 122 sqq. (See also Civilization)

Cumont, i, 412, 590

Cuneiform (kū’ nē i fôrm), i, 191, 227, 274

Cup, pebble, i, 90

Currency, ii, 342-47, 385, 406, 413, 535

Cusæans, i, 394

Custozza, ii, 445

Cuvier (ku vyā), ii, 419

Cyaxares (si ăk’ să rēz), i, 319, ii, 607

Cycads (sī’ kădz), i, 38, 51

Cynics, i, 360

Cyprus, i, 106, 213, 331, 340, 380, 395, ii, 447

Cyrenaica (sir ē nā’ i kă), i, 500

Cyrene (sī rē’ nē), i, 529

Cyrus, the Great, i, 194, 196, 220, 248, 260, 278, 292, 314, 320-26, 370, 389, 416, 445, 523, 542, 622, 624, ii, 607

Cyrus, the Younger, i, 342

Czecho-Slovaks, ii, 380

Czechs (cheks), i, 554, ii, 153

Dacia, i, 526, 553, 564, ii, 71

Dædalus (dē’ d_ă_ lŭs), i, 215

Dagon, i, 245, 412

Dalai Lama (dä lī’ lă’ mä), i, 438

Dalmatia, i, 37, 554, 606, 616, ii, 51, 57, 564, 611, 613

Damascus, i, 102, 218, 273, 523, 618, 623, ii, 1, 18, 20, 28, 31, 37, 154, 612

Damask, i, 273

Damietta, ii, 82

Damon, friend of Pericles, i, 349

Dancing, i, 174, 354

Danelaw, ii, 54, 614

Danes, ii, 53, 54, 66, 228, 614

Daniel, book of, i, 277

Danish language, i, 168

Dante, ii, 160

Danton, ii, 324, 329-36

Dantzig, ii, 180, 251, 564

Danube, i, 153, 298, 300, 327-31, 372, 377, 387, 507, 508, 523, 526, 533, 539, 545, 549, 551, 553, 557, 558, 564, 606, 616, 627, ii, 51, 69, 76, 142, 266, 522, 610

Danubian provinces, ii, 382, 440

Dardanelles, i, 302, ii, 121, 521

Darius (dă rī’ ŭs) I, i, 248, 326-32, 334, 339, 386, ii, 607

Darius II, i, 342

Darius III, i, 379-80, 384-87, 390, 394, 507, 542, ii, 20, 122, 366-67, 608

Dark ages, the, i, 607

Darling region, i, 143

Dartmouth, Lord, ii, 305

Darwin, Charles, i, 67, ii, 420, 427

Darwin, Prof. G. H., i, 31

Darwinism, ii, 420-27

David, King, i, 286-89, 293, 569, 574, 580, ii, 156, 606

Davids, Rhys, i, 415, 420, 421, 428, 430

Davidson, J. L. Strachan, i, 513

Davis, i, 603

Davis, J. W., ii, 507-08

Davis, Stearns, ii, 475

Dawes, ii, 290

Dawson, Sir William, i, 9

Day, length of, i, 6, 51

Dead, eating the, i, 197

Dead Sea, i, 120

Debtor, slavery as fate of, i, 257

Déchelette, i, 111

Decimal notation, ii, 37

Decius, Emperor, i, 528, 553, 594, ii, 610

Declaration of Independence, ii, 293, 296

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Gibbon), ii, 263-69

Deer, i, 70

Defoe, Daniel, ii, 235, 272, 305, 394

Deformities, i, 147

Delaware, ii, 283, 290

Delcassé, ii, 484

Delhi, ii, 108, 132, 256, 257, 454, 455, 615

Delian League, i, 314, 346

Delos, Island of, i, 311, 313

Delphi, i, 313, 320-22, 370, 395, 536

Delphi, oracle of, i, 305, 321-23

Delphic amphictyony, i, 372

Demeter (de më’ t_ĕ_r), i, 354, 374, 538

Democracy, i, 309-13, 456, ii, 163, 164, 273, 298, 326

Demos, i, 309

Demosthenes (d_ĕ_ mos’ th_ĕ_ nēz), i, 358, 363, 368, 376, 387, 473, 513

Deniker, i, 102, 103

Denmark, i, 109, 110, 539, ii, 51, 65, 66, 162, 206, 225, 242, 252-53, 257, 266, 381, 442, 451, 614

Deportation, i, 193

Dervishes, ii, 122

Descartes (dā kart’), ii, 419

Deshima, ii, 465, 466

Deuteronomy, book of, i, 281

Devon, ii, 225

Dewlish, i, 78

Dialects, i, 300

Diaspora (dī ăs’ p_ŏ_ r_ă_), i, 411, 569-71

Diaz (dē’ äs), ii, 185, 617

Dicasts, i, 310

Dickens, Charles, ii, 180

Dickinson, Lowes, ii, 543

Dicrorerus (dī kr_ŏ_ rē’ rŭs), i, 58

Dictator, Roman, i, 459

Diderot (dēd rō’), ii, 308

Diet (assembly), ii, 234, 250

Dillon, Dr., ii, 543, 551, 553

Dinosaurs (dī’ n_ŏ_ sawrz), i, 41, 46

Dinothere (dī’ n_ŏ_ thēr), i, 58

Diocletian, i, 529, 561, 594, 599-600, ii, 611

Dionysus, god, i, 354, 373

Dionysius of Syracuse, i, 434, 468

Diplodocus (dip lod’ ŏ kŭs), i, 40

Disease, infectious, i, 126

Dispensations, papal, ii, 86, 93

Disraeli, Benjamin. (See Beaconsfield, Earl of)

Divans, ii, 32

Divination, i, 464

Divine right, ii, 164, 377

Divus Cæsar, i, 526

Dixon line, ii, 282, 284

Dnieper (nē’ p_ĕ_r), i, 153, 510, 553, ii, 110, 260

Doctors, i, 235

Dog, the, i, 56, 105, 108, 112, 116, 230

Dolichocephalic (dol i kō s_ĕ_ făl’ ik) skull, i, 142-46

Dolmens, i, 109

Domazlice, ii, 152, 617

Dominic, St., ii, 95-96, 615

Dominican Order, ii, 95-96, 116, 127, 193, 465, 615

Domitian, i, 526, ii, 610

Don, river, i, 153, 549, ii, 261

Don Cossacks, ii, 260

Donatello, ii, 183

Dordogne (dör dō’ ny_ĕ_), i, 100

Doric dialect, i, 300

Dorset, i, 78

Dortmund, ii, 182

Dostoievski (dos to ef’ ski), ii, 502

Doubs, i, 100

Douglas, Sir R. K., i, 253

Dover, ii, 180

Dover, Straits of, i, 507

Dragon flies, i, 28

Dragonnades, ii, 239, 253

Dravidian civilization, i, 196, 203, 415, ii, 142; language, i, 158, 189

Dravidians, i, 146, 159, 160, 169, 182, 270, 315, ii, 134

Drepanum (drep’ ă nŭm), i, 470

Dresden, cruiser, ii, 520

Dresden, battle of, ii, 368

Driver, S. R., i, 288

Drogheda, ii, 224

Druids, i, 135

Drums, Neolithic, i, 115

Drusus, Livius, i, 503

Dryopithecus (drī ŏ pi thē’ kŭs), i, 66

Dubarry, Comtesse, ii, 240

Dublin, ii, 492, 493, 498, 499

Duma, the, ii, 525

Dumouriez (du moo ryā’), General, ii, 329

Dunbar, battle of, ii, 225

Dunce, derivation of, ii, 172

Dunkirk, ii, 226

Duns Scotus, ii, 171, 616

Dunstan, ii, 150

Dupleix (du plā’), ii, 258

Durazzo (du rad’ zō), i, 561, ii, 67, 72, 80, 616

Durham, ii, 396; University of, ii, 437

Durham, Lord, ii, 293

Düsseldorf, i, 72

Dutch language, ii, 47, 228; people, ii, 47; Republic, ii, 228-33, 380; settlements and seamanship, i, 84, ii, 188, 253, 282-83, 461, 465-66. (See also Holland)

Duyvendak, Mr., i, 630, 641

Dwellings, Neolithic, i, 114

Dyeing, ii, 38

Dynamics, ii, 176

Dynasts, The, i, 335, ii, 348

Earth, the, i, 3-8, 13-15, 29-34, 56-59

East, orientation to, i, 238

East India Company, ii, 258, 289, 451, 453

Easter, feast of, i, 129

Easter lamb, i, 588

Eastern (Greek) Empire. (See Byzantine Empire)

Eastlake, ii, 404

Ebenezer, i, 283

Ebro, river, i, 354, 472, 475

Ecbatana (ek băt’ ă n_ă_), i, 626

Ecclesiastes, book of, i, 277

Echidna (e kid’ n_ă_), i, 54

Economists, French, ii, 309

Economus (ē kon’ ō mŭs), battle of, i, 470, ii, 608

Eden, garden of, i, 293, ii, 418

Eder, ii, 513

Edessa, i, 621, ii, 78, 80

Edgar, ii, 150

Edom, ii, 244

Education, i, 267, 270, 272, 408-9, 612-13, ii, 137, 146, 147, 166, 270 sqq., 302, 357, 385, 390-92, 396-97, 413, 428-31

Edward I, ii, 219

Edward VI, ii, 218, 220

Edward VII, ii, 228, 488

Edward, Prince of Wales, son of George V, ii, 498

Egbert, ii, 51, 53, 614

Egerton, H. E., ii, 377

Eggs, i, 39, 53, 54, 114

Egibi (ē gē’ bē), i, 265

Eginhard, ii, 59

Egmont, Count of, ii, 229

Egypt, i, 106, 154, 156, 395, 522, 561, 570, 572, 574, 618, ii, 1, 30, 83, 84, 94, 139, 153, 612; history (early), i, 133, 148, 183-86, 195-98, 200-01, 204, 209-13, 220, 228, 229, 233-34, 246, 248, 256, 261, 265, 267, 274, 277-82, 289, 290-95, 307, 315-16, 323, 326-27, 334, 340, 342, 359, 522, ii, 1, 189, 605, 606; (and Greece), i, 382, 389, 401-02, ii, 607; (and Rome), i, 480, 500, 510-12, 533; (and Islam), ii, 21-24, 29-32, 37, 64, 71, 82-84, 106, 114, 118, 122, 126, 132, 614, 618; (modern period), ii, 351, 353, 359, 453, 460, 471, 500, 621, 623; Christianity in, i, 604, 610, ii, 74, 149; Jews in, i, 402, 436, 572, ii, 607; Kingship in, i, 248-52, 263, 520; religious systems, i, 197-98, 236-42, 248-52, 296, 382-83, 404, 410-14, 431, 538, 590-91

Egyptian language, i, 154

Egyptian script, i, 208, 228

Egyptian shipping, i, 273

“Egyptians” (Gipsies), ii, 137

Elam (ē’ lăm), i, 189, 318

Elamite language, i, 162

Elamites, i, 189, 194, 245, 385, ii, 105

Elba, ii, 371, 374

Elbe, ii, 80

Elections, i, 494, ii, 302

Electricity, ii, 388, 389-90

Electrum, i, 220

Elephants, i, 57, 70, 76, 78, 102, 207, 210, 317, 386, 453, 455, 470-79, ii, 20

Eli, judge, i, 283-85

Elixir of life, ii, 174

Elizabeth, Queen of England, ii, 218, 220, 232, 258, 280

Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, ii, 242, 620

El-lil, i, 190

Emden, cruiser, ii, 520

Emesa (em´ ē s_ă_), i, 621

Emigration, ii, 76

Emirs, ii, 31

Emmet, Robert, ii, 493

Emperor, title of, i, 565

Emperors of Germany, ii, 199

Employers and employed, ii, 276, 397-98

Enclosure Acts, ii, 272-76

“Encyclopædists,” the, ii, 309

England, i, 605, ii, 64, 66, 178, 200, 433, 470-71; history (early), i, 52, 101, 645, ii, 40, 50-54, 66, 614; (under the Normans), ii, 67, 615; (in the 13th and 14th centuries), ii, 176-77; (Civil war), ii, 218, 221-25, 281; (war with Holland), ii, 225-26, 282; (war with Spain), ii, 220, 225; (reign of Charles II), ii, 225-26; (in 18th century), ii, 226-28; (and America), ii, 253-54; (union with Ireland), ii, 621; political and constitutional, i, 463, 465, ii, 194, 216-17, 219-21, 226-28, 236; religion, i, 642, ii, 49-54, 99, 150, 162, 206, 220, 221, 225, 252, 253, 282; social, ii, 154-56, 244, 271-73, 324, 334, 617. (See also Britain, Great Britain, and the Great War)

English, the, ii, 50, 58, 66-67, 611

English language, i, 151, 564, 638, ii, 50, 160

English seamen, ii, 188

Entelodont (en tel´ ō dont), i, 53

Eoanthropus (ē ō ăn thrō´ pŭs), i, 60, 70-74. (See also Man)

Eocene (ē´ ō sēn) period, i, 52-59

Eohippus, i, 56

Eolithic age, i, 75

Eoliths, i, 68, 102, ii, 605

Eozoon (ē ō zō´ _ŏ_n) Canadense, i, 9

Ephesus (ef´ ē sŭs), i, 340, 379, 589, ii, 79

Ephesus, Council of, i, 602

Ephthalite (ef´ th_ă_ līt) coins, i, 329

Ephthalites, i, 628-30, 646, ii, 611, 612

Epics, i, 173, 175, 232

Epictetus (ep ik tē´ tŭs), i, 492

Epicureans (ep i kū rē´ _ă_nz), i, 360, 363, 632

Epirus (ē pī´ rŭs), i, 375, 376, 452, 454, ii, 67, 122

Equality, ii, 16, 296

Equator, i, 31-33

Equinoxes, i, 31

Equisetums (ek wi sē´ tŭmz), i, 27

Erasistratus (er ă sis´ tră tŭs), i, 404

Eratosthenes (er ă tos´ th_ĕ_ nēz), i, 13, 402, 405, 408

Erech, i, 190

Eretria, i, 332

Erfurt, ii, 364

Eridu (ā´ ri doo), i, 133, 190, 195, 196, 210, ii, 130

Ervine, St. John, ii, 499

Esarhaddon (ē săr hăd´ _ŏ_n), i, 246, 291, 319, ii, 606

Essad Pasha, ii, 554

Essenes (e sēnz´), i, 610

Essex, i, 623, ii, 40

Esthonians, ii, 244

Ethiopia (and Ethiopians), i, 200, 250, 383, ii, 606

Ethiopian dynasty, i, 195, ii, 606

Ethiopic language, i, 154

Ethnologists, i, 141

Etiquette in China, i, 434

Eton College, ii, 427

Etruria, i, 450, 460, 475

Etruscans, i, 447-50, 459, 464, ii, 91, 146, 606, 607

Eucharist, the, i, 591

Euclid, i, 364, 402, ii, 37

Euphrates, i, 148, 184-90, 194, 199, 203, 209, 238, 250, 291, 317, 507, 508, 523, 540, 562, 616, 622, ii, 2, 607

Euripides (ū rip´ i dēz), i, 351, 355, 369, 392

Europe, i, 151, 159-62; Christianity in, i, 517, 603-05, 609, ii, 51, 84-86, 90, 96, 99-101, 114, 148, 159-63, 166-67, 206, 234, 244, 246, 270; common cause in, ii, 74-77; Concert of, ii, 373, 377, 378, 384, 385; feudalism in, ii, 42 sqq.; history (general), i, 334, 544, 605-06, 625, ii, 42-43, 54-57, 107, 140, 181, 200, 202, 206, 216, 232-36, 240-53, 262-63, 269-72, 360 sqq., 367, 370, 377-82, 431; Huns in, i, 559, 628; Imperialism in, ii, 469-70, 475 sqq.; industrial revolution in, ii,276; intellectual development in, ii, 37-39, 88-89, 147, 167-69, 174-76; languages of, i, 161; literature of, ii, 160; “Marriage with Asia,” i, 390; mechanical revolution in, ii, 393 sqq.; monarchy in, ii, 211, 230, 236-43, 253; Mongolians in, i, 549, ii, 112, 168; Moslems in, ii, 24, 28-32, 41, 47, 65, 121, 184, 186; natural political map of, ii, 383, 446, 449, 566; peoples and races of, i, 104, 138-39, 141, 145, 298-99, 546-48, ii, 137, 266; Powers of, ii, 242-43, 278-79, 474; prehistoric, i, 59, 69, 75-77, 87-89, 95-105, 108, 118, 132-33, 140, 145, 149, 172-76, 183-84, 196, 206, 234, 240, 317, ii, 189; social development in, ii, 140, 157, 176 sqq., 200, 215-16, 217, 246, 269-77, 400-401. (See also Great War)

Europeans descended from Neolithic man, i, 105

Euryptolemus (ū rip tol’ ĕ mŭs), i, 347

Eusebius (ū sē’ bi ŭs), i, 600

Evans, i, 21

Evans, Sir Arthur, i, 104, 150, 212, 228

Evans, Sir John, i, 137

Everlasting League, ii, 199, 616

Evolution of the Earth, i, 5-6

Examinations, i, 270, 640

Excommunication, ii, 81

Executive, the, ii, 414

Exodus, book of, i, 279, 281

Experience, i, 230

Exploration, i, 217-18

“Expropriated,” the, ii, 398

ex votos, i, 235, 414

Eylau (I’ lou), battle of, ii, 362, 622

Ezekiel, i, 292, 294

Fabian Society, ii, 409

Fabius, i, 477-78

Factories, growth of, ii, 275-77

Factory Act, ii, 404, 405, 622

Factory system, ii, 394, 405

Fairies, i, 182

Faith, decline of a universal, ii, 425

Faizi (fä’ i zi), ii, 135

Falkland Isles, battle of, ii, 520

Families, noble and plebeian, i, 267-68

Family groups, i, 79, 110, 178-82

Faraday, M., ii, 387, 427

Farming, Arab knowledge of, ii, 38

Farrand, i, 158

Farrar, F. W., i, 527

Fashoda (fä shō’ dă), ii, 460, 500, 624

Fatepur-sikri (fŭt ē poor’ sik’ ri), ii, 135, 136

Fatima (făt’ i mă), ii, 26, 31, 64

Fatimite caliphate, ii, 64, 76, 126, 614

Fauna, early, i, 101

Fausta, i, 599

Faustina (faws tī’ nă), i, 527

Fayle, C. E., ii, 543

Fear, i, 125

Feasts, Aryan, i, 172-73

Feathers, i, 43-44, 48-49

Ferdinand I, emperor, ii, 207, 210, 233

Ferdinand, king of Bulgaria, ii, 501, 509, 524

Ferdinand, king of Spain, ii, 186, 200

Ferguson, i, 252, 410

Fermentation, i, 172

Ferns, i, 24, 27

Ferrero (fer rā’ rō), i, 455, 493, 502

Fetishism, i, 123, 129

Feudal system, the, i, 43 sqq.

Fezzan, i, 118

Fiefs, ii, 43

Field of the Cloth of Gold, i, 202

Fielding, H., ii, 272, 394

Fiji, ii, 471

Filmer, ii, 164

Finance, i, 496-98, ii, 202, 216

Finland (and the Finns), i, 549, 606, ii, 366, 375, 380

Finland, Gulf of, ii, 266

Finnish language, i, 156

Finno-Ugrian language, i, 560

Fire, early use of, i, 78-80

Fire-arms, i, 565

Fish, i, 10, 24, 25, 52

Fisher, Lord, ii, 526

Fisher, Osmond, i, 78

Fishing, i, 96-97, 114

Fiske, ii, 282

Fiume (fū’ mā), ii, 566

Five Classics, the, i, 227

Flame projectors, ii, 516

Flanders, ii, 66, 78, 208, 329

Flavian dynasty, i, 526, ii, 609

Flax, i, 114

Fleming, Bishop, ii, 96

Flemings, the, ii, 47, 81, 178

Flemish language, ii, 47

Flint implements, i, 60, 68-69, 71, 78-82, 88, 91, 94, 99, 107, 114, 137

Flood, story of the, i, 278, 293

Florence, ii, 180, 182-83, 195-97, 202, 239, 242, 618

Florentine Society, ii, 392

Florida, ii, 282

Flowers, Cainozoic, i, 51

Flying machines, i, 215, ii, 173, 174, 175, 392

Fontainebleau (fo_n_ tān blō’), ii, 361, 368

Food, i, 16, 20, 78-84, 113, 116, 186-87

Fools, i, 172

Foot of apes, men, and monkeys, i, 63-66

Forbes, ii, 129

Ford businesses, ii, 406

Forests, i, 37, 100-04

Fort St. Augustine, ii, 282

Fossils, i, 8-13, 26, 46-51, 57, 66, ii, 175, 419

Foucher, i, 429

“Fourteen Points,” the, ii, 546-48, 556

Fowl, domesticated, i, 113, 114

Fowler, W. Warde, i, 148, 510

Fox, the, as food, i, 113

France, i, 74, 108; history (to Revolutionary period), i, 88, 93, 146, 217, 522, 554, 606, 627, ii, 24, 41, 46-48, 51, 53, 62, 69, 75, 78-82, 87, 92, 98, 99, 127, 156-57, 166, 178, 179, 180, 193-205, 215-29, 234-39, 243-51, 267, 272, 279, 620, 621; (Revolutionary period), ii, 157, 164, 242-47, 621; (Napoleonic period), ii, 248-74, 621; (to Great War), ii, 370-73, 382, 400, 438-46, 484, 486, 509, 622, 623; (Great War), ii, 48, 513 sqq.; Imperialism, ii, 470, 500; overseas dominions, ii, 251-54, 279-86, 292, 363, 364, 451, 467. (See also Franks, Gaul)

Francis, St., of Assisi, ii, 94-96, 161, 263, 615

Francis I, emperor, ii, 620

Francis II, emperor, ii, 622

Francis I, king of France, ii, 200-06, 618

Francis Ferdinand, archduke, ii, 510

Franciscan Order, ii, 94-96, 148, 171, 173, 193, 615, 616

Frankfort, ii, 180, 439, 623; Peace of, ii, 446-47, 477, 623

Franklin, Benj., ii, 303, 324

Franks, the, i, 552, 559, 564, 606, 609, ii, 41, 42, 46-52, 57-62, 69, 78, 130, 144, 610

Frazer, Sir J. G., i, 116, 117, 125, 130-131, 249

Frederick I (Barbarossa), emperor, ii, 80, 86, 87, 89, 97, 615

Frederick II, emperor, ii, 80, 82, 86 sqq., 112, 117, 148, 160-61, 199, 232, 421, 615, 616

Frederick III, emperor, ii, 200

Frederick I, king of Prussia, ii, 240, 620

Frederick II (the Great), king of Prussia, ii, 240, 248, 264, 267, 300, 303, 620

Frederick III, king of Prussia, ii, 482

Frederick, don, ii, 230

Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg, ii, 152

Free discussion, ii, 158; trade in Athens, i, 460

Free intelligence, i, 262

Freedom, i, 259-60, ii, 279

Freeman’s Farm, ii, 292

French language, i, 151, 564, ii, 47, 54, 66, 160, 199, 228

Freud, Sigismund, i, 127

Freya (frī’ ă), ii, 49

Friars, the, ii, 164, 172. (See also Franciscan Order)

Friedland (frēd’ lănt), battle of, ii, 362, 622

Frisian coast, i, 539; language, ii, 228

Frisians, the, ii, 49-51

Frog, the, i, 26

Froissart (frwä sär’), ii, 155

Fronde, the, ii, 234-36

Fu, S. N., i, 630-32, 641-42

Fuggers, the, ii, 202, 204, 271

Fulas, i, 206

Fuller, Colonel, ii, 571

Fulton, R., ii, 387

Furnace, blast, ii, 388; electric, ii, 389

Future life, belief in, i, 123, 538

Gaelic, i, 168, ii, 490

Gage, General, ii, 290, 294

Galatia, i, 449, ii, 608

Galatians, i, 395, 397, ii, 121

Galba, i, 526, ii, 609

Galerius, i, 594, 596, ii, 611

Galicia, ii, 518

Galilee, i, 571, 584, 587, 591, 621

Galileo (găl i lē’ ō), Galilei, ii, 176, 417, 618, 619

Gallas, language of the, i, 154

Galleys, i, 259

Galvani, ii, 387

Gama, Vasco da (văs kō’ dä gä’ mä), ii, 187-88, 257, 617

Gamaliel, i, 588

Gambia, i, 218

Games, i, 314

Gametes (găm ēts’), i, 24

Gandhara (gän d hä’ rä), i, 428

Ganesa (gă nā’ shă), i, 439

Gang labour, i, 265, 287

Ganges, i, 160, 201, 269, 270, 386, 388, 415, 430, ii, 106

Gardner, Alice, i, 625

Garibaldi, ii, 441

Gas, i, 170, 635

Gas in warfare, ii, 516, 569

Gaspee, vessel, ii, 289

Gath, i, 282

Gaul (and the Gauls), i, 196, 299, 388, 395, 450-51, 458-60, 471, 475, 500, 502-07, 509, 542, 553, 559, 564, 605, 613, ii, 41, 46, 61, 266, 608, 611

Gaulish language, i, 168

Gautama (gou´ tă mă). (See Buddha)

Gaza, i, 261, 282, 379, 382

Gazelle, i, 56

Gaztelu, ii, 207, 208

Genesis, book of, i, 129, 277-82

Geneva, ii, 163, 199, 264, 559

Genoa (jen’ ō ă) and the Genoese, ii, 76, 80, 117, 153, 180, 182, 185, 347

Genseric (jen’ s_ĕ_r ik), i, 556, 557, ii, 611

Gentiles, the, i, 580

Geography, i, 5

Geology, i, 5, 8, ii, 419

Geomancers (jē ō măn’ s_ĕ_rs), i, 635

Geometry, ii, 37

George I, ii, 227, 620

George II, ii, 227, 620

George III, ii, 227, 288, 293, 314, 338, 620

George IV, ii, 228

George V, ii, 144, 228, 488, 498

George, Lloyd, ii, 499, 518, 534-38, 552-53, 557, 566

Georgia, ii, 282, 290, 443, 620

Gerasa (jer’ ă să), i, 621

Gerash, i, 623

Gerbert (gār’ ber), ii, 37

German language, i, 151, 168, ii, 47, 160, 228; songs and tales, ii, 61

Germany, i, 101, 108, 318; history (to Saxon kings), i, 502, 507, 509, 510, 522, 534, 539, 540, 552, 557, 603, ii, 46-47, 51, 57, 61-62, 144, 150, 609; (Saxon kings to Napoleonic period), ii, 61, 69, 75, 80, 86, 87, 98-100, 112, 116, 138, 156, 157-62, 179, 180, 182, 188, 199-210, 216, 228, 232-36, 244-48, 253, 256, 266-67, 283, 285, 292, 304, 339, 361-66, 614, 616, 618; (War of Liberation to the Great War), ii, 367-68, 381-82, 390-91, 396-401, 438-46, 467, 469-70, 476 sqq., 623; (Great War), ii, 499 sqq.; class distinction in, i, 268; Imperialism of, ii, 470, 479-86, 508

Gesture language, i, 163

Gethsemane, i, 585

Ghent, ii, 180, 199, 229

Gibbon, Edward, i, 531-35, 557, 558, 592, 595, 599, 608, 618, ii, 30, 42, 60, 62, 67, 69, 78, 82, 112, 227, 263-73, 277, 278, 308, 421

Gibbons (animal), i, 67

Gibbs, Philip, ii, 513, 516, 518, 530, 572

Gibraltar, i, 67, 120, 217, 532, ii, 41, 451, 471

Gideon, i, 283

Gigantosaurus (jī găn tō saw’ rŭs), i, 42

Gilbert, Dr., ii, 176, 619

Gilboa, Mount, i, 285

Gills, i, 23, 25, 52

Gin, i, 219

Giotto (jot’ ō), ii, 183

Gipsies, ii, 137, 138

Gipsy language, ii, 138

Giraffe, i, 56

Girondins, ii, 328

Gizeh (gē’ z_ĕ_), i, 198, 238

Glacial Age. (See Ice Age)

Gladiators, i, 489-91, 505, 529, 533, 589, 594, 609, ii, 608, 609

Gladstone, Sir John, ii, 427

Gladstone, W. E., i, 345, ii, 426-33, 447, 481, 495, 499, 623

Glasfurd, A. I. R., i, 114, 126

Glass, ii, 38

Glastonbury, i, 110, 171

Glaucia, i, 503

Glyptodon (glip’ tō don), i, 102, 207

Gneisenau (gnī’ z_ĕ_ nou), cruiser, ii, 520

Gneiss (nīs), fundamental, i, 8

Gnosticism (nos’ ti sizm), i, 592, 603

Goats in lake dwellings, i, 112

Gobi Desert, i, 160, 545, 634, 643, 644

God, i, 583, 592, 602, ii, 29, 171, 174; idea of one true, i, 295-96, 400, 424, 436, 538, 569, 572, 576, ii, 5-7, 11, 18, 136; of Judaism, i, 219, 282 sqq., 361, 412, ii, 16; Kingdom of, ii, 90, 97, 116, 149, 246

Godfrey of Bouillon, ii, 78, 228, 615

Gods, i, 234-39, 240, 245-46, 411-12, 483; Aryan, i, 233-34, 305; Egyptian, i, 236-39, 248-52; Greek, i, 305, 361-62, 483; Japanese, i, 429; Semitic, i, 233; tribal, i, 134, 295

Goethe, ii, 324

Gold, i, 105, 118, 220, ii, 89, 344

Golden Horde, the, ii, 134, 259

Goldsmith, Oliver, i, 376, ii, 273, 492, 493, 553

Golgotha, i, 585

Gooch, G. P., ii, 475

Good Hope, Cape of, ii, 257, 451, 617

Good Hope, cruiser, ii, 520

Goods, consumable, ii, 344

Goose, i, 113

Gorham, Nathaniel, ii, 300

Gorilla, i, 63, 67, 218

“Gorillas,” i, 218

Goritzia (gō rē t’ sē ă), ii, 519

Goshen, land of, i, 279

Gospels, the, i, 573, 576, 585-88, 593, 601, ii, 150, 418

Gotha (gō’ t_ă_) aeroplane, ii, 519

Gothic architecture, ii, 179; language, i, 168

Goths, i, 528, 543, 549, 553, 556, 560-64, 606, 609, 611, 612, 615, ii, 41, 46, 57, 66, 610, 611, 612

Gough, General, ii, 530

Gould, Baring, i, 610

Gourgaud (goor gō’), ii, 358

Government, i, 232-33, 241-42, 462-64, ii, 147, 385

Gowland, Dr., i, 106

Gracchi, the, i, 502, ii, 147

Gracchus, Caius, i, 502, ii, 609

Gracchus, Tiberius, i, 483, 496-501, ii, 609

Graham, Cunninghame, ii, 193

Grain, as food, i, 113-17, 184

Granada, ii, 186

Grand Remonstrance, ii, 221

Granicus (gră nī’ kŭs), battle of the, i, 379, ii, 608

Grape, i, 172

Graphite, i, 9

Grasses, i, 51, 56

Gravelotte (gräv lot’), ii, 445

Gravesend, ii, 226

Gravitation, law of, ii, 176

Gray, G. B., i, 281

Gray, Thomas, ii, 227

Great Britain, history (general), ii, 244, 470; (and India), ii, 134-37, 254-59; (and America), ii, 253-54, 273, 279-82, 285-94, 621; (and French Revolution), ii, 327, 331-32; (in Napoleonic period), ii, 351-54, 359, 361, 366, 372, 621; (war with Turkey), ii, 382; (Crimean war), ii, 440; (suspicion of Russia), ii, 447; (in alliance against Germany), ii, 484-86; (the Great War), ii, 510 sqq.; (effect of Great War on), ii, 533-34 sqq.; constitutional, political, and social, i, 495, ii, 271-73, 298, 306-07, 321, 338, 388-89, 400, 486-87, 622; expansion and Imperialism, ii, 246-47, 451-60, 463, 469, 470-72, 486-99, 624. (See also Britain and England)

Great Exhibition, the, ii, 436, 623

Great Mogul, ii, 256, 258

Great ox. (See Aurochs)

Great Schism. (See Papal Schism)

Great War, the, ii, 48, 166, 221, 235, 251, 510 sqq., 624

Greatness, ii, 303

Greece (and the Greeks), i, 86, 108, 114, 281, 313-18, 446-47, ii, 144, 160, 190; history (to war with Persia), i, 13, 176-78, 213-16, 234, 281, 300 sqq., ii, 606; (war with Persia), i, 314-15, 327-42, ii, 607; (to 15th century), i, 343-45, 357, 362-64, 367-72, 377-78, 395, 449, 554, 611, 621, ii, 79, 98, 121-26, 616; (modern), ii, 382, 502, 521-22, 524, 622; civilization, i, 304-14, 352-53, 363-64, 455, 491-92, 623; constitutional, i, 305-15, 360-64, 369, 378, 455, 488; religion, i, 240, 304-06, 354-55, 374, 412, 483, ii, 48; thought and learning, i, 359-65, 399-404, 408-09, 488, 618, 636, ii, 35, 168

Greek, alphabet, i, 228-29; archipelago, i, 119, 260; Church, i, 603, 617, ii, 58, 60, 73, 74, 78, 81, 98, 380, 611; islands, i, 171, ii, 65; language and literature, i, 151, 168, 173-76, 194, 300, 348, 354-56, 359-62, 402, 411, 530, 535, 562, 588, 614-15, 621, ii, 31, 35, 36, 50, 61, 73, 159, 211; warfare, i, 370

Greek (Eastern) Empire, see Eastern (Greek) Empire

Green, J. R., ii, 154

Green flag, ii, 64

Greenland, i, 75, ii, 53, 185

“Greens,” faction of the, ii, 247

Gregorovius, ii, 63

Gregory, Sir R. A., ii, 176, 384, 427

Gregory I, the Great, i, 612, 642, ii, 41, 50, 72, 97, 153, 167, 612

Gregory VII, ii, 72, 73, 74, 84, 149, 167, 615

Gregory IX, ii, 83, 87, 148, 616

Gregory XI, ii, 100, 127, 617

Grenfell, i, 137

Grey, Sir Edward, ii, 511

Grey Friars. (See Franciscan Order)

Grimaldi race, i, 88, 90-95, 120

Grimm’s Law, i, 152

Grisons, i, 564

Grote, i, 351

Growth, i, 16

Guadalquivir (gaw dăl kwiv’ _ĕ_r), ii, 188

Guianas, the, ii, 451

Guilds, i, 267

Guillemard, ii, 188

Guillotine, ii, 333

Guiscard (gēs kăr’), Robert, ii, 67, 69, 79, 615

Gulf Stream, i, 20

Gum-tree, i, 51

Gunpowder, i, 635, ii, 109, 121, 179, 268

Guptas (goop’ t_ă_z), i, 629

Gurkhas, ii, 455

Gustavus Adolphus, ii, 235, 236, 253

Gutenberg, ii, 159

Guthrum, ii, 54, 614

Gwalior, ii, 257

Gyges (gī’ jēz), i, 316, ii, 606

Haarlem (här’ lem), ii, 159, 229, 231, 617

Habsburgs, ii, 63, 98, 140, 167, 199-202, 232, 235, 243, 248, 370, 371

Hackett, ii, 420-21

Hadrian, i, 526, 536, ii, 610

Hadrian, tomb of, i, 609, ii, 41

Hadrian’s wall, i, 526-27

Hague Conferences, ii, 476-77

Haig, Sir Douglas, ii, 523

Hair, i, 49-54

Halicarnassus (hăl i kăr näs’ ŭs), i, 260, 262, 340, 379, 380

Hall, i, 218

Hall, H. R., i, 184

Ham, son of Noah, i, 140

Hamburg, ii, 180, 182

Hamilcar, i, 471, 475

Hamilton, Alexander, ii, 303

Hamilton, Sir Ian, ii, 521

Hamilton, Sir William, ii, 390

Hamites, i, 158, 176, 189, 203, 244, ii, 41

Hamitic languages, i, 154, 155, 161, 162, 167; ships, i, 212

Hammond, ii, 269, 270

Hammurabi (hăm moo rä’ bē), i, 191, 196, 199, 201, 245, 258, 279, 385, ii, 606

Han, men of, i, 634

Han dynasty, i, 205, 253, 270, 433, 508, 509, 542, 543, 548, 630, 631, ii, 610

Hancock, ii, 290

Hang Chau (hăng’ chou), ii, 108, 615

Hannibal, i, 473-79, 483

Hanno, i, 196, 217-18, 221, 234, 241, 472, 509, 532, ii, 185, 607

Hanover, ii, 338

Hanover, elector of. (See George I.)

Hanoverian dominions, ii, 244

Hanoverian dynasty, ii, 228, 236

Hansa towns, ii, 182-88

Hanse merchants, ii, 266

Harcourt, Sir William, ii, 411

Hardy, Thomas, i, 335, ii, 349

Hare, the, i, 113

Hariti, i, 428

Harnack, ii, 174

Haroun-al-Raschid (hä roon ăl ră shēd´), ii, 32, 33, 61, 613

Harpagos (här´ pă gŏs), i, 323

Harpalus (här´ pă lŭs), i, 375, 387

Harpoons, i, 90, 96

Harran, i, 622

Harris, H. Wilson, ii, 543, 560

Harrison, Benjamin, i, 68

Harvey, John, ii, 177, 619

Hasan, son of Ali, ii, 27, 30

Hasdrubal, i, 472-76

Hastings, Warren, ii, 259, 453, 487

Hatasu (hä´ tă soo), Queen of Egypt, i, 200

Hathor, i, 239, 249, 412, 413

Hatra, i, 622

Hatred, i, 472

Hauran, i, 623, ii, 2

Haverfield, F. J., i, 461, 605

Hawk gods, i, 237

Head, deformation of, i, 147

Headlam, J. W., ii, 377

Hearths, i, 171

Heaven, Kingdom of, i, 575-79, 582, 587, ii, 417. (See also God)

Hébert, ii, 335

Hebrew language, i, 153, 155, 164, 570, 572; literature, i, 293-94; prophets, i, 601; thought, i, 361; moral teaching, i, 219. (See also Jewish)

Hebrews, i, 245, 279-283, ii, 1. (See also Jews)

Hecataeus (hek ă tē´ ŭs), i, 221

Hecker, ii, 154

Hector, i, 175, 183

Hedgehogs, i, 56

Hegira (hej´ i ră), ii, 8, 12, 14, 17, 612

Heidelberg man, i, 60, 64, 69, 70-71, 84

Hekt, i, 239

Helen of Troy, i, 216

Helena, Empress, i, 618, ii, 82

Helena, mother of Constantine, i, 599

Heligoland, ii, 484, 623

Heliolithic (hē li ō lith´ ik) culture, i, 147-49, 162, 171, 177, 184, 188, 196, 201, 207-13, 223, 415, ii, 189, 465

Heliolithic peoples, i, 206

Heliopolis (hē li op’ ō lis), (Baalbek), i 621, ii, 3

Hellé, André, ii, 513

Hellenes, i, 300

Hellenic civilization, i, 302 sqq., ii, 22, 168; tradition, i, 562

Hellenism, i, 353, 430, 570

Hellespont, i, 334-35, 339, 340, 362, 372, 379, 523, 621, ii, 20, 79, 137, 607, 612

Helmolt, H. F., i, 192, 541, 556, 635, ii, 18, 22, 136, 180

Helmont, van, i, 170

Helots, i, 305

Hen. (See Fowl, domesticated)

Henriot, ii, 336

Henry II, German Emperor, ii, 63

Henry V, German Emperor, ii, 63

Henry VI, German Emperor, ii, 86

Henry II, King of England, ii, 490

Henry III, King of England, ii, 219

Henry V, King of England, ii, 178

Henry VII, King of England, ii, 186, 218, 220

Henry VIII, King of England, ii, 163, 197, 200, 204, 206, 218, 220, 618

Henry of Prussia, Prince, ii, 300

Henry the Fowler, ii, 63, 70, 614

Henry, Patrick, ii, 287, 303

Hephaestion (hē fes’ ti_ŏ_n), i, 392, 394, 510

Hephaestus, i, 173

Heraclea (her ă klē’ ă), i, 453, ii, 608

Heraclius (her ă klī’ ŭs), i, 615, 618, 623, 634, ii, 17-20, 82, 612, 613

Heraldry, i, 268

Herat, i, 386, 604

Herbivorous animals, i, 41, 43

Hercules, demi-god, i, 399, 515

Hercules, son of Alexander, i, 394

Hercules, temple of, i, 234

Herdsmen, i, 264, 267

Hereditary rule, ii, 144

Heredity, i, 230

Heretic, ii, 95

Heristhal, ii, 47

Hermon, Mount, i, 113, 184

Herne Island, i, 217

Hero, i, 402, 540

Herodes Atticus (her ō’ dēz ăt’ i kŭs), i, 535, 536

Herodians, i, 579

Herodotus (hē rod’ ō tŭs), i, 186, 218, 221, 241, 260-62, 267, 296, 314, 319-26, 332, 340, 342, 347, 350, 355, 356, 370, 399, 405, 497, 532, 615, 642, ii, 20, 607

Herods, the, i, 571, 574, 580, ii, 4

Heroic Age, i, 177

Herophilus (hē rof’ i lŭs), i, 403, 404

Herzegovina (hert s_ĕ_ gov’ ĕ nă), ii, 484, 624

Hesperornis (hes p_ĕ_r ôr’ nis), i, 48

Hesse (hes’ ĕ) and Hessians, ii, 51, 205, 445

Hezekiah, King, i, 291

Hieratic script, i, 228

Hiero (hī’ _ĕ_r ō), i, 468, 469, 476

Hieroglyphics, i, 208, 211, 227, 228

Hieronymus (hī er on’ i mŭs) of Syracuse, i, 476

Hildebrand. (See Gregory VII)

Himalayas, i, 35, 52, 160, 546

Hindu deities, i, 437, 439; priests, i, 180; schools, ii, 137

Hindu Kush, ii, 133

Hindus, i, 169, 179-81, 269-70, 299, 538, ii, 134, 137, 256

Hindustan, ii, 108, 133

Hipparchus, i, 402

Hippias, i, 332

Hippo, i, 556, 604

Hippopotamus, i, 38, 69, 70, 76

Hippopotamus deities, i, 197, 236

Hira, ii, 18, 20

Hirai, K., i, 157

Hiram, King of Sidon, i, 287-90

Hirth, i, 435, 541, 582, 635

Histiæus, i, 330-31, 341, 561

Hittites, i, 192, 196, 200, 219, 278, 282, 283, 300, 327, ii, 121

Hi-ung-nu. (See Huns)

Hobson, J. A., ii, 543

Hoche, General, ii, 374

Hogarth, D. G., i, 367, 392

Hogarth, William, ii, 227

Hogue, cruiser, ii, 520

Hohenlinden, battle of, ii, 355, 622

Hohenstaufens (hō en stou’ fenz), ii, 63, 98, 182, 199, 232, 616

Hohenzollerns, ii, 236, 240, 370, 442, 445, 479, 480

Holkham Hall, i, 13

Holland, i, 541, 605, ii, 47, 51, 159, 163, 182, 188, 193, 224, 229-30, 233, 236, 251, 257, 258, 282, 331, 339, 347, 359, 361, 368, 380, 381, 451, 457, 622

Holland, Rev. W. E. S., ii, 473

Holly, i, 51

Holmes, i, 615

Holmes, A., i, 13

Holmes, Rice, i, 104

Holstein, ii, 381

Holy Alliance, ii, 372, 377, 382, 400, 430, 476, 477

Holy Land. (See Crusades and Palestine)

Holy Roman Empire, ii, 58, 63, 69, 130, 182, 198, 202 sqq., 210, 215, 238, 256, 614, 622

Homage, ii, 44

Home Rule Bill, i, 312

Homer, i, 114, 174-82, 196, 216, 219, 229, 300, 304, 508, 531

Homo antiquus. See Neanderthal man; Heidelbergensis, see Heidelberg man; Neanderthalensis, see Neanderthal man; primigenius, see Neanderthal man; sapiens, see Man, true

Homs, i, 621

Honduras (hon dūr´ ăs), British, ii, 254

Honey, i, 172

Honoria, i, 557

Honorius, i, 554, ii, 611

Honorius III, pope, ii, 87, 615

Hope in religion, i, 125

Hopf, Ludwig, i, 80, 118, 130

Hophni, i, 284

Horace, i, 407

Horn, Count of, ii, 229

Horn implements, i, 90, 107, 116

Horrabin, F., i, 119

Horses, i, 58, 64, 69, 70, 92-100, 105, 170, 177, 192, 299, 551

Horsuv Tyn, ii, 152

Horticulture, i, 254

Horus, i, 249, 252, 412-14, 429, 590, 591

Hose, i, 148

Hotel Cecil, i, 621

Hottentot language, i, 162

Households, growth of, i, 258

Houses, stone, i, 171

Howard, the philanthropist, ii, 338

Howe, F. C., ii, 543

Howorth, H. H., i, 541

Howth, ii, 498

Hrdlicka, Dr., i, 102

Hsia, Empire of, ii, 110

Hubbard, i, 536, 642

Huc, i, 429, 440

Hudson Bay Company, ii, 254, 451

Hudson Bay Territory, i, 158

Hudson River, ii, 292, 387

Hueffer, F. M., ii, 480

Hugo, Victor, ii, 355

Huguenots, ii, 244, 253, 282

Hulagu, ii, 114, 118, 120, 130, 154, 616

Human association, ii, 413

Human sacrifice, i, 116-17, 130-31, 134, ii, 91, 190

Humayun (hoo mä´ yoon), ii, 133

Hungary (and the Hungarians), i, 106, 553, 558, 560, 600, ii, 51, 69, 70, 77, 100, 113, 122, 126, 139, 184, 204, 205, 233, 260, 380, 400, 446, 618. (See also Austria)

Huns, i, 196, 203-05, 253, 272, 388, 508, 533, 539, 541, 543-52, 554, 557, 559, 618, 627-32, 644, ii, 66, 71, 106, 108, 113, 142, 266, 611

Hunter Commission, ii, 456

Hunting, i, 91, 92, 96-104, 112, 124, 317, 318

Husein, son of Ali, ii, 27, 30

Huss, John, ii, 100, 151, 202, 263, 272, 615

Hussites, ii, 152-56, 617

Hut urns, i, 115

Hutchinson, i, 162

Hutchinson, H. N., i, 50

Hutton, ii, 419

Huxley, Prof., i, 13, 146, ii, 420-21, 426

Hwang-ho (hwăng’ hō), river, i, 205, 542, 641, ii, 108, 118

Hyæna cave, i, 76

Hyænodon (hī ē’ nō don), i, 53

Hyde Park, ii, 437

Hyksos, i, 196, 199, ii, 1

Hyracodon (hī răk’ ō don), i, 53

Hystaspes (his tăs’ pēz), i, 326, ii, 607

Iberian language, i, 167

Iberians, i, 101, 146, 167, 171, 176, 196, 213, 281, 298, 446, ii, 247. (See also Mediterranean race)

Ibex, i, 93

Ibn Batuta (ibn bä too’ tä), ii, 154

Ibn-rushd. (See Averroes)

Ibrahim, son of Muhammad, ii, 13

Icarus (ik’ ă rŭs), i, 215

Ice, effect of, i, 59

Ice Age, i, 52, 57-60, 68-72, 77, 82, 87, 119, 120, 159, 317

Iceland, ii, 53, 185, 252

Icelandic language, i, 168

I-chabod, i, 285

Ichthyosaurs (ik’ thi ō sawrz), i, 41, 45

Iconium, ii, 72

Ideograms, i, 224-26

Ideographs, i, 226

Idumeans, i, 570

Ignatius, St., of Loyola, ii, 164-66, 263, 618

Iliad, the. (See Homer)

Ilkhan, Empire of, ii, 114, 118, 127, 130

Illyria, i, 372, 375, 377, 472, 480, ii, 122, 608

Immortality, idea of, i, 124, 413, 423-24, 538-39

Imperator, title of, i, 565

Imperial preference, ii, 488

Imperialism, i, 311, ii, 424, 436, 461, 475 sqq., 498-502

Implements, bone, i, 99; bronze, i, 132; Chellean, i, 70; copper, i, 105; earliest use of, i, 67-68; flint, i, 71, 76-81, 88, 91, 96, 99, 107, 114; horn, i, 90, 107, 116; iron, i, 107; Neolithic, i, 104-05, 114, 132; Palæolithic, i, 76, 104, 137; Pliocene, i, 68-69; stone, i, 57, 67, 69, 75, 80, 88, 96, 104, 106, 273; use of by animals, i, 67; wooden, i, 76

Inca of Peru, ii, 190

Independency, ii, 163

India, i, 37, 74, 106, 109, 114, 160, 181-82, 206, 327, 396, 432, 489, 509, 532, 548, 626, ii, 27, 33, 109, 133, 139, 144, 268, 351; history (Alexander in), i, 379, 386, 388, 428, 510; (Indo-Scythians in), i, 548, 617, 628, ii, 610; (Ephthalites in), i, 629, ii, 611; (Mongols in), i, 550, 557, ii, 114, 133-37; (17th and 18th centuries), ii, 254, 256-58, 262; (British in), ii, 133-37, 254-59, 279, 285, 451-56, 471, 487, 620, 621; civilization, social development, and culture, i, 147, 171, 179, 183, 196, 201, 268-70, 272, 307, 415-16, 430, ii, 136, 145, 455; European settlements in, ii, 254-59, 279, 285, 620; languages of, i, 158, 169, 189, ii, 139-40; peoples and races, i, 138-39, 145, 158-60, 196, 201, 203, 317, 386, 629, ii, 106, 190; religions of, i, 270, 416 sqq., 440, 604, 610, 625, ii, 108, 114, 136, 166; trade of, i, 401, 533, 640, ii, 257; travels and voyages to, i, 533, 642, 645, ii, 119, 185-87, 465, 612, 617

Indian corn, i, 113

Indian ocean, i, 47, 108, 118, 210, ii, 187

Indian sign-language, i, 150

Indians, American. (See American Indians)

Indies, East, i, 46, 148, 159, 162, 206, 210, 273, ii, 257, 451, 461

Indies, West, ii, 187, 252, 305, 306, 451

Individual, the free, i, 259

Individuality, in reproduction, i, 17

Indo-European languages. (See Aryan languages)

Indo-Iranian language, i, 169; people, i, 538

Indonesian life, i, 177

Indore, ii, 257

Indo-Scythians, i, 548, 617, 628, ii, 610

Indulgences, ii, 93, 202

Indus, i, 159, 182, 201, 327, 385-89, 395, 430, 507, 523, ii, 22, 132, 607

Industrial Revolution, ii, 276, 393-98, 405

Industrialism, ii, 273-75

Infanticide, i, 134

Influenza, ii, 384

Information, ii, 413

Infusoria, i, 21

Inge, Dean, i, 583, 587, ii, 416

Innes, A. D., ii, 218

Innocent III, pope, ii, 82, 86-98, 167, 615

Innocent IV, ii, 81, 88, 116

Inns, early, i, 220

Innsbruck, ii, 207

Inquisition, the, ii, 95, 117, 166, 209, 378

Insects, i, 5, 28

Instruments, Neolithic musical, i, 115

Interglacial period, i, 60, 68-70, 75-76

“International,” the, ii, 409

International relationship, ii, 347

Internationalism, ii, 432

Intoxicants, i, 172, 182

Investitures, ii, 44, 74, 85

Ion, poet, i, 347

Iona, ii, 50

Ionian Islands, ii, 351

Ionians, i, 314-16, 327-32, 337-40, ii, 121

Ionic dialect, i, 300

Ipsus (ip’ sŭs), battle of, i, 395

Irak, ii, 33

Iran (ē rän’), i, 508, 626

Iranians, i, 299, 627

Ireland, i, 86, 102, 105, 110, 182, 209, 299, 312, 603, ii, 40, 50, 66, 97, 178, 224-26, 424, 432, 471, 488-99, 621, 623, 624

Irene (ī rē’ nē), Empress, ii, 58

Irish, Catholics, ii, 222, 224, 244; language, i, 152, 168; prisoners, ii, 284; race, i, 167

Irish sea, i, 75

Iron, i, 4, 79, 133; as currency, i, 219-20; use of, i, 107, 187, 196, 205, 207, ii, 275, 387-89, 606

Iron Age, i, 97, 108, 133

Ironsides, ii, 223

Iroquois (ir ō kwoi’) tribes, ii, 285

Irrigation, i, 37, 190

Irving, Washington, ii, 253

Isaac, patriarch, i, 278-79

Isabella of Castile, ii, 186, 200

Isaiah, i, 578

Ishmael, i, 279

Ishtar, i, 232, 245, 279, 283

Isis, i, 239, 249, 412-14, 428-29, 538, 575, 590-91

Iskender, i, 389

Islam, i, 296, 441, 583, 624, 636, ii, 4 sqq., 113, 142, 194; and Christianity, ii, 34, 35, 64, 114, 149; propaganda of, ii, 15-16, 28, 51, 108, 116, 127, 142, 256, 396, 397; teaching of, ii, 14 sqq., 64, 136, 146, 402. (See also Moslems, and Muhammadanism)

Isocrates (ī sok’ ră tēz), i, 351, 357, 363, 367, 373, 390, 397

Ispahan (is pă hän’), ii, 132

Israel, Kingdom of (and Israelites), i, 193, 277 sqq., 316, ii, 144, 244, 606. (See also Jews)

Issik Kul (is’ ik kool), i, 643

Issus, battle of, i, 380-84, ii, 20, 78, 608

Italian language, i, 151, 446, ii, 160, 199

Italy (and Italians), i, 106, 196, 213, 281, 388, 446-47, 526, 611, ii, 121, 144, 608; history (Greeks in), i, 302, 304, 346, 447, 451-52, ii, 606-08; (Gauls in), i, 388, 449, 471; (Roman), i, 453, 460, 494, 499-505, ii, 147; (invasion by Hannibal), i, 475-77; (Goths in), i, 553, 606, ii, 46, 65, 612; (Huns in), i, 559, 608; (Lombards in), i, 606, 616, ii, 57, 153, 612; (Charlemagne in), ii, 57-58; (Germans in), ii, 58, 618; (Normans in), ii, 67, 69, 76; (Saracens in), ii, 67; (Magyars in), ii, 69; (13th-18th cent.), ii, 83, 87-89, 97-98, 126, 127, 182-84, 195-97, 204, 216, 233, 236, 621-22; (Napoleonic period), ii, 332, 339, 347, 350-55, 359, 364, 622; (to unification of), ii, 380-82, 400, 432; (Kingdom of), ii, 440-45, 461, 469-70, 500-01, 519, 622, 624; imperialism of, ii, 470, 500. (See also Rome and Great War)

Ivan III, ii, 129, 617; IV (the Terrible), ii, 129, 618

Ivory, trade in, i, 273

Ivy, fossil, i, 51

Jackson, Sir Louis, ii, 567 sqq.

Jackson, T. G., ii, 61

Jacob, patriarch, i, 278 sq.

Jacobins, French, ii, 324, 333 sqq., 342, 349, 621

Jacquerie, ii, 156, 502, 621

Jade, i, 118

Jaffa, ii, 353

Jaipur (jī poor’), ii, 256

Jamaica, ii, 254, 451, 471

James I, i, 110, ii, 216 sqq., 237, 253, 280

James II, ii, 226, 491

James, St., i, 580

James, Henry, ii, 550

Jameson, Dr., ii, 424

Jamestown, ii, 284, 305

Janissaries, ii, 122, 132

Japan, i, 139, 429, 432, 642, ii, 119, 185, 187, 261-62, 463-70, 623, 624

Japanese, i, 66, 147, 636, ii, 464; language and writing, i, 156, 638

Japhet, i, 140

Jarandilla, ii, 207

Jarrow, ii, 50

Java, i, 68, ii, 187

Jaw, chimpanzee, i, 72; human, ib.; Piltdown (see Piltdown)

Jefferson, Tho., ii, 293, 303 sqq.

Jehad (jē häd’), “holy war,” ii, 80

Jehan (jē hăn’), Shah, ii, 133

Jehangir, ii, 133

Jehovah, i, 282, 287, 293, 307, 412

Jena (yā’ nă), battle of, ii, 362, 364, 476, 622

Jengis Khan (jen’ gis kän), ii, 106, 108, 109 sq., 116 sq., 121, 128 sqq., 261, 615

Jenné, i, 565

Jerboas, ii, 154

Jerome of Prague, ii, 151

Jerusalem, i, 247, 278, 288-93, 411, 523, 571-72, 575, 578, 580-81, 584-86, 589, 604, 618-19, 623, ii, 11, 21, 22, 64, 75, 78-84, 97, 229, 483, 612, 615

Jesuits, ii, 117, 127, 164 sq., 193, 309, 390, 465, 618 sq.

Jesus, spirit and teaching of, i, 296, 492, 572 sqq., 601, 617, 626, ii, 6, 13 sqq., 54, 64, 85, 90 sqq., 116, 127, 149 sq., 158, 163, 263, 296, 342, 360, 376, 402, 417, 426, 609 sq.

Jet, i, 105

Jevons, F. B., i, 118

Jewellery, iron, i, 107

Jewish religion and sacred books, i, 278, 294-96, 400, 411, 440, 538, 571-72, 576, ii, 36, 417

Jews, i, 200, 247, 278, 292-97, 303, 402, 411, 569-72, 609-10, ii, 3-9, 18, 29, 32, 36, 41, 71, 77, 88, 121, 147, 242, 248, 424, 607. (See also Judaism)

“Jingo,” ii, 447

Jingo, queen, ii, 465

Joab, i, 287

Joan of Arc, ii, 179

Job, Book of, i, 114, 294

Jodhpore (jōd poor’), Raja of, ii, 135

John, king of England, ii, 81, 219

John II, king of Portugal, ii, 186

John III, king of Poland. (See Sobiesky, John)

John X, pope, ii, 62, 614

John XI, pope, ii, 62, 614

John XII, pope, ii, 62 sq., 73, 97, 614

John of Leyden, ii, 156

John, Prester, ii, 119

John, St., ii, 580, 598; Gospel of, i, 573, ii, 30, 50

Johnson, i, 238

Johnson, Samuel, ii, 493

Johnston, R. M., ii, 348

Jones, F. Wood, i, 63

Jones, H. Stuart, i, 454, 516, 522, 534, 609

Joppa, i, 282

Jordan, river, i, 278, ii, 19

Joseph, St., i, 574

Joseph II, emperor, ii, 240, 620 sq.

Josephine, empress. (See Beauharnais)

Josephus, i, 500, 571 sq.

Joshua, i, 282

Josiah, king of Judah, i, 292, ii, 607 sq.

Judah, kingdom of, i, 289 sqq., ii, 244

Judaism, i, 440, 570, 583, ii, 16, 142, 149. (See also Jews)

Judas, i, 585

Judea, i, 196, 278, 365, 436, 538, 569 sqq., 584 sqq., ii, 4, 27

Judges, Book of, i, 282 sq.

Judges of Israel, i, 467, ii, 144

Jugo-Slavs (ū’ gō slävz). (See Yugo-Slavs)

Jugurtha (joo gũr’ th_ă_), i, 502 sq., ii, 609

Julian the Apostate, i, 625, ii, 611

Julius III, ii, 208

Jung, i, 361

Jungle fowl, i, 114

Juno, i, 218, 483

Junot, Mme., ii, 349

Jupiter, i, 233, 412 sq., 448, ii, 49

Jupiter, planet, i, 4

Jupiter Ammon, i, 252

Jupiter Serapis, i, 412

Justinian, i, 606, 608, 611, 613, 633, ii, 46, 57 sq., 124, 153, 384, 612

Jutes, i, 554, 605, ii, 54, 66

Jutland, battle of, ii, 520

Kaaba (kä’ ă bă), ii, 5 sqq., 11, 27

Kadessia, battle of, ii, 20, 613

Kadija (kă dē’ j_ă_), ii, 6 sqq.

Kaffirs, i, 219

Kaisar-i-Hind, i, 565, ii, 134

Kaisar-i-Roum, i, 565

Kaiser, Austrian, i, 565; German, i, 565

Kali (kă’ lē), i, 439

Kalifa. (See Caliph)

Kalinga, i, 431

Kalmucks (käl’ mŭks), i, 137, 143, 545, ii, 128

Kanishka (kă nish’ k_ă_), i, 628, 646, ii, 610

Kao-chang, i, 644

Karakorum (kä rä kōr’ ăm), ii, 110 sqq., 134

Karma (kär’ mă), doctrine of, i, 425

Karnak, i, 200

Kashgar (kăsh gär’), i, 546, 628, 643, ii, 22, 109, 118, 610

Kashmir, Buddhists in, i, 432

Kautsky, ii, 510

Kavadh, i, 624, 634, ii, 1, 366, 612

Kazan (kă zän’), ii, 118

Keane, A. H., i, 118, 161

Keith, Dr. A., i, 63, 71 sq.

Keltic languages, i, 168, 182, 299, 446, 605

Keltic race, i, 110, 168, 176, 182, 196, 299, 388, 395, 554, ii, 40, 48, 228, 490

Kelvin, Lord, i, 13

Kent, Duke of, ii, 405

Kent, Kingdom of, ii, 40

Kepler, ii, 176, 619

Kerensky, ii, 526-27

Kerne Island, i, 217

Ketboga, ii, 114, 132, 616

Keynes, J. M., ii, 541, 557, 560

Khalid (kä lēd’), ii, 18 sq.

Khans, i, 644, ii, 108 sqq., 126 sqq., 144, 615 sq.

Kharismia, ii, 106, 109, 615

Khazars (kä zärz’), ii, 70, 71

Khedive, the, of Egypt, ii, 471

Khitan people, ii, 109, 118

Khiva (kē’ vă), ii, 106, 108

Khokand (kō kănd’), i, 546, ii, 110

Khorasan (kō ră sän’), ii, 31, 37

Khotan (kō tän’), i, 628, ii, 118, 610

Khyber Pass, i, 386, 548, 643, ii, 257

Kiau-Chau (kyou’ chou’), ii, 469 sq., 564, 624

Kidnapped children sent to New England, ii, 284

Kieff, ii, 67, 110 sq., 129, 134, 614; Grand Duke of, ii, 110

Kin Empire, ii, 108-09 sq., 128, 261, 615

Kings, book of, i, 193, 282, 287, 289, 291

Kings (and kingship), i, 134, 178, 218, 240 sqq., 248 sqq., 263, 285 sqq., 305 sq., 430, ii, 142, 194, 233-34, 286, 375 sq.; divine right of, ii, 216, 221

Kioto (kyō´ tō), ii, 467

Kipchak, Empire, ii, 114, 128 sq.

Kipling, Rudyard, ii, 423, 462, 488

Kirghis (kir gēz´), ii, 109; steppe, i, 634

Kitchen-middens, i, 109, 110, 152

Kiwi, i, 207

Knighthood, i, 465, ii, 202

Knights, i, 268, ii, 179; of the Shire, i, 463, ii, 218

Knipe, H. R., i, 50

Knives, flint, i, 96

Knots, records by means of, i, 208

Knowledge, diffusion of, i, 296, 397 sqq., 487, ii, 168-69

Konia, ii, 72, 78

Königsberg, ii, 180, 367

Koran, ii, 9 sq., 15, 29 sq., 257

Korea, i, 633, 638 sq., ii, 261, 465 sqq.

Korean alphabet, i, 638; language, i, 156

Kosciusko (kos i ŭs´ kō), ii, 251

Krapina, i, 72

Kremlin, the, ii, 242

Krishna (krish´ nă), i, 439

Kropotkin, ii, 425

Krüdener, Baroness von, ii, 372

Krum, Prince of Bulgaria, ii, 58, 69, 614

Krupp, firm of, ii, 514

Kshatriyas (kshä trē´ yăz), i, 269, 270

Kuan-yin, i, 429

Kublai Khan (koo´ blī kän), ii, 108 sqq., 126 sq., 144, 616 sq.

Kuen-lun (kwen loon´) mountains, i, 201, 546, 548, 643

Kufa, ii, 36

Kushan (koo shän´) dynasty, i, 628

Kusinagara, i, 646

Kut, ii, 522

Kutub, ii, 108, 615

Labour, i, 255, 265, 271, ii, 154-56, 157-58, 193, 404 sqq., 478

Labour Colleges, i, 487

Labourers, Statute of, ii, 156

Labrador, i, 78, 124, 137, ii, 435

Labyrinth, Cretan, i, 214, 216

Lacedemon (läs ĕ dē´ m_ŏ_n), i, 303

Lacedemonians, i, 307, 322, 332

Ladé, i, 331

Ladrones (lä drōnz´), ii, 187

Ladysmith, i, 485

Lafayette (lä fā yet´), General, ii, 292, 316, 318, 324, 327

Lagash(lā´ găsh), i, 195

Lahore, ii, 110

Lake dwellings, i, 109-112, 133. (See also Pile dwellings)

La Madeleine, i, 96

Lamas, Grand, i, 429

Lamballe, princesse de, ii, 329

Lamps, Palæolithic, i, 95

Lance head, bronze, i, 132

Land, tenure of, i, 256, 271

Lanfranc, Archbishop, ii, 150

Lang, Andrew, i, 79

Langley, Prof., ii, 392

Languages of mankind, i, 126, 133, 150-64, 167-74, 189, 227, 298, 446

Lankester, Sir Ray, i, 50, 63, 68, 72-74

Laodicea (lā ō di sē´ ă), ii, 79

Lao Tse (lä´ ot z_ĕ_), i, 433, 436, 582, 632, 641, 647, ii, 106, 402, 607

Laplace, i, 31

Lapland, i, 156

Larsa, i, 195

Las Casas (läs kä´ säs), ii, 193, 305

Lateran, the, ii, 57, 63, 73, 84, 90, 92, 97

Latin, emperors, ii, 97, 229; language and literature, i, 168, 169, 189, 461, 530, 534-5, 564, 605, 613, ii, 60, 71, 73, 130, 160

Latins, the, i, 445-454, ii, 616

Latium, i, 447

Laud, Archbishop, ii, 221

Laughter, ii, 373

Law, i, 309, 616, ii, 46

Lawrence, Colonel, i, 188

Lawrence, General, ii, 455

Leaf, Walter, i, 216

League of Nations, ii, 545, 548-49, 557-564, 624

Learning, i, 240-41, 609, ii, 114

Leather, Arabian, ii, 38; money, i, 220, ii, 89; as clothing, i, 408

Lebanon, i, 287, 621, 623

Lecky, i, 426

Lecointre (l_ĕ_ kwäntr´), ii, 318

Lee, General, ii, 301, 444

Leeuwenhoek (lā´ vĕn huk), ii, 177

Legge, i, 401, 413, 538, 595

Legion of Honour, ii, 357

Legrain, L., i, 241

Leicestershire, ii, 156

Leiden, ii, 229

Leipzig (līp´ sik), ii, 180; battle of, ii, 368

Leipzig, cruiser, ii, 520

Lemberg, ii, 518

Lemming, i, 58

Le Moustier, i, 78

Lemurs, i, 56-57, 65

Lena, river, ii, 267

Lenin (len’ in), ii, 409-11, 527

Leo I, i, 559; III, ii, 57, 58, 60, 97, 613; X, ii, 200-203, 618

Leo the Isaurian, ii, 29

Leonidas (lē on’ i dăs), i, 336

Leopold I, of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, ii, 381, 436, 622

Leopold, king of Belgium, ii, 438

Lepanto, battle of, ii, 140, 184

Lepers, ii, 94

Lepidus (lep’ i dŭs), i, 514

Levant, the, i, 598, ii, 194

Levantine lake, i, 210

Leverhulme, Lord, ii, 406

Levites, i, 288

Leviticus, Book of, i, 281

Lex Valeria, i, 457

Lexington, ii, 290-91, 621

Lhassa, i, 438, 591

Liang-chi-chao, i, 205

Liao-tung (lē ou’ toong’), ii, 469

Liberal Party, ii, 489

Liberia, i, 217, ii, 461

Libraries, i, 246, 292, 405-09

Libyan script, i, 228

Licinian Rogations and Laws, i, 459, 499, 631

Licinius, i, 459

Liége (1ē āzh’), ii, 513, 514

Liegnitz (lēg’ nits), battle of, ii, 112, 616

Life, i, 6, 16; early forms of, i, 7-15, 19-22, 38 sqq.; intellectual development of human, i, 229-31

Light, essential to plants, i, 24

Ligny (1ē nyē’), ii, 371

Ligurian republic, ii, 347

Lilybæum, i, 469, 470

Limerick, Treaty of, ii, 492

Lincoln, Abraham, i, 345, ii, 443, 623

Lion, the, i, 69, 70, 76, 102, 178, 317

Lippi, Filippo, ii, 183

Lisbon, i, 529, ii, 80, 180, 187, 207, 257

Lissa, battle of, ii, 445

Literature, prehistoric, i, 173

Lithuania, ii, 129, 244

Liu Yu, i, 633

Liverpool, ii, 386, 622

Lizards, i, 46

Llama, i, 56, 207

Lloyd, i, 346, 446

Lloyd, L., i, 174

Lob Nor, ii, 118

Lochau (lō chou’), ii, 206

Locke, John, ii, 288, 309, 620

Lockyer, Sir Norman, i, 240

Logic, study of, ii, 168

Loire (lwär), the, ii, 46

Lombardy (and Lombards), i, 143, 564, 606, 608, 612, 616, ii, 46, 57, 153, 361, 441, 612

London, ii, 154, 156, 180, 182, 221, 222, 249, 259, 289, 361, 370, 398, 437, 470, 483, 492, 520, 532, 623

London, Royal Society. (See Royal Society of London)

London, University of, ii, 437

Londonderry, ii, 497-98, 624

Longinus (lon jī’ nŭs), i, 535

Long Island Sound, ii, 281

Longwy (lo_n_ vē’), ii, 329

Loos, ii, 517

Lopez de Recalde, Inigo. (See Ignatius, St., of Loyola)

Lords, House of, i, 466, 489, ii, 219, 224-26, 236, 298

Loreburn, Lord, ii, 510

Lorraine, ii, 446, 487

Lost Ten Tribes, i, 193

Louis the Pious, ii, 47, 60-61, 614

Louis VII, ii, 80; IX, ii, 84, 116, 616; XI, ii, 179; XIV, ii, 226, 236, 237-39, 249, 253, 311, 331, 356, 376; XV, ii, 239-40, 243-44, 264, 332, 356, 620; XVI, ii, 240, 243, 267, 308, 311 sqq., 337, 370, 621; XVII, ii, 370; XVIII, ii, 370, 378, 622

Louis Philippe, ii, 379, 622

Louisiana, ii, 254, 286

Lourdes, i, 591

Louvain University, ii, 553

Low, Sidney, ii, 473

Loyalty, modern conceptions of, ii, 424

Loyola (lō-yō’ l_ă_, loi ō’ l_ă_), St. (See Ignatius, St., of Loyola)

Lu, i, 434

Lubbock, Sir John. (See Avebury, Lord)

Lubeck, ii, 182

Lucerne, Lake of, ii, 198

Lu-chu Islands, i, 631

Lucknow, ii, 257, 455

Lucretius (lū krē’ shi ŭs), i, 488, 534, ii, 419

Lucullus (lū kŭl’ ŭs), i, 505

Luke, St., i, 573

Lull, Prof., i, 6, 7

Lunar month, i, 129

Lung-fish, i, 25

Lungs, i, 25, 55

“Lur,” bronze, i, 132

Lusitania, liner, ii, 520

Luther, Martin, ii, 160, 162-63, 171, 202-03, 206, 618

Lutterworth, ii, 96

Lützen (lut’ s_ĕ_n), ii, 236

Lutsow, Count, ii, 152

Luxembourg, ii, 381, 445, 511

Luxembourg Palace, ii, 354

Luxor, i, 200, 250

Lvoff, Prince, ii, 525

Lyceum, Athens, i, 357, 359

Lycia, sea-battle of, ii, 28

Lycurgus (lī kũr’ gŭs), i, 221

Lydia (and Lydians), i, 220, 314-16, 320 sqq., 326-7, 370, 395, 416, 482, ii, 121, 606

Lydian language, i, 162; script, i, 228

Lyell, Sir C., i, 50, ii, 419

Lynd, ii, 499

Lyons, i, 560, ii, 333

Lysias (lis’ i ăs), orator, i, 306

Lysimachus (lī sim’ ă kŭs), i, 395

Macallister, Stewart, i, 168

Macaulay, Lord, i, 450, ii, 270, 273, 428

Macaulay Island, i, 218

Maccabeans, i, 571, ii, 4

McCurdy, ii, 513

MacDougall, i, 148

Macedon, i, 622

Macedonia (and the Macedonians), i, 213, 303, 308, 331, 340, 363, 367 sqq., 386-95, 401-2, 430, 452, 476, 480, ii, 2, 43, 122, 145, 268, 380, 607

Machiavelli (mä kē ā vel’ ē), N., ii, 195-98, 202, 210, 240, 479, 618

Machinery, ii, 275, 395

Mac Neilh, i, 168

Madagascar, i, 207

Madeira, ii, 185

Madelin, ii, 307

Madhurattha Vilasini (măd’ hoorāt’ t’h_ă_ vi lä’ si nē), i, 421

Madison, ii, 303

Madras, i, 179, 431, ii, 142, 258

Mæander (mē ăn’ dĕr), ii, 79

Mælius, Spurius, i, 458, 500

Magdalenian Age, i, 96, 97; clothing, i, 408; hunters, i, 317

Magdeburg, ii, 180, 235

Magellan, Ferdinand, ii, 187-88, 618

Magenta, ii, 441, 623

Magic and magicians, i, 134, 235

Magna Carta, ii, 219, 615

Magna Græcia, i, 302, 316, 451, 452

Magna Mater, i, 483

Magnesia, i, 397, 482, ii, 608

Magnetism, ii, 176

Magyar language, i, 156, 560, ii, 70

Magyars (môd´ yôrz, mă jărz´), i, 560, 606, ii, 69, 113

Mahaffy, i, 357, 389, 401, 404

Mahan, ii, 352

Mahrattas, ii, 257

Maillard, ii, 316-17

Maimonides (mī mon´ i dēz), ii, 36

Maine, ii, 281, 282

Mainz (mīnts), ii, 60, 159, 180, 331

Maize, i, 113, 207

Majuba, ii, 460, 489, 623

Malabar, i, 533

Malay-Polynesian languages, i, 158

Malays, i, 203, ii, 465

Malleson, ii, 133

Mallet, ii, 309

Malory, Sir Thomas, i, 175

Malta, ii, 225, 351, 359, 451, 470

Mamelukes, ii, 122, 126, 132

Mammals, i, 46-50, 58-59, 64 sqq. (See also Animals)

Mammoth, i, 58, 64, 69, 76, 78, 92, 95, 99, 101

Man, i, 5, 17, 21, 37, 41, 63-67, 101, 105-109, 110, 134-35; ancestry of, i, 49, 56-59, 63-69, ii, 420; brotherhood of, i, 584; early, i, 57, 85-88, 91, 100-09, 115, 122-35, 145, 149, 273, 407, ii, 341; Eoanthropus, i, 60, 70-74; Heidelberg, i, 60, 69, 71, 84; life of common, i, 255; as mechanical power, ii, 394; Neanderthal, i, 60, 72, 90, 91-95, 97, 108, 122-25; primeval, i, 76-84; and the State, ii, 244-45

Manchester, ii, 386, 404, 622

Manchu (măn choo´) language, i, 156

Manchuria, i, 546, 641, ii, 261, 463-69, 484

Manchus, ii, 128, 261, 464

Mandarins, i, 270, 272

Mangu Khan, ii, 113, 116, 616

Mani (mä´ nē), i, 626-27, ii, 6, 13, 14, 91-92, 611

Manichæans (măn i kē´ _ă_nz), i, 603, 626, ii, 29, 91-92

Manichæism, i, 626

Manif (mä nēf), ii, 5, 11

Mankind, i, 136-149, 295-7, 365; brotherhood of, ii, 246

Manlius, Marcus, i, 458, 473, 500

Manny, Sir Walter, ii, 154

Manresa (män rā’ s_ă_), Abbey of, ii, 165

Mansfield, Lord, ii, 306

Mansur, ii, 31

Mantinea (măn ti nē’ ă), i, 378

Mantua (măn’ tyū ă), ii, 332

Manuscripts, i, 407, 627, ii, 159

“Manzi,” ii, 118

Manzikert (măn’ zi kũrt), ii, 72

Mara, Indian god, i, 418

Marat (mä rä’), ii, 324-33, 374

Marathon, i, 332-7, 345, 346, ii, 607

Marchand, Colonel, ii, 460

Marcus Aurelius. (See Antoninus)

Mardonius (mär dō ni ŭs), i, 339, 340

Marduk (mär dook), a god, i, 237

Marengo, ii, 355, 622

Margoliouth, D. S., ii, 1

Maria Theresa, ii, 240, 251, 620, 621

Marie Antoinette, ii, 311

Marie Louise, Archduchess, ii, 365, 374

Mariner’s compass, i, 635, ii, 121

Maritime power, i, 215-16

Marius (mär’ i ŭs), i, 486, 502-05, ii, 511, 609

Mark, St., i, 573, 578, 579, 580

Marly, ii, 317

Marmots, i, 47

Marne, ii, 515, 530

Marozia, ii, 62, 614

Marriage and intermarriage, i, 179, 237, 250, 267

Mars, god, ii, 49

Mars, planet, i, 4, 5

Marseillaise, the, ii, 331

Marseilles (mär sālz’), i, 203, 447, 475, ii, 82, 94, 180, 204, 333, 616

Marston Moor, ii, 223

Martel, Charles, ii, 45, 47-48, 614

Martin V, Pope, ii, 96, 100, 152, 617

Marvin, F. S., i, 401, ii, 90, 384

Marx, Karl, ii, 398, 399, 408, 409, 411, 415-16, 485

Marxists, i, 268

Mary, the Egyptian, ii, 13

Mary, the Virgin, i, 575, 591

Mary I, Queen of England, ii, 218, 220

Mary II, Queen of England, ii, 226

Maryland, ii, 282, 283, 284, 290

Mas d’Azil, i, 101

Masai hunters, i, 318

Masked Tuaregs, i, 154

Mason, Capt. John, ii, 282

Mason, Otis T., i, 63, 104

Mason and Dixon line, ii, 282, 284

Maspero, i, 250, 252

Mass, the, ii, 149

Massachusetts, ii, 281, 282, 290, 296, 300, 306, 338, 621

Massage, i, 147

Massinissa, King, i, 479

Mastodon (măs’ tō don), i, 58, 73

Mathematics, ii, 35-36, 37, 114

Matheson, i, 445

Matthew, St., i, 573, 577, 587

Maulvi Muhammad Ali, ii, 9

Mauritius, ii, 257

Maxentius, i, 597

Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, ii, 444, 623

Maximilian I, ii, 200, 617

Maximin, i, 557

Maya (mä’ yä) writing, i, 208

Mayence. (See Mainz)

Mayflower, the, ii, 253, 281, 284

Mayor, i, 491

Mayor of the Palace, ii, 47

Mazarin, Cardinal, ii, 236, 237, 246

Mazdaism, i, 627, ii, 16

Mead, i, 558

Mecca, ii, 3-17, 24-30

Meccan allies, ii, 612

Mechanical Revolution, the, ii, 386-96, 415, 425, 437, 449, 453, 461, 476, 541

Medes, i, 194, 200, 248, 291, 299, 315, 318-23, 332, 335, 342, 344, 387, 449, 543, ii, 607

Media (mē’ di ă), i, 193, 293, 319, 327, 387, 508, 523

Medici (med’ i chē) family, ii, 182, 195, 196

Medicine, i, 402 sqq., ii, 35, 37

Medina (me dē’ n_ă_), i, 624, 634, ii, 1, 3, 7-11, 14, 17, 18, 21, 24, 26, 27, 612

Mediterranean, i, 153, 160, 184, 190, 210, 212, 216, 218, 278, 304, 396, 445-6, 468, 508, 529, 540, 542, 560, 570, 621, 641, ii, 28, 53, 65, 139-40, 182, 184, 189, 194, 225

Mediterranean, alphabets, i, 228, 304, 638; civilization, i, 84, 149, 196, 228, 273, 562, ii, 1; early navigation of, i, 210, 211, 216, 512; race and peoples, i, 101, 108, 138, 141-45, 154, 160-62, 168, 176, 206, 281, 298, 300, 313, 445, 471-72, 538, ii, 122, 149, 490; valley, i, 75, 108, 118, 119, 120, 184, 196

Medway, ii, 226

Meerut, ii, 454

Megabazus (meg ă bā’ zŭs), i, 331

Megalithic monuments, i, 109, 110, 125, 147, 240

Megara (meg’ ă r_ă_), i, 337

Megatherium, i, 102, 207

Megiddo, i, 291, ii, 607

Meillet, A., i, 300

Melanesia, i, 148, 149

Melasgird, ii, 72, 615

Memphis, i, 326, 364, 382, 412

Menahem (men’ ă hem), i, 291, ii, 606

Mendicants, i, 221

Menelaus (men ĕ lā’ ŭs), i, 176

Menes (mē’ nēz), i, 196, 204

Mengo, ii, 460

Menhir, i, 128

Mercator’s projection, i, 546, ii, 451

Mercenary armies, ii, 197

Merchants, i, 264-67, 271

Mercia, ii, 40, 50, 54

Mercury, god, i, 457

Mercury, planet, i, 4

Merodach (mer’ ō dăk), i, 245

Merovingians, ii, 46-47, 228

Merv, i, 604

Merycodus (mer i kō’ dŭs), i, 58

Mesopotamia, i, 102, 133, 183-86, 191, 196-99, 209, 233, 244, 252, 265, 304, 389, 509, 526, 561, 565, 616, 619, 622, ii, 1, 18, 21, 31, 118, 128, 130, 145, 522

Mesozoic (mes ō zö’ ik) period, i, 12, 14, 37-55, 66, 67, ii, 140

Messiah, i, 293, 538, 569, 575, 580-86

Messina (me sē’ n_ă_), Straits of, i, 454, 460, 468, 469

Metallurgy, ii, 388

Metals, i, 105, 106, 205, 207, 219, ii, 174

Metaurus, i, 476

Methodist revival, ii, 263

Methuselah, i, 129

Metternich, ii, 378, 400

Metz, ii, 317, 318, 445, 446

Mexico (and the Mexicans), i, 147, 203, 207, 208, ii, 186, 189, 190, 193, 444, 445, 618

Mey, Peter van der, ii, 230

Michael VII, emperor, ii, 72

Michael VIII. (See Palæologus, Michael)

Michelangelo, ii, 183

Michelin guides, i, 224

Micklegarth, ii, 53

Microscope, ii, 177

Middelburg, ii, 182

Midianites, i, 283

Midsummer day, i, 240

Midwinter day, i, 240

Migrations, i, 105, 548-52

Mihiragula (mi her ă goo’ lă), i, 629, ii, 612

Miklagord, ii, 53

Milan, i, 559, 560, ii, 180, 182, 197, 200, 204, 205, 361, 380

Miletus (mī lē’ tŭs), i, 303, 312, 330, 340, 379

Military organization, i, 190; service, i, 311; tactics, ii, 234

Milk, i, 92, 112, 187, 545

Miller, G. S., i, 72

Millet, i, 558

Milligan, Joseph, i, 163

Miltenburg, ii, 180

Miltiades (mil tī’ ă dēz), i, 330, 346

Milvian Bridge, i, 597

Minerals, i, 9

Ming dynasty, i, 227, 635, 637, 641-42, ii, 117, 128, 166, 261, 617

Minos (mī’ nos), i, 196, 214, 216, 257, 316

Minotaur (min’ ō tawr), i, 214, 216

Minstrels, i, 174

Miocene (mī’ ō sēn) period, i, 52, 58-59, 66, 73

Mirabeau (mē rä bō), ii, 314, 319-24

Misraim and Misrim, i, 281

Missionaries (and missions), i, 432, ii, 48, 50, 116, 166, 460, 618

Mississippi, ii, 285

Mitanni, i, 192

Mithraic inscriptions, i, 492

Mithraic Sun-day, i, 575

Mithraism, i, 538, 588, 590, 625, ii, 91, 149, 611

Mithras, i, 413, 538, 590, 625

Mithridates (mith ri dā’ tēz), i, 504, 505, ii, 609

Mo Ti, i, 582

Moa, i, 207

Moab (and Moabites), i, 283, 294, ii, 244

Moawija. (See Muawija)

Modestov, i, 446

Moerbeke (moor’ bā k_ĕ_), William of, ii, 168

Mœsia, i, 564, ii, 71, 609

Mogul, Great, ii, 471, 620

Mogul dynasty, ii, 133, 618

Mohammed. (See Muhammad)

Mokanna, ii, 31

Moloch, i, 288

Moltke, Count, ii, 481

Moluccas, ii, 187

Mommsen, i, 454, 464, 480, 483, 500

Monarchy, i, 263, 357, ii, 143, 211, 215, 216-17, 230, 236, 248, 251, 307, 339, 372

Monasteries (and monasticism), i, 609 sqq., ii, 50, 106, 150

Monastir (mō nas tēr’), ii, 522

Money, i, 219, 220, 265, 445, 457, 496, 629-30, ii, 344-45. (See also Currency)

Mongolia, i, 541, 543, 640, ii, 110-20, 261-62

Mongolian languages, i, 156, 162; races and peoples, i, 100, 141-49, 158, 160, 174, 205, 299, 316, 387, 388, 507, 508, 543-51, 606, ii, 121-22, 139, 142, 247, 261, 262, 464

Mongoloid tribes, i, 207, ii, 189

Mongols, i, 541, 545, 551, 558, ii, 83, 106 sqq., 114, 122, 127, 128, 129, 130, 140, 142, 143, 168, 184, 193, 261, 268, 616, 617

Monitors, i, 46

Monkeys, i, 56, 57, 65, 67

Monks. (See Monasteries)

Monmouth, cruiser, ii, 520

Monosyllabic language, i, 157

Monotheism, ii, 15

Monroe, President, ii, 378, 444

Monroe Doctrine, ii, 444, 458, 505

Mons, ii, 514

Monte Cassino, i, 611, 612

Montefiore, C. G., i, 586

Montelius, i, 104

Montesquieu, ii, 309

Montezuma (mon tē zoo’ m_ă_, ii, 190

Montfort, Simon de, ii, 219

Montreal, ii, 254

Montserrat, ii, 165

Moon, i, 6, 128, 129

Moorish buffoon, i, 558

Moorish paper, ii, 159

Moors, i, 490, 565, ii, 193

Moose, i, 70

Moral ideas, i, 296

Moravia, i, 554

More, Sir Thomas, ii, 211, 394

Moreau, General, ii, 355, 374, 622

Morelly, ii, 309

Morgan, W., i, 587

Morley, Lord, ii, 427

Morning Post, ii, 405

Mornington, Lord, ii, 453

Morocco, i, 217, 565, ii, 142, 461, 470, 484, 500

Morris, William, ii, 311

Mortar, pebble, i, 90

Morte d’Arthur, i, 175

Mortillet, de, i, 96

Mosasaurs (mō’ s_ă_ sawrz), i, 41, 45

Moscow, ii, 129, 134, 242, 366, 622

Moscow, Grand Duke of, ii, 129, 617

Moscow, Tsar of, ii, 259

Moses, i, 196, 200, 209, 244, 279, 293, 626

Moslem schools, ii, 137; universities, ii, 36; year, ii, 8

Moslems, the, ii, 19-29, 34, 64, 70, 74, 80-84, 94, 108, 113, 128, 136, 140, 159, 453, 613, 615; in Europe, ii, 28-32, 41, 47, 51, 57, 67, 88, 186, 242, 613, 615. (See also Crusades and Islam)

Mosses, i, 24, 27

Mosso, i, 210

Most, ii, 152

Mosul, ii, 78, 132

Motley, ii, 230, 232

Mounds, i, 109, 117, 125

Mountains (and mountaineering), i, 5, 35, 36, 52

Mousterian Age (and implements), i, 60, 78, 81, 87, 97

Muawija (moo ă wē’ yă), ii, 24-28, 613

Mudfish, i, 26, 55

Muehlon, Herr, ii, 551

Muhammad (mu hăm’ ăd), prophet, i, 296, 573, 583, 624, 634, 642, ii, 1, 126, 136, 149; life of, ii, 4 sqq., 26-27; teaching of, ii, 13-16, 29

Muhammad II, sultan, ii, 124, 197, 617

Muhammad-Ibn-Musa, ii, 37

Muhammadan communistic movement, ii, 157

Muhammadanism, ii, 29, 42, 135. (See also Islam and Muhammad)

Mulberry tree, i, 530

Mules, i, 140

Mülhausen (mul’ hou zen), ii, 347

Müller, Max, i, 235

Mummies, i, 147

Mummius, i, 483

Munich (mū’ nik), ii, 180

Münster (mun’ ster), ii, 156, 157, 503, 618

Münster, Bishop of, ii, 156

Munzuk, i, 559

Murad I, ii, 124

Murat (mu rä’), ii, 367

Murray, John, ii, 263

Murzuk, i, 118

Muscovites, ii, 244

Muscovy, empire of, ii, 242

Musical instruments, i, 115

Musk ox, i, 58, 64, 76, 101

Muskets, ii, 234

Mycale (mik’ ă lē), i, 340, 343, ii, 607

Mycenæ (mī sē’ nē), i, 106, 303, 315, 317

Mycenean (mī sē nē’ _ā_n) architecture, i, 448

Mycerinus (mis ũ rī’ nŭs), i, 198

Mylæ, i, 470, ii, 608

Myos-hormos, i, 533

Myres, J. L., i, 228

Myriapods (mir’ i ă podz), i, 28

Myrina (mi rī’ nă), i, 450

Myron, i, 346

Myrtalis (mũr’ tă lis), i, 376

Mysteries, religious, i, 373

Myth-making, i, 129

Mythology, i, 130, 361

Nabatean Kings, i, 622

Nabonidus (năb ō nī’ dŭs), i, 247-50, 255, 278, 288, 292, 320, 326, 385, 416, 483

Nadir Shah (nä´ dēr shä’), ii, 257, 620

Nagasaki (nä gă sä’ kē), ii, 465

Nalanda, i, 645

Nanking, i, 642, ii, 108, 615

Naples, i, 451, 510, 611, ii, 88, 98, 180, 211, 347, 378, 441, 612

Napoleon I, ii, 89, 210, 327, 332, 339, 348-82, 384, 386, 453, 621, 622; III, i, 565, ii, 436, 438-45, 448, 623

Narbonne, ii, 180

Naseby, ii, 223

Nasmyth, ii, 388

Natal, ii, 460

Nathan, i, 287

“National Schools,” ii, 396

Nationalism, ii, 431-36, 439, 448, 498-500

Nationalization, ii, 412

Natural History Museum, i, 50

Natural rights, ii, 156; selection, i, 18

Nautilus, Pearly, i, 47

Naval tactics, Roman, i, 469-71

Navarino (năv ă rē’ nō), battle of, ii, 382, 622

Navigation, early, i, 170, 209-18

Nazarenes, i, 587-91

Neanderthal (nā ăn’ der täl) man, i, 60, 71-87, 91, 92, 97, 108, 123, 124, 489, 496

Nebuchadnezzar (neb ū kăd nez’ _ă_r) (the Great) II, i, 194, 200, 217, 277, 290, 291, 319, 380, 385, ii, 607

Nebulæ, i, 3

Necho (nē’ kō), Pharaoh, i, 200, 218, 291, 401, 509, 532, ii, 185, 607

Necker, ii, 318

Needles, bone, i, 90, 96-97

Negritos, ii, 465

Negroes, i, 63, 68, 141, 146, 197, 206, 533, ii, 193, 284-85, 305, 306

Negroid race, i, 88, 139-40, 145, 148, 160, 189, 195

Nehemiah, i, 294

Nelson, Horatio, ii, 352, 361-62

Neohipparion, i, 58

Neolithic Age, i, 75, 97-110, 112-16, 152-54, 158-62, 169 sqq., 196-97; agriculture, i, 113-17, 130, 189, 254, 317; civilization and culture, i, 104-16, 124-25, 129-34, 145-49, 151-53, 171-76, 181-88, 195, 197, 201-03, 206-08, 209-13; man, 100-06, 126-30, 131-35, 140, 145, 158-60, 167-72, 223, 273-74, ii, 301

Neo-platonism, i, 592, ii, 169

Nepal (nē pawl’), i, 416, 640, 643, ii, 262

Nephthys (nef’ this), i, 249

Neptune, planet, i, 4

Nero, i, 525-26, 589, 610, ii, 609

Nerva, i, 526, ii, 610

Nestorian Christians, i, 604, 617, 627, 634, 647, ii, 35, 106, 117-19, 611, 612

Netherlands, the, ii, 200, 207, 217, 228-33, 238, 253, 380, 381. (See also Dutch Republic and Holland)

Nets, flax, i, 114

Neustadt (noi’ stăt), ii, 180

Neustria, ii, 46, 47, 48, 613

Neva, river, ii, 242

New Amsterdam, ii, 253, 282-83

Newark, ii, 430

New England, i, 59, 143, ii, 185, 253, 281-84

Newfoundland, ii, 254, 471

New Guinea, i, 139, 141, 162

New Habsburg, ii, 199, 616

New Hampshire, ii, 281, 290

New Harmony (U. S. A.), ii, 405

New Jersey, ii, 283, 290, 298, 543-44

New Lanark, ii, 404-06

Newmarket, ii, 226

New Mexico, ii, 505

New Orleans, ii, 254

New Plymouth, ii, 281

Newton, Sir Isaac, i, 408, 534, ii, 176, 620

Newts, i, 26

New Year, festival of, i, 240

New York, i, 495, ii, 180, 253, 283, 290, 292, 301, 387, 621

New Zealand, i, 207, ii, 457, 471-72

Niarchus, i, 375

Nibelungenlied (nē’ b_ĕ_ lung en lēt), i, 177

Nicæa (nī sē’ ă), i, 600-01, ii, 72, 78, 79, 611

Nice, Province of, ii, 440

Nicene (nī’ sēn) Creed, i, 601, ii, 60, 611

Nicephorus (nī sef’ ō rŭs), ii, 58, 614

Nicholas I, tsar, ii, 377, 382, 405, 440, 622; II, ii, 476, 477

Nicholas of Myra, i, 600

Nicholson, Gen. John, ii, 455

Nickel, i, 4, ii, 389

Nicomedes (nik ō mē’ dēz), King of Bithynia, i, 500

Nicomedia, i, 560, 595, 600

Niemen (nē’ men), ii, 362

Nietzsche (nē’ ch_ĕ_), ii, 481

Nieuw Amsterdam. (See New Amsterdam)

Niger, river, i, 565

Nile, the, i, 119, 121, 137, 158, 200, 206, 210, 211, 274, 304, 359, 533, ii, 142, 460; battle of, ii, 352, 621; delta, i, 197, 218, 238; valley, 195, 273, ii, 605, 612

Nineveh (nin’ ĕ v_ĕ_), i, 192-96, 200, 246, 292, 319, 384, 616, 619, 622, 624, ii, 130, 607

Nippur (nip poor’), i, 133, 184-85, 190, 196, 274, ii, 130

Nirvana (nir vä’ nä), i, 423, 425, 431

Nish, i, 528, 553, 558, 599, ii, 610

Nisibin, i, 622

Nitrate of silver, ii, 38

Nitric acid, ii, 38

Noah, i, 140

Nobility, i, 258, 263

Nogaret, Guillaume de, ii, 99, 616

Nomadism (and Nomads), i, 105, 112, 137, 148, 177, 186-88, 206, 232-33, 387-88, 507-08, 545-52, 555, 627-28, 641, ii, 1, 105, 108-10, 128-30, 137-39, 143-45, 189

Nominalism, ii, 169 sqq.

Nonconformity, ii, 168

Nordic race, i, 146-154, 206, 298, 315, 368, 373, 387, 548, ii, 43, 66, 122, 144, 149, 168, 247, 262, 490

Normandy (and the Normans), ii, 54, 66-67, 69, 72, 74, 76, 78, 150, 157, 178, 185, 320, 615; dukedom of, ii, 62, 66

Norse language, i, 168, ii, 54

North, Lord, ii, 293

Northmen, i, 539, ii, 53-54, 64, 66, 71, 149, 490

North Pole, i, 31

North Sea, the, i, 75, 539, ii, 66, 182, 185

Northumberland, ii, 396

Northumbria, kingdom of, ii, 40, 50

Norway, i, 102, 605, ii, 51, 66, 97, 162, 206, 252, 380, 614

Norwegian language, i, 168

Norwich, ii, 154

Norwood, i, 355

Nottingham, ii, 222, 386

Nova Scotia, ii, 185

Novgorod (nov gō rod’), ii, 66, 129, 180, 182, 259, 614

Noyes, J. H., ii, 403

Nubia, i, 259

Nubian wild ass, i, 217

Numbers, Book of, i, 281

Numbers, use of, i, 128

Numerals, Arabic, i, 219, ii, 37, 88

Numidia (and Numidians), i, 474, 479, 484, 502, 534

Nuns, ii, 149

Nuremberg, ii, 180; Peace of, ii, 206

Nürnberg (nurn’ ber_ch_), cruiser, ii, 520

Oak, i, 59

Oars, i, 211

Obedience and will, ii, 140-43

Obi (ō’ bē), river, i, 387, ii, 267

Occam, ii, 171, 172, 174, 617

Ocean, i, 5, 36

Oceania, i, 206

Octavian. (See Augustus)

Odenathus (od ē nā’ thŭs), i, 617, ii, 3, 610

Odin, ii, 49

Odoacer (ō dō ā’ s_ĕ_r), ii, 58, 611

Odysseus, i, 508

Odyssey. (See Homer)

Œcumenical councils, i, 601

Offerings, i, 234

Ogdal Khan, ii, 110, 113, 615

Oglethorpe, ii, 282, 620

Ohio (ō hī’ ō), i, 59, ii, 285

Okakura, i, 641

“Old Man” in religion, i, 125, 131-35, ii, 341

Oligarchies, i, 307-10

Oligocene (ol’ i gō sēn) period, i, 52, 53, 66, 67

Olney, Mr., ii, 505, 562

Olympiad, first, i, 314, ii, 606

Olympian games, i, 314

Olympias, i, 373, sqq., 387, 394, 402, 452

Olympus, mount, i, 335

Omani (ō mä’ ni) Arabs, i, 565

Omar I, caliph, ii, 18-26, 83, 613

Omayyads (ō mī’ yădz), ii, 24-36, 61, 64, 613

Oneida community, ii, 403-04, 415

O’Neil of Tyrone, i, 110

Opossum, i, 56

Oracles, i, 252, 305, 321-23

Orange, house of, ii, 232

Orange, Duke of, ii, 232

Orange River, ii, 460

Orang-outang, i, 63, 67

Orbit of earth, i, 30-33, 57

Orient, ship, ii, 352

Orientation of temples, i, 238, 240

Origen (or’ i j_ĕ_n), i, 592

Orissa, i, 440

Orlando, Signor, ii, 552, 556

Orleans, i, 559, ii, 180, 400

Ormonde, Duke of, ii, 271

Ormuz, ii, 118

Ormuzd (ôr’ mŭzd), i, 625, 626

Ornaments, i, 114

Ornithorhynchus (ôr nith ō ring’ kŭs), i, 54

Orpheus (ôr’ fūs), i, 354, 538

Orphic cult, i, 354, 373

Orsini (ôr sē’ nē) family, ii, 99

Orthodox Church. (See Greek Church)

Osborn, Prof. H. F., i, 7, 13, 50, 59, 63, 86, 96, 100, 534

Osiris (ō sīr’ is), i, 249, 412, 413, 590

Osman, House of, ii, 123

Ostia, i, 497

Ostracism, i, 312

Ostrogoths, i, 550, 553, 606, ii, 66, 612

Othman, ii, 24, 26, 613

Otho, Emperor, i, 526, ii, 609

Otis, James, ii, 287

Otranto, ii, 126

Otters, i, 38, 69

Otto I, ii, 63, 68, 70, 97, 614

Otto II, ii, 63, 614

Otto III, ii, 63, 614

Otto of Bavaria, ii, 382

Ottoman Empire, ii, 121-25, 131, 132, 136, 139, 184, 617. (See also Turkey and Turks)

Oudh (oud), ii, 256, 258, 453

Oundle School, ii, 429

Ovid, i, 13

Owen, Robert, ii, 404-09, 623

Ownership, ii, 341

Ox, great, i, 101

Ox-carts, i, 282

Oxen, i, 112, 170, 178, 217

Oxford, i, 530, ii, 37, 96, 153, 168, 171, 172, 180, 222, 264, 271, 288, 317, 427-30, 437, 486

Oxide of iron, i, 9

Oxus, i, 629

Oxydactylus (ok si dăk’ ti lŭs), i, 58

Oxygen (ok’ si j_ĕ_n), i, 23

Pacific Ocean, i, 47, 82, 148, 206, 273, ii, 110, 142, 187, 189, 261, 484

Paddling in navigation, i, 211

Padua, i, 559

Paine, Tom, ii, 293, 303

Painted pebbles, i, 94, 101

Painting, Palæolithic, i, 93, 94, 95

Paionia, i, 339

Palæoanthropus Heidelbergensis (păl ē ō ăn thrō’ pŭs hī’ del bũrg en’ sis), i, 57, 69-73, 84

Palæolithic age, i, 25-27, 34, 56-60, 75-85, 91, 96-100, 108, 158, 171, 197; art, i, 92-100, 123, 129; implements, i, 76, 80, 104, 105, 107, 137; man, i, 82-85, 96-97, 102-06, 115-17, 128-30, 134-35, 137-38, 145, 148-52, 162, 169, 206, 223, 233, 273, 354, 408, ii, 142, 189, 341

Palæologus (păl ē ol’ ō gŭs), Michael (Michael VIII), ii, 98; Zoe, ii, 129

Palæopithecus (păl ē ō pi thē’ kŭs), i, 67

Palæozoic (păl ē ō zō’ ik) period, i, 9-15, 25, 27, 28, 29, 39, 49, 55

Palais Royal, ii, 315

Palawan (p_ă_ lä’ w_ă_n), ii, 507

Palermo (p_ă_ ler’ mō), i, 470

Palestine, i, 184, 261, 278, 280, 289, 447, 569, ii, 2, 71, 74, 80, 94, 106, 114, 118, 132, 483, 616

Pali (pä’ lē) language, i, 417

Palmerston, Lord, ii, 438

Palms, Cainozoic, i, 51

Palmyra (pă mī’ ră), i, 617, 621 sqq., ii, 3, 610

Palos (pä’ lōs), ii, 186

Pamir (pā mēr’) Plateau, i, 387

Pamirs, i, 643, ii, 24, 109, 118, 128, 184

Pampeluna (păm pĕ loo’ n_ă_), ii, 164, 618

Pamphylia (păm fil’ i ă), ii, 79

Panama Canal, ii, 507

Panama, Isthmus of, ii, 187, 190

Pan-American Conferences, ii, 447, 505

Pan Chau, i, 549, ii, 610

Pan-German movement, ii, 483

Panipat (pä’ nē pŭt), ii, 133, 618

Pannonia (pă nō’ ni ă), i, 553-54, 606, ii, 609

Panther in Europe, i, 318

Papacy (incl. popes), policy of, ii, 90; outline of, ii, 96; and the Great War, ii, 167; and world dominion, ii, 252; miscellaneous, i, 603-05, 612, ii, 41, 47, 56 sqq., 67, 72, 80 sqq., 92, 95, 99, 114 sq., 124 sqq., 147 sq., 161, 166-67, 188, 203, 246, 400, 618. (See also Rome, Church of)

Papal Schism, ii, 99-100, 127, 151, 617

Paper, introduction and use of, i, 198, 408, ii, 38, 121, 158 sq., 194

Papua (pä’ pu ă), type of mankind in, i, 139

Papuan speech, i, 162

Papyrus (pă pī’ rŭs), i, 198, 408, ii, 38

Parchment, ii, 38

Parchment promissory notes, ii, 89

Pariahs, i, 269

Paris, Peace of, ii, 286, 621; during the Revolution, ii, 313 sqq.; Napoleon in, ii, 348, 360, 368, 371; capitulation of, ii, 368; rising against Charles X, ii, 378-79; revolution of 1848, ii, 400-01; siege of, ii, 446; Zeppelin raids on, ii, 519; Peace Conference at, ii, 543-58, 560-66; miscellaneous, ii, 180, 294, 356, 398, 621

Paris, University of, ii, 37, 166 sq., 173, 271

Parisian artificers, ii, 114

Parker, E. H., i, 541, 542

Parkyn, i, 63, 96

Parliament, government by, ii, 194; English, ii, 219-28, 248, 259, 287 sq., 492 sq., 622; Polish, ii, 251

Parliamentary Monarchy in Europe, ii, 243

Parma, ii, 88

Parmenio (pär mē’ ni ō), i, 375, 391

Parricide, i, 637

Parsees, i, 625, ii, 137

Parthenon (pär’ th_ĕ_ non), i, 346

Parthia (and Parthians), i, 388 sq., 396, 506 sqq., 523, 526, 540, 543 sq., 616, 621 sq., ii, 609

Paschal II, ii, 615

Passau (päs’ ou), Treaty of, ii, 207, 618

Passover, Feast of the, i, 586 sq.

Passy (pă sē’), ii, 319

Pasteur (păs tũr’), i, 408

Pastor, L. v., ii, 127

Patriarchal groups, i, 110

Patricians, Roman, i, 454-63

Patrick, St., ii, 50

Patriotism, i, 310, 460, ii, 246

Patroclus (pă trō’ klŭs), i, 177

Pattison, Prof. Pringle, ii, 172

Patzinaks, ii, 71

Paul, St., i, 395, 462, 491, 583, 586 sqq., ii, 418

Paul, Tsar of Russia, ii, 620

Paulicians, i, 603

Pauline epistles, i, 588 sq.

Pauline mysteries, i, 591

Pavia (pă vē’ ă), ii, 204

Payne, E. S., i, 158

Peace, universal, i, 296-97, ii, 90

Peace Conference. (See Paris)

Peas, as food, i, 113

Peasant revolts, ii, 154 sq., 203, 271, 397-98, 617

Peasants, i, 151, 257

Pecunia, i, 219

Pecus, i, 219

Pedantry, advent of, i, 409

Peel, Lord, ii, 567

Peel, Sir Robert, ii, 428

Peep-o’-Day Boys, ii, 492

Peers, Council of, ii, 221

Peet, i, 446

Pegu (pē goo’), ii, 119

Peisistratidæ (pī sis trä’ ti dē), i, 314

Peisistratus (pī sis’ tr_ă_ tŭs), i, 308, 332, 337, 354, 457, ii, 607

Peisker, T., i, 105

Pekinese language, i, 157

Peking, i, 240, 642, ii, 108, 109, 117 sq., 134, 242, 261, 463, 615

Pelham, i, 454

Pella (pel’ ă), i, 373

Peloponnesian War, i, 306, 343, ii, 607

Pelycosaurs (pel’ i kō sawr_z_), i, 27

Penck, Albrecht, i, 59, 70

Pendulum, invention of, ii, 37

Penelope, i, 179

Penn, William, ii, 282

Pennsylvania, ii, 282, 283, 290, 297 sq., 304

Pennsylvania, University of, i, 184

Pentateuch, i, 278 sqq., 293

Pepi, i, 199, 401, ii, 211

Pepin (pep’ in), I, ii, 47, 48, 51, 69, 613; son of Charlemagne, ii, 57; of Heristhal, ii, 47, 613

Pepys, Samuel, ii, 226

Perdiccas (pũr dik’ ăs), i, 370

Pergamum (pũr’ g_ă_ mŭm), i, 395-96, 499 sq., 507, ii, 609

Pericles (per’ i klēz), i, 309, 342 sqq., 364, 460, 528 sq., ii, 153, 182, 184, 607; Age of, i, 355 sq., 364

Perihelion, i, 30 sqq., 57

Peripatetic school, i, 402

Periplus of Hanno, i, 217, 241

Perkins, ii, 478

Permian rocks, i, 29

Perry, Commodore, ii, 466, 623

Perry, Mr., i, 172

Persepolis (pũr sep’ ō lis), i, 364, 385, ii, 18

Persia (and the Persians), i, 109, 139, 169, 182, 218, 247, 248, 291-92, 299, 317, 372, 377, 389, 394-95, 452, 507, 510, 533, 538, 542, 543, 551, 622, 623, 627-28, 634-37, ii, 2, 3, 17-21, 67, 71, 105, 109, 113-19, 128, 139, 157, 179, 257, 268, 610; history (rise of) i, 194, 198-200, 206, 247, 260, 308, 311-15, 318-23; (Empire) i, 523, ii, 607, (war with Greece) i, 327 sqq., (war with Alexander) i, 379-80, 383-89, ii, 608, (Sassanid Empire) i, 528, 616-18, 625, ii, 31, 610, (Islam and Persia) ii, 20-31, 64, (Mongol Empire) ii, 113, 130-34; religion of, i, 412-13, 597, 604, 617-18, 624-27, 634, ii, 136

Persian Gulf, i, 160, 186, 190, 210, 387, ii, 118

Persian language, i, 151, 169, 189, 194, ii, 136, 138

Peru, i, 147, 203, 207-08, ii, 189-90, 192, 465, 618

Peshawar (p_ĕ_ shawr’), i, 428, 643

Pessinus (pes’ i nŭs), i, 483

Pestilence, i, 101, 528, 542, 607, 612, 616, 619, 632, ii, 41, 46, 57, 76, 153-54, 384, 617 sqq.

Peter, St., i, 114, 585, ii, 57, 99; the Great, ii, 243 sq., 259, 440, 620; the Hermit, ii, 75 sq.

Peterhof, ii, 242

Petition of Right, ii, 220

Petra (pē’ tr_ă_), ii, 2

Petrie, Flinders, i, 143, 197, 213, 552

Petrograd, i, 630, ii, 242, 525 sq., 568

Petronius (p_ĕ_ trō’ ni ŭs), i, 530

Petschenegs, ii, 71 sq.

Phalanx, i, 370 sq., 453

Phanerogams, i, 26

Pharaohs, the, i, 199, 214, 248 sq., 256 sqq., 279, 388, 401 sq., 509, 532

Pharisees, i, 572, 578-79

Pharsalos (fär sā’ lŏs), battle of, i, 511, 512, ii, 609

Pheidippides (fī dip’ i dēz), i, 332

Phidias (fid’ i ăs), i, 346 sq.

Philadelphia (ancient), i, 621, ii, 79; U.S.A., ii, 282, 290 sq., 300, 387, 621

Philip, of Hesse, ii, 206

Philip of Macedon, i, 343, 358, 367 sqq., 390 sq., 397, 401-02, 434, 561, ii, 607

Philip, King of France, ii, 99

Philip II, King of Spain, ii, 207, 229 sq., 233, 242, 292, 376

Philip, Duke of Orleans, ii, 315, 337, 379

Philippine Islands, ii, 187, 451, 465, 506

Philistia (and Philistines), i, 196, 245, 282 sqq., 447

Phillimore, Sir Walter, ii, 543

Phillips, W. A., ii, 373, 377

Philo (fī’ lō), the Jew, i, 410

Philonism, i, 592

Philosophers, at court of Frederick II, ii, 88

Philosophy, primitive, i, 122-23; Greek, i, 357-60, 410; medicinal, ii, 168 sqq.; experimental, ii, 176

Philotas (fi lō’ tăs), i, 375, 391

Phinehas, i, 284

Phocians (fō’ shi _ă_nz), i, 372

Phocis (fō’ sis), i, 378

Phœnicia (fē nish’ ă), and Phœnicians, i, 212 sqq., 223, 234, 273, 279 sq., 287, 290 sqq., 331, 337, 380, 395, 401, 570, 640, ii, 1; language and script, i, 153, 228; colonies, i, 303, 447

Phœnix, i, 177

Phœnix, steamship, ii, 387

Phonetic spelling, i, 639

Phonograms, i, 225 sq.

Phrygia (frij’ i ă), and Phrygians, i, 303, 315, 388, 395, 448, ii, 121

Phrygian mysteries, i, 477

Phrygius, i, 375

Physics, ii, 37

Physiocrats, ii, 309

Piacenza (pyä chen’ ts_ă_), ii, 74

Pictographs, i, 224 sqq.

Picts, i, 532

Picture writing, i, 197, 207, 224-28

Piedmont, ii, 332

Pig, i, 56, 224; unclean to Moslems, ii, 454

Pigtails, Chinese, ii, 128, 261, 464

Pilate, Pontius, i, 585

Pile dwellings, i, 106, 171, 186. (See also Lake dwellings)

Pilgrim Fathers, ii, 305

Pilgrims, i, 221, ii, 67, 75

Pillnitz, ii, 327

Piltdown skull, i, 60, 70 sqq.

Pindar (pin’ d_ă_r), i, 378

Pins, bone, i, 114

Piracy, ii, 182

Pirsson, L. V., i, 50

Pisa, ii, 176, 180

Pithecanthropus (pith e kăn thrō’ pŭs) erectus, i, 60, 65 sqq.

Pitt, William, 1st Earl of Chatham, ii, 289, 332, 359

Pius VII, ii, 360

Pixodarus (pik sō där’ ŭs), i, 375

Pizarro (pi zär’ ō), ii, 190, 618

Placentia (plă sen’ shi ă). (See Piacenza)

Plague. (See Pestilence)

Plaiting, Neolithic, i, 105

Planets, i, 3 sq., 30

Plants, i, 10 sqq.

Plassey, battle of, ii, 258, 620

Plataea (plă tē’ ă), battle of, i, 336, 340 sqq., 348, ii, 607

Plato, i, 306, 344, 351, 355 sqq., 397, 399, 434, 468, 562, 618, ii, 169, 211, 403, 408, 607

Playfair, ii, 419

Plebeians, Roman, i, 455 sqq., 486, 487

Pleistocene (plīs’ tō sēn) Age, i, 52, 59, 60, 64 sq., 102, 156, 255

Plesiosaurs (plē’ zi ō sawrz), i, 40, 45, 50

Pliny, the elder, i, 186; the younger, i, 535, ii, 38

Pliocene (plī’ ō sēn) Age, i, 52, 58, 60, 68 sq., 273

Plotinus (plō tī’ nūs), i, 410, 592

Plunkett, Sir Horace, ii, 499

Plutarch, i, 313, 346 sq., 373, 374, 378, 390, 394, 474, 501, 505, 512 sqq., 598, ii, 351

Pluvial Age, i, 159 sq., 177

Plymouth, ii, 372; (New England), ii, 305

Plymouth Company, ii, 281

Po, valley of the, i, 388, 449, 461, 471

Pocahontas (pō kă hon’ t_ă_s), ii, 280

Pocock, R. I., i, 28, 67, 95

Pocock, Roger, i, 299, 551

Podmore, F., ii, 405

Poitiers, ii, 47, 179, 613

Poland, ii, 71, 100, 112, 126, 129, 130, 179, 236, 244, 248-51, 260, 266, 274, 278, 320, 327, 363-66, 372, 375, 380-382, b400, 566, 620, 622

Polish language, i, 168

Political ideas, common, i, 519

Politics (and Politicians), i, 496, ii, 140, 245

Polo, Maffeo, ii, 117

Polo, Marco, i, 541, ii, 117, 120-21, 185, 195, 616

Polo, Nicolo, ii, 117

Polyclitus (pol i klī’ tŭs), i, 346

Polygamy, i, 232

Polynesia, i, 147, 162; languages of, i, 158, 164; peoples of, i, 109, 148, 159, 177, 353

Pompadour, Madame de, ii, 240

Pompeii (pom pā’ yē), i, 489

Pompey, i, 505, 509-14, 538-42, 549, 572, 625, ii, 609

Pondicherry, ii, 258

Pontifex maximus, ii, 56

Pontus, i, 395, 504 sq., 553, 620, ii, 609 sq.

Poole, Ernest, ii, 503

Poor, the, ii, 269 sq.

Poor Laws, ii, 211

Pope, Alex., ii, 493

Popes. (See Papacy)

Poplicola (pop lik’ ō l_ă_), Valerius, i, 457

Poppaea (po pē’ ă), i, 525

Popular education, Christianity and, ii, 139 sqq.

Port Arthur, ii, 462, 469

Port Sunlight, ii, 406

Porto Rico, ii, 506

Portugal (and Portuguese), i, 168, 217, 299, 554, 564, 565, ii, 80, 100, 364, 490, 611, 617; overseas trade and expansion of, ii, 184-88, 192-93, 251, 252, 257, 306, 451, 457, 465

Porus (pō’ rŭs), king, i, 386 sq., 430

Posen, ii, 367, 400, 446, 487

Post horses in ancient Persia, i, 327

Potash, ii, 38

Potato, i, 208

Potomac, river, ii, 301

Potsdam, ii, 240

Pottery, i, 105, 112 sq., 130 sq., 147, 448, ii, 38

Poultry. (See Fowl)

Powers, Great, ii, 216 sqq., 246-47, 252, 278-79, 380, 440, 447, 500

Prague, ii, 151, 152, 175, 400 sq., 617, 623; University of, ii, 151

Prayer-flags, Buddhist, i, 438

Prayer-wheels, i, 438

Precession of the equinoxes, i, 31

Prehistoric Peeps, i, 50

Presbyterianism, ii, 163, 221

Prescott, ii, 207 sq.

Press, free, ii, 302; in politics, i, 463

Prester, John, ii, 119

Priam (prī’ ăm), i, 335

Pride, Colonel, ii, 224 sq.

Priestcraft (incl. Priesthood and Priests), i, 127, 130, 134, 178, 182, 190, 204, 232-53, 263, 266, 285, 305, 430, ii, 16, 85, 149-51, 246, 425

Primal law, i, 79

Prince, character of a, ii, 195 sqq.

Princes, an exclusive class, i, 267

Princeton, Univ. of, ii, 543

Printing, i, 231, 407-08, 463, ii, 121, 158 sq., 167, 174, 617; Chinese, i, 631

Priscus (pris’ kŭs), i, 557 sq., ii, 42, 611

Prisoners as slaves, ii, 305

Prisons, English, ii, 338

Private enterprise, ii, 273 sq., 535 sqq.; ownership, ii, 274; property, ii, 228

Probus (prō’ bŭs), emperor, i, 528, 553, ii, 610

Production, distribution and profits of, ii, 274; of machinery, ii, 275-76

Profit, ii, 334

Profiteers, ii, 541

Prokop the Great, ii, 152

Proletariat, i, 268, 456, ii, 398, 408 sqq.

Promissory notes, early, i, 220

Property, i, 259, 265, ii, 146, 217, 308, 338 sqq., 385, 398 sq., 411

Prophets, Jewish, i, 294 sq.

Propitiation, i, 127, 134

Proterozoic (prot er ō zō’ ik) period, i, 10, 14, 17, 25 sq.

Protestantism, ii, 150, 160-67, 206, 209, 218-25, 229, 233, 239, 242, 252-53, 265, 269-71, 281-83, 465, 490-95

Provence, ii, 368

Proverbs, book of, i, 294

Providence, Rhode I., ii, 289

Prussia, ii, 236, 240, 243-53, 278, 314, 320, 327, 362, 364-67, 371, 381, 441-46, 478-80, 619 sqq.

Przemysl (pshem’ isl), ii, 518-19

Psalms, i, 277, 294

Psammetichus (sä met’ i kŭs), i, 200, 291, 316, ii, 606

Pskof, ii, 180

Ptah-hetep (ptä’ het ep), tomb of, i, 260

Pteria (tē’ ri ă), i, 323

Pterodactyls (ter ō dăk’ tilz), i, 40 sqq.

Ptolemies, i, 395, 401, 432, 571, 636

Ptolemy (tol’ ĕ mi), I, i, 375, 401-02, 404, 409-13, ii, 608; Ptolemy II, i, 404; Ptolemy III, i, 404

Public opinion, growth of, ii, 148

Public schools. (See Schools, public)

“Pul,” Assyrian monarch, i, 290

Pultusk, ii, 362

Punch, ii, 397, 435, 487

Punic (pū’ nik), language, i, 528; wars, i, 196, 454 sq., 460, 466 sqq., ii, 608

Punjab, i, 201, 388, 428 sq., ii, 114, 132 sq., 257, 608

Puritan Revolution, ii, 217

Puritans, ii, 226, 282

Pyramids, i, 133, 198 sq., 238, 261, 274; battle of the, ii, 351

Pyrenees, i, 160, 554, ii, 28, 41, 46 sq., 51, 238, 368, 613

Pyrrhus (pir’ ŭs), i, 452 sqq., 467, ii, 67, 608

Pytho (pī’ thō), i, 322

Quaco, ii, 467, 621

Quadrupedal reptiles, i, 41

Quartz, i, 9

Quartzite implements, i, 137

Quaternary rocks, i, 12

Quebec, ii, 254, 620

Quinquereme (kwin’ kw_ĕ_ rēm), i, 469

Quipus, i, 208

Quixada (kë hä’ dä), ii, 207, 208

Ra, i, 250

Races of mankind, i, 87 sqq., 89, 95, 100-101, 120, 136-49

Radiolaria, i, 10

Ragusa (rä goo’ z_ă_), ii, 180

Rahab, month of, ii, 8

Rai, Lajpat, ii, 454, 473

Railways, ii, 386, 622

Rajgir, i, 420

Rajput (räj poot’) clans, i, 629

Rajput princes, ii, 256

Rajputana, i, 629, ii, 179, 256

Raleigh, Sir Walter, ii, 280

Ramah, i, 285

Rambouillet (ro_n_ boo yä’), ii, 317

Rameses (răm’ ē sēz) II, i, 196, 200, 279, 281-82, 289, 401, ii, 605

Rameses III, i, 249, 282

Raphael, ii, 183

Rasputin (răs poot’ in), ii, 525

Ratisbon, Diet of, ii, 206

Ratzel, i, 153, 208, 541, 551

Ravenna, i, 554, 557, 561, 606, ii, 60, 612

Realism (and Realists), ii, 169 sqq.

Rebus, i, 227

Reconstruction, Ministry of, ii, 534

Red Cross, ii, 199

Red deer, i, 96

Red Indians, i, 546, ii, 285

Red Sea, i, 156, 160, 184, 210, 211, 279, 281, 287, 290, 401, 529, 533

“Red Sea” river, i, 119, 121

Redmond, John, ii, 496, 498

Reed, E. T., i, 50

Reed pipes, i, 115

Reeds, C. A., i, 59

Reform Bill, ii, 400, 622

Reformation, the, i, 596, ii, 161-64, 167, 204, 270, 272

Regicide, ii, 225

Reinach, Salomon, i, 6, 401

Reindeer, i, 64, 76, 78, 90, 93, 101, 115

Reindeer Age, i, 81, 90, 93-98

Reindeer men, i, 105, 108, 115, 118, 123, 124, 133, 170

Religion, i, 124, 127, 131-33, 178, 232, 235-37, 411-14, 582 sqq., ii, 163, 165, 309, 422; “Old Man” in, i, 125, 131, 134

Religious dances, i, 355

Religious wars, ii, 206-07

Remus (rē’ mŭs) and Romulus (rom’ ū lŭs), i, 448

Renaissance, ii, 139, 184

Renan, ii, 169

Renascence, ii, 139

Rent, i, 255-56, 264

Reparation, i, 219

Representation, political, i, 494-95, ii, 298, 414

Reproduction, i, 16-18; of amphibia, i, 26; of mammals, i, 54

Reptiles, i, 26, 28, 38 sqq.

Republicanism, i, 519, ii, 248, 264, 347

Republics, i, 307-08, ii, 142

Retailers, i, 265

Revelation, Book of, i, 598

Revere, Paul, ii, 290, 294

“Revisionists,” ii, 409

Revolution, ii, 403, 411

Reynolds, Sir Joshua, ii, 227, 493

Rhine, i, 74, 206, 298, 507, 508, 523, 526, 539, 549, 552, 553, 557, ii, 61, 69, 203, 236, 238, 266, 330, 368, 441

Rhineland, i, 605, ii, 41, 47, 61, 67, 77, 82, 228

Rhinoceros, i, 56, 58, 64, 69, 70, 76

Rhode Island, ii, 281, 282, 289, 290, 296, 300

Rhodes, i, 396, ii, 79

Rhodesia, i, 174, ii, 472

Rhondda, Lord, ii, 533

Rhone Valley, i, 606, ii, 82

Rhys, Sir John, i, 168

Rice, i, 646

Richard I, Cœur de Lion, ii, 81, 219

Richard II, ii, 156, 617

Richelieu, Cardinal, ii, 237, 246, 253

Richmond, ii, 443

Ridgeway, W., i, 106, 298

Riga, ii, 180, 182, 526

Righteousness, i, 400

Rio de Oro (rē’ ō dā ō’ rō), i, 217

Ripley, i, 143

Ritual, ii, 149. (See also Christianity)

Rivers, i, 37

Rivers, W. H. R. i, 148

Riviera (rē vē ār’ă), French, i, 447; Italian, ii, 347

Rivoira, ii, 61

Robert of Sicily. (See Guiscard, Robert)

Robertson, ii, 208

Robespierre (rō bes pyâr’), ii, 324, 333-336, 349, 621

Robinson, J. H., ii, 99, 253

Roch, ii, 518

Rochefort, ii, 372

“Rocket,” the, ii, 386

Rocks, i, 8-13, 27-30

Rocquain, ii, 308

Roger I, King of Sicily, ii, 86

Rolf the Ganger, ii, 54, 66, 614

Roman coins, i, 455

Roman Empire, i, 517 sqq.; social and political state of, i, 529, 534-42, 550; fall of, i, 550 sqq.; separation into Eastern and Western Empires, i, 554 sqq.; later Roman Empire (Western), i, 597, 605, 614, 619, 632, 633, ii, 42, 54, 56, 58, 64, 157, 265, 268, 611. (See also Eastern (Greek) Empire)

Roman law, i, 458, 615-16; roads, i, 461, 540

Roman Republic (19th century), ii, 347, 622-23

Romansch language, ii, 47, 199

Rome, i, 407, 504, 510, 519, 548, 564-65, 572, 589, 606-11, 615-18, 621, 633, ii, 2, 50, 126, 182, 195, 202, 276, 441, 445, 483; early history of, i, 445-51, 458, ii, 607-08; war with Carthage, i, 454; social and political state of, i, 352, 454-66, 473, 480-503, 505, 515-16, 630-31, ii, 145, 343, 394, 607 sqq.; assemblies of, i, 462-66, 486, 488-89, 494, 507; patricians and plebeians, i, 454-62, 486-88; Senate, i, 455, 459, 463-66, 482, 483-87, 493-505, 511-16, 525; Consuls of i, 455, 466; colonies of, i, 458, 461, 471-72; Punic wars, i, 196, 454 sq., 460, 466 sqq., ii, 608; assimilation of, i, 483, 509; military system of, i, 485, 502, 505, 520; bequests to, i, 500, ii, 609; Social war, i, 503, ii, 609; monarchy in, and the fall of the Republic, i, 509-21; Roman Empire (see above); plague in, i, 608, ii, 41, 612; true cross at, i, 618, ii, 82; “duke of,” ii, 41; Pepin crowned at, ii, 57; in 10th century, ii, 62; sacked by Guiscard, ii, 69, 615; Germans raid, ii, 204, 618; Charlemagne crowned at, ii, 215

Rome, Church of (inc. general Christian associations), i, 589 sqq., 603-05, 612, ii, 41, 50, 53-58, 73, 74, 85, 90-101, 127, 130, 197, 202, 215, 226, 356. (See also Catholicism and Papacy)

Romulus and Remus, i, 448

Roosevelt, President, ii, 504, 506, 544, 551

Rose, Holland, ii, 348, 353, 358

Roses, Wars of the, ii, 179

Ross, i, 541, ii, 30

Rostro-carinate implements, i, 60, 81, 273

Roth, H. L., i, 85, 103

“Roum,” Empire of, ii, 122

Roumania (and the Roumanians), i, 564, ii, 71, 113, 122, 380, 382, 502, 524

Rousseau (roo sō’), J. J., ii, 163, 310, 324, 333, 349, 621

Rowing, i, 211, 469

Roxana, i, 390, 394

Royal Asiatic Society, i, 646

Royal families, marriage of, i, 267

Royal Society of London, i, 637, ii, 177, 239, 392

Rubicon (roo’ bi k_ŏ_n), the, i, 511

Rudolf I, German Emperor, ii, 63, 98, 199, 616

Rulers, deification of, i, 484

Ruling families, i, 307-08

Rumansch language. (See Romansch language)

Rump Parliament, ii, 224

Rurik, ii, 67, 614

Russia, i, 102, 151, 159, 196, 294, 317, 327, 387, 507, 539, 541, 545, 549, 553, 561, 570, 600, ii, 17, 53, 64, 66-67, 70, 110-14, 127, 128, 129, 130, 134, 139, 157, 179, 236, 244-53, 259-61, 266, 267, 278, 320, 361, 366, 380, 410, 411, 440, 447, 463-69, 484, 485, 502, 509, 510, 524-27, 620-24. (See also Great War)

Russian language, i, 151, 168, 638

Russo-Japanese war, i, 642

Rustam, ii, 20, 21

Rusticiano, ii, 117-21

Ruth, Book of, i, 282

Rutilius, P. Rufus, i, 503

Saar (sär) Valley, ii, 566

Sabatier, P., ii, 94

Sabbath, Jewish, i, 572, 575, 579, 590

Sabellians, i, 592

Sachsenhausen (sach’ sen hou zen), ii, 180

Sacraments, i, 130-31

Sacrifice, i, 116, 134, 178, 204-05, 234, ii, 190, 418; human, i, 117, 130, 134, 352-54, 489

Sadducees, i, 572

Sadowa (sä’ dō vä), battle of, ii, 445-46, 623

Safiyya (sä fyē’ jă), ii, 13

Sagas, i, 173, ii, 53

Saghalien (sä gä lēn’), ii, 469

Sahara, i, 75, 160, 206, 217, 228, ii, 501

Sails, use of, i, 210-11

St. Andrew’s, ii, 324

St. Angelo, castle of, ii, 41, 62, 84, 205

St. Gall, monastery of, ii, 69

Saint-Germain-en-Laye, ii, 317

St. Gothard Pass, ii, 182

St. Helena, ii, 372, 374, 471

St. Just, ii, 334

St. Lawrence river, ii, 254

St. Médard, ii, 48

St. Peter’s, Rome, i, 238, 591, ii, 202

St. Petersburg. (See Petrograd)

St. Sophia, Church of, i, 615, ii, 124

Sainte Menehould, ii, 323

Sakas (sä’ käs), i, 628

Sakya (sä’ kyä) clan, i, 416

Saladin (săl’ ă din), ii, 80, 106, 615

Salamis (săl’ ă mis), i, 337-39, 344, 348, 469, ii, 20, 607

Salerno, ii, 89

Salian dynasty, ii, 63

Salisbury, Lord, ii, 623

Salmon of Reindeer Age, i, 94

Salonika, ii, 522, 524

Salt, i, 118

Salvation, Christian theory of, ii, 418

Salvation Army, i, 413, ii, 166

Samaria, i, 193, 293

Samarkand, i, 386, 390, 546, 604, 643, 645, ii, 110, 132, 133, 159

Samnites, i, 452, ii, 608

Samoan Islands, ii, 505

Samos, i, 303, 346

Samothrace (săm’ ō thrās), i, 373

Samoyed (săm’ ō yed) language, i, 156

Samson, i, 283, 293

Samuel, Book of, i, 282-86

Samurai (săm’ u rī), i, 642, ii, 466

San Casciano, ii, 195

Sanderson, F. W., ii, 271

Sandracottus. (See Chandragupta)

Sandstone, i, 7

Sandwich Islands, ii, 505

Sandys, ii, 169

Sanskrit, i, 169, 182, 639, 647, ii, 36, 136

Sans Souci (san soo sē’), park of, ii, 240

San Stefano, treaty of, ii, 447, 475, 623

Santa Maria, ship, ii, 186

Sapor I, i, 617, 626, ii, 610

Saracens, i, 565, ii, 3, 64-69

Sarajevo (să rī’ vō), ii, 435, 510

Saratoga, ii, 292

Sardanapalus (sär d_ă_ n_ă_ pā’ lŭs), i, 194, 246, 290, 292, 316, ii, 606

Sardes, ii, 79

Sardinia, i, 217, 471, 556, ii, 200, 380, 440

Sardis, i, 316, 324, 331, 334, 340, 379

Sargon, I, i, 133, 191-95, 196, 247, 274, 279, 599, ii, 211, 606; II, i, 193, 196, 200, 246, 290, 318, ii, 606

Sarmatians, i, 300, 543, ii, 71

Sarum, Old, ii, 227

Sassanids (săs’ ă nidz), i, 523, 625, ii, 31, 35, 610. (See also Persia)

Saturn, planet, i, 4

Saturninus (săt ũr nī’ nŭs), i, 503

Saul, king of Israel, i, 286, ii, 606

Saul of Tarsus. (See Paul, St.)

Savannah, ii, 254, 282

Savannah, steamship, ii, 387

Save, river, i, 560

Savoy, ii, 225, 242, 331, 380, 440

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha family, ii, 482

Saxony (and the Saxons), i, 554, 605, ii, 24, 48, 49, 51-54, 62, 66, 144, 236, 242, 368

Saxony, Duke of, ii, 152; Elector of, ii, 203

Sayce, Prof., i, 186, 190, 210, 257, 265

Scandinavia, i, 102, 143, 299, 533, 539, 549

Scharnhorst, cruiser, ii, 520

Scheldt, the, ii, 76, 331

Schism, the Great, ii, 100, 127, 151, 617

Schleswig-Holstein, ii, 442

Schmalkalden, ii, 205

Schmalkaldic league, ii, 205

Schmidt, Dr., ii, 136

Schmit, E., ii, 135

Scholars, i, 409

Scholasticism, ii, 167 sqq.

Schools, monastic, i, 613, ii, 60; public, ii, 269 sq., 428-30

Schrader, O., i, 118, 169

Schuchert, C., i, 50

Schurtz, Dr., i, 556, ii, 18, 22

Schwill, ii, 37, 51, 377

Schwyz (shvēts), ii, 199, 616

Science, i, 397 sqq., ii, 35, 174 sqq.; exploitation of, ii, 388-91, 410; and religion, i, 584, ii, 174, 177, 421-22

Science and Art Department, ii, 437

Scientific research, ii, 171

Scilly Isles, i, 217

Scind (sind), ii, 113

Scipio, Lucius, i, 482

Scipio, P Cornelius, i, 475

Scipio (sip’ i ō) Africanus, the Elder, i, 477-79, 483, 486, 499, 540

Scipio Africanus Minor, i, 477, 483, 501

Scipio Nasica (nă sī’ kă), i, 483, 501

Scorpion, i, 25, 28

Scorpion, sea. (See Sea-scorpion)

Scotch colonists, i, 110

Scotland, i, 59, 102, 109, 110, 532, ii, 40, 66, 100, 162, 163, 178, 221, 225, 244, 261, 433, 471

Scott, E. F., i, 581

Scott, Michael, ii, 88

Scott, Sir Walter, ii, 487

Scriptures, Arabic, ii, 22; Christian, i, 627, 634

Scythia (sith’ i ă) and the Scythians, i, 247, 261, 291, 300-01, 319, 327-30, 377, 388, 396, 490, 507, 510, 532-33, 543-45, 558, ii, 66, 71, 113, 128, 367, 607

Sea, depth of, i, 5

Sea fights, ancient, i, 337-40

Sea power, ancient, i, 379-80, ii, 28

Sea trade, ii, 182

Seamanship, early, i, 209-11, 216-17, 218, 266, 272-73, ii, 185 sqq.

Seas, primordial, i, 8, 10, 16, 21-24, 46

Sea-scorpion, i, 10, 21, 24

Seasons, the, i, 30-33, 127, 128-29

Seaweed, i, 23

Sebastiani Report, ii, 359

Secunderabad (sē kŭn d_ĕ_r ă băd’), i, 389

Sedan, ii, 445, 531

Seek, i, 598

Seeley, Sir J. R., ii, 140

Seignobos (sen yō bō’), ii, 384

Seine, the, i, 137

Seleucia, i, 622

Seleucid (s_ĕ_ lū’ sid) dynasty, i, 395-97, 428, 432, 480, 523, 571-72, 616, ii, 608

Seleucus (s_ĕ_ lū’ kŭs) I, i, 395, 430

Selfishness, i, 423

Selim (sā lēm’), sultan, ii, 126, 618

Seljuks (sel jooks’), ii, 33, 71-72, 106, 114, 121, 615. (See also Turks)

Semites (and Semitic peoples), i, 148, 153-60, 188 sqq., 212, 218-19, 228, 232-233, 237, 242, 264-65, 300, ii, 1, 2, 21, 105, 122, 143, 168, 249

Semitic languages, i, 153-55, 164

Seneca (sen’ ē k_ă_), i, 491

Senegal river, i, 217

Sennacherib (sē năk’ er ib), i, 193-94, 200, 246, 291, ii, 606

Sepulchre, Holy, ii, 61, 64, 74, 78, 118

Sequoias (sē kwoi’ _ă_z), i, 51

Serapeum (ser ă pē’ ŭm), i, 413, 414, ii, 149

Serapis (sē rā’ pis), i, 412-14, 428, 538, 590-91, 602, ii, 611

Serbia (and the Serbs), i, 528, 553, 606, 616, ii, 24, 122, 224, 382, 502, 508-11, 524

Serbian language, i, 168

Serfdom, i, 600

Sergius III, Pope, ii, 63

Serpent in religion, i, 130, 147, ii, 418

Servants, domestic, i, 265

Set, Egyptian god, i, 236

Seton-Karr, Sir H. W., i, 137

Seven Years War, ii, 332, 620

Severus (sē vēr’ ŭs), Septimus, i, 528

Seville, ii, 188

Sex, i, 131

Seyffert, i, 464, 490, 491

Shakespeare, W., i, 173

Shale, i, 7

Shalmaneser (shăl mă nē’ zũr), i, 193, 291

Shamanism, ii, 114, 128, 146

Shamash, i, 245

Shang dynasty, i, 196, 204

Shanghai (shăng hī’), ii, 470

Shang-tung, ii, 469

Sharifian emperors, i, 565

Sharpe, S., i, 249

Shaving the face, i, 391

Sheep in lake dwellings, i, 112

Shekel, i, 220, 265

Sheldonian Theatre, ii, 271

Shell Age, supposed, i, 68

Shellfish, i, 9, 10

Shells as implements, i, 68; as ornaments, i, 88

Shem, i, 140

Shen-si, i, 632

Sherbro Island, i, 218

Sherman, General, ii, 443

Shi-Hwang-ti, emperor, i, 196, 205, 253, 542-43, 548, 642, ii, 211, 608

Shiites (shē’ īts), ii, 27, 30, 64, 70, 72, 80, 134, 256

Shiloh, i, 284

Shimei, i, 287

Shimonoseki (shē’ m_ŏ_ nō sāk’ ĕ), Straits of, ii, 467

Shipbuilding, ii, 66, 388-89

Ships, earliest, i, 209-11

Shishak (shī’ shăk), i, 200, 388

Shrines, i, 234, 313

Siam (and Siamese), i, 203, 640

Siamese language, i, 157

Siberia, i, 100-02, 156-59, 532, 546, 632, ii, 114, 132, 261

Siberian railway, ii, 469, 502

Sicilies, Two, ii, 200, 364

Sicily, i, 213, 217, 303, 308, 382, 447, 449, 451-54, 471, 480, 486, 498, 505, 566, ii, 62, 64, 69, 78, 83, 86-88, 97, 182, 353, 380, 441, 615

Sickles, earthenware, i, 189

Siddhattha Gautama (sid hät’ t’h_ă_ gou’ t_ă_ m_ă_). (See Buddha)

Sidon, i, 196, 212, 216, 266, 279, 290, 331, 380

Sieyès (syā yes’), ii, 354

Sign-language, i, 150

Sikhs (sēks), ii, 257, 453

Silbury, i, 110, 135

Silesia, ii, 112, 251

Silk, i, 273, 530, ii, 238

Silver as standard of value, i, 220

Sin, idea of, ii, 190

Sinai, i, 259

Sind, ii, 453

Singan, i, 642, 644, 647, ii, 613

Singer, Dr., i, 403

Singing, i, 115

Sinope (sī nō’ pē), i, 621

Siris, i, 339

Sirius (sir’ i ŭs), a star, i, 238

Sirmium, i, 560

Sistrum, i, 413, 425

Siva, i, 437

Sivapithecus (si v_ă_ pi thē kŭs), i, 67

Siwalik Hills, i, 67

Skins, use of, as clothing, i, 80, 99, 114; inflated, as boats, i, 209

Skrine, i, 541, ii, 30

Skull, shapes of, i, 100, 142-46

Slate, i, 7

Slavery (and slaves), i, 255-59, 305-09, 352, 363, 455, 489-92, 529, 589, 594, 631, ii, 15, 33, 130, 146, 193, 225, 276, 284-85, 293, 304-05 sqq.; American, ii, 342, 619

Slavic tribes, i, 527

Slavonian dialect, i, 168

Slavonic languages, ii, 69

Slavs, i, 616, ii, 24, 49, 57, 61, 69, 128

Sloth, i, 102, 207

Smelting, i, 106, 107

Smerdis, i, 326

Smilodon (smī’ lō don), i, 56

Smith, A. L., ii, 88

Smith, Elliot, i, 69, 84, 146, 147, 189, 207

Smith, Rt. Hon. F. E., ii, 424, 497-99

Smith, John, ii, 280

Smith, Worthington, i, 63, 79, ii, 310

Smithsonian Institution, ii, 392

Smyrna, ii, 79

Snails, i, 28

Sobiesky (sō byes’ ki), John (John III), ii, 249, 620

Social Contract, ii, 296, 310

Social Democrats, ii, 485

Social War, the, i, 503, ii, 609

Socialism, ii, 157, 310, 339-46, 403 sqq., 622

Society, beginning of human, i, 178

Socrates (sok’ r_ă_ tēz), i, 114, 350, 355-56, 364, 420, 436

Soddy, Prof., ii, 410

Soderini, ii, 195-96, 618

Soil, protection of, i, 37

Soissons, ii, 47, 48

Solar year, i, 129

Solent, the, i, 137

Solferino (sol fe rē’ nō), battle of, ii, 441, 623

Solis, ensign, ii, 231

Sollas, Prof., i, 63, 69, 84, 100

Solomon, King, i, 200, 287-94, 569, ii, 606

Solon, i, 221, 324-25

Solutré, i, 92, 96, 124

Solutrian Age, i, 96, 97, 317, ii, 189

Somaliland, i, 137, 160, 217

Somalis, language of, i, 154

Somersett, J., ii, 306

Somme, the, i, 137; battle of, ii, 338, 530

Sonnino, Baron, ii, 552

Sonoy, Governor, ii, 231

Soothsayers, i, 305

Sophists, Greek, i, 350

Sophocles (sof’ ō klēz), i, 351, 355

Soudan, tribes of, i, 118

Soul, the, i, 131

South Africa, i, 485, ii, 460, 471, 472, 489, 495, 623-24

South Kensington, Natural History Museum, i, 50

South Sea Islanders, i, 68, 353

Southampton, ii, 180

Soviets (sov’ yets), ii, 410, 526, 539

Sowing, and burial, i, 130; and human sacrifice, i, 117, 134

Space, i, 3, 4, 15

Spain, i, 37, 93, 106, 108, 146, 161, 196, 213, 217, 299, 446-48, 589, 615, ii, 41, 100, 140, 159, 179, 246; history (Carthaginians in), i, 472-79; (Romans in), i, 480, 485-86, 499-502, 509, 522, 540, 569; (Vandals in), i, 554, 556, ii, 611; (under the Goths), i, 606, ii, 46, 66, 613; (Moors in), i, 565, ii, 24-25, 31, 36-37, 57, 61, 64, 194, 242, 613; (15th-16th cent.), ii, 186, 188, 193-95, 197, 200-04; (17th-18th cent.), ii, 216, 218, 220, 225, 229, 233, 239, 242-43, 251-52, 279, 292; (19th cent.), ii, 362, 378, 445, 506; overseas dominions, i, 208, ii, 187-94; colonial expansion, ii, 251-54, 282, 286, 292, 306, 378, 451, 470

Spanish language, i, 151, 564, ii, 160, 190

Sparta, i, 303-07, 332-36, 343, 349-50, 369, 378, 460

Spartacus (spar’ t_ă_ kŭs), i, 505, ii, 609

Spearheads, bone, i, 96

Species, i, 17-22, 25, 29, 138-40

Speech, development of, i, 72, 79, 124-27, 129, 130, 150, 151, 162-63, 223-26

Spelling, need for reform of, i, 282-83

Spence, L., ii, 190

Sphinx, the, i, 238

Spices, Oriental, ii, 257

Spiders, early, i, 28

Spinden, i, 207

Spinnerets of spiders, i, 28

Spoleto (spō lā’ tō), i, 610

Spores, i, 24

Spurrell, H. G. F., i, 63, 98

Spy, i, 72

Stag, i, 94, 101

Stagira (st_ă_ jīr’ ă), i, 357

Stalky and Co., ii, 423

Stallybrass, Dr. C. O., ii, 154, 543

Stambul (stăm bool’), ii, 126

Stamp Acts, ii, 289

Stamps used for signatures, i, 408

Stars, i, 4; and early man, i, 127, 238, 240

State, the, i, 488 sqq., 519, ii, 142, 163, 197, 244, 415

States-General, the, ii, 234, 312, 621

Steam, use of, ii, 386, 392

Steamboat, introduction of the, ii, 387

Steam-engine, invention of, i, 540, ii, 275, 386

Steam-hammer, ii, 388

Steam-power, ii, 275

Steel, i, 273, ii, 388

“Steel Boys,” the, ii, 492

Stegosaurus (steg ō saw’ rŭs), i, 40

Stein, Freiherr von, ii, 364

Steno, ii, 419

Stephenson, G., ii, 386

Stern, Q. B., ii, 433

Stettin, ii, 180

Stilicho (stil’ i kō), i, 554, 561, ii, 611

Stockholm, ii, 526

Stockmar, Baron, ii, 438-39

Stoicism, i, 360, 363, 588

Stone, early use of, i, 171

Stone, Major-Gen., ii, 570

Stone Age, i, 60, 68, 75, 81, 96, 97, 104-13, b197, 213, 274

Stonehenge, i, 109-10, 147, 171, 196, 240, ii, 606

Stopes, Dr. Marie, i, 38

Story-telling, primitive, i, 129

Strabo (strā’ bō), i, 13

Strafford, Earl of, ii, 221-22, 491

Strata, geological, i, 7 sqq.

Strikes in ancient Rome, i, 457-58, 496

Stuart dynasty, ii, 163, 225-26

Stubbs, Bishop, ii, 54

Sturdee, Admiral, ii, 520

Styria, ii, 200

Subiaco (soo bē ä’ kō), i, 611

Submarine warfare, ii, 520, 527

Subutai, ii, 112

Sudan, the, ii, 471

Sudras, i, 269, 270, 645

Suetonius (swē tō’ ni ŭs), i, 525, 598

Suevi (swē’ vī), i, 554, 606, ii, 46, 611

Suez, i, 156, 160, 195, 218

Suffering, cause of, i, 423

Suffrage, manhood, ii, 297

Sugar, ii, 38

Suleiman (soo lā măn’) the Magnificent, ii, 24, 28, 126, 200, 205, 613

Sulla, i, 503-04, 511, ii, 609

Sulphuric acid, ii, 38

Sulpicius (sŭl pish’ i ŭs), i, 504

Sultan, Turkish, i, 565

Sumatra, i, 635, ii, 120

Sumer (incl. Sumeria and Sumerians), i, 133, 188-96, 203, 208, 210, 212, 218, 227-28, 232, 234, 242-48, 254, 259, 274, 297, 307, 319, 370, 522, ii, 1, 105, 130, 189

Sumerian language and writing, i, 133, 162, 189, 198, 227, 229, 279, 408, 638

Sun, the, i, 3-4, 30, 34; worship, i, 130, 147, 235-38, 412-13

Sunday, i, 575, 590, ii, 149; schools, ii, 396

Sung dynasty, i, 634-35, 641, ii, 108, 112-13, 118, 614

Sunnites, ii, 27, 71, 80, 136

“Sunstone,” i, 147

Superior, Lake, i, 225

Surrey, ii, 275

Susa, i, 104, 189, 260, 318, 326-31, 337-38, 364, 385-87, 390

Sussex, i, 70, ii, 40, 275

Suy dynasty, i, 632

Swabians, ii, 47, 63

Swansea, Lord, i, 106

Swastika (swăs’ ti k_ă_, i, 147, 176

Sweden (and the Swedes), i, 102, 553, 605, ii, 51, 53, 162, 206, 225, 234, 242, 244, 249, 257, 266, 283, 368, 380

Swedish language, i, 168

Swift, Dean, ii, 492, 493

Swift, Fletcher H., i, 297

Swimming-bladder, i, 25, 52, 55

Swine, keeping of, i, 112, ii, 180

Switzerland (including the Swiss), i, 106-09, 113, 115, 171, 186, 564, ii, 69, 198 sq., 204, 236, 280, 319, 328, 339, 347, 359, 380, 616, 617

Swords, bronze, i, 132

Sykes, Ella and Percy, i, 548

Sykes, Sir Mark, i, 619, ii, 5, 9, 29-30, 121-23

Syndicalism, ii, 409

Synœcism of gods, i, 483-84

Syracuse, i, 351, 449, 452, 468, 476, 497, 534

Syria (and Syrians), i, 102, 160, 192, 194, 200, 250, 265, 278, 290, 292, 326, 342, 380, 500, 569-70, 587, 598, 604, 617, 619-21, ii, 1-2, 4, 7, 17-21, 71, 74, 79, 97, 106, 113, 130-32, 149, 359, 440, 500

Syrian language, i, 530, 627, ii, 35

Tabriz, ii, 120

Tabu, i, 113, 125-29

Tachov (tăk’ hov), ii, 152

Tacitus (tăs’ i tŭs), i, 491, ii, 144

Tadpoles, i, 26, 52

Taft, President, ii, 544, 551

Tagus valley, ii, 207

Tain, an Irish epic, i, 182

Tai-tsung, i, 634, 642, 647, ii, 106, 612

Talleyrand, ii, 370, 374

Tallien, ii, 336

Tallies, i, 128

Tammany, i, 495

Tancred, ii, 79

Tang dynasty, i, 630-33, 641, ii, 106, 612

Tangier, ii, 484

Tanks, ii, 515-16, 523, 530, 569, 571

Tannenberg, ii, 515, 518

Taoism (tou’ izm), i, 433, 438, 641

Tapir, i, 56

Tarentum, i, 452, 476

Tarim (tä rēm’) valley, i, 201-02, 387, 546, ii, 109, 609

Tarpeian Rock, i, 459

Tarquins, the, i, 450, 456

Tartar language, i, 156, ii, 119

Tartars (and Tartary), i, 388, 542, 545, 627, ii, 109, 112, 119, 129, 244, 260, 267

Tashkend, i, 643

Tasmania (and Tasmanians), i, 82, 84, 85, 138, 148, ii, 189, 451; language, i, 162

Tattooing, i, 147

Taurus mountains, i, 395-97, ii, 21, 28, 34, 42, 122

Taxation, i, 255, 264, 310, ii, 217-18

Taxilla, i, 645

Tayf (tī’ if), ii, 7

Taylor, H. O., ii, 172

Tea, i, 630, ii, 289

Teeth, i, 44, 69-73, 86, 87

Telamon (tel’ ă mon), battle of, i, 471, 475, ii, 608

Telegraph, electric, ii, 387

Tel-el-Amarna (tel el ä mär’ nă), i, 200, 220, 245, 250, 288

Telescope, invention of the, ii, 176

Tell, William, ii, 199

Tempe (tem’ pē), vale of, i, 335

Temples, i, 190, 234-41, 250, 304

Ten Thousand, Retreat of the, ii, 607

Ten Tribes, the, i, 193

Teneriffe, ii, 225

Tennyson, Lord, i, 175, 531, ii, 438

Tertullian (tũr tŭl’ y_ă_n), i, 403

Testament, Old, i, 114, 277, 292, 294; New, i, 114

Tetrabelodon (tet r_ă_ bel’ ō don), i, 58

Teutonic Knights, ii, 266

Teutonic tribes, i, 299, 509, 527, 552, ii, 611

Texel, ii, 332

Textile fabrics, Arab, ii, 38

Thames, the, i, 59, 137, ii, 182, 226, 512

Thatcher, ii, 37, 51, 377

Thebes (thēbz) and Thebans, i, 252, 274, 303, 336, 343, 370-71, ii, 606

Themistocles (thē mis’ tō klēz), i, 313, 337

Theocrasia, i, 412, 414, 538, 590, 626, ii, 149

Theodora, Empress, i, 615

Theodora, sister of Marozia, ii, 62

Theodore of Tarsus, ii, 50, 613

Theodoric (thē od’ ō rik) the Goth, i, 560, 606, ii, 37, 612

Theodosius (thē ō dō’ shi ŭs), the Great, i, 554, 602, 615, ii, 611

Theodosius II, i, 557-59

Theophrastus (thē ō frăs’ tŭs), i, 13

Theophylact, ii, 62

Theriodont (thē’ ri ō dont) reptiles, i, 54

Theriomorpha, i, 41, 47, 48

Thermopylæ (thũr mop’ i lē), i, 335, 336, 474, 536, ii, 607

Theseus (thē’ sūs), i, 216

Thespians, i, 336

Thessalus (thes’ ă lŭs), i, 375

Thessaly (and Thessalians), i, 335-40, 384, 453, 511

Thibet, i, 432, 628

Thien Shan, i, 546, 643

Thiers (tyâr), ii, 353

Thirty Tyrants, i, 351

Thirty Years’ War, ii, 235, 262, 292, 511

Thomas, Albert, ii, 439

Thompson, R. Campbell, i, 189

Thor, i, 233, ii, 49

Thoth-lunus (thoth’ lū’ nŭs), Egyptian god, i, 239

Thothmes (thoth’ mēz), i, 199, 289, 317, 401, 445, ii, 605

Thought and research, i, 122-35, 352-53, 360-62, ii, 414

Thrace (thrās) and Thracians, i, 303, 328-31, 340, 372, 377, 395, ii, 20, 123

Three Teachings, the, i, 436

Throwing sticks, i, 90

Thucydides (thū sid’ i dēz), i, 344, 360, 399, 460

Thuringians, ii, 51

Tian Shan, i, 549

Tiber, river, i, 447, 448, 454, 458, ii, 41

Tiberius Cæsar, i, 523, 572, 584, ii, 609

Tibet, i, 206, 438, 545-47, 591, 640, ii, 113, 128, 262, 463, 624

Tibetan language, i, 157

Tides, i, 8

Tiger, sabre-toothed, i, 56, 64, 69, 70, 76

Tiglath Pileser (tig’ lăth pi lē’ z_ĕ_r), I, i, 192, 196; III, i, 193, 200, 246, 290, 318, ii, 606

Tigris, i, 186, 192, 210, 238, 260, 616, ii, 2, 106

Tii, Queen, i, 250

Tille, Dr., ii, 180

Tilly, ii, 235

Tilsit, Treaty of, ii, 363, 622

Timbuktu, i, 565

Time, i, 13-15, 128-29, ii, 605

Times, the, ii, 405

Timon (tī’ mon), i, 515

Timurlane, ii, 132-33, 137, 154, 261, 617

Tin, i, 4, 106, 217, 273, ii, 389

Tinstone, i, 106

Tiryns (tī’ rinz), i, 303

Titanothere (tī’ tăn ō thēr), i, 53, 56

Titus, i, 526, 571, ii, 610

Tobacco, i, 170, 219, ii, 281, 284

Toe, great, i, 66

Tolstoy, ii, 367

Tonkin, ii, 467, 470

Torr, Cecil, i, 210, 259

Tortoises, i, 40, 46

Torture, use of, ii, 338

Tory Party, ii, 489

Totila (tot’ i lă), i, 611

Toulon, ii, 333, 349, 351

Tours, ii, 47, 180

Towers of Silence, i, 625

Town life, European, ii, 180 sqq.

Town Topics, ii, 424

Townshend, General, ii, 522

Township, primitive, i, 256

Tracheal tubes, i, 25

Trachodon (trăk’ ō don), i, 42

Trade, early, i, 118, 208-22, 257, 264-65; routes, ii, 76, 183; sea, ii, 184-85

Trade Unions, i, 487, 536, ii, 407

Tradition, i, 55, 124-29, 230

Trafalgar, battle of, ii, 362, 622

Trajan (trā’ jăn), i, 524, 526, 614, 623, ii, 2, 610

Transmigration of souls, i, 424, 427

Transport, ii, 386, 569

Transubstantiation, ii, 150-51, 171

Transvaal, ii, 424, 460, 623. (See also South Africa)

Transylvania, i, 526, ii, 112

Trasimene, Lake, i, 475

Travels, early, i, 221, ii, 386

Trebizond, ii, 120

Trees, i, 27, 37

Trench warfare, ii, 515

Trent, Council of, ii, 167, 618

Tresas, i, 336

Trevithick, ii, 386

Trianon, the, ii, 317

Tribal system, i, 177, ii, 128

Trilobites, i, 10, 21-24

Triceratops (trī ser’ ă tops), i, 42

Trieste, ii, 445

Trigonometry, ii, 37

Trinidad, ii, 471

Trinil, i, 68-69

Trinitarians, i, 592-93, 601-02

Trinity, doctrine of the, i, 575, 592, 602, 625-26, ii, 171

Trinity College, Dublin, ii, 492

Tripoli, i, 228, ii, 470, 500, 624; Treaty of, ii, 294

Trireme, i, 469

Trojans, i, 216, 448, ii, 121

Tröltsch, i, 604

Trotsky, ii, 411

Troy, i, 216, 303, 318, 335, 446

Troyes (trwä), battle of, i, 559, ii, 611

Trumpet, bronze, i, 132

Tsar, title of, i, 565, ii, 129

Tshushima (tsoo shē’ mă), Straits of, ii, 469

Ts’i (dynasty and state), i, 205, 508

Ts’in (dynasty and state), i, 205, 253

Tuaregs, i, 154, 206

Tudor, ii, 287

Tuileries, ii, 319, 322, 328, 329

Tulip tree, i, 51

Tunis, i, 470, ii, 84, 470, 500

Turanian language. (See Ural-Altaic languages)

Turanians, i, 158, 620, 627, ii, 29, 69, 122

Turkestan, i, 153, 159, 206, 273, 317, 386, 387, 388, 428, 433, 546, 548, 549, 603, 618, 620, 627-29, 644, ii, 17, 24, 33, 71, 109, 113, 121, 127-28, 132, 261, 262, 608, 612

Turkey, ii, 208, 366, 382, 440, 446, 483, 484, 500, 502, 521-22, 531, 623, 624. (See also Turks)

Turkey, Great, ii, 114

Turkhan Pasha, ii, 554

Turkish fleet, ii, 140; language and literature, i, 156, 627, ii, 122; peoples, i, 541, 570, 627, ii, 28, 64, 66-72, 139-40, 261 (see also Turks); princes, ii, 106, 124

Turko-Finnic language, ii, 70

Turko-Finnish peoples, i, 560, 606

Turkomans, i, 551, ii, 132-33, 261, 471

Turks, i, 388, 545, 618, 627, 629, 644, ii, 24, 34-35, 61, 106, 121-22, 617; and the Crusades, ii, 78 sqq.; Ottoman, i, 615, ii, 121 sqq., 138-40, 182-84, 193-94, 197, 200, 204-06, 233, 240, 249, 353, 447, 617, 620; Seljuk, ii, 34, 39, 70, 114, 121, 615

Turtles, i, 40, 46

Tuscany, ii, 225, 236, 242

Tusculum, i, 473

Tushratta, King, i, 192, 200, 245

Twelve Tables, the, i, 458, 487

Tyler, Wat, ii, 156, 617

Tylor, E. B., i, 131

Tyndale, Bible of, i, 282

Typhon (tī’ fon), Egyptian god, i, 236

Tyrannosaurus (tī răn ō saw’ rŭs), i, 42

Tyrants, i, 308

Tyre, i, 196, 212, 216, 261, 264, 266, 279, 294, 331, 379, 380, 382-84, 401, 468, 569, 571, ii, 144, 244

Tyrol, ii, 283, 564

Uganda, i, 206, ii, 51, 460

Uhud, battle of, ii, 9

Uigurs (wē’ goorz), ii, 109

Uintathere (ū in’ tă thēr), i, 53, 56

Ukraine Cossacks, ii, 260

Ukrainia (and Ukrainians), ii, 128-29, 244

Ulm, ii, 362, 622

Ulster, i, 110, ii, 432, 489-98

Uncleanness, i, 126, 131

“Unionist” party, ii, 495

United Provinces. (See Holland)

United Service Institution, ii, 567, 571

United States, i, 37, 546, ii, 294, 297 sqq.; constitution, i, 225, 520, ii, 293 sq., 314, 378, 621; political and social conditions, i, 268, 308, 493, ii, 292-96, 326, 338, 344, 386-87, 395, 551; slavery in, ii, 193, 293; Declaration of Independence, ii, 293, 621; treaty with Britain, ii, 293-94, 621; Civil War, ii, 443, 623; unity of, ii, 476; modern foreign policy of, ii, 503-07; in Great War, ii, 527, 583, 560-62. (See also America)

Universal History, the, ii, 418, 419

Universal law, ii, 215

Universals, ii, 174

Universe, ii, 418

Universities, i, 613, ii, 37, 88, 168, 270, 390, 427

University Commission, ii, 437

Unterwalden (oon’ ter val den), ii, 199

Ur, i, 195

Ural mountains, i, 153, 549

Ural-Altaic languages, i, 155, 156, 160, 164, 174, 299, 560; people, i, 203

Uranus (ūr’ ă nŭs), i, 4

Urban II (pope), ii, 72, 74, 84, 97, 167, 615

Urban VI (pope), ii, 100, 617

Urfa, i, 621

Uri, ii, 199

Urns, i, 115

Uruk, i, 195

Urumiya (ū rū mē’ yă), lake, i, 318

Ussher, Bishop, ii, 418

Usury, i, 265

Utica (ū’ ti k_ă_), i, 212

Utopias, i, 358, ii, 211

Utrecht, ii, 229

Vaisyas (vīs’ yăz), i, 269, 270

Valais, i, 564

Valenciennes, ii, 531

Valens, Emperor, i, 554

Valerian, Emperor, i, 528, 617, ii, 610

Valladolid, ii, 207-09

Valmy, battle of, ii, 330, 621

Valona, ii, 524

Value, i, 219, 220

Van, i, 318

Vandals, i, 540, 553, 556, 564, 606, 615, ii, 22, 611

Varangians (vă răn’ ji ănz), ii, 67

Varennes (vă ren’), ii, 323-25, 621

Varro, i, 476

Vasa (vä’ să), Gustava, ii, 234

Vases, i, 213

Vassalage, ii, 44

Vatican, ii, 57, 84, 100

Vaughan, ii, 310

Vedas (vā’ dăz), i, 173, 182, 417, ii, 257

Vegetarians, i, 182, 416

Vegetation, i, 37, 38

Veii (vē’ yī), i, 450, 459, 483, 485

Vendée, ii, 333, 351

Venetia, ii, 441, 445, 529

Venezuela, ii, 505

Venice (and the Venetians), ii, 76, 80, 81, 97, 117, 120, 126, 139, 180, 182, 184, 257, 351, 380, 529, 616, 621

Venizelos (ven i zē’ los), ii, 522

Venus, goddess, ii, 49

Venus, planet, i, 4, 5

Vera Cruz, ii, 444

Verbal tradition, i, 230

Verde, Cape, ii, 617

Verde, Cape, Islands, ii, 188

Verdun, ii, 329, 330, 509

Verona, ii, 180, 332

Versailles, ii, 238, 242, 248, 312-22, 446, 477, 556; Peace of, ii, 560 sqq., 624

Verulam, Lord. (See Bacon, Sir Francis)

Vespasian (ves pā’ zhi ăn), i, 526, 535, 571, ii, 609

Vessels of stone, i, 213

Vesuvius, i, 505

Via Flaminia, i, 471

Victims, human, i, 588

Victor Emmanuel, ii, 441, 623

Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, i, 175, 531, ii, 228, 437, 438, 455, 482, 487, 622, 623

Victory, flagship, ii, 362

Vienna, ii, 126, 140, 205, 249, 371, 483, 568, 618, 620; Congress of, ii, 370, 378, 379, 431, 436, 440, 453, 557, 622

Vigilius, i, 558, 559

Vikings (vik’ ingz), ii, 53, 67

Village, the, i, 109, 256

Vilna, ii, 386, 519

Vimiero (vē mā’ ē roo), ii, 364

Vinci (vin’ chē), Leonardo da, i, 13, 534, ii, 175, 183, 419, 523, 618

Vindhya (vind’ yă) mountains, i, 420

Vinland, ii, 185

Virgil, i, 407, 448, 531

Virginia, ii, 280, 283, 290, 292, 296, 300, 305, 306, 443

Virtue, i, 351

Visé, ii, 512

Vishnu, i, 180, 437

Visigoths, i, 550, 553, 559, 606, ii, 66, 611

Vistula, ii, 112

Vitellus, i, 526, ii, 609

Vittoria, ship, ii, 188

Viviparous animals, i, 54-55

Vivisection, i, 403, 404, 490

Vocabulary of man, i, 151

Volga, i, 153, 159, 432, 560, 606, ii, 267

Volscians, i, 458

Volta, ii, 387

Voltaire, F. M. A. de, ii, 238, 240, 264, 421, 620

Votes, ii, 147

Vowels, i, 304

Voyages, i, 217-18, ii, 191

Vulgate, the, i, 307

Wages, i, 258, ii, 156

Wagons, i, 170

Waldenses, ii, 92, 94

Waldo, ii, 92, 94

Wales, i, 209, 605, ii, 40, 178

Waley, Arthur, i, 157

Walid (wa lēd’) I, ii, 28, 613

Walid II, ii, 28, 613

Wallace, William, ii, 178

Wallenstein, ii, 235

Walpole, Sir Robert, ii, 227

Wang Yang Ming, i, 642

War, Great. (See Great War)

War and warfare, i, 171, 254, 256, 306, 370-72, ii, 234, 424, 475-76, 481, 513 sqq., 567-70

War of American Independence, ii, 291 sqq.

Warsaw, ii, 382

Warwick, Lord, ii, 222

Washington, i, 520, ii, 279, 301, 357, 392, 443

Washington, George, ii, 292, 301, 303, 307, 353

Water, i, 23, ii, 275

Waterloo, ii, 371, 624

Watt, James, ii, 275, 386, 392

Watters, i, 541, 642, 645

Wealden Valley, i, 73

Weale, Putnam, ii, 461

Weapons, i, 78, 108, 114, 196, 205

Weaving, i, 105

Wedmore, Treaty of, ii, 52, 54

Wei dynasty, later, i, 633

Wei-hai-wei (wā hī wā’), ii, 462, 469

Wellesley, Marquis. (See Mornington, Lord)

Wellesley, Sir Arthur. (See Wellington, Duke of)

Wellington, Duke of, ii, 364, 371

Wells, J., i, 458, 467, 470

Welsh, the, ii, 244

Welsh language, i, 168

Wends, the, ii, 80

Were-wolf, i, 124

Wessex, ii, 40, 51, 614

Western civilization, i, 636

Westminster, i, 463, 489, ii, 159, 182, 222, 225, 228

Westphalia, Peace of, ii, 232, 236, 280

Weyl, ii, 543

Whales, i, 41

Wheat, i, 113, 184, 186

Wheeler, B. I., i, 359, 362, 367

Whigs, ii, 288-89, 332

Whistles, i, 115

White Man’s Burthen, ii, 462

Whitehall, ii, 222, 224, 568

Wilberforce, Bishop, ii, 420

Wilhelm I, German Emperor, ii, 482

Wilhelm II, German Emperor, ii, 59, 60, 482-86, 623

Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Germany, ii, 486

Will and obedience, ii, 142-48

William I, etc., Emperors of Germany. (See Wilhelm)

William the Conqueror, i, 408, ii, 54, 66, 150, 615

William III, Prince of Orange, ii, 226, 491-92, 620

William IV, King of England, ii, 228

William the Silent, ii, 229

Williams, Harold, ii, 71

Williams, S. Wells, i, 541

Wilson, W., President of U. S. A., ii, 221, 284, 543-46, 550-57, 564-67

Wiltshire, i, 110, 135

Winckler, H., i, 192, 195, 246, 342

Windsor, ii, 222

Wine, ii, 281

Wiriath, ii, 311, 326

Wisby, ii, 180

Witchcraft, i, 126, 374

Withington, E. T., i, 403

Wittenberg, ii, 156, 203, 618

Woden, ii, 144

Wolfe, General, ii, 254, 620

Wolsey, Cardinal, ii, 202

Wolves, i, 69, 448

Women, i, 95, 99, 181, 232, 251, 309, ii, 13, 297

Wood, i, 76

Wood Age, i, 68

Wood blocks, for printing, ii, 159

Woodruff, Prof. L. L., i, 7

Woodward, G. M., i, 50

Woodward, Smith, i, 72

Woolf, L. S., ii, 377, 543

Woollen industry, ii, 275

Workmen, ii, 404-407

World (geographical), i, 341, 405, 406, ii, 187, 188, 191, 605; (political), i, 397, 399, 400, ii, 278, 381, 385, 431, 449

World, Old, nursery of mankind, i, 103

World dominion (and unity), i, 374, 397, 399, ii, 72, 90, 211, 243, 246, 252, 261-262

Worms, town, ii, 60

Worms, Diet of, ii, 203, 618

Worship, i, 130

Wörth (vũrt), ii, 445

Wright, W. B., i, 30, 63, 78, 96, 100, 101, 120

Writing, i, 174, 176, 189, 197, 198, 207-208, 214, 223-31, 296, 421, 639, ii, 59

Written word, i, 293

Wu Ti, i, 548, ii, 609

Wu Wang, i, 204

Württemberg, i, 102, ii, 445

Wycliffe, John, and his followers, ii, 96, 100, 150-53, 160, 171, 174, 202, 270, 272, 617

Xavier (zā’ vi ũr), Francis, ii, 465

Xenophanes (ze nof’ ă nēz), i, 13

Xenophon, i, 342, 351, 357, 363, 399

Xerxes (zũrk’ sēz), i, 334-42, 362, 385, 542, ii, 122, 607

Yanbu, i, 634

Yang-chow, ii, 119

Yang-tse valley, i, 205, 542

Yang-tse-kiang (yäng tsē kyäng’), i, 201, 641

Yarkand, i, 628, 643, ii, 610

Yarmuk, ii, 18, 613

Year, Moslem, ii, 8; solar, i, 129

Yeast, i, 172

Yedo bay, ii, 466

Yeliu Chutsai, ii, 110

Yemen, i, 618, 624, ii, 3-4

York, i, 529, ii, 221

Yorkshire, ii, 154

Yorktown, ii, 292

Ypres (ē’ pr), ii, 229, 515, 516

Yuan Chwang, i, 541, 642 sqq., ii, 22, 34, 106, 118, 612-13

Yuan dynasty, ii, 114, 117, 127, 617

Yucatan, i, 308, ii, 190

Yueh-Chi, i, 548, 628, 643, ii, 618

Yugo-Slavia (and Yugo-Slavs), i, 616, ii, 122, 380 sq., 484, 564, 566

Yule, i, 541

Yuste (yoos’ tā), ii, 207-09

Zadok, i, 287

Zaid (zā’ id), ii, 12

Zainib, ii, 12

Zama (zā’ m_ă_), i, 476-80, 482, ii, 608

Zanzibar, ii, 187

Zara, ii, 81

Zarathustra (zā ră thoos’ tr_ă_). (See Zoroaster)

Zebedee, i, 580

Zeid (zīd), a slave, ii, 6

Zend Avesta, i, 624

Zenobia, i, 535, 617, ii, 610

Zeppelin raids, ii, 519

Zeus (zūs), i, 396, 412

Zeuxis (zūk’ sis), i, 369

Zimbabwe (zēm băb’ wā), ii, 459

Zimmern, i, 305, 310, 343

Zinc, i, 106

Ziska, ii, 152

Zodiac, i, 240

Zollverein (tsol’ fer īn), ii, 488

Zoroaster (zō rō ăs’ tũr) and Zoroastrianism, i, 533, 538, 617, 618, 624, 625, 626, 627, ii, 4, 14, 16, 29, 137

Zoroastrian language, i, 626

Zosimus (zōs’ i mŭs), i, 599

Zulus, i, 219, 370

Zyp, the, ii, 230

Printed in the United States of America.

* * * * *

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See upon this an excellent pamphlet by F. J. Gould, History, the Supreme in the Instruction of the Young (Watts & Co.).

[2] A compact and inspiring book to be noted here is Fairgrieve’s Geography and World Power. Another very suggestive book is Andrew Reid Cowan’s Master Clues in World History.

[3] For a convenient recent discussion of the origin of the earth and its early history before the seas were precipitated and sedimentation began, the student should consult Professor Burrell’s contribution to the Yale lectures, The Evolution of the Earth and Its Inhabitants (1918), edited by President Lull.

[4] Here in this history of life we are doing our best to give only known and established facts in the broadest way, and to reduce to a minimum the speculative element that must necessarily enter into our account. The reader who is curious upon this question of life’s beginning will find a very good summary of current suggestions done by Professor L. L. Woodruff in President Lull’s excellent compilation The Evolution of the Earth (Yale University Press). Professor H. F. Osborn’s Origin and Evolution of Life is also a very vigorous and suggestive book upon this subject, but it demands a fair knowledge of physics and chemistry. Two very stimulating essays for the student are A. H. Church’s Botanical Memoirs. No 183, Ox. Univ. Press.

[5] Theophrastus, quoting Xenophanes.

[6] There is a discussion of fossils in the Holkham Hall Leonardo MS.

[7] An admirable recent book, short and written in a style intelligible to the general reader, is Arthur Holmes, The Age of the Earth. He gives a good summary of this most interesting discussion, and sustains the maximum estimate of 1600 million years.

[8] It might be called with more exactness the Survival of the Fitter.

[9] See Evans, The Sudden Appearance of the Cambrian Fauna. (Proc. of XIe Congrès Geolog. Inst., 1910) for a discussion of this.

[10] Phanerogams.

[11] Deciduous trees.

[12] This, says Mr. R. I. Pocock, has to be qualified. There were Carboniferous spiders with spinnerets, though they may have used the silk only for egg cases. And he thinks that the Carboniferous myriapods point to ground beneath the trees.

[13] See Sir R. Ball’s Causes of the Great Ice Age, and Dr. Croll’s Climate and Time. These are sound books to read still, but the reader will find many of their conclusions modified in Wright’s The Quaternary Ice Age, which is a quarter of a century more recent.

[14] Dr. Marie Stopes, Monograph on the Constitution of Coal.

[15] See article “Cephalopoda” in the Encyclopædia Britannica for its anatomy.

[16] And here the genius of a great humorous artist (E. T. Reed) obliges us to add a footnote to clear away a common misconception. He was the creator of a series of fantastic pictures, Prehistoric Peeps, which have had a deserved and immense vogue, and it was his whim to represent primitive men as engaged in an unending wild struggle with great Plesiosaurs and the like. His fantasy has become a common belief. As we shall see, millions of years elapsed between the vanishing of the last great Mesozoic reptile and the first appearance of man upon this earth. Early man had as contemporaries some monstrous animals, as we shall note, but not these extreme monsters.

In these opening six chapters we have been much indebted, in addition to the books already named in the text or in footnotes, to Ray Lankester’s Extinct Animals, Osborne’s Age of Mammals, Jukes Browne’s, Lyell’s and Pirsson and Schuchert’s textbooks of geology, and the collections and catalogues of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. H. R. Knipe’s From Nebula to Man and his Evolution in the Past have also been very useful and suggestive. These two books are full of admirable illustrations of extinct monsters by Miss G. M. Woodward and Mr. Bucknall. There are good figures also in Extinct Monsters and Creatures of Other Days by H. N. Hutchinson.

[17] They secrete a nutritive fluid on which the young feeds from glands scattered over the skin. But the glands are not gathered together into mammæ with nipples for suckling. The stuff oozes out, the mother lies on her back, and the young browse upon her moist skin.

[18] Die Alpen in Eiszeitalters, vol. iii.

[19] “Graphic Projection of the Pleistocene,” “Climatic Oscillations,” in Bulletin of Geological Soc. Am., vol. xxvi.

[20] In this and the next chapters the writer has used Osborn’s Men of the Stone Age, Sollas’ Ancient Hunters, Dr. Keith’s Antiquity of Man, W. B. Wright’s The Quaternary Ice Age, Worthington Smith’s Man, the Primeval Savage, F. Wood Jones’ Arboreal Man, H. G. F. Spurrell’s Modern Man and his Forerunners, O. T. Mason’s Origins of Invention, Parkyn’s History of Prehistoric Art, Salomon Reinach’s Repertoire de l’Art Quaternaire, and various of the papers in Ray Lankester’s Science from an Easy Chair.

[21] Darwin’s Descent of Man.

[22] In Conquest for February, 1920, Mr. R. I. Pocock published a very useful criticism of this section as it stood in the first version of the Outline. It has been carefully modified in accordance with his views. In addition, we take the liberty of quoting the following:

“It was formerly held, I believe, that, so far as habits are concerned, the transitional steps in man’s descent were to be traced from an active arboreal monkey to the equally active arboreal gibbon, and thence to the less active, but still mainly arboreal, orang-utang; from the latter to the half arboreal, half terrestrial chimpanzee, thence, through the mainly terrestrial gorilla, to wholly terrestrial man. In other words, the stages of man’s evolution were a series of structural modifications resulting from the gradual dropping of the ancestral habit of living in trees in favour of life on the ground. But such a conception leaves unexplained the great differences between monkeys and gibbons in arboreal and terrestrial activity. Were it correct, we should expect the gibbons to show a transition between monkeys and other apes in their method of moving through trees and on the ground. They show no such transition. It is necessary, therefore, to formulate another theory.

“Since all the active climbing monkeys have well-developed tails, and since the tail tends to shorten or disappear in species of less active habits which live, like the monkey of Gibraltar, on rocky hillsides, the absence of the tail in apes suggests very forcibly that their ancestor had to a great extent given up living in trees. Moreover, the short broad foot of the apes, their ability to stand and walk erect, their peculiar way of climbing, all point to the conclusion that they are descended, not from a truly arboreal ape, but from an ape which had already taken to terrestrial life, with partly bipedal, partly quadrupedal progression; an ape which, while still retaining the power to ascend trees for purposes of feeding and escaping from carnivorous foes, was, at best, probably a slow, inactive climber, certainly not an arboreal leaper like a monkey. A large ape of that mode of life, with hands and feet not very different from those of a chimpanzee or gorilla, but with stronger legs and shorter arms, is my conception of the ancestor of existing apes and of man. And the progenitor of that hypothetical ancestor was probably a big ground monkey.”

[23] Among the earlier pioneers of the latter view was Mr. Harrison, a grocer of Ightham in Kent, one of those modest and devoted observers to whom British geology owes so much. At first his “Eoliths” were flouted and derided by archæologists, but to-day he has the scientific world with him in the recognition of the quasi-human origin of many of his specimens. With him we must honour Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, a jeweller of St. Leonards, whose intimate knowledge of stone structure has been of the utmost value in these discussions. See “Occ. Papers,” No. 4, of the Royal Anthropl. Inst., for a description by Sir E. R. Lankester of one of the better formed of these early implements.

[24] Some writers suppose that a Wood and Shell age preceded the earliest Stone Age. South Sea Islanders, Negroes, and Bushmen still make use of wood and the sharp-edged shells of land and water molluscs as implements.

[25] For some interesting suggestions on the origin of flint implements see Elliot Smith’s presidential address to the Anthropl. Sect. of the Brit. Assn., 1912.

[26] Sollas’ Ancient Hunters, p. 40.

[27] We follow Penck.

[28] For sixpence and postage the reader can get from the British Museum, South Kensington, a very fully illustrated pamphlet A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, showing the Piltdown material in great detail.

[29] Three phases of human history before the knowledge and use of metals are often distinguished. First there is the so-called Eolithic Age (dawn of stone implements), then the Palæolithic Age (old stone implements), and finally an age in which the implements are skilfully made and frequently well finished and polished (Neolithic Age). The Palæolithic period is further divided into an earlier (sub-human) and a later (fully human) period. We shall comment on these divisions later.

[30] From Chelles and Le Moustier in France.

[31] Osmond Fisher, quoted in Wright’s Quaternary Ice Age.

[32] Social Origins, by Andrew Lang, and Primal Law, by J. J. Atkinson. (Longmans, 1903.)

[33] This first origin of fire was suggested by Sir John Lubbock (Prehistoric Times), and Ludwig Hopf, in The Human Species, says that “Flints and pieces of pyrites are found in close proximity in palæolithic settlements near the remains of mammoths.”

[34] But compare Sollas’ Ancient Hunters. Elliot Smith (Primitive Man, Proceedings Brit. Acad., vol. vii) says they approach the Neanderthal type.

[35] What is known of the Tasmanian Old Stone men is to be found in Roth and Butler’s Aborigines of Tasmania. See also footnote on the Tasmanian language to Chapter XIII.

[36] The opinion that the Neanderthal race (Homo Neanderthalensis) is an extinct species which did not interbreed with the true men (Homo sapiens) is held by Professor Osborn, and it is the view to which the writer inclines and to which he has pointed in the treatment of this section; but it is only fair to the reader to note that many writers do not share this view. They write and speak of living “Neanderthalers” in contemporary populations. One observer has written in the past of such types in the west of Ireland; another has observed them in Greece. These so-called “living Neanderthalers” have neither the peculiarities of neck, thumb, nor teeth that distinguish the Neanderthal race of pro-men. The cheek teeth of true men, for instance, have what we call fangs, long fangs; the Neanderthaler’s cheek tooth is a more complicated and specialized cheek tooth, a long tooth with short fangs, and his canine teeth were less marked, less like dog-teeth, than ours. Nothing could show more clearly that he was on a different line of development. We must remember that so far only western Europe has been properly explored for Palæolithic remains, and that practically all we know of the Neanderthal species comes from that area (see Map, p. 89). No doubt the ancestor of Homo sapiens (which species includes the Tasmanians) was a very similar and parallel creature to Homo Neanderthalensis. And we are not so far from that ancestor as to have eliminated not indeed “Neanderthal,” but “Neanderthaloid” types. The existence of such types no more proves that the Neanderthal species, the makers of the Chellean and Mousterian implements, interbred with Homo sapiens in the European area than do monkey-faced people testify to an interbreeding with monkeys; or people with faces like horses, that there is an equine strain in our population.

[37] R. I. Pocock.

[38] See Osborn in his Men of the Old Stone Age. But see Wright’s Quaternary Ice Age for a different view of the Magdalenian Age.

[39] See, for example, H. G. F. Spurrell, Modern Man and His Forerunners, end of Chapter III.

[40] Upon this question W. J. Sollas’ Ancient Hunters is very full and suggestive.

[41] From the cave of Mas d’Azil.

[42] But our domestic cattle are derived from some form of aurochs--probably from some lesser Central Asiatic variety.--H. H. J.

[43] “The various finds of human remains in North America for which the geological antiquity has been claimed have been thus briefly passed under review. In every instance where enough of the bones is preserved for comparison, the evidence bears witness against the geological antiquity of the remains and for their close affinity to or identity with the modern Indians.” (Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 33. Dr. Hrdlicka.)

But J. Deniker quotes evidence to show that eoliths and early palæoliths have been found in America. See his compact but full summary of the evidence and views for and against in his Races of Man, pp. 510, 511.

[44] “Questioned by some authorities,” says J. Deniker in The Races of Man.

[45] A good account of Palæolithic and Neolithic man is to be found in Rice Holmes’ Ancient Britain, 1907. Otis T. Mason’s Origins of Invention also illuminates this period.

[46] The deposits at Susa show neolithic remains perhaps more than 20,000 years old. See Montelius Congrès Internat. d’Anthrop. Prehist., 1906, p. 32. Sir Arthur Evans says the neolithic age began in Crete more than 14,000 years ago.--G. Wh.

[47] See Peisker, Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. I, for some interesting views upon domestication.--E. B.

[48] Native copper is still found to-day in Italy, Hungary, Cornwall, and many other places.

[49] This view of the origin of bronze is that of Dr. Gowland, The Metals Antiquity (Huxley Lecture, 1912). But Lord Avebury quotes the verbal opinion of the late Lord Swansea against this view, and sets it aside without further argument.

[50] Ridgeway (Early Age of Greece) says a lump of tin has been found in the Swiss pile-dwelling deposits.

[51] Tin was known as a foreign import in Egypt under the XVIIIth Dynasty; there is (rare) Mycenæan tin, and there are (probably later, but not clearly dated) tin objects in the Caucasus. But it is very difficult to distinguish tin from antimony. There is a good deal of Cyprus bronze which contains antimony; a good deal which seems to be tin is antimony--the ancients trying to get tin, but actually getting antimony and thinking it was tin.--J. L. M.

[52] In connection with iron, note the distinction of ornamental and useful iron. Ornamental iron, a rarity, perhaps meteoric, as jewellery or magical stuff, occurs in east Europe sporadically in the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. This must be distinguished from the copious useful iron which appears in Greece much later from the North.--J. L. M.

[53] People were probably healthier and longer lived in the Bronze than in the Neolithic age. The disparity of stature between male and female was much less.--G. Wh.

[54] Lord Avebury. For a good account of Avebury, Stonehenge, and the traces of a well-developed social system in England before the coming of the Keltic peoples, see Hippesley Cox, The Green Roads of England.

[55] Caesar de Bello Gallico says the Britons tabooed hare, fowl and goose.--G. Wh.

[56] All Old World peoples who had entered upon the Neolithic stage grew and ate wheat, but the American Indians must have developed agriculture independently in America after their separation from the Old World populations. They never had wheat. Their cultivation was maize, Indian corn, a new-world grain.

[57] Poultry and hens’ eggs were late additions to the human cuisine, in spite of the large part they now play in our dietary. The hen is not mentioned in the Old Testament (but note the allusion to an egg, Job vi, 6) nor by Homer. Up to about 1300 B.C. the only fowls in the world were jungle denizens in India and Burmah. The crowing of jungle cocks is noted by Glasfurd in his admirable accounts of tiger shooting as the invariable preliminary of dawn in the Indian jungle. Probably poultry were first domesticated in Burmah. They got to China, according to the records, only about 1100 B.C. They reached Greece via Persia before the time of Socrates. In the New Testament the crowing of the cock reproaches Peter for his desertion of the Master.

[58] Later Palæolithic bone whistles are known. One may guess that reed pipes were an early invention.

[59] In addition to authorities already cited, we have used for this and the following chapters Lord Avebury’s Prehistoric Times, Schrader and Jevons’ Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, and A. H. Keane’s Man Past and Present.

[60] Among other books we have used Jukes Browne’s Building of the British Isles.

[61] The Quaternary Ice Age.

[62] Our treatment of this chapter is written for the general reader and is broad and general. But the student who wishes to go more thoroughly into the development of the civilized mentality out of the elements of the primitive human mind should read and study very carefully that very illuminating book, Jung’s Psychology of the Unconscious (English translation by Beatrice M. Hinckle), and especially the opening two chapters. That book is a most important contribution to the mental history of mankind.

[63] J. J. Atkinson’s Primal Law.

[64] See Sir J. G. Frazer, Belief in Immortality.

[65] Glasfurd’s Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle, 1915.

[66] For some interesting suggestions here see Sigismund Freud, Totem and Taboo, Resemblances between the Psychic Life of Savages and Neurotics.

[67] Ludwig Hopf, in The Human Species, calls the later Palæolithic art “masculine” and the Neolithic “feminine.” The pottery was made by women, he says, and that accounts for it. But the arrowheads were made by men, and there was nothing to prevent Neolithic men from taking scraps of bone or slabs of rock and carving them--had they dared. We suggest they did not dare to do so.

[68] But Cicero says relegere, “to read over,” and the “binding” by those who accept religare is often written of as being merely the binding of a vow.

[69] Bateman, Ten Years’ Digging in Celtic and Saxon Gravehills, quoted by Lord Avebury in Prehistoric Times, p. 176.

[70] Cabot in Labrador, by Grenfell and others. Macmillan, New York.

[71] Quoted in Ency. Brit., vol. ix, p. 850.

[72] This is not a good name, and may perhaps drop out of use later. Blumenbach chose a particular skull as the “type” of this race and it happened to be a skull from the Caucasus.--G. S.

[73] The skull shape of the Lombards, says Flinders Petrie, changed from dolichocephalic to brachycephalic in a few hundred years. See his Huxley Lecture for 1906, Migrations, published by the Anthropological Institute. Ripley is the great authority on the other side.

[74] My Diaries, under date of July 25, 1894.

[75] “Sunstone” culture because of the sun worship and the megaliths. This is not a very happily chosen term. It suggests a division equivalent to palæolithic (old stone) and neolithic (new stone), whereas it is a development of the Neolithic culture.

[76] Megalithic monuments have been made quite recently by primitive Indian peoples.

[77] For some interesting suggestions in this matter, see W. H. R. Rivers, “Sun Cult and Megaliths in Oceana” (American Anthropologist (N.S.), vol. xvii). Hose and MacDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, contains some very interesting parallelisms between the culture of modern Borneo and the prehistoric culture of southern Europe. See also Dr. W. Warde Fowler’s “Ancient Italy and Modern Borneo” in the Journal of Roman Studies (1916).

[78] Sir Arthur Evans suggests that in America sign-language arose before speech, because the sign-language is common to all Indians in North America, whereas the languages are different. See his Anthropology and the Classics.--G. M.

Samuel Butler (Note Books) suggests that language was “originally confined to a few scholars.”--G. Wh.

[79] See article “Grammar” in the Encyclopædia Britannica.

[80] Sir H. H. Johnston gives this estimate in his Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages.

[81] Greek--ox-ford.

[82] Ratsel (quoted in the Ency. Brit., art. “Caspian”).

[83] Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Japan.”

[84] The four characters indicating “Affairs, query, imperative, old,” placed in that order, for example, represent “Why walk in the ancient ways?” The Chinaman gives the bare cores of his meaning; the Englishman gets to it by a bold metaphor. He may be talking of conservatism in cooking or in bookbinding, but he will say: “Why walk in the ancient ways?” Mr. Arthur Waley, in the interesting essay on Chinese thought and poetry which precedes his book, 170 Chinese Poems (Constable, 1918), makes it clear how in these fields Chinese thought is kept practical and restricted by the limitations upon metaphor the linguistic structure of Chinese imposes. See also Hirst, Ancient History of China, ch. vii.

[85] See Farrand, The American Nation, and E. S. Payne, History of the New World called America, and note footnote to § 1 of this chapter.

[86] These are discussed compactly, but with very special knowledge, by Sir Harry Johnston in his little book on The Opening up of Africa, in the Home University Library. The student who finds this subject of philological history interesting, should read the introduction to the same writer’s Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages.

[87] The Polynesians appear to be a later eastward extension of the dark whites or brown peoples. See again § 4 of chap. xiii.

[88] “The Keltic group of languages, of which it has been said that they combined an Aryan vocabulary with a Berber (or Iberian) grammar.” Sir Harry Johnston. See also Sir John Rhys, The Welsh People, Mac Neilh’s Phases in Irish History, and various articles by Prof. Stewart Macalister in the Irish Monthly (1917-1919).

[89] See Schrader (translated by Jevons), Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples, p. 404. But though the word Aryan was undoubtedly in its original application the name only of the Indo-Iranian people, it has been used in modern discussion for more than half a century in the wider sense. A word was badly wanted for that purpose, and “Aryan” was taken; failing “Aryan” we should be obliged to fall back on “Indo-Germanic” or “Indo-European,” terms equally open to objection and ugly and clumsy to employ.

[90] But these may have been an originally Semitic people who learnt an Aryan speech.

[91] On this point see Perry, An Ethnological Study of Warfare, vol. lxi., Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., and also published separately 1917.--G. Wh.

[92] Fools, I think, were not wits, but deformed idiots, whom the company teased and laughed at. Certainly so in Roman and mediæval times. They do not occur in the Hellenic Age, except at courts in Asia Minor; but they must have been present in pre-Hellenic kingdoms; cf. end of Iliad I., where the gods laugh consumedly not at Hephaestus’ wit, but at his lameness. The idealized Fool of Shakespeare is, like the idealized Hermit of the romances, the invention of later days.--G. M

[93] The Aryans developed their languages and their ballads and epics between 10,000 B.C. and the historical period. Very much later in time, probably within the last 3,000 years, the nomadic Mongolian peoples of Asia began to develop their Ural-Altaic speech, under similar conditions, by similar poetic uses. Later we shall note the presence of bards at the court of Attila the Hun.

[94] It is suggested in the text that blind men became bards: Myres says that bards were (artificially) blinded to stop them from going elsewhere--the tribe wanted to keep them. The poetic touch is that “the Muses” blind the poet. Not a bit of it. (Homer, being a blind bard, describes things by sound--the twanging arrow, the far-thundering sea, the noise of the chariot going through the gate. He is audile, not visual.)--E. B.

But in this matter note the adjectives in the passage quoted here from the Iliad; they are all visual.--G. H. M.

Mr. L. Lloyd, of the experimental station at Cheshunt, tells me he has seen in Rhodesia the musician and singer of a troupe of native dancers who had been blinded by his chief to prevent him leaving the village.--H. G. W.

[95] G.M.

[96] The Iliad describes what Chadwick calls a Heroic Age: i.e. a time when the barbarians or nomads are breaking up an old civilization. Men are led by chiefs who live by plunder and conquest and make themselves kingdoms. The tribe is broken up; instead comes the comitatus of casual men who attach themselves to a particular chief, as Phœnix or Patroclus to Achilles. Religion is broken up, being by origin local. Hence there is almost no religion in the Iliad or the Nibelungenlied. Almost no magic. No family life. Tremendous booty, and la carrière ouverte aux talents with a vengeance.--G. M.

[97] Some Aspects of Hindu Life in India. Paper read to the Royal Society of Arts, Nov. 28, 1918.

[98] No Greek heroes, in Homer or the heroic tradition, ever get drunk. In the comic tradition they do, and of course centaurs and barbarians do.--G. M.

[99] Babylonian expedition of the University of Pennsylvania.

[100] H. R. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, says it has been found in Palestine.--S. H.

The late Mr. Aaron Aaronson found a real wild wheat upon the slopes of Mt. Hermon. See Bulletin 274, Plant Indus. Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; and Stapf in Suppl. to the Jour. of the Board of Agri., Lond., vol. xvii, No. 3.--E. J. R.

[101] We shall use “Mesopotamia” here loosely for the Euphrates-Tigris country generally. Strictly, of course, as its name indicates, Mesopotamia (mid rivers) means only the country between those two great rivers. That country in the fork was probably very marshy and unhealthy in early times (Sayce), until it was drained by man, and the early cities grew up west of the Euphrates and east of the Tigris. Probably these rivers then flowed separately into the Persian Gulf.

[102] My friend Colonel Lawrence tells me that the movement among the Arabs is somewhat as follows: (1) the sessile village cultivators are pushed out by over-population into the desert--very reluctantly; (2) they wander in the desert for a thousand years or so--as a stick pushed into the water gets carried about for a long way; (3) they are pushed again out of the desert, back again into sessile life by starvation--very reluctantly (they have learned to love the desert); and when they come back into sessile life they are on the other side--i.e. having started in west Arabia, they land in Mesopotamia. Thus they wander a thousand years or so, and end up thousands of miles from where they started.--E. B.

[103] Sir H. H. Johnston is inclined to believe that a common late Neolithic and early bronze culture spread widely in this primitive world. He links the Dravidian languages of India--some of which group are to be found in Beluchistan and the eastern fringe of Persia--with certain languages in the Caucasian Mountains, and these again with Basque. He would bring the Sumerians, the early Cretans, and the early peoples of Asia Minor into this early “brown” or dark white culture before the Aryans, Semites, or Hamites developed their language cultures and thrust across this band of primordial civilization. He connects these “class and prefix” languages with the creation of the African Bantu, but that is a speculation beyond the scope of this present work. A series of articles on this subject by the Rev. W. Crabtree will be found in the Journal of the African Society. The connection of Sumerian and Bantu was first suggested by Sir Richard Burton in 1885. These views are in complete accordance with Elliot Smith’s suggestion of a widespread heliolithic culture already dealt with in chap. xiii, § 4, p. 146

[104] Excavations conducted at Eridu by Capt. R. Campbell Thompson during the recent war have revealed an early Neolithic agricultural stage, before the invention of writing or the use of bronze, beneath the earliest Sumerian foundations. The crops were cut by sickles of earthenware. Capt. Thompson thinks that these pre-Sumerian people were not of Sumerian race, but proto-Elamites. Entirely similar Neolithic remains have been found at Susa, once the chief city of Elam.

[105] Sayce, in Babylonian and Assyrian Life, estimates that in 6500 B.C. Eridu was on the seacoast.

[106] Authorities vary upon this date. Some put back Sargon I to 3750 B.C. This latter was his traditional date based on Babylonian records.

[107] Of unknown language and race, “neither Sumerians nor Semites,” says Sayce. Their central city was Susa. Their archæology is still largely an unworked mine. They are believed by some, says Sir H. H. Johnston, to have been negroid in type. There is a strong negroid strain in the modern people of Elam.

[108] For most of these dates here Winckler in Helmolt’s World History has been followed.

[109] II. Kings xv. 29, and xvi. 7 et seq.

[110] II. Kings xvii. 3.

[111] To be murdered by his sons.

[112] Winckler (Craig), History of Babylonia and Assyria.

[113] “The original home or centre of development of this ‘Dynastic’ Egyptian type seems to have been in southern or south-western Arabia. This region of south-western and southern Arabia, ten to fifteen thousand years ago, was probably an even better favoured province than it is at the present day, when it still bears the Roman designation of Arabia Felix--so much of the rest of this gaunt, lava-covered, sand-strewn peninsula being decidedly ‘infelix.’ It has high mountains--a certain degree of rainfall on them, and was anciently clothed in rich forests before the camels, goats, and sheep of Neolithic and Bronze Age man nibbled away much of this verdure. Above all there grew trees oozing with delicious-scented resins or gums. These, when civilization dawned on the world, became very precious and an offering of sweet savour to the civilized man’s gods, because so grateful to his own nostrils.” Africa, by Sir H. H. Johnston.

[114] 3733 B.C., Wallis Budge.

[115] But compare the citation of Beowulf in Chap. XV, § 2.--R. L. C.

[116] The great pyramid is 450 feet high and its side 700 feet long. It is calculated (says Wallis Budge) to weigh 4,883,000 tons. All this stone was lugged into place chiefly by human muscle.

[117] There are variants to these names, and to most Egyptian names, for few self-respecting Egyptologists will tolerate the spelling of their colleagues. One may find, for instance, Thethmosis, Thoutmosis, Tahutmes, Thutmose, or Thethmosis; Amunothph, Amenhotep or Amenothes. A pleasing variation is to break up the name, as, for instance, Amen Hetep. This particular little constellation of variants is given here not only because it is amusing, but because it is desirable that the reader should know such variations exist. For most names the rule of this book has been to follow whatever usage has established itself in English literature, regardless of the possible contemporary pronunciation. Amenophis, for example, has been so written in English books for two centuries. It came into the language by indirect routes, but it is now as fairly established as is Damascus as the English name of a Syrian town. Nevertheless, there are limits to this classicism. The writer, after some vacillation, has abandoned Oliver Goldsmith and Dr. Johnson in the case of “Peisistratus” and “Keltic,” which were formerly spelt “Pisistratus” and “Celtic.”

[118] China and the League of Nations, a pamphlet by Mr. Liang-Chi-Chao. (Pekin Leader Office.)

[119] Here we touch on highly controversial matters. The reader interested in the question of the separate origin of the American civilization should consult Nature, Jan. 27, 1916, Spinden and Elliot Smith in discussion.

[120] F. Ratzel, History of Mankind.

[121] Sayce.

[122] Mosso, The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization.--R. L. G.

[123] Cecil Torr, Ancient Ships.

[124] See Evans’ Prehistoric Tombs of Cnossos.

[125] This is, I think, too dogmatic about Helen. True, raids on women were a real cause of war, but they were also a very favourite ficelle of fiction. A war with Troy might easily arise by the carrying off of a woman. But why was Troy destroyed six several times? It looks to me as if there was some strong motive for building just there, and an equally strong motive for great confederacies destroying the city when built.--G. M.

Walter Leaf in his Homer and History is in agreement with G. M. on this point.--G. Wh.

[126] There were no domesticated camels in Africa until after the Persian conquest of Egypt. This must have greatly restricted the desert routes. (See Bunbury, History of Ancient Geography, note to Chap. VIII.) But the Sahara desert of 3000 or 2000 years ago was less parched and sterile than it is to-day. From rock engravings we may deduce the theory that the desert was crossed from oasis to oasis by riding oxen and by ox-carts: perhaps, also, on horses and asses. The camel as a beast of transport was seemingly not introduced into North Africa till the Arab invasions of the seventh century A.D. The fossil remains of camels are found in Algeria, and wild camels may have lingered in the wastes of the Sahara and Somaliland till the domesticated camel was introduced. The Nubian wild ass also seems to have extended its range to the Sahara.--H. H. J.

[127] There was Sumerian trade organized round the temples before the Semites got into Babylonia. See Hall and King, Archæological Discoveries in Western Asia.--E. B.

[128] Iron bars of fixed weight were used for coin in Britain. Cæsar, De Bello Gallico.--G. Wh.

[129] The earliest coinage of the west coast of Asia Minor was in electrum, a mixture of gold and silver, and there is an interesting controversy as to whether the first issues were stamped by cities, temples, or private bankers.--P. G.

[130] Small change was in existence before the time of Alexander. The Athenians had a range of exceedingly small silver coins running almost down to the size of a pinhead, which were generally carried in the mouth; a character in Aristophanes was suddenly assaulted, and swallowed his change in consequence.--P. G.

[131] There is an inn-keeper in Aristophanes, but it may be inferred from the circumstance that she is represented as letting lodgings in hell that the early inn left much to be desired.--P. G.

[132] See the Encyclopædia Brit., Article China, p. 218.

[133] The writer’s friend, Mr. L. Y. Chen, thinks that this is only partially true. He thinks that the emperors insisted upon a minute and rigorous study of the set classics in order to check intellectual innovation. This was especially the case with the Ming emperors, the first of whom, when reorganizing the examination system on a narrower basis, said definitely, “This will bring all the intellectuals of the world into my trap.” The Five Classics and the Four Books have imprisoned the mind of China.

[134] The Libyan alphabet survived in North Africa until a century ago, and was still used then for correspondence. It was supposed to be extinct, but in 1897 Sir Arthur Evans and Mr. J. L. Myres saw what looked like ancient Cretan lettering on some dyed skins from the Sahara in the bazaar at Tripoli. It was the ancient alphabet still in use for commercial signs.--E. B.

[135] The Sumerians allowed much more freedom and authority to women than the Semites. They had priestess-queens, and one of their great divinities was a goddess, Ishtar.

[136] See Johnson’s Byeways of British Archæology.

[137] Many Christian churches, almost all, indeed, built between the fifth century and the Renaissance, are oriented to the east. St. Peter’s at Rome is oriented east and west.

[138] In his Dawn of Astronomy.

[139] Legrain’s Le Temps des Rois d’Ur (Bibliothèque de l’Ecole des Hautes Etudes) was useful here.

[140] Cp. Moses and the Egyptian Magicians.

[141] According to Winckler, Sargon II, unlike his son, was pro-priest, and his usurpation of the throne was the result of an intrigue of the Babylonian priests against the feudal Assyrian military system of Tiglath Pileser III.

[142] See the last two verses of the Second Book of Chronicles, and Ezra, ch. i.

[143] A book of the utmost interest and value here is Breasted’s Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt.

[144] See S. Sharpe’s Egyptian Mythology and Egyptian Christianity.

[145] Akhnaton lost some or all his father’s Syrian conquests.--G. W. B.

[146] Many authorities regard Alexander as a man with the ideas of a pushful nineteenth-century (A.D.) monarch, and consider this visit to Jupiter Ammon as a master-stroke of policy. He was, we are asked to believe, deliberately and cynically acquiring divinity as a “unifying idea.” The writer is totally unable to accept anything of the sort. For a discussion of the question, see Ferguson’s Greek Imperialism.

[147] “His reforming zeal made him unpopular with the upper classes. Schoolmen and pedants held up to the admiration of the people the heroes of the feudal times and the advantages of the system they administered. Seeing in this propaganda danger to the state, Shi Hwang-ti determined to break once and for all with the past. To this end he ordered the destruction of all books having reference to the past history of the empire, and many scholars were put to death for failing in obedience to it.”--The late Sir R. K. Douglas in the Encyclopædia Brit., article China.

Mr. L. Y. Chen does not agree with Sir R. K. Douglas here. He thinks that the motives of Shi Hwang-ti were obscurantist. His object was the intellectual slavery of the people. He collected a library for his own use.

[148] There were literary expressions of social discontent in Egypt before 2000 B.C. See “Social Forces and Religion” in Breasted’s Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt for some of the earliest complaints of the common man under the ancient civilizations.

[149] The student should compare with this J. J. Atkinson’s account (in his Primal Law) of the significance of marriage by capture and his theory of the origin of marriage.

[150] See also his shorter Social Life of the Babylonians and Assyrians.

[151] See Mary Austin, The Flock.

[152] J. L. M. says this is the view of a Londoner. In a village or small town where everyone knows everyone, long credits are possible with barter. In Asia Minor there is much reckoning with quite imaginary money of account.

[153] From casta, a word of Portuguese origin; the Indian word is varna, colour.

[154] In the time of Confucius classes were much more fixed than later. Under the Han Dynasty the competitive examination system was not yet established. Scholars were recommended for appointments by local dignitaries, etc.--L. Y. C.

[155] The Grand Canal of China, the longer portion of which was made in the sixth century A.D., has a total length of nearly 900 miles. It was begun in the fifth century B.C. “Between Su-chow and Chin-kiang the canal is often 100 feet wide and its sides are, in many places, faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone bridges, and near its banks are many memorial arches and lofty pagodas.” The Great Wall of China, which was begun in the third century B.C., was built originally to defend China against the Huns. It is about 1500 miles long; its average height is between 20 and 30 feet, and every 200 yards there are towers 40 feet high.

[156] Damascus was already making Damask, and “Damascening” steel.

[157] The Encyclopædia Biblica has been of great use here.

[158] This is probably much too early an estimate. The Book of Daniel was not written until 167-5 B.C. Ecclesiastes and several Psalms are later than Alexander.--G. W. B.

[159] See also G. B. Gray, A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament.

[160] This may seem to contradict Genesis xx. 15, and xxi. and xxvi. various verses, but compare with this the Encyclopædia Biblica article Philistines.

[161] So this name should be spelt in English. It is now the fashion among the learned and among the sceptical to spell it Yahwe or Jahveh or Jahve, or in some such fashion. There is a justification for this in the fact that at first only the consonants were written in Hebrew, and then, for reasons into which we will not enter here, the wrong vowels were inserted in this name. But ever since the days of Tyndale’s Bible, Jehovah has been established in English literature as the name of the God of Israel, and it is not to be lightly altered. There is at present a deplorable tendency to strange spelling among historians. Attention has already been called to the confusion that is being accumulated in people’s minds by the variable spelling of Egyptologists, but the tendency is now almost universal among historical writers. In an otherwise admirable little book, The Opening-up of Africa, by Sir H. H. Johnston, for example, one finds him spelling Saul as Sha’ul and Solomon as Shelomoh; Jerusalem becomes Yerusalim and the Hebrews, Habiru or Ibrim. Historians do not realize how the mind of the general reader is distressed and discouraged by these constantly fluctuating attempts to achieve phonetic exactitude. This treatment of old forms has much the same effect as the dazzle-painting of ships that went on during the submarine warfare. It is dazzle-spelling. The ordinary educated man is so confused that he fails altogether to recognize even his oldest friends under their modern disguises. He loses his way in the story hopelessly. The old events occur to novel names in unfamiliar places. He conceives a disgust for history in which no record seems to tally with any other record. Still more maddening and confusing is the variable spelling of Chinese names. A large part of the popular indifference to Chinese history may be due to the impossibility of holding on to the thread of a story in which one narrator talks of T’sin and another of Sin, and both forms mix themselves with Chin and T’chin. A boldly Europeanized name, such as Confucius, is far more readily grasped. Modern writers in their zeal for phonetics seem to have lost their sense of proportion. It is of far more importance not merely to civilization, but to the welfare, respect, and endowment of historians, that the general community should form clear and sound ideas of historical processes, than that it should pronounce the name Jehovah exactly as this or that learned gentleman believes it was pronounced by the Hebrews of the days of Ezra. A day may come in the future for one final, conclusive reform in the spelling of historical names. Meanwhile, it will probably save school teachers of history from endless confusion and muddle if they adhere firmly to the time-established spelling. Yet we have attempted no pedantic classicalism. The reader will find Peisistratus for Goldsmith’s Pisistratus, the Arabic spelling of Muhammad, Kelt for Celt, and Habsburg taking the place of the older Hapsburg.

[162] Figures certainly exaggerated.--G. M.

[163] That is, where is the glory?

[164] But upon the question whether its “Centralization” was the work of Solomon or a much later idea, cp. S. R. Driver, Deuteronomy (Int. Crit. Commentary).--G. W. B.

[165] Estimates of the cubit vary. The greatest is 44 inches. This would extend the width to seventy-odd feet.

[166] But one version of the Creation story and the Eden story, though originally from Babylon, seem to have been known to the Hebrews before the Exile.--G. W. B.

[167] For early Egyptian anticipations of the idea of a Messiah and of the prophetic style, see Breasted’s Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. A very good book on the Hebrew prophets is W. A. C. Allen’s Old Testament Prophets.

[168] Fletcher H. Swift’s Education in Ancient Israel from Earliest Times to A.D. 70 is an interesting account of the way in which the Jewish religion, because it was a literature-sustained religion, led to the first efforts to provide elementary education for all the children in the community.

[169] Ridgeway’s Early History of Greece has been used here, and Gilbert Murray’s Rise of the Greek Epic.

[170] Roger Pocock’s Horses is a good and readable book on these questions.

[171] This is a little misleading. I may quote from C. D. Buch, Introduction to the Study of Greek Dialects (a) “The great majority of the dialects play no rôle whatever in literature” (p. 14); (b) “In the course of literary development the dialects” (in a mixed and artificial form, e.g. the “epic” dialect) “came to be characteristic of certain classes of literature; and their rôle once established, the choice usually depended upon this factor, rather than upon the native dialect of the author.” (p. 12.) Speaking generally, each class of literature preserved the dialect of the region where it was first cultivated.

The following work is a most illuminating one on this subject: A. Meillet, Aperçu d’une Histoire de la Langue Grecque (Paris, 1913).--H. L. J.

[172] Vowels were less necessary for the expression of a Semitic language. In the early Semitic alphabets only A, I, and U were provided with symbols, but for such a language as Greek, in which many of the inflectional endings are vowels, a variety of vowel signs was indispensable.

[173] See Zimmern’s Greek Commonwealth, Bury’s History of Greece, and Barker’s Greek Political Theory.

[174] “For them the state did not exist.” This needs qualification. Cephalus, at whose house the conversation of Plato’s Republic is placed, was a resident alien. He was a wealthy man in the best society, and taken as a type of the “happy man.” His son, Lysias, was a leading orator. Even in the matter of the slaves: the Old Oligarch, in the “Constitution of Athens,” complains that the Athenian slaves had no distinctive dress or manners, and so a gentleman could not even push one of them! In the Republic itself there is a description of the Democratic State, in which the slaves push you off the pavement. Moreover, even during the Peloponnesian War, there was no persecution of aliens and no expulsion of aliens from Athens. They were evidently a loyal and contented class. True, in time of food shortage, the claims of everybody to true citizenship were scrutinized more and more closely; but that was unavoidable.--G. M.

[175] I do not agree with “hereditary barristers” or “fee-hunting.” The Athenian dicasts were not barristers, but judges: they sat in panels (sometimes a panel of some hundreds) and judged. They had to be paid for attendance as judges (don’t we pay jurymen?) because it took them away from their work as potters, dyers, and stone-masons. Pay was a genuine and good democratic institution; it was just what made possible the ordinary citizen’s co-operation in the life of the state, and stopped its business from being the perquisite of the rich. I feel strongly that the text is unjust to Athens.--E. B.

See Zimmern’s Greek Commonwealth, and Barker’s Greek Political Theory, pp. 29-30.

[176] From ostrakon, a tile; the voter wrote the name on a tile or shell.

[177] 776 B.C. is the year of the First Olympiad, a valuable starting-point in Greek chronology.

[178] It is, at least, doubtful whether any change of climate expelled either lion or elephant from southeast Europe and Asia Minor; the cause of their gradual disappearance was--I think--nothing but Man, increasingly well armed for the chase. Lions lingered in the Balkan peninsula till about the fourth century B.C., if not later. Elephants had perhaps disappeared from western Asia by the eighth century B.C. The lion (much bigger than the existing form) stayed on in southern Germany till the Neolithic period. The panther inhabited Greece, southern Italy, and southern Spain likewise till the beginning of the historical period (say 1000 B.C.).--H. H. J.

[179] But a thousand years earlier the Hittites seem to have had paved high roads running across their country.

[180] But cp. Bury’s History of Greece, ch. vi., § 5.

[181] Winckler, in Helmolt’s Universal History.

[182] See in relation to this chapter, Zimmern’s Greek Commonwealth. A very handy book for the student in this section is Abbott’s Skeleton Outline of Greek History.

[183] Ancient Greek Literature, by Gilbert Murray (Heinemann, 1911).

[184] Plutarch.

[185] For an account of his views, see Burnet’s Early Greek Philosophy. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers is also a good book for this section.

[186] “But it was not only against the lives, properties, and liberties of Athenian citizens that the Thirty made war. They were not less solicitous to extinguish the intellectual force and education of the city, a project so perfectly in harmony both with the sentiment and practice of Sparta, that they counted on the support of their foreign allies. Among the ordinances which they promulgated was one, expressly forbidding any one ‘to teach the art of words.’ The edict of the Thirty was, in fact, a general suppression of the higher class of teachers or professors, above the rank of the elementary (teacher of letters or) grammatist. If such an edict could have been maintained in force for a generation, combined with the other mandates of the Thirty--the city out of which Sophocles and Euripides had just died, and in which Plato and Isocrates were in vigorous age, would have been degraded to the intellectual level of the meanest community in Greece. It was not uncommon for a Grecian despot to suppress all those assemblies wherein youths came together for the purpose of common training, either intellectual or gymnastic, as well as the public banquets and clubs or associations, as being dangerous to his authority, tending to elevation of courage, and to a consciousness of political rights among the citizens.”--Grote’s History of Greece.

[187] A very good and useful account of this great literature for the reader who is not a classical student is Norwood’s Greek Tragedy.

[188] Mahaffy.

[189] There is not a single sentence in praise of Alexander, no dedication, no compliments, in all Aristotle. On the other hand, he never mentions Demosthenes nor quotes him in the Rhetoric.--G. M.

[190] Wheeler.

[191] Bauer, in Vom Griechentum zum Christentum, says that Alexander sent a mission of exploration to Abyssinia to enable Aristotle to settle the question of the cause of the Nile inundations (melting of mountain snows), and that he also had tropical flora and other material collected for him--E. B.

[192] Ancient Greek Literature.

[193] Jung in his Psychology of the Unconscious is very good in his chapter I on the differences between ancient (pre-Athenian) thought and modern thought. The former he calls Undirected Thinking, the latter Directed Thinking. The former was a thinking in images, akin to dreaming; the latter a thinking in words. Science is an organization of directed thinking. The Antique spirit (before the Greek thinkers, i.e.) created not science but mythology. The ancient human world was a world of subjective fantasies like the world of children and uneducated young people to-day, and like the world of savages and dreams. Infantile thought and dreams are a re-echo of the prehistoric and savage. Myths are the mass dreams of peoples, and dreams the myths of individuals. The work of hard and disciplined thinking by means of carefully analyzed words and statements which was begun by the Greek thinkers and resumed by the scholastic philosophers of whom we shall tell in the middle ages, was a necessary preliminary to the development of modern science.

[194] “For the proper administration of justice and for the distribution of authority it is necessary that the citizens be acquainted with each other’s characters, so that, where this cannot be, much mischief ensues, both in the use of authority and in the administration of justice; for it is not just to decide arbitrarily, as must be the case with excessive population.” Aristotle’s Politics, quoted by Wheeler, who adds, “Aristotle comes to the conclusion that the natural ‘limit to the size of the state must be found in the capability of being easily taken in at a glance.’” But Murray notes that the word Eusunopton means also “capable of being comprehended as a unity”--a very different and wider idea.

[195] Benjamin Ide Wheeler’s Alexander the Great and G. D. Hogarth’s Philip and Alexander have been very useful here.

[196] To the common Athenians, that is. But to many thoughtful Greeks the rôle of Macedonia in their future was a matter of earnest speculation. Herodotus (viii. 137) tells a long story of a prophecy by which the inheritance of Perdiccas, the ancestor of the Macedonian kings, was to embrace at last the whole round world. This was written a hundred years before Philip and Alexander.

[197] Goldsmith’s History of Greece. The picturesque disposition of the novelist rather than the austere method of the historian, is apparent here.

[198] But Phocis was treated in the same way by Philip and his friends in 346, and Mantinea by Sparta in 385. It was a regular Greek punishment of a city to break it up into villages; and as for selling into slavery, Callicratidas the Spartan, in the Peloponnesian War, was held to be very noble when he said he would not sell Greeks into slavery. Anyhow, the destruction of Thebes was due to the Greek enemies of Thebes, who pressed it on Alexander.--E. B.

[199] Mahaffy. Their names have undergone various changes--e.g. Candahar (Iskender) and Secunderabad.

[200] D. G. Hogarth.

[201] The stages by which Bactria degenerated into Afghanistan may be studied neatly in the progressive deterioration of its coinage from a decent standard of Hellenic accomplishment into the vague flourishes of Orientalism; it began by displaying a Heracles of pure Greek blood and a pair of horsemen who would hardly have seemed out of place on the frieze of the Parthenon, and it fell steadily to a level of incompetence only equalled by the crude imitations of Roman currency that were being made in pre-Roman Britain about the same time.--P. G.

[202] Before that time. But such speculation was going on then. There is some interesting economic theory in Plato’s Republic, and Aristotle was writing the œconomica. Xenophon wrote on Athenian revenues and other economic matters. Thucycides wrote an excellent passage on the Greek past, and Aristotle dealt with barbaric customs.--E. B.

[203] Vide Mahaffy’s Greek Life and Thought and his Progress of Hellenism in Alexander’s Empire, Marvin’s Living Past, Legge’s Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, and Reinach’s Orpheus.

[204] The question whether the vivisection of human beings, or, indeed, whether any vivisection at all occurred at Alexandria, is one of considerable importance because of the light it throws upon the moral and intellectual quality of the time. One of the editors of this book was inclined to throw doubt upon it, as a thing antipathetic to the Greek spirit. The writer has taken some pains to find out the facts of the case, and he has been so fortunate as to have the help of Dr. Singer, one of the greatest living authorities upon the history of medicine. There are statements made by Tertullian (De Anima, chap. xxv.), but he was a biased and untrustworthy witness. The conclusive passage is taken from Celsus, who wrote during the reign of Tiberius, three centuries after the great days of Alexandria. “If you are to have one witness,” writes Dr. Singer, “you could hardly have a better. In my own mind I am satisfied with the evidence of Celsus, and I have asked Dr. E. T. Wittrington, our best authority on Greek medicine, and he also is satisfied.”

The following is a translation of the passage in Celsus, De Re Medica. One school says that “it is necessary to dissect the bodies of the dead, and to examine their viscera and intestines. Herophilus and Erasistratus adopted by far the best method, for they obtained criminals from prison by royal permission, and dissected them alive, and they examined, while they still breathed, the parts which Nature had concealed, noting their position, warmth (or possibly ‘colour’--colorem instead of calorem), shape, size, relation, hardness, softness, smoothness, and feel; also the projections and depressions of each and how they fit into one another. For if there happen any inward pain, he who has not learned where the viscera and intestines are placed, cannot know where the pain is; nor can the diseased part be cured by one who does not know what part it is. Again, if the viscera of any one are exposed by a wound, he who is ignorant of the natural colour of that part in the healthy state cannot know whether it be sound or corrupted, and therefore cannot cure the corrupted part. Moreover remedies can be applied more appropriately externally when the position, shape, and size of the internal parts is known, and the same argument holds for all the other matters that we have mentioned. Nor is it a cruel act, as many would have it, to seek remedies for innocent mankind throughout the ages by torture of a few criminals.”

Against this view, says Celsus, the other school argues that “to cut open the abdomen and thorax of living men, and thus to turn that art which concerns itself with the health of mankind not only into an instrument of death (pestem--lit. ‘a plague’), but (death) in its most horrible form, and this although some of the things that we seek thus barbarously can by no means be known, while others may be learned without cruelty. For the colour, smoothness, softness, hardness, and all their like are not the same when the body is cut open as when it is whole; and, moreover, even in bodies that have not been thus ravaged, these properties are often changed by fear, grief, want of food, or of digestion, fatigue and a thousand other lesser causes. It is thus more likely that the inner organs, which are more tender, and to which the light is a new experience, are changed by serious wounds and by mangling.

“Further, nothing can be more foolish than to think that any things are the same in a live man as in a moribund one, or, rather, in one practically dead. It is indeed true that the abdomen, with which our argument is less concerned, can be opened while a man yet lives, but as soon as the knife reaches the thorax (præcordium), and outs the transverse septum, which is a membrane dividing the superior parts from the inferior and called diaphragma by the Greeks, the man at once gives up the ghost, and thus it is the breast and its viscera of a dead and not a living man which the murderous physician examines. He has thus but performed a cruel murder, and has not learned what the viscera of a living man are like.”

Celsus’ own judgment is given a little later: “To dissect a living body is both cruel and unnecessary; to dissect dead bodies is necessary.”

It is to be noted, says Professor Murray, that Herophilus and Erasistratus were not living in a Greek city state, but under an oriental despot.

[205] Mahaffy.

[206] It has been suggested that new books were perhaps dictated to a roomful of copyists, and so issued in a first edition of some hundreds at least. In Rome, Horace and Virgil seem to have been issued in quite considerable editions.

[207] See Ferguson’s Hellenistic Athens.

[208] Serapis sounds like a compound of Apis and Osiris, but there is reason for supposing that the name is really of Chaldean origin. See Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism.

[209] Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity.

[210] See for much light on the syncretic religions before Christianity Franz Cumont, Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism. This is a very able and thoroughly interesting book.

[211] Rhys Davids’ Buddhism and other writings by him have been our chief guide here.

[212] Pronounced Ashoka.

[213] The Burmese Chronicle, quoted by Rhys Davids.

[214] The Madhurattha Vilasini, quoted by Rhys Davids.

[215] Rhys Davids, Buddhism.

[216] See R.F. Johnston, Buddhist China.--L.C.B.

[217] Hue’s Travels in Tartary, Tibet, and China.

[218] Rhys Davids. He was the son of a king by a low-caste mother.

[219] See Giles, Confucianism and its Rivals.

[220] S. N. Fu.

[221] Hirth’s The Ancient History of China.

[222] The reader will find a footnote to Chap. XXXI, § 8, signed L. C. B., which gives the main differences between the teachings of Confucius and Lao Tse.

[223] See Hue’s Travels in Tartary, Thibet, and China.

[224] A very convenient handbook for this and the next two chapters is Matheson’s Skeleton Outline of Roman History.

[225] For Italian pre-history see Modestov’s Introduction à l’histoire Romaine, and Peet’s Stone and Bronze Age in Italy and Sicily.

[226] See Lloyd’s Making of the Roman People.

[227] Latin Pœni = Carthaginians. Punicus (adj.) = Carthaginian, i.e. Phœnician.

[228] See Pelham, Outlines of Roman History; Mommsen, History of Rome; and the histories of the Roman Empire by Bury, H. Stuart Jones, and W. E. Heitland.

[229] Ferrero, The Greatness and Decline of Rome.

[230] J. Wells, Short History of Rome to the Death of Augustus.

[231] J. Wells.

[232] But note that Athens had (1) no taxes on foreigners, and inflicted no disabilities on them except absence of citizenship. No “expulsions of aliens” such as were regular at Sparta, and common in most places. This is a frequent Athenian boast. Cp. Thucydides, ii. 39, “Our city is thrown open to the world. We never expel a foreigner or prevent him from seeing and learning anything of which the secret, if revealed, might be useful to an enemy.” (2) Practically Free Trade; only a general 5 per cent. import duty. (3) Great interest in foreign places, constitutions, customs, etc. Athens was very oppressive--by modern standards--to its subject-allies; chiefly because there was no representation, and because she was so much at war. But even here, after her defeat in 404, they voluntarily gathered to her again. The second Athenian Empire was not in any way forced upon them.--G. M.

[233] Haverfield says--and I think he is right--that Rome had a great advantage in her imperial development--viz., that she was a city and not a nation. A nation implies some unity of race, and race prejudice. A city is based on the mere fact of citizenship. We should have said to St. Paul: “Citizen or no citizen, you are only a Levantine Jew.” But a Roman, apparently, did not think of saying so. Hence the great freedom with which emperors and senators are taken from other races.--G. M.

[234] The point raised here that Rome never developed representation is a very interesting one. There was a golden chance in the Social War (90 B.C.). The allies of Rome (socii) revolted, and set up a counter Rome in Corfinium. Now, to our minds, the obvious thing for them to do was (1) to make Corfinium just a capital; (2) to set up a parliament there, consisting of representatives drawn from the allies, who lived, of course, all over Italy. Not a bit of it. They made Corfinium a city state (not a capital), and feigned themselves all to be citizens of it, meeting in a primary assembly there. They also set up, it is true, a senate of 500; but this was just a copy of the Roman senate, and not a representative body (see Mommsen, vol. iii. pp. 237-8, Eng. trans.). Under the Roman Empire there were germs of representation in provincial assemblies: see Bury, Student’s Roman Empire, on the concilium Lugdunense in Gaul and τἁ κοιγἁ in Asia Minor.--E. B.

[235] Seyffert’s Dictionary of Classical Antiquities. (Nettleship Sandys.)

[236] Aristotle, Politics, Bk. ii. ch. xi.; and J. Wells, Rome to the Death of Augustus.

[237] J. Wells, op. cit.

[238] Plutarch, Life of Cato.

[239] Mommsen says the other provinces cost as much as they paid.

[240] But it was this Scipio Nasica who was responsible for the killing of Tiberius Gracchus. On the whole, he seems to have been a statesman of very distinguished abilities. He was the means of bringing the Asiatic Great Mother Goddess to Rome. “People at Rome generally were beginning to see that they would have to take over Asia. Had they any right? Nasica was sent on a mission to invite the Magna Mater at Pessinus to come to Rome. Her image nodded ‘yes.’ She was brought and installed in Rome. Now this is a policy of peaceful assimilation. Just as in Babylon you get gods of other cities brought to Babylon, just as Nabonidus (see Chap. xix. § 6) was trying to get an amicable pantheon as a way of peaceful assimilation, and failing to do so because he did not bring the priesthoods as well as the gods, so Rome was at this time thinking on the same lines. Camillus had shown the way when he suggested the invitation of Juno of Veii to Rome. Now Nasica, it may be suggested, wanted to treat Carthage in the same fashion. He opposed the destruction of Carthage in 146 (Mommsen, iii. p. 23, p. 39). If he had had his way, one may guess, he would have invited the Carthaginian gods to Rome, and the corollary would have been the enfranchisement of the Carthaginian population--the treatment of the Carthaginians as equals, whose gods had been received in Rome, and stood in Rome. Mummius did the same in carrying off the statues of Greek gods to Rome, only, being stupid, he did not understand why (146 B.C.).”

Nasica’s visit to Pessinus was as important as the testament of Attalus. His policy is not the policy of Rome the conqueror, but Rome the assimilator. He is trying to get a nexus by a common pantheon. If this had been done, the Republic might have survived. As it was, the deification of the ruler had to provide the nexus, as in Alexander’s empire. The “Synœcism of gods” or the “deification of rulers,” those are the only ways of amalgamating peoples. It is a pity Alexander and Rome did not attempt the former.--J. L. M. and E. B.

[241] The intervening Scipio was a man of learning and high character who died young.--G. M.

[242] Julius Cæsar (60 B.C.) caused the proceedings of the Senate to be published by having them written up upon bulletin boards, in albo (upon the white). It had been the custom to publish the annual edict of the prætor in this fashion. There were professional letter-writers who sent news by special courier to rich country correspondents, and these would copy down the stuff upon the Album (white board). Cicero, while he was governor in Cilicia, got the current news from such a professional correspondent. He complains in one letter that it was not what he wanted; the expert was too full of the chariot races and other sporting intelligence, and failed to give any view of the political situation. Obviously this news-letter system was available only for public men in prosperous circumstances.

[243] Seyffert, op. cit.

[244] Authorities differ here. Mayor says thumbs up (to the breast) meant death and thumbs down meant “Lower that sword.” The popular persuasion is that thumbs down meant death. Seyffert’s Dict. Class. Antiq. gives this view. See the Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Gladiators.”

[245] “A little more needs to be said on this matter. The Greeks cited gladiatorial shows as a reason for regarding the Romans as Barbaroi, and there were riots when some Roman proconsul tried to introduce them in Corinth. Among Romans, the better people evidently disliked them, but a sort of shyness prevented them from frankly denouncing them as cruel. For instance, Cicero, when he had to attend the Circus, took his tablets and his secretary with him, and didn’t look. He expresses particular disgust at the killing of an elephant; and somebody in Tacitus (Drusus, Ann. 1. 76) was unpopular because he was too fond of gladiatorial bloodshed--“quamquam vili sanguine nimis gaudens” (“rejoicing too much in blood, worthless blood though it was”). The games were unhesitatingly condemned by Greek philosophy, and at different times two Cynics and one Christian gave their lives in the arena, protesting against them, before they were abolished.

“I do not think Christianity had any such relation to slavery as is here stated. St. Paul’s action in sending back a slave to his master, and his injunction, ‘Slaves, obey your masters,’ were regularly quoted on the pro-slavery side, down to the nineteenth century; on the other hand, both the popular philosophies and the Mystery religions were against slavery in their whole tendency, and Christianity of course in time became the chief representative of these movements. Probably the best test is the number of slaves who occupied posts of honour in the religious and philosophic systems, like Epictetus, for instance, or the many slaves who hold offices in the Mithraic Inscriptions. I do not happen to know if any slaves were made Christian bishops, but by analogy I should think it likely that some were. In all the Mystery religions, as soon as you entered the community, and had communion with God, earthly distinctions shrivelled away.”--G. M.

The Spirit of Jesus is something different from formal Christianity, which I regard as the vehicle, the largely unsympathetic vehicle, by which that spirit was carried about the world.--H. G. W.

[246] Greatness and Decline of Rome, bk. i. ch. xi.

[247] There is no evidence of forgery and no contemporary suggestion of the sort. The bequest of Attalus, even if it was a forgery (Mommsen accepts it, iii. p. 55), is of importance, as showing that a great many people did think that Rome was the best administrator. Otherwise, the story (if it is only a story) could not have caught on. A priori there seems good reason for the testament. The Attalid dynasty was “petering out”; there were troublesome Gauls about (Mommsen, iii. p. 53).--J. L. M. and E. B.

[248] Ferrero.

[249] Ferrero.

[250] Plutarch. To which, however, G. M. adds the following note. “It is generally believed that Sulla died through bursting a blood-vessel in a fit of temper. The story of abominable vices seems to be only the regular slander of the Roman mob against anyone who did not live in public.”

[251] Plutarch.

[252] The bow was probably the composite bow, so called because it is made of several plates (five or so) of horn, like the springs of a carriage: it discharges a high-speed arrow with a twang. This was the bow the Mongols used. This short composite bow (it was not a long bow) was quite old in human experience. It was the bow of Odysseus; the Assyrians had it in a modified form. It went out in Greece, but it survived as the Mongol bow. It was quite short, very stiff to pull, with a flat trajectory, a remarkable range, and a great noise (cp. Homer’s reference to the twang of the bow). It went out in the Mediterranean because the climate was not good for it, and because there were insufficient animals to supply the horn.--J. L. M.

[253] For a good compact account of Cæsar, much more appreciative of him than our text, see Warde Fowler’s Julius Cæsar.

[254] See Strachan Davidson’s Cicero, or, better, his own letters to Atticus.

[255] H. S. Jones, in The Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Rome.” His contribution is admirably verified and exact, and we are greatly indebted to it.

[256] The best book in a compact compass for expanding this chapter is H. Stuart Jones’s The Roman Empire.

[257] Gibbon.

[258] Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Rome.”

[259] See Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Longinus.” The Syrian queen referred to by Gibbon is Zenobia. Longinus was put to death by Aurelian. See ch. xxxii., § 2.

[260] The natural result of a plutocratic rule above was a vigorous trade-unionism intent only on short hours and high wages below, and as indifferent as the rich to the common weal. See Hubbard’s Fate of Empires, a very stimulating book, differing widely in its spirit and conclusions from those of the writer.

[261] See Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity.

[262] No really good, full, and popular descriptive history, with maps and illustrations, of early and medieval China, nor of the Mongol (Hun) and Turkish peoples, seems to exist in the English language. The writer has consulted Skrine and Ross’s Heart of Asia, Hirth’s Ancient History of China, S. Wells Williams’ History of China, A Thousand Years of the Tartars, by E. H. Parker, H. H. Howorth’s History of the Mongols, and has found much useful material scattered through Ratzel and Helmolt. He has later on made a useful section from Watters’ translation and commentary upon the Travels of Yuan Chwang, supplemented by the Life of Yuan Chwang, edited by L. Cranmer Byng. Yule’s edition of Marco Polo has also been a very inspiring source of material.

[263] E. H. Parker, A Thousand Years of the Tartars.

[264] Even in eastern Turkestan there are still strong evidences of Nordic blood in the physiognomy of the people. See Ella and Percy Sykes, Through Deserts and Oases of Central Asia.

[265] See Roger Pocock, Horses, a very interesting and picturesque little book.

[266] The History of Mankind, book v., C.

[267] The History of Mankind, book v., C.

[268] See Migrations, by Flinders Petrie, the 1906 Huxley Lecture of the Royal Anthrop. Institute.

[269] E. B.

[270] In Helmolt’s History of the World.

[271] E. B. disagrees with this view. He regards it as the pro-Teutonic view of the German historians.

[272] Gibbon.

[273] Gibbon.

[274] The spread and the vitality of the place-name “Rome” were even greater than the vogue of the title “Cæsar.” All the countries which had formed part of the Eastern and Western divisions of the Roman Empire (excepting the ephemeral extension of Roman rule over Mesopotamia) were known to the Saracens, the Arabs, the Berbers as “Rum,” and their peoples as “Rumis,” “Rumas.” And this name was applied without, in all cases, carrying with it the signification of “Christian” or “Christendom.” Thus the Spanish Moors were, and their descendants are, styled by the Moroccan Moors and the Algerians and Tunisians: “Rumas.” When expelled from Spain most of them took service under the Sharifian Emperors of Morocco, and brought with them a European knowledge of fire-arms. Thus you are told in Algeria that “Romans” (i.e. Spanish Moors) conquered the Upper Niger basin for Morocco in the seventeenth century; their descendants remain there till to-day between Jenné and Timbuktu, still known to the French as “Roumas.” Some Spanish Moors even penetrated to the coast of eastern equatorial Africa and carried the name of “Rome” into the fierce expulsion of the Portuguese from those parts which was begun by the Omani Arabs.--H. H. J.

[275] Josephus.

[276] See Encyclopædia Biblica; article “Jesus.”

[277] Matt. xii. 46-50.

[278] Mark x. 17-25.

[279] Mark. vii. 1-9.

[280] Mark xii. 13-17.

[281] Mark x. 35-45.

[282] For the connexion of Jesus with the Messiah idea, see E. F. Scott’s Kingdom of the Messiah.

[283] Hirth, The Ancient History of China. Chap. viii.

[284] “St. Paul understood what most Christians never realize, namely, that the Gospel of Christ is not a religion, but religion itself in its most universal and deepest significance.”--Dean Inge in Outspoken Essays.

[285] Authorities vary considerably upon this date, and upon most of the dates of the life of Jesus. See Encyclopædia Biblica, art. “Chronology.”

[286] See Judaism and St. Paul, by C. G. Montefiore, for some interesting speculations on the religion of Paul before his conversion. See also the very interesting paper on St. Paul in Dean Inge’s Outspoken Essays already quoted in a footnote. An excellent book widely divergent from the opinions expressed in the text is W. Morgan’s Religion and Theology of St. Paul.

[287] Paul’s Greek is very good. He is affected by the philosophical jargon of the Hellenistic schools and by that of Stoicism. But his mastery of sublime language is amazing.--G. M.

[288] The spirit of Jesus, the animating spirit of Christianity, which breathes through the gospels, was flatly opposed both to private property and slavery, but the attitude of the Christians was never so definite. Generally they ameliorated rather than abolished.--H. G. W.

Patristic theory justified slavery as a result of the Fall. See Carlyle, Medieval Political Theory in the West.--E. B.

[289] Serapis was a synthesis of Osiris and Apis.

[290] See Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, chap. xii. See also Cumont’s Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism for a very clear account of the gradual development of Roman Paganism into a religion very similar to Christianity pari passu with the development of Christianity.

[291] Cp. Father Hugh Benson’s account of the procession of the Host in his book Lourdes.

[292] In any prayer book of the Episcopalian Church. The Athanasian Creed embodies the view of Athanasius, but probably was not composed by him.

[293] Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. xvi.

[294] Here, from another point of view, are some remarks upon the acceptance of Christianity by the empire. Let us remember that the Church, an object so familiar to us, was to the decent Roman a very strange thing. It was a vast society for mutual help, quite outside the state and the recognized corporations; it was secret (hence the frequent inquisitions and the praise given by Church historians to those who “confessed Christ”); it drew its main strength from a class “not well thought of by the police, the proletariat of the big manufacturing towns of Syria and the Levant, like Antioch.” Alternately proscribed and connived at, much subjected to pogroms, it gradually increased in strength. Diocletian summoned his two associated Cæsars to a conference on the subject, and they decided to crush the society by a drastic persecution. They persecuted and failed, and Diocletian resigned. Constantine the Great, the next claimant to the empire, made terms with the society and succeeded. He established it as official, and overcame its hatred of Rome by showering wealth and power on it. Eventually, when in fear of death, he got baptized. All modern analogies are fallacious, but if you imagine a blend of pacifist international socialists with some mystical Indian sect, drawing its supporters mainly from an oppressed and ill-liked foreign proletariat, such as the “hunkey” population of some big American towns, full of the noblest moral professions but at the same time alien, or even hostile, to the whole established order of society, I think you will get the sort of impression that the Christian society made on a Roman. The conception of the blameless and saintly Early Christian is, I think, hugely romance. Of course, like most religious reformers, they were in the main seekers after righteousness and above the average of their contemporaries. Also the Christian writers are apt to have more life and vision than their conventional or reactionary Pagan contemporaries. But consider the appalling accusations made by all the Christian sects against each other, and the furious denunciation of the turbulent Christian monastics by Augustine. Also consider what a spirit lies behind the Book of Revelation! Read especially Chapters 17-19, a series of elaborate and horrific curses upon Rome (including repeated threats of its destruction by fire, which the Christians were believed to have attempted), or the end of Chapter 14 where the ministers of the Son of Man tread the winepress of the world till the blood comes “even to the bridles of the horses.” If we found such a book now circulating in India, with England taking the place of Rome, I fear there would be some shooting and hanging. The fact that the Christians actually prayed for the destruction of the whole world by fire seemed to the average non-Christian evidence of almost maniacal wickedness.

I do not of course write to blame the Revelationist; such visions of hatred are the natural outcome of persecution and great suffering. I am merely trying to make intelligible the dislike and even dread of the Christians which seems to have been commonly felt. (See also Seek, Untergang der Antiken Welt, vol. 3, esp. the notes.)--G.M.

[295] q.v., The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. xiv.

[296] On the rise of dogma or tradition in the Church, especially at Rome, see Davis, Mediæval Europe (Home University Library).--E. B.

[297] Encyclopædia Britannica, art. “Church History,” p. 336.

[298] E. B. (quoted from Tröltsch).

[299] See Haverfield. The Romanization of Roman Britain.--E. B.

[300] No literature! I demur entirely. Apuleius, Ammianus, St. Augustine, the Vulgate, Claudian, Sidonius Apollinaris, Ausonius--I mention but a few names--are not these literature?--E. B.

I forgot the Golden Ass and St. Augustine as coming into the Imperial period, but do these two names save the situation? E. B. ekes out with one second-rate historian, a translation, three court poets. Yet we are dealing here with the literature of a “world” empire.--H. G. W.

[301] A very interesting and suggestive book bearing on this question of disease in relation to political history is Malaria: a Neglected Factor in the History of Greece and Rome, by W. H. S. Jones.

[302] Baring Gould’s Lives of the Saints.

[303] On Benedictinism, see Dom. Berlière’s L’Ordre Monastique.--E. B.

[304] See Holmes’ Justinian and Theodora.--E. B.

[305] Great importance is attached to this task by historians, including one of the editors of this history. We are told that the essential contribution of Rome to the inheritance of mankind is the idea of society founded on law, and that this exploit of Justinian was the crown of the gift. The writer is ill-equipped to estimate the peculiar value of Roman legalism to mankind. Existing law seems to him to be based upon a confused foundation of conventions, arbitrary assumptions, and working fictions about human relationship, and to be a very impracticable and antiquated system indeed; he is persuaded that a time will come when the whole theory and practice of law will be recast in the light of a well-developed science of social psychology in accordance with a scientific conception of human society as one developing organization and in definite relationship to a system of moral and intellectual education. He contemplates the law and lawyers of to-day with a temperamental lack of appreciation. This may have made him negligent of Justinian and unjust to Rome as a whole.

[306] The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. xxiii.

[307] Turanians from Turkestan or Avars from the Caucasus.

[308] There is a good account of Mithraism in C. Bigg’s The Church’s Task in the Roman Empire.--E. B.

[309] Julian was not so much a Mithraist as a syncretist. See Alice Gardner, Julian the Apostate.--E. B.

[310] The Ephthalites on the Oxus produced a coinage in silver and copper consisting of three denominations: heavy silver, light silver, and copper. Thirteen specimens are known to survive, the light silver denomination being represented by two specimens in the British Museum and one at Petrograd, until I was fortunate enough to add two to their number by a trouvaille in Oxford Street.--P. G.

Our illustration shows one of these two coins. It may have been struck in India in some state under Ephthalite dominion. Its interest for us lies in the figure it gives of a Hun horseman. He seems to wear a feather head-dress, reminding one of a Red Indian or a Moscow hotel porter, and his leg gear suggests an American cow-boy. Note his great quiver of arrows.--H. G. W.

[311] I am greatly indebted to Mr. S. N. Fu and to Mr. Duyvendak for much information and criticism upon the matter of this and the next section. They have both been rewritten since the appearance of the Outline in parts.

[312] There were girl slaves who did domestic work and women who were bought and sold.--J.J.L.D.

[313] It is doubtful if the Chinese knew of the mariner’s compass. Hirth, Ancient History of China, p. 126 sqq. comes to the conclusion, after a careful examination of all data, that, although it is probable something like the compass was known in high antiquity, the knowledge of it was lost for a long time afterwards, until, in the Middle Ages, it reappears as an instrument in the hands of geomancers (people who selected favourable sites for graves, etc). The earliest unmistakable mention of its use as a guide to mariners occurs in a work of the 12th century and refers to its use on foreign ships trading between China and Sumatra. Hirth is rather inclined to assume that Arab travellers may have seen it in the hands of Chinese geomancers and applied its use to navigation, so that it was afterwards brought back by them to China as the “mariner’s compass.”--J. J. L. D.

[314] Helmolt.

[315] The reason for the stationariness of China goes, we think, deeper than a script. China has formed a social-economic system which (1) cannot be transplanted, and (2) cannot be changed without tremendous effort. She lives by agriculture--rice-growing. (There is some tea among the foot hills, but it has to grow with rice to support the population.) Towns exist--on the edge of the rice-fields, for their needs. The town is dependent on the country, not, as elsewhere, country on town. There are small properties; all the hands are wanted, and can be absorbed, in old ancestral agricultural jobs. A state of small peasants, tilling, tilling, tilling, has no source of initiative towards change. If coal is to be mined in the future, and China industrialized, then a society that has not fundamentally changed for thousands of years may be changed. China is like an Egypt or Sumeria, so big that the nomads--those terrible agents of change--beat on its mass in vain. What the nomads have not done, modern industrialism may do.--J. L. M. and E. B.

Both Mr. Chen and Mr. Fu lay considerable stress upon the institution of the patriarchal Chinese family clan, which retains its sons at home, marrying them at an early age before they achieve economic independence, as a retarding influence upon Chinese progress. Mr. Chen and Mr. Duyvendak are also inclined to lay stress upon the paralyzing effect of the classical examinations upon the Chinese mind. These examinations have subdued or rejected all innovating intelligences. Mr. Duyvendak also points out that J. L. M. and E. B. have overlooked the fact that rice is grown only in South China.

L. C. B. disagrees with J. L. M. and E. B. in his analysis of the Chinese problem. His sympathies are with the south; with the philosophy of Lao Tse. He writes as follows:--

“In order to answer the question--why China achieved so much under the T’ang, Sung, and Ming dynasties, and thereafter failed to achieve more, it is necessary to consider what were the principal factors of culture and progress under these dynasties, and how they came to be extinguished.

“From the earliest times there have always been two widely differing types of Chinese mind--the Northern or Confucian, and the Southern or Taoist. As Mr. Okakura has pointed out, the Yangtse-Kiang and the Hwang-Ho rivers are respectively, from the point of view of thought and culture, the Mediterranean and the Baltic of China. Taoism was the idealism of the south, Confucianism the practice of the north. Both stood for adjustment; but the adjustment of Confucius was the adjustment of the individual in his social and ceremonial relations to others, while that of Lao Tse was the adjustment of the individual soul in its relation to the Infinite. The history of China is bound up with the struggle of those two forces, culminating in the practically complete defeat of Taoism after centuries of ebb and flow. Chu Hsi, A.D. 1130-1200, was the later St. Paul of modern Confucianism. During the T’ang, Sung, and Ming dynasties China was temporarily united, and free play was allowed to the thought of both schools. Each played its part and each reacted upon the other, to the great benefit of the Empire. Yet both systems carried within them the seeds of decay. Taoism, divorced from the affairs of everyday life and the education of the people, lost itself in art, literature, and mythology. Confucianism added layer after layer of hard shell about the inert organism of social life. The end was finally reached in 1421 under the Mings with the transference of the capital from Nanking to Peking, and the dominance of the Confucian party who had brought it about. Only in the later Ming period does the great solitary figure of Wang Yang Ming arise. His central doctrine that thought and learning are of small value unless translated into action had little immediate effect in China, but it fell upon Japanese soil, quickened the drooping Samurai spirit, and reached maturity with the Russo-Japanese war and the advance of modern Japan.

“The imprisonment of the Chinese mind in the ancient script is merely one aspect of Confucianism in its bondage to the past. The statement of J. L. M. and E. B. that China is a nation of peasants is incomprehensible to me. There has always been a great urban industrialism and a great commerce. ‘The Chinese,’ as Dyer Ball says, ‘are pre-eminently a trading race.... Nor has the trade of China been simply a modern affair. From remote antiquity the Chinese have been true to their commercial instincts, and have not only been the civilizers of Eastern Asia, supplying them with their letters and literature’ [and artistic products], ‘but they have also provided for their more material wants, and received in exchange the commodities which they required from the neighbouring nations.’ Trade with India was developed to a great extent in the ninth century A.D.”

This interesting question is also discussed very ably and interestingly in Hubbard’s The Fate of Empires.

In discussing §§ 7 and 8, Mr. S. N. Fu has pointed out that little or nothing is said in this Outline of the period of confusion before Shi-Hwang-ti. It was an age of political division indeed, but of very great intellectual initiatives. Unhappily there exists as yet little or no material in Europe available for the purposes of this history, upon this equivalent to the Athenian period of mental vigour in Europe.

[316] See Watters’ Travels of Yuan Chwang and Beal’s Life of Hiuen Tsiang (= Yuan Chwang).

[317] There is some little doubt about this identification. See Watters.

[318] The British Encyclopædia article (Hsuan Tsang) is full and good on his Indian travels.

[319] See Margoliouth’s Mahommedanism and his Life of Mahomet.--E. B.

[320] Should be spelt Mădina and Măkka.--H. H. J.

[321] Mark Sykes.

[322] Should be spelt and pronounced Hijra.--H. H. J.

[323] From the year of this flight (= Hegira) from Mecca through the desert to Medina, the Moslem world dates its era. The Moslem year is a year of twelve lunar months (354 days), and is therefore shorter than the year of Western chronology by eleven days. A.H. (the Moslem reckoning) gains a year on A.D. once in every 33 years (about). A.D. 1920 is A.H. 1338 until September 15, when A.H. 1339 begins. A.D. 20,526 and A.H. 20,526 will be partly coincident.

[324] Published by the Islamic Review.

[325] But Schurtz, in Helmolt’s History of the World, says that the private life of the gallant Khalid was a scandal to the faithful. He committed adultery, a serious offence in a world of polygamy.

[326] At Ctesiphon.

[327] Paraphrased from Schurtz in Helmolt’s History of the World.

[328] Mark Sykes.

[329] St. John’s Gospel, chap. i. 1.

[330] Thus Sykes. But Skrine and Ross say only that seventy members of the Omayyad family were invited to a feast under promise of amnesty, and then massacred by the attendants. Gibbon gives eighty victims, and tells his story thus: “Four score of the Omayyads, who had yielded to the faith or clemency of their foes, were invited to a banquet at Damascus. The laws of hospitality were violated by a promiscuous massacre; the board was spread over their fallen bodies; and the festivity of their guests were enlivened by the music of their dying groans.” History is not yet an exact science.

[331] Harun-ar-Rashid = Aaron the Just.--H. H. J.

[332] The Caliph’s Last Heritage.

[333] A General History of Europe.

[334] Alcohol as “spirits of wine” was known to Pliny (100 A.D.) The studentof the history of science should consult Campbell Brown’s History of Chemistry and check these statements in the text.

[335] Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Feudalism,” by Professor G. B. Adams.

[336] The Franks differed from the Swabians and South Germans, and came much nearer the Anglo-Saxons in that they spoke a “Low German” and not a “High German” dialect. Their language resembled plattdeutsch and Anglo-Saxon, and was the direct parent of Dutch and Flemish. In fact, the Franks where they were not Latinized became Flemings and “Dutchmen” of South Holland (North Holland is still Friesisch--i.e. Anglo-Saxon). The “French” which the Latinized Franks and Burgundians spoke in the seventh to the tenth centuries was remarkably like the Rumansch language of Switzerland, judging from the vestiges that remain in old documents.--H. H. J.

[337] A General History of Europe, Thatcher and Schwill.

[338] N. B.--Vik-ings, not Vi-kings. Vik = a fiord or inlet.

[339] Vide Stubbs’ History of Germany in the Middle Ages, and Bryce’s Holy Roman Empire.

[340] The Lateran was the earlier palace of the Popes in Rome. Later they occupied the Vatican.

[341] Eginhard’s Life of Karl the Great. (Glaister.)

[342] The addition was discreetly opposed by Leo III. “In the correspondence between them the Pope assumes the liberality of a statesman and the prince descends to the prejudice and passions of a priest.”--Gibbon, chap. lx.

[343] The Byzantine style in Gaul is, I fancy, much earlier than Charlemagne, and goes back to the 4th century or earlier. See Rivoira’s History of Lombard Architecture, or T. G. Jackson’s History of Gothic Architecture.--E. B.

[344] See L. Brechier, L’Eglise et l’Orient au Moyen Age.

[345] Gibbon mentions a second Theodora, the sister of Marozia.

[346] This period is a tangled one. The authority is Gregorovius, History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages (an excellent general book from A.D. 400 to 1527), vol. iii of the Eng. trans., p. 249 seq. John X owed the tiara to his mistress, the elder Theodora, but he was “the foremost statesman of his age” (Gregorovius, p. 259). He fell in 928 owing to Marozia. John XI became Pope in 931 (after two Popes had intervened in the period 928-931); he was Marozia’s son, possibly by Pope Sergius III. John XII did not come at once after John XI, who died in 936; there were several Popes in between; and he became Pope in 955.--E. B.

[347] There were three dynasties of emperors in the early Middle Ages:

Saxon: Otto I (962) to Henry II, ending 1024.

Salian: Conrad II to Henry V, ending about 1125.

Hohenstaufen: Conrad III to Frederic II, ending in 1250.

The Hohenstaufens were Swabian in origin. Then came the Habsburgs with Rudolph I in 1273, who lasted until 1918.

[348] These dates are from Gibbon. Beazley gives 865, 904-7, 935, 944, 971-2. (History of Russia, Clarendon Press.)

[349] “A Turkish people whose leaders had adopted Judaism,” says Harold Williams.

[350] For the development of the papacy, see H. W. C. Davis, Mediæval Europe.

[351] E. Barker, art. “Crusades,” Encyclopædia Britannica.

[352] Technically only twice, the excommunication of 1245 was a renewal by Innocent IV of that of 1239.--E. B.

[353] “The custody of the True Cross, which on Easter Sunday was solemnly exposed to the people, was entrusted to the Bishop of Jerusalem; and he alone might gratify the curious devotion of the pilgrims, by the gift of small pieces, which they encased in gold or gems, and carried away in triumph to their respective countries. But, as this gainful branch of commerce must soon have been annihilated, it was found convenient to suppose that the marvellous wood possessed a secret power of vegetation, and that its substance, though continually diminished, still remained entire and unimpaired.”--Gibbon.

[354] The Popes inhabited the palace of the Lateran until 1305, when a French Pope set up the papal court at Avignon. When the Pope returned to Rome in 1377 the Lateran was almost in ruins, and the palace of the Vatican became the seat of the papal court. It was, among other advantages, much nearer to the papal stronghold, the Castle of San Angelo.

[355] He was crowned emperor in 1220 by Honorius III, the successor of Innocent.

[356] Some authorities deny his authorship of this letter. See A. L. Smith’s Church and State in the Middle Ages.

[357] Perhaps parchment, rather than leather. Such promises on parchment were also used by the Carthaginians. Was Frederick’s money an inheritance from an old tradition living on in Sicily since Carthaginian times?--E. B.

[358] Encyclopædia Britannica, art. “Frederick II.”

[359] In relation to this section, see the chapter on the “Unity of the Middle Ages” in F. S. Marvin’s Unity of Western Civilization.

[360] See Paul Sabatier’s Vie de S. Francois d’Assise (English trans. by Houghton).

[361] Encyclopædia Britannica, art. “Dominic.”

[362] J. H. Robinson.

[363] Sir Mark Sykes, The Caliphs’ Last Heritage.

[364] Sir Mark Sykes, The Caliphs’ Last Heritage.

[365] But see Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. I.

[366] See Beazley, Forbes and Birkett’s Russia for a fuller account of the Cossacks and also see later chap. xxxvi, § 10.

[367] See Malleson’s Akbar, in the Rulers of India series.

[368] “Mogul” is our crude rendering of the Arabic spelling Mughal, which itself was a corruption of Mongol, the Arabic alphabet having no symbol for ng.--H. H. J.

[369] Dr. Schmit in Helmolt’s History of the World.

[370] I do not think this is fair. See Edinburgh Review for January, 1920, article on Calcutta University Commission.--E. B.

But popular education!--H. G. W.

[371] Renascence here means rebirth, and it is applied to the recovery of the entire Western world. It is not to be confused with “the Renaissance,” an educational, literary, and artistic revival that went on in Italy and the Western world affected by Italy during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Renaissance was only a part of the Renascence of Europe. The Renaissance was a revival due to the exhumation of classical art and learning; it was but one factor in the very much larger and more complicated resurrection of European capacity and vigour, with which we are dealing in this chapter.

[372] The early Frankish and other German kings were not elective. They were hereditary; but as there was no primogeniture, there was either partition among the sons, or a struggle to decide which son or relative should succeed. In such a struggle the nobles might take part, and this might mean some form of election. But heredity is the thing: reges ex nobilitate sumunt, says Tacitus: the king must have the nobility of being Woden-born, or he cannot be king. The genealogies of our early Saxon kings all go back to Woden, and George V is Woden-born.--E. B.

[373] But the Jews were already holding their community together by systematic education at least as early as the beginning of the Christian era.

[374] The Greeks had this idea.--E. B.

[375] I do not think this is just. The Anglo-Saxons were not anti-monastic. They were converted by Benedictine monks in 600; just after 700 they sent out monks to convert Germany; about 960, under Dunstan and Edgar, they experienced a monastic revival. The Normans after 1066 introduced the Cluniac and Cistercian orders, and spread monasticism, while the earlier Northmen, after 900, were quite favourable to the Church in England.

Note that Gregory’s imposition of celibacy on the clergy was accepted, and willingly accepted, by the contemporary lay world. William the Conqueror, through Archbishop Lanfranc, enforced celibacy in England.--E. B.

[376] Wycliffe believed in a real presence--but he held that it was spiritual and not substantial. The host was two things--bread, and at the same time a spiritual Christ. This is not the “memorial” view.--E. B.

[377] Lützow’s Bohemia.

[378] Dr. C. O. Stallybrass says that this plague reached China thirty or forty years after its first appearance in Europe. Ibn Batuta, the Arab traveller, who was in China from 1342 to 1346, first met with it on his return to Damascus. The Black Death is the human form of a disease endemic among the jerboas and other small rodents in the districts round the head of the Caspian Sea.

[379] The seeds of conflict which grew up into the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 were sown upon ground which is strangely familiar to any writer in 1920. A European catastrophe had reduced production and consequently increased the earnings of workers and traders. Rural wages had risen by 48 per cent in England, when an unwise executive endeavored to enforce in the Ordinance and Statute of Labourers (1350-51) a return to the pre-plague wages and prices of 1346, and aimed a blow in the Statute of 1378 against labour combinations. The villeins were driven to desperation by the loss of their recent increase of comfort, and the outbreak came, as Froissart saw it from the angle of the Court, “all through the too great comfort of the commonalty.” Other ingredients which entered into the outbreak were the resentment felt by the new working class at the restrictions imposed on its right to combine, the objection of the lower clergy to papal taxes, and a frank dislike of foreigners and landlords. There was no touch of Wycliffe’s influence in the rising. It was at its feeblest in Leicestershire, and it murdered one of the only other Liberal churchmen in England.--P. G.

[380] See article “Typography” in the Encyclo. Brit.

[381] Standard Italian dates from Dante (1300); standard English from Chaucer and Wycliffe (1380); standard German from Luther (1520).--E. B.

[382] But Nonconformity was stamped out in Germany. See § 11 B of this chapter.

[383] “If I were writing a history of democracy,” comments E. B., “I should deal first with democracy in religion, which is Calvinism, founded by a great Frenchman at Geneva, and then with democracy in politics, which is the French Revolution, inaugurated by another great Frenchman at Geneva, Rousseau. (The parallel of these two is striking--both typical exponents of the French genius, in its ardent logic and its apostolic fervour which gives in a burning lava to the world the findings of its logic.) It is noticeable in England how democracy in religion (Presbyterianism, which is simply Calvinism, plus Independency or Congregationalism) leads straight under the Stuarts to the English democratic ideas of the seventeenth century. I do not think the democratic element in Protestantism is sufficiently appreciated in the text. Even Luther, in the early days of 1520, could write The Freedom of a Christian Man and champion the priesthood of each believer and his direct access to his Maker. Luther, it is true, changed by 1525, and became a monarchist, the apostle of a state religion, under a godly prince who was summus episcopus. Anglicanism was from the first a monarchist religion, under a Henry VIII who was supremum caput. But if Lutheranism became, and Anglicanism was from the first, a religion of the State, Calvinism was always the religion of resistance to the State--in Holland and in Scotland most especially. The Reformation thus produced two opposite effects in politics; so far as it was Lutheran and Anglican it was monarchist; so far as it was Calvinistic, it was democratic. It is at first sight curious, but it is really quite natural, that the Catholics of the counter-reformation should also have been democratic. The Catholics could not admit the control of the monarch in the sphere of religion any more than the Calvinist; and here, as in other things (e.g. in the claim to possession of infallible truth), the Catholic priest and the Calvinistic presbyter were agreed. Filmer, an exponent of Anglican monarchism, expresses this well when he says, in speaking of the doctrine of a social contract, that ‘Cardinal Bellarmine and Calvin both look asquint this way.’ For the doctrine of a social contract was the democratic doctrine put forward by Catholics and Calvinists in opposition to the Lutheran and Anglican doctrine of divine right.”

[384] Aristotle’s Organon, or logic, had always been in part known to the West and was known as a whole after about 1130. In the thirteenth century the rest of his writings became known, in two ways. One way was that of direct translation from the Greek into Latin: it was in this way that St. Thomas Aquinas knew the Ethics and the Politics (the latter translated about 1260 by William of Moerbeke, Archbishop of Corinth in the Latin Empire of Constantinople started under Baldwin of Flanders in 1204, and a Fleming himself). The other way was that of indirect translation, that is to say, of translations of Arabic paraphrases of, or commentaries on, the works of Aristotle, such as had been made by Averroes and by Avicenna before him. It was Aristotle’s Physics and (I think) Metaphysics that first became known in this way. In this latter way the West received a version of Aristotle which, like Bottom the Weaver, was strangely “translated.” Sometimes translations were made direct from Arabic into Latin; sometimes they were made first into Hebrew, and then new translations were made from Hebrew into Latin. As the Arabic version of Aristotle was not always itself direct, but sometimes made from Syriac versions of the Greek, confusion became confounded. The Latin translations of the Arabic Aristotle sometimes contained not translation, but transliteration of Arabic words or sentences; and Roger Bacon very naturally objected to their unintelligibility. What is more, Aristotle’s views, as well as his words, were transmogrified in the process. But the important thing is that for Aristotle’s Organon, Ethics, and Politics there were direct translations from the Greek. (See Sandys’ History of Classical Scholarship and Renan’s Averroes et l’Averroisme.)--E. B.

[385] I do not agree with this paragraph. In the first sentence things are alleged about Realism which are not justified. It was the philosophy of the priests and most humane thinkers of the Middle Ages, of St. Anselm and of John Wycliffe. Nor is it true that Realism was the philosophy of the church. It was, in the early Middle Ages; but after Occam (1330) Nominalism triumphed, and was the philosophy of the church till the Reformation. Luther denounced Nominalism.--E. B.

[386] Encyclopædia Britannica, article “Scholasticism.”

[387] The Medieval Mind, by Henry Osborn Taylor.

[388] This gives a wrong impression about Nominalism, that it was banned in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The contrary is the case. The attempt of 1339 came to nothing; that of 1473 was belated and unsuccessful. Except Wycliffe, there is no considerable thinker of these centuries, so far as I know, who is not Nominalist. The triumph of Nominalism was no unmixed benefit. Its insistence on study of the individual was indeed favourable to natural science; and Harnack says that it led to good work in psychology. But its nescience about Universals led to obscurantism in theology. Wycliffe as a Realist could hold that God acted secundum rationes exemplares, by certain and known universal rules; the Nominalists reduced God to inscrutable omnipotence. They went on to add that He could therefore only be known at all by the miraculous intervention of the mass through the priesthood. Their scepticism about Universals thus overleapt itself, and fell on the other side, into obscurantist ecclesiasticism.--E. B.

[389] Cp. chap. ii, § 1, towards the end.

[390] See Gregory’s Discovery, chap. vi.

[391] Not from 1340-1360, under Edward III, but later under Henry V, 1413-1422.--E. B.

Edward had Flemish and Bavarian allies.--H. G. W.

[392] From Dr. Tille in Helmolt’s History of the World.

[393] Charles Dickens in his American Notes mentions swine in Broadway, New York, in the middle nineteenth century.

[394] In these maritime adventures in the eastern Atlantic and the west African coast the Portuguese were preceded in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and early fifteenth centuries by Normans, Catalonians, and Genoese. See Raymond Beazley, History of Exploration in the Middle Ages.--H. H. J.

[395] See Guillemard’s Ferdinand Magellan.

[396] For an interesting account of these American civilizations, see L. Spence, The Civilization of Ancient Mexico and Myths of Mexico and Peru.

[397] See Prescott’s History of the Conquest of Mexico and his History of the Conquest of Peru.

[398] See Cunninghame Graham’s A Vanished Arcadia.

[399] Machiavelli examines the causes of Cæsar’s collapse, but he holds that it was due to fortuna, against which Cæsar’s virtú could not prevail.--E. B.

[400] E. B. writes as follows: “I think better of Machiavelli than you do, and especially on two points. (1) He raises a real issue--whether, when a crisis besets the State, the ruler is not bound to abandon the rules of private morality, if by doing so he can preserve the State. If he abandons those rules, he does wrong--and Machiavelli admits that--but, at the same time, as the agent and organ of the State, he does right by preserving it, so far, at any rate, as it is right that it should be preserved. This is a real issue, which one cannot simply dismiss. E.g., all war is wrong, by the rules of private morality, because it is killing; but it may have a qualified and conditioned rightness if it is necessary to preserve the State, and if the State, as a scheme of good life, ought to be preserved. (2) Machiavelli did believe in the people. He only exalts the new prince, who arises to restore order and security in a troubled State. In normal times he believes that the people is a good judge of men: that ‘better than many fortresses is not to be hated by the people’; that the trite proverb, ‘He who founds himself on the people founds himself on mud,’ is untrue, except as applied to demagogues.”

[401] But he had a better reason for doing this in the fact that there was no heir to the throne. The Wars of the Roses, a bitter dynastic war, were still very vivid in the minds of English people.--F. H. H.

[402] Prescott’s Appendix to Robertson’s History of Charles V.

[403] Prescott.

[404] It was private conscience, rather than private property, that quarrelled with and limited princes. The Puritan Revolution in England (1640-1660) was a puritan revolution--it sprang from the religious motive first and foremost. The economic motive was secondary. The “economic interpretation of history” is always tempting, but men’s souls have always mattered more than their pockets. Englishmen fought Charles I for the sake of free consciences rather than for the sake of free pockets. This is a large issue, on which much could be written; but I feel sure that religion came first in our Civil War.--E. B.

I do not agree. Loath as I am to differ from E. B., I can find no evidence of any religious issue as important as the issue of taxation either in the English Civil War or the American War of Independence.--H. G. W.

I did not mention the Americans. I will surrender them to H. G. W.--E. B.

[405] Englishmen did try to control the foreign policy of James I, because it involved questions of religion, and because their primary concern was religious. They wanted foreign policy to be directed to the militant defence of Protestantism. James I, a good internationalist (in his way), and at any rate a lover of peace, wanted to secure European peace by diplomacy--and failed to do so. His parliaments, and all seventeenth-century parliaments, were vitally interested in foreign policy.--E. B.

[406] A very good general history of Great Britain, too little known as yet, is A. D. Innes’ History of the British Nation (1912).

[407] This is not the same Simon de Montfort as the leader of the crusades against the Albigenses, but his son.

[408] But Sir Joshua Reynolds, Hogarth, Gray, Gibbon, for instance!--G. M. And the golden age of the great cabinet-makers!--P. G.

Exactly! Culture taking refuge in the portraits, libraries, and households of a few rich people. No national culture in the court, nor among the commonalty; a steady decay.--H. G. W.