The Nuttall encyclopædia (part 6 of 10)

The Nuttall encyclopædia (part 6 of 10)

HERDER, an eminent German thinker, born at Mohrungen, in East Prussia; studied philosophy under Kant, but gave himself up chiefly to literature; became acquainted at Strasburg with Goethe, who was five years his junior, and exercised a great influence over him in his youth; in after years was invited by him to Weimar, where he became court preacher and consistorial councillor, and where he died; wrote the "Spirit of Hebrew Poetry," "Ideas towards a Philosophy of the History of Humanity," and "Poems" (1744-1803).

HEREFORD (20), the county town of Herefordshire, on the Wye, 144 m. NW. of London; has some fine old buildings, including a noble cathedral begun in 1079, ruins of a castle, &c.; it was made the seat of a bishopric in 676; it is noted for its roses and agricultural produce.

HEREFORDSHIRE (116), an inland county of West England, lying on the Welsh border between Shropshire and Monmouthshire; it is a pretty agricultural county, through the centre of which runs the Wye; in the E. are the Malvern Hills and in the SW. the Black Mountains (2631 ft); the rich red soil produces fine wheat, hops, and apples; there is some trade in timber, some stone and marble quarrying, and the cattle are noted; its history is associated with many stirring historical events, and in various parts are antiquities of considerable interest.

HERENNIUS, a Samnite general, who defeated the Romans at the Caudine Forks, and made them pass under the yoke, 321 B.C.

HEREWARD THE WAKE, a Saxon hero, a yeoman, who made a gallant effort to rally his countrymen against the Norman Conqueror; he made his final stand on the Isle of Ely, Cambridgeshire (1070-71), cut his way through the besieging army, and escaped to the Fens; subsequently it is supposed he became reconciled to William and held estates.

HERFORD (16), a Prussian town in Westphalia, 59 m. SW. of Hanover; manufactures textiles, sugar, &c.

HERGEST, THE RED BOOK OF, an important volume of Welsh writings in MS., preserved at Oxford; it dates from the 14th century; was compiled at Hergest Court, and is the most valuable Welsh MS. extant.

HERIOT, GEORGE, founder of Heriot's Hospital, a splendid educational establishment in his native city, Edinburgh; was a prosperous goldsmith there; did work for Anne of Denmark, consort of James VI. of Scotland; in 1603 removed with the court to London and combining banking with his other business, he amassed a great fortune, and, dying childless, left his property to found and endow the educational institution referred to, and which still bears his name; in 1837 the accumulated surplus funds were utilised in establishing 10 free schools in Edinburgh, which, however, were closed in 1885, and the original Hospital reconstructed as a secondary and technical school, while a portion of the funds was used in subsidising the Heriot-Watt College and in founding bursaries (1563-1624).

HÉRISTAL (12), a town of Belgium, on the Meuse, practically a NE. suburb of Liège; the inhabitants are largely employed in coal-mining and in flourishing iron-works; the ruins of a castle, the birthplace of Pépin d'Héristal, still remains.

HERKOMER, HUBERT, artist, born at Waal, Bavaria; his father removing to England in 1857, young Hubert became a distinguished student of the Southampton School of Art; he has been a prolific artist, and many of his portraits have become celebrated; the "Last Muster" (1875) is reckoned his finest work; he has been twice Slade professor at Oxford, and in 1890 was elected R.A.; the School of Art at Bushey was founded by him, and he has displayed his versatility of talent in carving, engraving, and writing, as well as in painting; b. 1849.

HERMANDAD, SANTA (i. e. Holy Brotherhood), an association of the principal cities of Spain leagued together at first against the pillagings and robberies of the nobles, and eventually against all forms of violence and lawlessness in the State.

HERMANN AND DOROTHEA, the title of an idyll by Goethe.

HERMANNSTADT (22), an old historic town of Hungary, formerly capital of Transylvania; overlooks the Zibin; 60 m. SE. of Klausenburg; is the seat of a Greek archbishop and of a "Saxon" university. Amongst its notable buildings is the Bruckenthal Palace, with valuable art, library, and antiquarian collections; has various manufactures.

HERMAS, one of the Apostolic Fathers of the Church; wrote a work in Greek called the "Shepherd of Hermas," extant in Latin, and treating of Christian duties.

HERMES, the Mercury of the Romans; in the Greek mythology the herald of the gods and the god of eloquence and of all kinds of cunning and dexterity in word and action; invented the lyre, the alphabet, numbers, astronomy, music, the cultivation of the olive, &c.; was the son of Zeus and Maia; wore on embassy a winged cap, winged sandals, and carried a herald's wand as symbol of his office.

HERMES TRISMEGISTUS, or the Thrice-greatest, an Egyptian or Egyptian god to whose teachings or inspirations the Neo-Platonists ascribed the great body of their peculiar doctrines, and whom they regarded as an incarnation or impersonation of the Logos.

HERMI`ONE, the beautiful daughter of Menelaus and Helen; married to Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, but carried off by Orestes, her first love.

HERMODEUS, a son of Odin and messenger of the Norse gods.

HERNIA, the name given to the protrusion of an internal organ, specially a part of the intestines.

HERO, a priestess of Venus at Sestos, in Thrace, beloved by Leander of Abydos, on the opposite shore, who swam the Hellespont every night to visit her, but was drowned one stormy evening, whereupon at sight of his dead body on the beach she threw herself into the sea.

HERO, a mathematician, born at Alexandria in the first half of the 2nd century; celebrated for his experiments on condensed air, and his anticipation of the pressure of steam.

HERO, a name given by the Greeks to human beings of such superhuman faculties as to be regarded the offspring of some god, and applied in modern times to men of an intellect and force of character of such transcendent nature as to inspire ordinary mortals with something like religious regard.

HEROD, the name of a family of Idumæan origin but Jewish creed, who rose into power in Judea shortly prior to the dissolution of the Jewish nationality; the chief members of which were HEROD THE GREAT, king of the Jews by favour of the Romans, who made away with all his rivals, caused his own children to be strangled on suspicion of their conspiring against him, and died a painful death; who massacred the Innocents about Bethlehem, and whose death took place 4 B.C., the true date of the Nativity of Christ: and HEROD ANTIPAS, his son, tetrarch of Galilee, who beheaded John the Baptist, and to whom Christ was remitted by Pilate for examination, and who died in exile at Lyons.

HERODIANS, a party in Judea who from motives of self-interest supported the dynasty of the Herods.

HERODOTUS, the oldest historian of Greece, and the "Father of History," born at Halicarnassus, in Caria, between 490 and 480 B.C.; travelled over Asia Minor, Egypt, and Syria as far as Babylon, and in his old age recorded with due fidelity the fruits of his observations and inquiries, the main object of his work being to relate the successive stages of the strife between the free civilisation of Greece and the despotic barbarism of Persia for the sovereignty of the world, an interest in which Alexander the Great drew sword in the century following (484-408 B.C.).

HEROPHILUS, a celebrated Greek physician who lived into the 3rd century B.C., born at Chalcedon, and settled at Alexandria, where he devoted himself specially to anatomy and helped to found the medical school in that city; his zeal is said to have led him to dissect criminals alive; some of his writings are yet extant.

HERRERA, ANTONIO, Spanish historian, born at Cuellar; under Philip II. he became historiographer of the Indies and Castile; he was a voluminous writer, and his "Description of the Indies," "History of the World in the Reign of Philip II.," from their fairness and accuracy are reckoned authoritative works on Spanish history (1549-1625).

HERRERA, FERNANDO DE, Spanish poet, born at Seville, and took orders; in his lifetime his lyrics enjoyed a wide popularity, and won for him the epithet "divine"; his "Battle of Lepanto" is a spirited ode, and many of his other works, including a prose history of the "War in Cyprus," are still read (1534-1597).

HERRERA, FRANCISCO, a distinguished Spanish painter, founder of the Seville school, born at Seville; his finest paintings include "The Last Judgment" and a "Holy Family," both in churches at Seville; others are in the Louvre, Paris; they exhibit boldness of execution with faultless technique (1576-1656). He is known as El viejo, "the elder," to distinguish him from FRANCISCO HERRERA, his son, also a noted painter (1622-1685).

HERRICK, ROBERT, a Caroline poet, born in London, of good family; was incumbent of Dean Prior in Devonshire; author of the "Hesperides," published in 1648, a collection of "gay and charming" pieces, "in which," says Stopford Brooke, "Horace and Tibullus seem to mingle their peculiar art, which never misses its aim nor fails in exquisite execution" (1591-1674).

HERRNHUT, a small Saxon town, 50 m. E. of Dresden; gave name to a colony of Moravian Brethren who took refuge there in 1792, and were protected by Count Zinzendorf.

HERSCHEL, SIR JOHN, astronomer, only son of Sir William; prosecuted with great diligence and success the same researches as his father; spent four years at the Cape, and added much to our knowledge of the stars and meteorology; contributed a "Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy" to Lardner's "Cyclopædia," and an excellent "Treatise on Astronomy," afterwards extended (1790-1871).

HERSCHEL, LUCRETIA, sister of the succeeding; was his assistant, and made important observations of her own, which were published; retired after her brother's death to Hanover, where she died (1750-1848).

HERSCHEL, SIR WILLIAM, a distinguished astronomer, born at Hanover; son of a musician, and bred to the profession; came to England at the end of the Seven Years' War, and obtained sundry appointments as an organist; gave his leisure time to the study of astronomy and survey of the heavens; discovered the planet Uranus in 1781, which he called Georgium sidus in honour of George III., discovered also the two innermost belts of Saturn, as well as drew up a catalogue of 5000 heavenly bodies or clusters of them (1738-1822).

HERTFORD (7), the county town of Hertfordshire, on the Lea, 26 m. N. of London; some few remains of its famous 10th-century castle still exist, and there are several charity schools, a castle built in James I.'s time, and a branch of Christ's Hospital (London); the chief trade is in corn, malt, and flour; in the vicinity is HAILEYBURY COLLEGE (q. v.).

HERTFORDSHIRE or HERTS (220), an inland county of England, occupying a central position between Buckingham and Bedford on the W. and Essex on the E.; the surface is undulating and much covered with wood; the Lea and the Colne are the chief rivers; large crops of barley, wheat, and hay are raised; straw-plaiting and the manufacture of paper, silk, and chemicals are carried on extensively, while Ware is the centre of the English malting trade; ST. ALBANS (q. v.) is the largest town.

HERTHA, the Scandinavian Cybele, and worshipped with kindred ceremonies.

HERTZ, HENRIK, Danish poet, born in Copenhagen of Jewish parents; graduated in law at Copenhagen, and produced his first work, a comedy, in 1827; "Letters of a Ghost," a satire, followed three years later, and had a wide vogue; his best-known work is "King René's Daughter," which has been translated into English for the fourth time by Sir Theodore Martin; he is considered one of the greatest of modern Danish lyrists and dramatists (1798-1870).

HERVEY, JAMES, clergyman and poet, born at Hardingstone, near Northampton; graduated at Oxford; became curate and subsequently the zealous incumbent of two livings near Northampton; was the author of "Meditations among the Tombs"; was held in great popular favour during his lifetime (1714-1758).

HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD, a Prussian general; came to the front during the war of liberation, and in 1864 as general captured the Isle of Alsen, and two years later operated with great success at the head of the army in Saxony and Bohemia; during the Franco-German War he became governor of the Rhine provinces and a field-marshal (1796-1884).

HERZ, HENRI, pianist and composer, born in Vienna, the son of a Jew; his compositions attained a wide popularity in Europe, and as a pianist he was received with great favour in England and America; he was decorated with the Legion of Honour, and from 1842 to 1874 was professor at the Paris Conservatoire; b. 1806.

HERZEN, ALEXANDER, a Russian political writer and revolutionary, born at Moscow; expelled from Russia in 1842; settled in England, and published works forbidden in Russia (1812-1870).

HESIOD, one of the earliest Greek poets, born in Boeotia, lived in the 8th century B.C., chiefly at Orchomenos, probably of humble birth; of the works ascribed to him the principal were the "Works and Days" the "Theogony," and the "Shield of Hercules"; his poems treat of the quiet pursuits of ordinary life, the origin of the world, the gods and heroes, while those of Homer are occupied with the restless and active enterprises of the heroic age.

HESPERIDES, maidens of high degree appointed to guard the golden apples presented to Hera by Gaia on her marriage with Zeus, assisted in their office by the dragon Ladon; the apples were stolen by Hercules, but were afterwards restored by Athene.

HESPERUS, the personification of the evening star and an object of worship.

HESSE or HESSE-DARMSTADT (993), a grand-duchy of the German empire, lies partly in, and partly on the border of, SW. Prussia; consists of two large portions, divided by a strip of Hesse-Nassau, and 11 enclaves; half the land is under cultivation, and the greater part of what remains is covered with forest; its many rivers belong mostly to the Rhine system; corn is raised in large quantities, iron and manganese are found, and there are flourishing manufactures of leather, upholstery, tobacco, &c.; the legislative power is vested in two chambers; Mainz is the largest town, and Darmstadt the capital.

HESSE-CASSEL (745), a government district in HESSE-NASSAU (q. v.); as an electorate it sided with Austria in 1866, which brought about its incorporation with Prussia.

HESSE-NASSAU (1,664), a province in the SW. of Germany, between the Rhine on the W. and Bavaria and Saxony on the E.; was formed in 1868 out of the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, duchy of Nassau, &c.; the country is hilly, abounds in minerals, which are extensively worked, but agriculture and cattle-rearing are the chief industries; the medicinal springs of Homburg, Wiesbaden, &c., are celebrated; Cassel is noted for its gold and silver ware; damasks and other textiles are produced at Fulda, and at Hanau are flourishing iron-works; Marburg has a fine university.

HESTIA, called Vesta by the Romans, the Greek goddess of the hearth, or rather the fire that burns in it, the guardian of domestic life, conceived of as a most sacred charge.

HESYCHASTS, a religious sect of the 14th century belonging to the Greek Church; consisted chiefly of a community of monks who dwelt at Mount Athos; they professed a kind of QUIETISM (q. v.), and were noted for their practice of sitting for hours daily with their eyes fixed upon the navel (regarding the stomach as the seat of the soul); in this position they professed to see a divine light beaming out upon them, and to enjoy therein a specially intimate communion with God. See ATHOS, MOUNT.

HESYCHIUS, a Greek grammarian of the 5th century, born at Alexandria; produced a Greek lexicon of great philological value.

HEUSCHRECKE, HOFRATH (i. e. State-Councillor Grasshopper), a loose, zigzag figure in "Sartor," a mend and blind admirer of Teufelsdröckh's, an incarnation of distraction distracted, and all the counsellor the "editor" had to advise him and encourage him in his work; a victim to "timidity" and preyed on by an uncomfortable sense of mere "physical cold," such as the majority of the State counsellors of the day were.

HEXATEUCH, the name given to the first six books of the Bible.

HEXHAM (6), an interesting old town in Northumberland, prettily situated on the Tyne, 24 m. W. of Newcastle; has a fine cruciform abbey church, portions of which belong to the 12th century, and beautiful remains of a 7th-century monastery; the staple industries are glove and hat making; the river is spanned by a stone bridge of nine arches.

HEYLIN, PETER, English divine, born at Burford; graduated at Oxford, and in 1629 became chaplain-in-ordinary to Charles I.; was a zealous champion of the Church of England; forfeited his livings and property during the Puritan ascendency, but was reinstated at the Restoration; he wrote a "Defence of the Church of England," "Life of Bishop Laud," &c. (1600-1662).

HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB, a German classical scholar, born at Chemnitz, son of a poor weaver, and reared all along almost on the verge of destitution; became eminent by his heroic devotion to scholarship, both as a translator and editor of classical works, his edition of "Virgil" the chief in the latter department; Carlyle almost ranks him among his heroes, and ascribes superlative merit to his book on Virgil (1729-1812).

HEYSE, PAUL JOHANN, German poet and novelist, born at Berlin; in 1854 he settled at Münich, where he enjoyed the patronage of King Max of Bavaria; he has been a voluminous writer of popular novelettes, novels, dramas, and narrative poems, besides which he has executed translations of Leopardi, Giusti, and other Italian authors; b. 1830.

HEYWOOD (23), a town of Lancashire, 9 m. N. of Manchester; owes its rapid growth to the neighbouring coal-fields and the development of the cotton industry; has also flourishing iron and brass foundries, woollen factories, &c.

HEYWOOD, JOHN, a dramatic poet, a favourite with Henry VIII. and his court; wrote farces, the characters of which were drawn from real life, presumably not hard to identify at the time (1479-1565).

HEZEKIAH, a king of Judah; reigned from 725 to 697 B.C.; distinguished for his zeal in the celebration of the worship of Jehovah and for his weakness in making a parade of his wealth; reigned in the golden age of Hebrew prophecy, Isaiah and Micah being his contemporaries.

HIAWATHA, the subject of a poem of Longfellow's; a personage reverenced by the North American Indians as the founder among them of the arts of peace, as well as the clearer of the forests.

HIBBERT LECTURES, unsectarian lectures instituted by the trustees of Robert Hibbert, a West India merchant, devoted to the discussion of unsolved problems in theology.

HIBERNIA, the classical name for Ireland, which to the ancient world was in the main a terra incognita.

HICKS, ELIAS, an American preacher of the Quaker connection, who adopted Unitarian views and caused a split in the body (1748-1830).

HICKS-BEACH, SIR MICHAEL EDWARD, Conservative politician, born in London; educated at Eton and Oxford, and in 1864 entered Parliament; took office as Under-Secretary for Home Affairs under Disraeli, and in 1874 became Secretary for Ireland; four years later he was Lord Carnarvon's successor at the Colonial Office, Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons in 1885, Secretary for Ireland in 1886, President of the Board of Trade in 1888, and in 1895, on the formation of a Coalition Ministry, again became Chancellor of the Exchequer; b. 1837.

HIERAPOLIS, 1, an ancient city of Syria Cyrrhestica, now in ruins, situated between Antioch and Mesopotamia, 14 m. W. of the Euphrates; had considerable commercial importance, and was famous for its great temple of Astarte. 2, A city of ancient Phrygia, 5 m. N. of Laodicea; the birthplace of Epictetus, and where Paul founded a church; was celebrated for its hot springs.

HIERO I., tyrant of Syracuse; broke the naval power of Etruria by victory over the Etruscan fleet near Cannæ, 474 B.C.; was an enlightened patron of men of letters, many of whom he entertained at his court, Æschylus, Pindar, and Simonides among the number; d. 467 B.C.

HIERO II., king of Syracuse, for near half a century the steadfast friend and ally of the Romans; unlike his namesake he was averse to display, and was accustomed to appear in public in the garb of a common citizen; he ruled his country well; d. 216 B.C. at the age of 92.

HIERONYMUS. See JEROME.

HIGDEN, RALPH, author of the "Polychronicon"; was a Benedictine monk, who spent his long life in St. Werburgh's monastery, Chester; the work with which his name is associated is an account of the world down to the end of Edward III.'s reign, but the chronicle of the last 50 years is supposed to have been written by other hands; Caxton published a translation made by John Trevisa; d. about 1307.

HIGGINS, MATTHEW JAMES, essayist, wrote under the nom de plume of "Jacob Omnium," born at Benown, Ireland; was educated at Eton and Oxford, and spent many years in European travel; his numerous papers, which appeared in the leading magazines and newspapers, were principally directed against social abuses, and are characterised by a humour and pungent irony not unlike his friend Thackeray's (1810-1868).

HIGGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH, an American author and abolitionist, born at Cambridge, Massachusetts; graduated at Harvard, and took orders, but resigned in 1858 to devote himself to politics in the anti-slavery interest; during the Civil War he commanded the first regiment of freed slaves; subsequently he resumed literary work, and in 1880 became a member of the Massachusetts Legislature; he wrote a "History of the United States," "Army Life in a Black Regiment," &c.; b. 1823.

HIGH CHURCH, that section of the Episcopal Church in England who attach supreme importance to the administration of word and sacrament by clergy duly ordained, and regarded by them as such, the sole divinely appointed media of divine grace.

HIGH PLACES, elevated spots on which altars were erected for worship in the rude belief that, as they were nearer heaven than the plains and valleys, they were more favourable places for prayer. The practice of worship on these spots, though from the first forbidden, became frequent among the Jews, and was with difficulty abolished, though denounced time after time by the prophets as an affront to Jehovah.

HIGH SEAS, as understood in international law means the entire sea or ocean area which lies beyond a three-mile belt of coast water. This coastal strip is called the mare clausum, and the rights of fishing, &c., in it are reserved to the country upon which it borders.

HIGHGATE, a noted suburb of London, 5 m. N. of the General Post-Office; the burial-place of Coleridge, George Eliot, and Faraday. Dick Whittington's Stone is at the foot of Highgate Hill.

HILARION, ST., founder of monachism in Palestine; was a convert of St. Anthony, and of great repute for sanctity (291-372). Festival, Oct. 21.

HILARY, ST., bishop of Poitiers, of which he was a native; distinguished himself by his zeal against the Arians; his writings valuable in connection with that controversy; d. 367. Festival, Jan. 13.

HILDEBRAND. See GREGORY VII.

HILDESHEIM (33), a town in Hanover, Prussia, on the Innerste, 24 m. SE. of Hanover; is a quaint old town, and has several ancient churches, notably a noble cathedral of the 11th century, with famous bronze gates; trades in corn, linen, &c.

HILL, REV. ROWLAND, a popular but eccentric preacher, born in Hawkeston, the son of a baronet, came under the influence of Whitfield and the Methodist movement, and while yet an undergraduate became an itinerant preacher; he took orders in 1774; but continued his open-air preaching till 1783, when he established himself in London, starting an unlicensed place of worship, although still remaining a communicant of the Church of England; he originated the first Sunday School in London, and was the author of several religious works, including a volume of hymns (1744-1833).

HILL, SIR ROWLAND, originator of the penny postage, born at Kidderminster; commenced life as a teacher and educationist; interested himself in the colonisation of South Australia, and held a post in connection with it; published in 1837 his pamphlet, "Post-Office Reforms," and saw his scheme of uniform postage rate adopted three years after, though not till 1354 did he become secretary to the Postmaster-General or have full power and opportunity to carry his views out (1795-1879).

HILL, VISCOUNT, British general, born in Shropshire; entered the army at fifteen, served under Sir John Moore, and under the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsula and at Waterloo, where he commanded a division; succeeded Wellington in 1828 as commander-in-chief (1772-1842).

HILLEL, an eminent and influential Jewish Rabbi, born in Babylon about 112 B.C.; devoted his life to the study of the Jewish law, formed a digest of it, and founded a school; was a good and wise man and teacher; died at a great age, 120 years old it is said.

HIMALAYAS ("the abode of snow"), a stupendous mountain chain stretching 1500 m. along the northern frontier of India, and dividing that country from Thibet; forty-five of its peaks attain a greater height than those of any other mountain system in the world; Mount Everest, the loftiest, reaches 29,002 ft.; the best-known pass is the Karakoram Pass (18,550 ft.), leading into Eastern Turkestan; there are few lakes, but amid the snowy heights rise the rivers Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, &c.; gold, iron, copper, and lead are wrought.

HINCKLEY (10), a nicely built town of Leicestershire, 13 m. W. of Leicester; has an interesting old parish church of Edward III.'s time; does a good trade in hosiery, baskets, boots, &c.

HINC`MAR, a famous Frankish churchman; was appointed archbishop of Rheims, in which capacity he maintained an independent attitude towards the Papal See, and distinguished himself as a champion of ecclesiastical liberty (806-882).

HIND, JOHN RUSSELL, an eminent astronomer, born at Nottingham; at 17 he obtained a post in the Greenwich Observatory; subsequently became observer in Mr. Bishop's private observatory, Regent's Park, where his untiring assiduity was rewarded by the discovery of several new movable stars and 10 minor planets; he received various honours from societies; was President of the Royal Astronomical Society, and in 1852 was pensioned by Government; his works include "The Comets," "The Solar System," &c. (1823-1895).

HINDLEY (19), a busy manufacturing town in Lancashire, 3 m. SE. of Wigan; the staple industry is the manufacture of cotton; in the vicinity are large coal-mines.

HINDU KUSH, a lofty mountain range stretching 365 m. from the western extremity of the Himalayas, from which it is cut off by the valley of the Indus into Afghanistan, which it divides from Turkestan; it attains an elevation of 23,000 ft.; is crossed by several passes, and is rich in minerals, especially iron; the tribes that inhabit it are chiefly Shins and Dards.

HINDUISM, the name given to certain forms of religion among the Hindus, the characteristics of which are the worship of divinities exalted above the rest, and the highly concrete and intensely personal conception of these, which comes out in sundry accounts respecting them of a biographical nature which divinities are identified either with Çiva or Vishnu, and their religions called Çivaite or Vishnuite, while their respective followers are styled Çaivas or Vishnavas.

HINDUSTAN, a name sometimes loosely applied to the entire Indian peninsula, but which, strictly speaking, embraces only the country of the upper valley of the Ganges, divided into NW. Provinces, Oude, and Behar; the language spoken is Hindi, a pure Sanskritic tongue, on which Hindustani is based, but with large Persian and Arabic admixtures.

HINDUSTANI, the official and common language of India.

HINTON, JAMES, aurist and metaphysician, born at Reading; after taking his degree was for some time at sea and in Jamaica, but in 1850 established himself in London; specialising in ear-diseases he rose to the top of his profession, becoming lecturer at Guy's Hospital; his leisure was earnestly devoted to philosophy, and gave fruit in "Man and his Dwelling-Place," "The Mystery of Pain," "Philosophy and Religion," &c. (1822-1875).

HIOUEN-THSANG, a Chinese Buddhist, who in the 7th century traversed India collecting books bearing upon the creed and law of Buddhism, and spent his time after his return in translating them.

HIPPARCHUS, ancient astronomer, born at Nicæa; flourished in the 2nd century B.C.; discovered among other things the precession of the equinoxes, determined the place of the equinox, and catalogued 1000 fixed stars.

HIPPIAS, tyrant of Athens, son of Pisistratus; expelled from Athens, applied to the Persians to reinstate him, and kindled the first Persian War with Greece; fell at Marathon, 490 B.C.

HIPPOCRATES, the father of medicine, born at Cos, 460 B.C.; was a contemporary of Socrates and Plato; was of wide-spread renown as a physician; settled in Thessaly and died at Larissa advanced in years; no fewer than 60 writings are ascribed to him, but only a few are genuine.

HIPPOCRENE (lit. the fountain of the horse), a fountain on Mount Helicon, in Boeotia, sacred to the Muses, and said to have been caused by PEGASUS (q. v.) striking the spot with his hoof.

HIPPODAMI`A, in the legendary lore of Greece, was the beautiful daughter of Oenomaus, king of Pisa, in Elis, and the pleiad Sterope; the oracle had foretold death to Oenomaus on the occasion of his daughter's marriage, to prevent which the king had made it a condition that each suitor should run a chariot race with him, and that, if defeated, should be put to death; many had perished in the attempt to beat the king, till Pelops, by bribing Oenomaus's charioteer, won the race; the king in a frenzy killed himself, and the kingdom and the fair Hippodamia passed to Pelops.

HIPPOLYTË, queen of the Amazons, slain by Hercules in order to obtain and carry off her magic girdle.

HIPPOLYTUS, ST., bishop of Portus, near Rome; lived in the 3rd century B.C.; a lost work of his, "A Refutation of all the Heresies," was discovered at Mount Athos in 1842, his authorship of which Bunsen vindicated in "Hippolytus and his Age."

HISPANIA, the ancient name of Spain and Portugal among the Latins.

HISSAR, 1, a district (776) in the Punjab, India; for the most part sandy, yet in rainy years produces good crops of rice, barley, &c., and is noted for its white cattle; the capital (14), bearing the same name, is situated on the Western Jumna Canal, 102 m. W. of Delhi. 2, Also a district in Central Asia, a dependency of the Khan of Bokhara lying N. of the Oxus River, and separated from Bokhara by a branch of the Thian Shan Mountains; has a fertile soil, and exports corn, sheep, &c., to Bokhara.

HISTOLOGY, the science of tissues, vegetable and animal.

HITCHCOCK, EDWARD, American geologist, born in Massachusetts; reported on the geology of his native State, and on the agricultural schools of Europe; wrote "Elementary Geology" and the "Religion of Geology" (1793-1864).

HITCHIN (9), a very old and still prosperous town of Hertfordshire, on the Hiz, 14 m. NW. of Hertford; does a flourishing trade in corn, malt, and flour; brewing and straw-plaiting are important industries, and it has long been noted for its lavender and lavender water.

HITOPADESA (i. e. good instruction), a celebrated Sanskrit collection of fables, which in the substance of them have passed into all the civilised literatures of the world.

HITTITES, one of the original tribes of Canaan, and one of the most powerful, whose dominion extended at one time as far as the border of Egypt on the one hand, and Mesopotamia on the other, and northward beyond the Taurus Mountains, traces of which have been discovered over all Asia Minor, while they were strong enough to engage in war with the Egyptians; they had two capitals, Kadesh on the Orontes, and Carchemish on the Euphrates.

HITZIG, FERDINAND, a German Orientalist and biblical scholar, born in Baden; devoted himself to Old Testament studies; was professor of Theology first at Zurich and then at Heidelberg; his principal works bore on Old Testament exegesis (1807-1875).

HOADLY, BENJAMIN, an English prelate, born in Kent; was a keen controversialist; argued stoutly in defence of civil and religious liberty, and was an opponent of the pretensions of the High Church party (1676-1761).

HOANG-HO ("Yellow River"), one of the chief rivers of China, rises in the plain of Odontala, south of the Kuen-lun Mountains, and sweeps with impetuous current in a more or less north-easterly direction, discharging into the Gulf of Pechili after a course of 3000 m.; it is for the most part quite unnavigable, and its frequent floods are a constant menace to the districts through which it flows.

HOBART (25), capital of Tasmania, is situated on the estuary of the Derwent, at the base of Mount Wellington; is handsomely laid out in the form of a square; is the seat of government, and has many fine public buildings; has a splendid natural harbour; the manufacture of flour, jam, leather, besides brewing, shipbuilding, and iron-founding, are its chief industries; it has extensive suburbs, and is a favourite health resort.

HOBART PASHA, Turkish admiral; was a son of the Duke of Buckingham; distinguished himself in the British navy before he entered the Turkish service; had during the Russo-Turkish war in 1877 to withdraw from the service of the Queen, and shortly afterwards died (1822-1886).

HOB`BEMA, MEINDERT, a famous Dutch landscape painter, born at Amsterdam; lived chiefly in his native town, and died in poverty; his fine, subdued pictures of woodland life and scenery are ranked amongst the masterpieces of Dutch landscape painting, and are the valued possessions of the National Galleries in London, Berlin, Vienna, &c. (1638-1709).

HOBBES, THOMAS, an English philosopher, psychologist, and moralist, born at Malmesbury; was educated at Oxford; connected all his days with the Cavendish family, with members of which he travelled on the Continent, and was on friendly terms with Charles II., Bacon, Descartes, &c.; translated Thucydides, wrote a number of works, "De Cive" among others, and the "Leviathan," all more or less leading up to the doctrine that the absolute sovereign power in all matters of right and wrong is vested in the State as the achieved fact of the emancipation of the race from savagery (1588-1679).

HOBHOUSE, JOHN CAM, English politician, a friend of Byron; represented Nottingham and Norwich in Parliament in the Liberal interest, and held several ministerial appointments (1780-1869).

HO`BOKEN (59), a city of New Jersey, on the Hudson River, adjoining Jersey City and opposite New York; is an important railway terminus and shipping-port; does a large trade in coal, lead-pencils, iron-casting, &c.

HOBSON, a Cambridge stabler who let out horses on hire, the choice always limited to the one next the door, the one that had been longest in, hence Hobson's Choice.

HOCCLEVE or OCCLEVE, THOMAS, an early English poet; had an appointment in the Exchequer Office in Henry V.'s time; his chief work is the "Government of Princes," but his poems have more linguistic than poetic interest; has left us an interesting portrait of his contemporary, Chaucer (1368-1448).

HOCHE, LA, French general, born near Versailles; rose from the ranks to the command of the army of the Moselle; drove the Austrians out of Alsace, and suppressed the rising in and pacified La Vendée; while yet a sergeant bore a hand conspicuously at the overturn of the Bastille (17681797).

HOCHKIRCH, a village in Saxony where Frederick the Great was defeated by the Austrian Marshal Daun in 1758.

HODGE. CHARLES, an American theologian, born at Philadelphia; graduated at Princeton, and in 1822 became professor in the Theological Seminary in Princeton, a post he held till the close of his life; besides founding and editing the Princeton Review, was the author of various commentaries, but is best known by his "Systematic Theology," which is still a standard text-book (1797-1878).

HODGKINSON, EATON, a distinguished engineer, born at Anderton, near Norwich; was professor of Engineering in University College, London; became a leading authority on bridge construction, and carried through elaborate experiments testing the strength of iron girders; co-operated in planning the Britannia Tubular Bridge (1789-1861).

HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON, Orientalist, born near Macclesfield; served in the East India Company, and was Resident in Nepal for more than 20 years; was a voluminous writer on Eastern ethnology, languages, and zoology, and his valuable collection of MSS. remains the chief source of our knowledge of northern Buddhism (1800-1895).

HODSON, MAJOR WILLIAM, a noted leader during the Indian Mutiny; joined the Indian Army in 1845, fought through the first Sikh War, and subsequently held a civil post in the Punjab; on the outbreak of the Mutiny he became head of the Intelligence Department, and won celebrity as the daring but wild leader of an irregular cavalry regiment known as Hodson's Horse; he took part in the sieges of Delhi, and at Lucknow captured the Mogul Emperor; shot down with his own hand the young princes, and a few months later fell himself while storming a palace in the city (1821-1858).

HOF (25), a town of Bavaria, on the Saale, 40 m. NE. of Baireuth; has flourishing textile factories, breweries, and iron-works; is associated with the early struggles of Jean Paul Richter.

HOFER, ANDREAS, Tyrolese patriot; was leader of the Tyrolese against the Bavarians and the French, and the emancipator thrice over of his country, but was eventually betrayed by his enemies into the hands of the French, condemned by court-martial at Mantua, and shot; his family were indemnified afterwards by the Emperor of Austria, and his son ennobled (1767-1810).

HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH, poet and philologist, born at Fallersleben; studied literature and philology under the influence of the Grimms, and in 1835 was appointed professor of the German Language at Breslau, a post he forfeited seven years later by publishing "Lays" of somewhat radical tendencies; he led an unsettled life till 1860, when he became librarian to the Duke of Ratibor; his writings include "German Social Songs of the 16th and 17th Centuries," "German Philology," an "Autobiography" in six vols., lyrics, &c. (1798-1874).

HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODORE WILHELM, a celebrated German writer, whose versatility displayed itself in numerous tales, sketches, art-criticisms, &c., all bearing the impress of a strong, if wayward, intellect; born at Königsberg, was trained to the law, and entered the State service; his position at Warsaw was lost to him on the entry of the French troops in 1806, and for some years he supported himself by musical criticism in Leipzig, and as Director of a Dresden Opera Company; in 1816 he was again in government service at Berlin, where he continued till his death; his writings are strongly characteristic of the romanticism of his time, while he himself was a witty, restless leader of Bohemian life (1776-1822).

HOGARTH, WILLIAM, a famous English painter, caricaturist, and engraver, born in London; served his time as a silversmith's apprentice; studied painting, and began to support himself by engraving and etching; unsuccessful in his attempts at portrait-painting, he at length found his true vocation in depicting the follies and vices of his age; "A Harlot's Progress," a series of six pictures engraved by himself, appeared in 1731, and was soon followed by others of a like nature, including "A Rake's Progress," "Strolling Actresses dressing in a Barn," "Marriage à la Mode," "Idleness and Industry"; he also produced some indifferent historical paintings; in 1757 he was appointed sergeant-painter to the king; in his own department Hogarth has never been equalled, and in the opinion of Sir Joshua Reynolds, never will be; the deep moral purpose of his best pictures, made known throughout the country by abundant prints, must have helped not a little to reform the manners of his time (1697-1764).

HOGG, JAMES, a Scottish poet, born in Ettrick; had little or no schooling; was bred a shepherd; took to rhyming; fell in with Sir Walter Scott, whom he assisted with his "Border Minstrelsy"; rented a farm, and first came into notice by the publication of his poem, the "Queen's Wake"; he wrote in prose as well as poetry, with humour as well as no little graphic power; "was," says Carlyle, "a little red-skinned stiff sack of a body, with two little blue or grey eyes that sparkled, if not with thought, yet with animation; was a real product of nature" (1782-1835).

HOHENLINDEN, a village in Upper Bavaria, 20 m. E. of Münich; celebrated as the scene of a victory by the French under Moreau over the Austrians under Archduke John on 3rd December 1800.

HOHENSTAUFFENS, THE, the third dynasty of the Romish kaisers, which held the imperial throne from 1138 to 1254, commencing with Frederick I., or Barbarossa, and ending with Conrad IV., five in all; derived their name from a castle on the Hohenstauffen Berg, by the left bank of the Danube, 30 m. below Stuttgart.

HOHENZOLLERNS, THE, the family which in 1415 became Electors of Brandenburg, kings of Prussia, and are now at length emperors of Germany; derived their name from an old castle so called near the springs of the Danube, a little way north from Constance and its lake.

HOLBACH, BARON VON, a French philosophe born in Heidelsheim, in the Palatinate, of wealthy parents; lived from youth all his days in Paris, kept a good table, and entertained all the "Encyclopédie" notabilities at his board; wrote "Système de la Nature," and was a materialist in philosophy and an atheist in religion, but a kind-hearted man (1723-1789).

HOLBEIN, HANS, a German painter, born at Augsburg, trained by his father; attracted the attention of Erasmus, who took a great interest in him, and persuaded him to go to England, and introduced him to Sir Thomas More, who in turn introduced him to Henry VIII.; here under Henry's patronage he remained, executing numerous portraits of his courtiers, till his death of the plague; his "Last Supper" and "Dance of Death" are well known (1497-1554).

HOLBERG, LUDWIG, BARON, an eminent Danish author, born at Bergen, in Norway; graduated at Copenhagen, where, after travel, he became professor of Metaphysics; subsequently he held in turn the chairs of Eloquence and of History; he was an author of great versatility, excelling as a writer of satires, comedies, and as historian of Church and State; his autobiography is an interesting work, and many of his plays and other works are among the accepted classics of Danish literature (1684-1754).

HOLCROFT, THOMAS, journalist and political novelist, born in London; began life as an actor; wrote "Road to Ruin"; was charged with treason, but acquitted; left "Memoirs" (1744-1809).

HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, inventor, born at Hurlet, Renfrewshire; worked in a cotton-mill in Paisley, but betook himself to teaching, and in 1829, while a teacher of chemistry in Reading, discovered the principle of the lucifer match; turning to wool-combing as a means of livelihood, he became established near Paris, where he carried out elaborate experiments, which resulted in improvements in wool-combing machinery that brought him fame and fortune; in 1859 he transferred his works to the vicinity of Bradford; entered Parliament in 1865, and was created a baronet in 1893 (1807-1897).

HOLINSHED, RAPHAEL, English chronicler of the Elizabethan age; his "Chronicle," published in two vols. in 1577, supplied Shakespeare with materials for some of his historical plays; d. 1580.

HOLL, FRANK, artist, born in Kentish Town; was highly distinguished as an art student, and at 23 won the travelling studentship of the Academy; came into notice first as a genre-painter, exhibiting pictures of a pathetic nature, such as "Want--the Pawnbroker's Shop," "Newgate--Committed for Trial," "Ordered to the Front," &c.; subsequently he won a wide celebrity as a portrait-painter, producing portraits of the Prince of Wales, Mr. Gladstone, and other distinguished personages (1845-1888).

HOLLAND (4,795), officially known as the Netherlands, a small maritime country of Western Europe, bordered on its N. and W. by the German Ocean, and having Prussia on its E. and Belgium to the S.; its area, somewhat less than one-fourth the size of England and Wales, comprises, besides the mainland, two island groups, one in the N. and one in the S.; its flat surface in great part lies below the level of the sea, and where there are no natural sandhills is protected from inundation by enormous dykes, 365 ft. thick, forming excellent carriage-ways along the coast; much of the soil has been reclaimed by draining lakes and by pushing back the sea walls, the size of the country having been increased by one-half since 1833; canals traverse the country in all directions, and form with the shallow lakes and the great rivers a complete system of waterways. The climate is for the most part similar to that of England, but greater extremes of heat and cold are experienced. Farming is the staple industry, although a considerable portion of the land is still unfit for cultivation; butter and cheese are the most valuable products, and are largely exported; the fisheries, coast and deep sea, are also of much importance; manufactures are retarded by the want of coal, but the wind is made to supply the motive power, by means of windmills, to flourishing textile factories (cotton, woollen, and silk), gin distilleries, pottery works, margarine and cocoa factories, &c. Holland no longer is the premier shipping country of Europe, a position it held in the 17th century, but it still maintains a busy carrying trade with all parts of the world, especially with its many rich colonies in the East and West Indies, which comprise an area 64 times larger than Holland itself. The government is a limited monarchy; the executive power is vested in the crown and the legislation in the States-General, an assembly consisting of two chambers, the one elected (for four years) by direct suffrage, the other (for nine years) by provincial councils. Primary education is free, but not compulsory. Religion is not established, but about two-thirds of the people are Protestants, the remainder Roman Catholics. The birth of Holland as an independent European power took place in the 16th century, when, after an heroic and protracted struggle, it freed itself from the yoke of Spain, then the most powerful nation in the world.

HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD FOX VASSALL-HOLLAND, BARON, statesman, born in Wilts; succeeded to the title in 1774; entered on a public career as a Whig under the patronage of his uncle Charles James Fox; held office under Grenville, Grey, and Melbourne; was imbued with a fine humanitarian spirit, and fought ably against the slave-trade and the corn-laws; his cultured literary taste is revealed in his writings, which embrace Spanish translations, lives of Guillen de Castro and Lope de Vega, Memoirs, &c. (1773-1840).

HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, physician and author, born at Knutsford, Cheshire; graduated at Edinburgh in 1811; spent some years in Eastern Europe, and finally settled in London; he rose to be physician-in-ordinary to the Prince Consort and the Queen, and in 1853 was created a baronet; wrote various essays on various branches of medicine, physiology, psychology, besides "Recollections of Past Life" (1758-1873).

HOLLAND, NORTH (819), one of the eleven provinces of Holland; comprises the peninsula lying between the Zuider Zee and the German Ocean. SOUTH HOLLAND, also a province, faces the German Ocean between Zealand and North Holland. These provinces form the most important part of the Netherlands, raise the best farm produce and cattle, and in their great ports Amsterdam, and Rotterdam, the bulk of the trade of Holland is carried on.

HOLLES, DENZIL, statesman, and one of the "five members," the son of the Earl of Clare, born at Houghton, Northamptonshire; entering Parliament in 1624, he joined the opposition against the king, and actively resisted the imposition of tonnage and poundage, for which he was heavily fined and imprisoned; subsequently he was one of the five members whom Charles attempted to arrest in 1642 on a charge of high-treason; his opposition to the maintenance of a standing Puritan army involved him in trouble, and he fled the country; after Cromwell's death he returned, was prominent in promoting the Restoration, received a peerage, and for some years was engaged in public duties, still remaining a staunch upholder of the rights of Parliament (1559-1680).

HOLLOWAY (48), a northern district of London, in Islington parish.

HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL, a celebrated American author, born the son of a Congregational minister, at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and graduated in arts and medicine at Harvard; became professor of Anatomy and Physiology at Dartmouth College, but resigned and settled in Boston as a general practitioner; in 1847 he was elected to the chair of Anatomy in Harvard, a position he held till his resignation in 1882; a successful professor, it is as an essayist, novelist, and poet that he is remembered; the appearance of "The Autocrat at the Breakfast-Table," with its quaint humour, fresh thought, and charming egotism took literary America by storm; the "Professor" and the "Poet at the Breakfast-Table" followed in after years, and remain his most widely popular works; "Elsie Venner," a novel dealing with the problem of heredity, "The Guardian Angel," "Songs of Many Seasons," "Memoirs of Motley and of Emerson," are some of his many works, all of which have the impress of his bright, engaging personality (1809-1894).

HOLOFERNES, the Assyrian general whom the Jewish Judith, entering his camp as it invested her native place, slew with her own hand, and bore his head as a trophy back to the town.

HOLSTEIN (560), which with Sleswick forms the Prussian province of SLESWICK-HOLSTEIN (q. v.), was till 1866 a duchy of Denmark, but in that year was annexed by Prussia.

HOLT, FRANK, artist, born in London; was distinguished as an artist from his early youth; produced a succession of works of eminent merit, and attained the highest excellence as a painter of portraits, to which department he devoted the last years of his life (1815-1888).

HOLT, SIR JOHN, English lawyer, born at Thame, Oxfordshire; called to the bar in 1663; was a prominent counsel in the State trials of his age, and rose to be Lord Chief-Justice of the King's Bench under William III., an office whose duties he discharged with unflinching integrity and fairness (1642-1710).

HOLTZMANN, ADOLF, an eminent German philologist, born at Carlsruhe; gave himself to the study of theology and then of philology at various universities, and in 1852 became professor of the German Language and Literature at Heidelberg; author of various learned treatises on philology and kindred subjects (1810-1870).

HOLY ALLIANCE, an alliance of the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia on the fall of Napoleon, professedly for conservative ends, but really for the suppression of political liberty and the maintenance of absolute power.

HOLY COAT OF TRÈVES, a seamless coat alleged to have been deposited there by the Empress Helena, and to have been the one worn by Christ.

HOLY FAIR, a rural celebration of the Communion once common in Scotland, attended not only by the people of the parish, but by large numbers of strangers from far and near; described by Burns.

HOLY ISLAND or LINDISFARNE, an islet of Northumberland, 9½ m. SE. of Berwick; is separated from the mainland by a stretch of sand bare at low water, and some 3 m. broad; has interesting ruins of a Benedictine priory church where ST. CUTHBERT (q. v.) once ministered; there is a small village and fine old castle.

HOLY OFFICE, name given to the INQUISITION (q. v.).

HOLY WARS, name given to the CRUSADES (q. v.).

HOLY WEEK, the week before Easter, so called as consecrated to the commemoration of the Passion of Christ in view of His death on the Cross.

HOLYHEAD (9), an important little seaport of Anglesey, North Wales, on the N. side of an island of the same name, 25 m. W. of Bangor; is the chief mail-packet station for Ireland, and has excellent harbourage, &c.

HOLYHEAD ISLAND (9), a rocky islet forming a part of Anglesey, from which it is separated by a narrow strait, dry at low water, and crossed by an arched causeway.

HOLYOAKE, GEORGE JACOB, an active propagandist of advanced social theories, born at Birmingham; has lived a busy life as an agitator, lecturing and writing; he espoused the cause of Garibaldi, edited the Reasoner; was the last man to be imprisoned in England on a charge of atheism (1841); was a zealous supporter of co-operation and all movements making for the betterment of the social condition of the working-classes; his numerous works embrace a valuable "History of Co-operation in England," "The Limits of Atheism," "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life," &c.; b. 1817.

HOLYOKE (45), a city of Massachusetts, 8 m. N. of Springfield, on the Connecticut, whose rapid current supplies the water-power for the many large paper-mills, cotton and woollen factories.

HOLYROOD, an abbey founded at Edinburgh in 1128 by David I., and dedicated in honour of the Holy Cross, a casket of gold shaped like a cross brought to the country by St. Margaret in 1070; a palace was afterwards attached, which became the chief seat of the Scottish sovereigns of the Stuart dynasty; the parks around were at one time a sanctuary for debtors.

HOLYWELL (3), a market-town of Flintshire, has an elevated situation, 15 m. NW. of Chester; the principal industry is the smelting of lead, iron, copper, and zinc ores obtained from the surrounding mines; the famous well of St. Winifred (whence the name of the town) is over-built by a fine Perpendicular chapel.

HOMBURG (9), a fashionable watering-place in Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, beautifully situated at the base of the Taunus Mountains, 8 m. NW. of Frankfort-on-the-Main; has fine chalybeate and saline springs.

HOME, defined by Ruskin as "the place of Peace; the shelter not only from all injury, but from all terror, doubt, and division. In so far as it is not this, it is not home; so far as the anxieties of the outer world penetrate into it, and the inconsistently-minded, unknown, unloved, or hostile society, the outer world, is allowed by either husband or wife to cross the threshold, it ceases to be home; it is then only a part of the outer world which you have roofed over and lighted a fire in."

HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS, a noted spiritualist, born near Edinburgh; became widely known as a "medium," was presented at Courts and to the Pope; was expelled from the Catholic Church for spiritualistic practices, and latterly became involved in a lawsuit with a Mrs. Lyon, who had bestowed upon him £60,000 and forced him to return it; he is supposed to have suggested to Browning his well-known poem "Sludge--the Medium"; wrote several books (1833-1886).

HOME, JOHN, Scotch divine and dramatist, born at Leith; graduated at Edinburgh, and entered the Church in 1745; became minister at Athelstaneford, near Haddington, where he wrote the tragedies "Agis" and "Douglas"; the latter established his fame, but brought him into disgrace with the Presbytery, and he withdrew to England, becoming secretary to the Earl of Bute; his plays were produced by Garrick, and displaced the stiff and artificial tragedies of Addison, Johnson, &c.; besides his dramatic works and poems he published a "History of the Rebellion of 1745" (1722-1808).

HOME RULE, a form of local self-government, a name applied to an administration of the kind projected by Mr. Gladstone for Ireland.

HOMER, the great epic poet of Greece, and the greatest of all time; author of the "Iliad" and the "Odyssey," and for the honour of being the place of whose birth seven Greek cities contended; is said, when old and blind, to have wandered from city to city rehearsing his verses, and to have lived 900 years before Christ, some time after the reign of Solomon; it is only modern criticism that has called in question his existence, and has ventured to argue that the poems ascribed to him are a mere congeries of compositions of the early fabulous age of Greece, but the unity of the plan and the simplicity of the style of the poems go to condemn this theory in the regard of most Homeric scholars.

HOMILDON HILL, in Northumberland, 1 m. NE. of Wooler; the scene of Hotspur's famous victory over the Scots under Earl Douglas, December 14, 1402.

HOMOEOPATHY, a method of treating diseases advocated by HAHNEMANN (q. v.) which professes to cure a disease by administering in small quantities medicines that would produce it in a healthy person.

HOMOIOUSIA, name given to the Semi-Arian doctrine that the Son is of like substance with the Father, in opposition to the orthodox doctrine called Homoousia that He is of the same substance.

HOMOLOGOUMENA, name given to the books of the New Testament accepted as canonical.

HONDURAS (435), a maritime republic of Central America, whose northern seaboard fronts the Gulf of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea, between Nicaragua on the S. and SE. and Guatemala on the W., less than four-fifths the size of England; the coast lands are low and swampy, but the interior consists chiefly of elevated tableland diversified by broad rich valleys; the Cordilleras traverse the country in a NW. direction, and form the watershed of many streams; fever prevails along the low, hot coast, but the highlands are cool and healthful; large numbers of cattle are raised, and fruits, india-rubber, indigo, &c., are exported, but agriculture is backward; its mineral wealth is very great; silver ore is abundant, and other minerals, such as gold, iron, copper, but the enterprise is wanting to the carrying out of mining on a proper scale; Honduras broke away from Spain in 1821, and became an independent State in 1839; the Government is vested in a President and six ministers, and the legislative power in a Congress of 37 members; the population is, with the exception of a few thousands, composed of blacks; Tegucigalpa (12) is the capital.

HONE, WILLIAM, miscellaneous writer and political satirist, born at Bath; threw up his position as a law clerk in London and started a print and book shop; became a busy contributor to newspapers, and involved himself in serious trouble by the freedom of his political parodies and satires; of his many squibs, satires, &c., mention maybe made of "The Political House that Jack Built," "The Queen's Matrimonial Ladder," "The Political Showman," all illustrated by G. CRUIKSHANK (q. v.) (1780-1842).

HONEYCOMB, WILL, a jaunty member of the "Spectator Club."

HONFLEUR (9), a seaport of France, situated on the estuary of the Seine, opposite Havre; has a good harbour; exports dairy produce, cattle, &c.; has sugar refineries, tanworks, &c.

HONG-KONG (222), an island lying off the mouth of the Canton River, South China; was ceded to Britain in 1842; is hilly and unproductive, but is well watered and tolerably healthy; it owes its great importance as a commercial centre to its favourable position, its magnificent harbour, and to its having been made a free port and the head-quarters of the European banks; opium is the chief import, silk and tea the principal exports; Victoria, a handsome city on the N. side, is the capital, seat of the British governor, &c.

HONITON (3), an ancient market-town of Devonshire, close to the Otter, 17 m. NE. of Exeter; is famed for its pillow-lace, an industry introduced by some Flemish refugees in the 16th century.

HONOLULU (20), capital of the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS (q. v.), situated on an arid strip of land on the S. side of Oahu; is nicely laid out after the manner of a European town; and has the only good harbour in the archipelago.

HONORIUS, the name of four popes: H. I., the most famous, Pope from 626 to 638; H. II., pope from 1124 to 1130; H. III., Pope from 1216 to 1227; and H. IV., Pope from 1286 to 1287.

HONORIUS, FLAVIUS, emperor of the West, born at Constantinople, son of Theodosius the Great, a weak ruler, and only able to resist the invasion of the Goths so long as Stilicho, his minister, lived, for after the murder of the latter by treachery matters with him went from bad to worse, and he saw some of his finest provinces snatched from his grasp (384-423).

HONTHEIM, a German Catholic theologian, born at Trèves; distinguished for his bold assertion and subsequent retractation of a doctrine called Febronianism, from the nom de plume Febronius which he assumed, tending to the disparagement of the Papal authority in the Church (1701-1790).

HONTHORST, GERARD VAN, a Flemish painter, born at Utrecht, painted night and torchlight scenes; "Christ before Pilate" his best-known work (1592-1666).

HONVED`, name given in Hungary to the landwehr, or originally to any distinguished national patriot or party.

HOOD, SAMUEL, VISCOUNT, a distinguished admiral, born at Thorncombe; entered the navy in 1740, and rising rapidly in his profession evinced high qualities as a leader; in 1782 he brilliantly outmanoeuvred De Grasse in the West Indies, and under Rodney played a conspicuous part in the destruction of the French fleet at the battle of Dominica, for which he was rewarded with an Irish peerage; he defeated Fox in the celebrated Westminster election, became a Lord of the Admiralty, and as commander of the Mediterranean fleet during the revolutionary wars, captured the French fleet at Toulon and reduced Corsica; in 1796 he was created a viscount (1724-1816).

HOOD, THOMAS, poet and humourist, born in London; gave up business and engraving, to which he first applied himself, for letters, and commencing as a journalist, immortalised himself by the "Song of the Shirt" and his "Dream of Eugene Aram"; edited the "Comic Annual," and wrote "Whims and Oddities," in all of which he displayed both wit and pathos (1798-1845).

HOOGHLY or HÛGLI, 1, the most important and most westerly of the several branches into which the Ganges divides on approaching the sea, breaks away from the main channel near Santipur, and flowing in a southerly direction past Calcutta, reaches the Bay of Bengal after a course of 145 m.; navigation is rendered hazardous by the accumulating and shifting silt; the "bore" rushes up with great rapidity, and attains a height of 7 ft. 2, A city (33) on the western bank of the river, 25 m. N. of Calcutta; is capital of a district, and has a college for English and Asiatic literature.

HOOK, THEODORE, comic dramatist, born in London; wrote a number of farces sparkling with wit and highly popular; appointed to be Accountant-General of the Mauritius, came to grief for peculation by a subordinate under his administration; solaced and supported himself after his acquittal by writing novels (1788-1841).

HOOKE, ROBERT, natural philosopher, born at Freshwater, Isle of Wight; was associated with Boyle in the construction of the air-pump, and in 1665 became professor of Geometry in Gresham College, London; was a man of remarkable inventiveness, and quick to deduce natural laws from meagre premises; thus he in some important points anticipated Newton's theory of gravitation, and foresaw the application of steam to machinery; he discovered amongst other things the balance-spring of watches, the anchor-escapement of clocks, the simplest theory of the arch, and made important improvements on the telescope, microscope, and quadrant (1635-1703).

HOOKER, RICHARD, English Church theologian and ecclesiastical writer, born in Exeter; famous as the author of "Ecclesiastical Polity," in defence of the Church against the Puritans, characterised by Stopford Brooke as "a stately work, and the first monument of splendid literary prose that we possess"; of this work Pope Clement VIII. said, "There are such seeds of eternity in it as will continue till the last fire shall devour all learning"; the author is distinguished by the surname of "The Judicious" for his calm wisdom; he was not judicious, it would seem, in the choice of a wife, who was a shrew and a scold (1554-1600).

HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM, botanist, born at Norwich; was professor of Botany in Glasgow from 1820 to 1841, after which he held the post of Director of Kew Gardens; his writings in botany are numerous (1785-1865).

HOOLEE, in India, the name of a saturnalian festival in honour of KRISHNA (q. v.).

HOOPER, JOHN, bred for the Church; was converted to Protestantism, and had to leave the country; returned on the accession of Edward VI. and was made Bishop of Gloucester; was committed to prison in the reign of Mary, condemned as a heretic, and burned at the stake in Gloucester (1495-1555).

HOOSAC MOUNTAIN, in the Green Mountain Range in Massachusetts, is noted for its railway tunnel, nearly 5 m. in length, and the longest in America.

HOPE, ANTONY, nom de plume of A. H. Hawkins, novelist, born in London, educated at Oxford; called to the bar; author of "Men of Mark," "Prisoner of Zenda," &c.; b. 1863.

HOPE, THOMAS, traveller and virtuoso, author of "Anastasius, or the Memoirs of a Modern Greek," which Byron was proud to have fathered on him, and of a posthumous essay on the "Origin and Prospects of Man," was famous as having suggested to Carlyle one of the most significant things he ever wrote, while he pronounced it perhaps the absurdest book written in our century by a thinking man. See Carlyle's Miscellaneous Essay "Characteristics."

HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE L', Chancellor of France; stoutly resisted the persecution of the Protestants, and secured for them a measure of toleration, but his enemies were too strong for him; he was driven from power in 1568, and went into retirement; was spared during the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but it broke his heart, and he survived it only a few days (1505-1572).

HOPKINS, SAMUEL, an American divine, born at Waterbury, Connecticut; was pastor at Newport; was a Calvinist in theology, but of a special type, as he denied imputation and insisted on disinterested benevolence as the mark of a Christian; gave name to a party, Hopkinsians, as they were called, who held the same views (1721-1803).

HORATII. See CURIATII

HORATIUS FLACCUS or HORACE, Roman poet, born at Venusium, in Apulia; was educated at Rome and in Athens, and when there in his twenty-first year joined Marcus Brutus, became a military tribune, and fought at Philippi, after which he submitted to the conqueror and returned to Rome to find his estate forfeited; for a time afterwards he had to be content with a frugal life, but by-and-by he attracted the notice of Virgil, and he introduced him to Mæcenas, who took him into his friendship and bestowed on him a small farm, to which he retired and on which he lived in comfort for the rest of his life; his works, all in verse, consist of odes, satires, and epistles, and reveal an easy-going man of the world, of great practical sagacity and wise remark; they abound in happy phrases and quotable passages (65-8 B.C.).

HORN, CAPE, the most southern point of America, is a lofty, precipitous, and barren promontory of Hermit Island, in the Fuegian Archipelago.

HORN GATE, the gate of dreams which come true, as distinct from the Ivory Gate, through which the visions seen are shadowy and unreal.

HORNBOOK, was a sheet of vellum or paper used in early times for teaching the rudiments of education, on which were inscribed the alphabet in black or Roman letters, some monosyllables, the Lord's Prayer, and the Roman numerals; this sheet was covered with a slice of transparent horn, and was still in use in George II.'s reign.

HORROCKS, JEREMIAH, a celebrated astronomer, born at Toxteth, near Liverpool; passed through Cambridge, took orders, and received the curacy of Hoole, Lancashire; was devoted to astronomy, and was the first to observe the transit of Venus, of which he gave an account in his treatise "Venus in Sole Visa" (1619-1641).

HORSE-POWER, the unit of work of a steam-engine, being the power to raise 33,000 lbs. one foot in one minute.

HORSHAM (9), a market-town of Sussex, 26 m. NW. of Brighton; has a fine specimen of an Early English church, and does a thriving trade in brewing, tanning, iron-founding, &c.

HORSLEY, SAMUEL, English prelate, born in London; celebrated as the champion of orthodoxy against the attacks of PRIESTLEY (q. v.), in which he showed great learning but much bitterness, which, however, brought him church preferment; was in succession bishop of St. Davids, Rochester, and St. Asaph (1733-1806).

HOSEA, a Hebrew prophet, a native of the northern kingdom of Israel, and a contemporary of Isaiah, the burden of whose prophecy is, Israel has by her idolatries and immoralities forsaken the Lord, and the Lord has forsaken Israel, in whom alone her salvation is to be found.

HOSHANGABAD (17), capital of a district of the same name in the Central Provinces, India, situated on the Nerbudda River, 40 m. SE. of Bhopal; is a military station, and has a considerable trade in cotton, grain, &c.

HOSHIARPUR (22), a town in the Punjab, at the base of the Siwalik Hills, 90 m. E. of Lahore; is capital of a district, and is the seat of an American mission.

HOSPITALLERS, the name given to several religious brotherhoods or orders of knights under vow to provide and care for the sick and wounded, originally in connection with pilgrimages and expeditions to Jerusalem.

HOSPODAR, a title once borne by the kings of Poland and the governors of Moldavia and Wallachia.

HOSTILIUS, TULLUS, the third king of Rome from 670 to 638 B.C.; showed more zeal for conquest than for the worship of the gods, who in the end smote him and his whole house with fire.

HOTTENTOTS, a name somewhat indiscriminately applied to the first known inhabitants of Cape Colony, who, however, comprised two main tribes, the Khoikhoi and the Bushmen, in many respects dissimilar, but speaking languages characterised alike by harsh and clicking sounds, a circumstance which induced the early Dutch settlers to call them Hottentots, which means practically "jabberers"; the great majority are semi-civilised now, and servile imitators of their conquerors.

HOUDON, JEAN-ANTOINE, an eminent French sculptor, born of humble parentage at Versailles; at 20 he won the prix de Rome, and for 10 years studied with enthusiasm the early masters at Rome, where he produced his great statue of St. Bruno; he was elected in turn a member of the Academy and of the Institute, Paris, and in 1805 became professor at the École des Beaux-Arts; he was unrivalled in portraiture, and executed statues of Rousseau, Voltaire, Diderot, Mirabeau, Washington, Napoleon, and others (1741-1828).

HOUGHTON, RICHARD MONCKTON MILNES, LORD, poet and patron of letters, born of good family at Fryston Hall, Pontefract; graduated at Cambridge; entered Parliament as a Conservative, but subsequently went over to the other side, and in 1863 was raised to the peerage by Palmerston; was a man of varied interests, a traveller, leader of society, philanthropist, and above all the friend and patron of authors; his works include various volumes of poetry, "Life of Keats," "Monographs, Personal and Social," &c. (1809-1885).

HOUNSLOW (13), a town of Middlesex, 10 m. SW. of London; railways have done away with its importance as a posting town; in the vicinity are gunpowder mills, barracks, and the famous Hounslow Heath.

HOURI, a beautiful maiden who, according to the Mohammedan faith, awaits the advent of a pious Moslem in Paradise.

HOUSTON, SAMUEL, President of the Texan Republic, born in Virginia; was adopted by a Cherokee Indian, and rose from the rank of a common soldier to be governor of Tennessee in 1827; as commander-in-chief in Texas he crushed the Mexicans, won the independence of Texas, and became the first President of the new republic in 1836; subsequently represented Texas in the United States Senate; was elected governor and deposed in 1861 for opposing secession (1793-1863).

HOUYHN`HNMS, an imaginary race of horses in "Gulliver's Travels" endowed with reason.

HOVEDEN, ROGER OF, chronicler, born at Howden, Yorkshire; held an appointment in Henry II.'s household; was engaged in various missions to the monastic houses, and in 1189 became an itinerant justice; his well-known Chronicle begins where Bede's ends, 732, and continues down to 1201.

HOWARD, CATHERINE, fifth wife of Henry VIII., granddaughter of the Duke of Norfolk; was married to Henry in 1540 after his divorce from Anne of Clèves; two years later she was found guilty of immoral conduct prior to her marriage, and was executed (1520-1542).

HOWARD, JOHN, a noted philanthropist, born at Hackney, Middlesex; was left in easy circumstances at his father's death; a bitter experience as a French prisoner of war and observations made whilst acting as sheriff of Bedfordshire roused him to attempt some reform of the abuses and misery of prison life; he made a tour of the county jails of England, and the mass of information which he laid before the House of Commons in 1774 brought about the first prison reforms; he continued his visitations from year to year to every part of the United Kingdom and to every quarter of the Continent; during 1785-87 he made a tour of inspection through the principal lazarettos of Europe, visited plague-smitten cities, and voluntarily underwent the rigours of the quarantine system; he died at the Crimea whilst on a journey to the East; he published at various times accounts of his Journeys; his deep piety, cool sense, and single-hearted devotedness to his one great object won him universal respect throughout Europe (1727-1790).

HOWE, JOHN, a Puritan divine, born at Loughborough; was educated at Oxford and Cambridge, took orders, and became the outspoken and universally respected chaplain to Cromwell; after the Restoration he was ejected from the Church by the Act of Uniformity; subsequently he was in turn domestic chaplain to Lord Massarene in Ireland, and pastor of a Dissenting congregation in London; for some years he settled in Utrecht, but in 1687 returned to England after the Declaration for Liberty of Conscience, and became a leader of the Dissenters; he published a number of works which display a powerful, philosophic, and earnest mind; his "The Good Man the Living Temple of God" remains a masterpiece of Puritan theology; he was a man of exceptional strength of character, and it was said that he could awe Cromwell into silence and Tillotson into tears (1630-1706).

HOWE, RICHARD, EARL, admiral, born in London, son of an Irish viscount; first saw service under Anson against the Spaniards; distinguished himself during the Seven Years' War; in 1783 became First Lord of the Admiralty, and was created an earl; during the French War in 1793 he commanded the Channel Fleet, and gained "the glorious first of June" victory off Ushant (1726-1799).

HOWELL, JAMES, an English writer, whose "Familiar Letters" have won a permanent place in English literature, born in Abernant, Carmarthenshire; travelled for many years on the Continent in a business capacity; entered Parliament in 1627; was for some years a Royalist spy, and suffered imprisonment at the Fleet; at the Restoration he was created Historiographer-Royal; his works are numerous, but his fame rests upon his entertaining "Instructions for Foreigne Travell" and his graceful and witty "Familiar Letters" (1593-1666).

HOWELLS, WILLIAM DEAN, a popular American novelist, the son of a Swedenborgian journalist, born at Martin's Ferry, Ohio; adopted journalism as a profession, produced a popular Life of Lincoln, and from 1861 to 1865 was Consul at Venice; resuming journalism he became a contributor to the best American papers and magazines, and was for a number of years editor of the Atlantic Monthly; an excellent journalist, poet, and critic, it is yet as a novelist--witty, graceful, and acute--that he is best known; "A Chance Acquaintance," "A Foregone Conclusion," "A Modern Instance," "An Indian Summer" are among his more popular works; b. 1837.

HOWITT, WILLIAM, a miscellaneous writer, who, with his equally talented wife, MARY HOWITT (1799-1888) (née Botham), did much to popularise the rural life of England, born, a Quaker's son, at Heanor, Derbyshire; served his time as a carpenter, but soon drifted into literature, married in 1821, and made many tours in England and other lands for literary purposes; was a voluminous writer, pouring out histories, accounts of travel, tales, and poems; amongst these are "Rural Life in England," "Visits to Remarkable Places," "Homes and Haunts of the Poets," &c. (1792-1879). His wife, besides collaborating with him in such works as "Stories of English Life," "Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain," wrote poems, tales, &c., and was the first to translate the fairy-tales of Hans Andersen.

HOWRAH or HAURA (130), a flourishing manufacturing town on the Hooghly, opposite Calcutta, with which it is connected by a floating bridge.

HOY, a steep, rocky islet in the Orkney group, about 1 m. SW. of Mainland or Pomona, remarkable for its huge cliffs.

HOYLAKE (3), a rising watering-place in Cheshire, at the seaward end of Wirral Peninsula, 8 m. W. of Birkenhead; noted for its golf-links.

HOYLE, EDMOND, the inventor of whist, lived in London; wrote on games and taught whist; his "Short Treatise on Whist" appeared in 1742 (1672-1769).

HROLF, ROLLO, DUKE OF NORMANDY (q. v.)

HUANCAVELI`CA (104), a dep. of Peru, lies within the region of the Cordilleras, has rich silver and quicksilver mines; the capital (4), bearing the same name, is a mining town 150 m. SE. of Lima.

HUB OF THE UNIVERSE, a name humorously given by Wendell Holmes to Boston, or rather the State House of the city.

HUBER, FRANCIS, naturalist, born at Geneva; made a special study of the habits of bees, and recorded the results in his "Observations sur les Abeilles" (1750-1831).

HUBERT, ST., bishop of Liège and Maestricht, the patron-saint of huntsmen; was converted when hunting on Good Friday by a milk-white stag appearing in the forest of Ardennes with a crucifix between its horns; generally represented in art as a hunter kneeling to a crucifix borne by a stag (656-728).

HUBERT DE BURGH, Earl of Kent, chief justiciary of England under King John and Henry III.; had charge of Prince Arthur, but refused to put him to death; was present at Runnymede at the signing of Magna Charta; d. 1234.

HUC, a French missionary, born at Toulouse; visited China and Thibet, and wrote an account of his experiences on his return (1813-1860).

HUDDERSFIELD (96), a busy manufacturing town in the West Riding of Yorkshire, is favourably situated in a coal district on the Colne, 26 m. NE. of Manchester; is substantially built, and is the northern centre of the "fancy trade" and woollen goods; cotton, silk, and machine factories and iron-founding are also carried on on a large scale.

HUDIBRAS, a satire by Samuel Butler on the Puritans, published in 1663, born of the reaction that set in after the Restoration.

HUDSON, in New York State, one of the most picturesque of North American rivers, rises amid the Adirondack Mountains, and from Glen's Fall flows S. to New York Bay, having a course of 350 m.; is navigable for steamboats as far as Albany, 145 m. from its mouth. It has valuable fisheries.

HUDSON, GEORGE, the Railway King, originally a linen-draper in York, the great speculator in the construction and extension of railways, in connection with which he made a huge fortune; acquired civic honours, and was nearly having a statue raised to his honour, but certain frauds being exposed he fell into disgrace and embarrassment, and died in London; he was elected thrice over Lord Mayor of York, and represented Sunderland in Parliament from 1845 to 1859 (1800-1871).

HUDSON, HENRY, English navigator; made three unsuccessful efforts to discover a north-east passage, then turned his course north-westward, and discovered in 1610 the river, strait, and bay which bear his name; his sailors in his last expedition in 1611 mutinying, set him and eight others adrift in an open boat, and though an expedition was sent in quest of him, he was nowhere to be found.

HUDSON BAY, an inland sea in North America, 400 m. long and 100 m. wide, communicating with the Atlantic; discovered by Hudson in 1610.

HUDSON BAY COMPANY, a joint-stock company founded in 1760 to obtain furs and skins from North America, under charter granted by Charles II., the possessions of which were in 1869 incorporated in the Dominion of Canada.

HUÉ (30), capital of the French protectorate Annam, on the Hué, 10 m. above its mouth, is strongly fortified with walls and a citadel.

HUELVA (19), a thriving seaport in Spain, 68 m. SW. of Seville, between the mouths of the Odiel and Tinto; fisheries and the exportation of copper, manganese, quicksilver, and wine are the chief industries.

HUERTA, GARCIA DE LA, a Spanish poet, was royal librarian in Madrid; wrote tragedy of "Raguel," thought of very highly (1729-1797).

HUESCA (13), an interesting old Spanish town, 58 m. NE. of Saragossa; has picturesque old churches, a university, and a palace; manufactures linen and leather.

HUET, PIERRE DANIEL, a learned French prelate, born at Caen; a pupil of Descartes; associated with Bossuet as scholar, and editor of Origen (1630-1721).

HUG, LEONHARD, a Catholic theologian and biblical scholar, author of an "Introduction to the New Testament" (1765-1846).

HUGH CAPET, the first of the Capetian dynasty of France, son of Hugh Capet, Count of Paris; proclaimed king in 987; his reign was a troubled one by the revolt of the very party that had raised him to the throne, and who refused to own his supremacy; Adelbert, a count of Périgueux, had usurped the titles of Count of Poitiers and of Tours, and the king, sending a messenger to ask "Who made you count?" got for answer the counter-challenge "Who made you king?" (946-996).

HUGHENDEN, a parish in Buckinghamshire, in the Chiltern district, 2 m. N. of High Wycombe; is interesting as the seat of Hughenden Manor, for many years the residence of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield.

HUGHES, THOMAS, author of "Tom Brown's School-days," born at Uffington, Berks; was at Rugby in Dr. Arnold's time, graduated at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1848; his famous story of Rugby school life, "Tom Brown's School-days," was published in 1856, and was followed by "Tom Brown at Oxford" and other stories and biographies; he entered Parliament in 1865, and in 1882 became a County Court Judge; throughout his life he was keenly interested in social questions and the betterment of the working-classes (1832-1896).

HUGO, VICTOR-MARIE, a famous French poet and novelist, born at Besançon; as a boy he accompanied his father, a general in Joseph Bonaparte's army, through the campaigns in Italy and Spain; at 14 he produced a tragedy, and six years later appeared his "Odes et Ballades"; in 1827 was published his famous tragedy "Cromwell," which placed him at the head of the Romanticists, and in "Hernani" (1830) the departure from the old classic novels was more emphatically asserted; his superabundant genius continued to pour forth a quick succession of dramas, novels, essays, and poems, in which he revealed himself one of the most potent masters of the French language; he was admitted to the French Academy, and in 1845 was created a peer; he engaged in politics first as a Royalist and next as a Democrat, fled to Brussels after the coup d'état; subsequently he established himself in Jersey and then in Guernsey, where he wrote his great novels "Les Misérables," "Les Travailleurs de la Mer," etc.; he returned to France in 1870, engaged in politics again, became a senator, and continued to produce works with undiminished energy; his writings were in the first instance a protest against the self-restraint and coldness of the old classic models, but were as truly a faithful expression of his own intense and assertive egoism, and are characteristic of his school in their exaggerated sentiment and pervading self-consciousness (1802-1885).

HUGUENOTS, a name formerly given to the Protestants of France, presumed to be a corruption of the German word eingenossen, i. e. sworn confederates, the history of whom and their struggles and persecutions fills a large chapter in the history of France, a cause which was espoused at the first by many of the nobles and the best families in the country, but all along in disfavour at Court.

HULL, or KINGSTON-UPON-HULL (260), a flourishing river-port in the E. Riding of Yorkshire, at the junction of the Hull with the Humber, 42 m. SE. of York; is an old town, and has many interesting churches, statues, and public buildings; is the third port of the kingdom; has immense docks, is the principal outlet for the woollen and cotton goods of the Midlands, and does a great trade with the Baltic and Germany; has flourishing shipbuilding yards, rope and canvas factories, sugar refineries, oil-mills, etc., and is an important centre of the east coast fisheries.

HULLAH, JOHN, professor of music, born in Worcester; did much to popularise music in England (1812-1884).

HULSEAN LECTURES, fruits of a lectureship tenable for one year, founded by Rev. John Hulse, of St. John's College, in 1789; delivered annually to the number of four, bearing on revealed religion.

HUMANIST, one who at the Revival of Letters upheld the claims of classical learning in opposition to the supporters of the scholastic philosophy.

HUMANITARIANS, a name given to those who maintain the simple humanity of Christ to the denial of his divinity; also to those who view human nature as sufficient for itself apart from all supernatural guidance and aid.

HUMBERT I., king of Italy, son of Victor Emmanuel, whom he succeeded in 1878; took while crown prince an active part in the movement for Italian unity, and distinguished himself by his bravery; b. 1844.

HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEX., BARON VON, great traveller and naturalist, born in Berlin; devoted all his life to the study of nature in all its departments, travelling all over the Continent, and in 1800, with AIMÉ BONPLAND (q. v.) for companion, visiting S. America, traversing the Orinoco, and surveying and mapping out in the course of five years Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, the results of which he published in his "Travels"; his chief work is the "Kosmos," or an account of the visible universe, in 4 vols., originally delivered as lectures in Paris in the winter of 1827-28; he was a friend of Goethe, who held him in the highest esteem (1769-1859).

HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON, an eminent statesman and philologist, born at Potsdam, elder brother of the preceding; represented Prussia at Rome and Vienna, but devoted himself chiefly to literary and scientific pursuits; wrote on politics and æsthetics as well as philology, and corresponded with nearly all the literary grandees of Germany (1767-1835).

HUME, DAVID, philosopher and historian, born in Edinburgh, the younger son of a Berwickshire laird; after trial of law and mercantile life gave himself up to study and speculation; spent much of his life in France, and fraternised with the sceptical philosophers and encyclopedists there; his chief works, "Treatise on Human Nature" (1739), "Essays" (1741-42), "Principles of Morals" (1751), and "History of England" (1754-61); his philosophy was sceptical to the last degree, but from the excess of it provoked a reaction in Germany, headed by Kant, which has yielded positive results; he found in life no connecting principle, no purpose, and had come to regard it as a restless aimless, heaving up and down, swaying to and fro on a waste ocean of blind sensations, without rational plot or counterplot, God or devil, and had arrived at an absolutely non-possumus stage, which, however, as hinted, was followed by a speedy and steady rebound, in speculation at all events; Hume's history has been characterised by Stopford Brooke as clear in narrative and pure in style, but cold and out of sympathy with his subject, as well as inaccurate; personally, he was a guileless and kindly man (1711-1776).

HUME, JOSEPH, a politician, born in Montrose; studied medicine, and served as a surgeon under the East India Company in India, made his fortune, and came home; adopted the political principles of Bentham and entered Parliament, of which he continued a prominent member till his death; he was an ardent reformer, and lived to see many of the measures he advocated crowned with success (1777-1855).

HUMOUR, distinct from wit, and defined as "a warm, tender, fellow-feeling with all that exists," as "the sport of sensibility and, as it were, the playful, teasing fondness of a mother for a child" ... as "a sort of inverse sublimity exalting into our affections what is below us,... warm and all-embracing as the sun."

HUNDRED DAYS, the name given to the period between Napoleon's return from Elba and his abdication, from Mar. 10 to June 28, 1815, after Waterloo.

HUNDYADES JOHN CORVINUS, a Hungarian captain of the 14th century, a formidable foe of the Turks.

HUNGARY (18,556), the eastern part of Austro-Hungary, including Hungary proper, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slavonia, and, except in military and diplomatic matters and customs dues, with a considerable amount of self-government independent of Austria, differing from it, as it does, in race, language, and many other respects, to such a degree as gives rise to much dissension, and every now and then threatens disruption.

HUNS, THE, a horde of barbarians of Mongolian origin who invaded Europe from the shores of the Caspian Sea in two wars, the first in the 4th century, which at length subsided, and the second in the 5th century, ultimately under Atilla, which, in the main body of them at all events, was driven back and even dispersed; they have been described as a race with broad shoulders, flat noses, small black eyes buried in the head, and without beards.

HUNT, HOLMAN, painter, born in London; became a pupil of Rossetti, and "his greatest disciple," and joined the Pre-Raphaelite movement; he began with "worldly subjects," but soon quitted these "virtually for ever" under Rossetti's influence, and "rose into the spiritual passion which first expressed itself in his 'Light of the World,'" with this difference, as Ruskin points out, between him and his "forerunner," that whereas Rossetti treated the story of the New Testament as a mere thing of beauty, with Hunt, "when once his mind entirely fastened on it, it became ... not merely a Reality, not merely the greatest of Realities, but the only Reality"; in this religious realistic spirit, as Ruskin further remarks, all Hunt's great work is done, and he notices how in all subjects which fall short of the religious element, "his power also is shortened, and he does those things worst which are easiest to other men"; his principal works in this spirit are "The Scape-Goat," "The Finding of Christ in the Temple," "The Shadow of Death," and the "Triumph of the Innocents," to which we may add "The Strayed Sheep," remarkable as well for its vivid sunshine, "producing," says Ruskin, "the same impressions on the mind as are caused by the light itself"; b. 1827.

HUNT, LEIGH, essayist and poet; was of the Cockney school, a friend of Keats and Shelley; edited the Examiner, a Radical organ; was a busy man but a thriftless, and always in financial embarrassment, though latterly he had a fair pension; lived near Carlyle, who at one time saw a good deal of him, his household, and its disorderliness, an eyesore to Carlyle, a "poetical tinkerdom" he called it, in which, however, he received his visitors "in the spirit of a king, apologising for nothing"; Carlyle soon tired of him, though he was always ready to help him when in need (1784-1859).

HUNTER, JOHN, anatomist and surgeon, born near East Kilbride, Lanarkshire; started practice as a surgeon in London, became surgeon to St. George's Hospital, and at length surgeon to the king; is distinguished for his operations in the cure of aneurism; he built a museum, in which he collected an immense number of specimens illustrative of subjects of medical study, which, after his death, was purchased by Government (1728-1793).

HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM, Indian statistician, in the Indian Civil Service, and at the head of the Statistical Department; has written several statistical accounts, the "Gazetteer of India," and other elaborate works on India; with Lives of the Earl of Mayo and the Marquis of Dalhousie; b. 1862.

HUNTINGDON (4), the county town of Huntingdonshire, stands on the left bank of the Ouse 59 m. N. of London; has breweries, brick-works, and nurseries, and was the birthplace of Oliver Cromwell.

HUNTINGDON, COUNTESS OF, a leader among the Whitfield Methodists, and foundress of a college for the "Connexion" at Cheshunt (1707-1791).

HUNTINGDONSHIRE (57), an undulating county NE. of the Fen district, laid out for most part in pasture and dairy land; many Roman remains are to be found scattered about in it.

HURD, RICHARD, English bishop in succession of Lichfield and Worcester; was both a religious writer and a critic; was the author of "Letters on Chivalry and Romance," "Dissertations on Poetry," and "Commentaries on Horace's Ars Poetica," the last much admired by Gibbon (1720-1808).

HURON, a lake in N. America, 263 m. long and 70 m. broad, the second largest on the average of the five on the Lawrence basin, interspersed with numerous islands.

HURONS, THE, a tribe of Red Indians of the Iroquois family.

HUSKISSON, WILLIAM, an English statesman and financier; distinguished for his services when in office in the relaxation of restrictions on trade (1770-1830).

HUSS, JOHN, a Bohemian church reformer; was a disciple of Wyclif, and did much to propagate his teaching, in consequence of which he was summoned in 1414 to answer for himself before the Council of Constance; went under safe-conduct from the emperor; "they laid him instantly in a stone dungeon, three feet wide, six feet high, seven feet long; burnt the true voice of him out of this world; choked it in smoke and fire" (1373-1415).

HUTCHESON, FRANCIS, moral philosopher, born in Ulster, son of a Presbyterian minister; educated in Glasgow; became professor in the university there and founder of the Scotch school of philosophy, who, according to Dr. Stirling, has not received the honour in that regard which is his due (1094-1747).

HUTCHINSON, ANNE, a religious fanatic, born in England, settled in New England, U.S.; expelled from the colony for Antinomian heresy, took refuge in Rhode Island, and was with her family butchered by the Indians (1590-1643).

HUTCHINSON, COLONEL, one of the Puritan leaders, and a prominent actor in the Puritan revolt, to the extent of signing the death-warrant of the king, but broke partnership as a republican with Cromwell when he assumed sovereign power, and sullenly refused to be reconciled to the Protector, though he begged him towards his end beseechingly as his old comrade in arms (1616-1664).

HUTCHINSON, JOHN, a theological faddist, born in Yorkshire; in his "Thoughts concerning Religion," derived all religion and philosophy from the Bible, but directly, as he insisted, from the original Hebrew, in which view he had a following of a few intelligent people (1674-1737).

HUTTEN, ULRICH VON, a zealous humanist and reformer, born in the castle of Steckelberg, in Hesse, of an ancient and noble family; allied himself as a scholar with Erasmus, and then with Luther as a man; entered heart and soul into the Reformation of the latter to a rupture with the former, and by his writings, which included invectives against the clergy and appeals to the nation, did much, amid many perils, to advance the cause of German emancipation from the thraldom of the Church (1488-1523).

HUTTON, CHARLES, a mathematician, born in Newcastle; became professor at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; wrote on mathematics and physics (1737-1825).

HUTTON, JAMES, celebrated geologist, born in Edinburgh; bred to medicine, but devoted himself to agriculture and chemistry, which led on to geology; was the author of the Plutonic theory of the earth, which ascribes the inequalities and other phenomena in the crust of it to the agency of the heat at the centre (1726-1797).

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY, eminent scientist in the department of natural history, born at Ealing, Middlesex; was professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines; distinguished by his studies and discoveries in different sections of the animal kingdom, in morphology and palæontology; was a zealous advocate of evolution, in particular the views of Darwin, and a champion of science against the orthodoxy of the Church; he was a man of eminent literary ability as well as scientific, and of the greatest in that regard among scientific men (1825-1895).

HUYGENS, CHRISTIAN, a Dutch geometrician, physicist, and astronomer, born at The Hague; published the first scientific work on the calculation of probabilities, improved the telescope, broached the undulatory theory of light, discovered the fourth satellite of Saturn, invented the pendulum clock, and stands as a physicist midway between Galileo and Newton (1629-1093).

HYDASPES, the ancient name of the Jhelum, the northernmost tributary of the Indus.

HYDER ALI, a Mohammedan ruler of Mysore; raised himself to be commander-in-chief of the army; organised it on the French model; unseated the rajah; conquered Calicut, Bednor, and Kananur; waged war successfully against the English and the Mahrattas, and left his kingdom to his son TIPPOO SAIB (q. v.) (1728-1782).

HYDERABAD (370), the capital of the Nizam's dominions in the Deccan, is 6 m. in circumference, strongly protected all round by a belt of rocky desert, and a centre of Mohammedanism in India. Also the capital of Sind (58), near the apex of the delta of the Indus; manufactures silks, pottery, and lacquered ware, and is strongly fortified.

HYDRA, THE LERNEAN, a monstrous reptile inhabiting a marsh, with a number of heads, that grew on again as often as they were chopped off, and the destruction of which was one of the twelve labours of Hercules, an act which symbolises the toil expended in draining the fens of the world for man's habitation.

HYGEIA, in the Greek mythology the Goddess of Health, and daughter of Æsculapius; is represented as a virgin in a long robe, with a cup in her hand and a serpent drinking out of it.

HYMEN, in the Greek mythology the God of Marriage, son of Apollo, and one of the Muses, represented as a boy with wings; originally a nuptial song sung at the departure of the bride from her parental home.

HYMER, a frost Jötun, whose cows are icebergs; splits rocks with the glance of his eye.

HYMETTUS, a mountain in Attica, famous for its honey and marble.

HYPATIA, a far-famed lady teacher of Greek philosophy in Alexandria, distinguished for her beauty and purity of life, who, one day in 415, on her return home from her lecture-room, was massacred in the streets of the city, at the instance, of both Jews and Christians, as a propagator of paganism.

HYPERBOREANS, a people blooming in youth and health, fabled by the Greeks to dwell in the extreme northern parts of the world under favour of Apollo.

HYPERMNESTRA, the only one of the DANAIDES (q. v.) who spared the life of her husband in spite of her father's orders.

HYPNOTISM, the process of inducing sleep by wearying out the optic nerve of the eyes, by making the patient fix them upon a certain spot for a time, generally situated where it is a little wearisome for the eyes to find it. The fatigue thus induced spreads from the ocular muscles to the system, causing deep sleep.

HYRCANIA, an ancient province of Persia, on the E. and SE. of the Caspian Sea, celebrated for the savage animals that inhabited its forests, as well as the savagery of its inhabitants.

HYRCANUS, JOHN, the son of Simon Maccabeus, king of Judea, as well as High-Priest of the Jews from 135 to 105 B.C.; achieved the independence of his country from the Syrian yoke, extended the borders of it, and compelled the Edomites to accept the Jewish faith at the point of the sword; in the strife then rampant between the SADDUCEES (q. v.) and the PHARISEES (q. v.) he sided with the former.

I

IACHIMO, an arch-villain in Shakespeare's "Cymbeline," who attempts to violate the chastity of Imogen.

IACHUS, the son of Zeus and Demeter, and the solemn name of Bacchus in the Eleusinian Mysteries.

IAGO, a cool, selfish, malignant, subtle, evil-scheming knave in "Othello," his "ancient" or ensign, who poisoned his mind against Desdemona.

IAMBLICHUS, a Neo-Platonic philosopher of the 4th century, in the time of Constantine, struggled, as it proved, in vain for the revival of Greek philosophy, in the hope of thereby stemming the advance of Christianity.

IAMBUS, a metrical foot, consisting of two syllables, of which the first is short and the second long, or in which the stress is on the second.

IAPETOS, in the Greek mythology a Titan, father of Atlas, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, as the Greeks fabled the ancestor of the human race.

IBERIA, the ancient and still poetic name of Spain; anciently also a territory inhabited by an agricultural population between the Black Sea and the Caspian, now called Georgia.

IBIS, the Nile bird, regarded as an avatar of deity, and held sacred by the Egyptians; it did not breed in Egypt, and was supposed to be of mystic origin; it arrives in Egypt when the Nile begins to rise.

IBRAHIM BEY, chief of the Mamelukes of Egypt at the time of Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt in 1798 (1789-1816).

IBRAHIM PASHA, viceroy of Egypt, son and successor of Mehemet-Ali; appointed generalissimo of the Egyptian army, remodelled it after the French fashion; was leader of the Turks against the Greeks; gained several victories over them in 1828, but was obliged to retire; overran and conquered Syria from the Sultan, but was forced by the Powers to surrender his conquest and restore it; he was Viceroy of Egypt only for a single year, and died at Cairo (1789-1848).

IBSEN, HENRIK, Norwegian dramatist and poet, born at Skein, in Norway; bred to medicine; is author of a succession of plays of a new type, commencing with "Catalina," a poor attempt, followed by "Doll's House," "Ghosts," "Pillars of Society," and "Brand," deemed his masterpiece, besides others; his characters are vividly drawn as if from life; he is a psychologist, and his productions have all more or less a social bearing; b. 1828.

IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, who was murdered by robbers, and who appealed to a flock of cranes that flew past before he died to avenge his death, and that proved the means of the discovery of the murderers.

ICARUS, son of DÆDALUS (q. v.), who, flying with his father from Crete on wax-fastened wings, soared so high that the sun melted the wax and he dropped into the sea, giving name to that part of it.

ICE BLINK, the name given to a white light seen on the horizon, due to reflection from a field of ice immediately beyond.

ICELAND (71), a volcanic island larger by a third than Scotland, lying just S. of the polar circle, between Greenland and Norway, distant 250 m. from the former and 500 from the latter; consists of a plateau 2000 ft. high, sometimes sloping to the sea, sometimes ending in sheer precipices, from which rise numerous snow-clad volcanoes, some, like Hecla, still active. "A wild land of barrenness and lava," Carlyle characterises it, "swallowed up many months of the year in black tempests, yet with a wild gleaming beauty in summer time, towering up there stern and grim, with its snow jokuls and roaring geysers, and horrid volcanic chasms, like the waste chaotic battlefield of frost and fire." The interior comprises lava and sand tracts, and ice-fields, but outside these are river valleys and lake districts affording pasturage, and arable land capable of producing root crops. The climate is changeable, mild for the latitude, but somewhat colder than Scotland. There are few trees, and these small; cranberries grow among the heather, and Iceland moss is a plentiful article of food. The island exports sheep and ponies; the fisheries are important, including cod, seals, and whales; sulphur and coal are found; the hot springs are famous, especially the Great Geyser, near Hecla. Discovered by Irishmen and colonised by Norwegians in the 9th century, Iceland passed over to the Danes in 1388, who granted it home rule in 1893. The religion has been Protestant since 1550; its elementary education is excellent. Reykjavik (3) is the capital; two towns have 500 inhabitants each; the rest of the population is scattered in isolated farms; stock-raising and fishing are the principal industries, and the manufacture of homespun for their own use.

ICH DIEN (I serve), the motto of the Black Prince, adopted from John of Bohemia, and since then that of the English Prince of Wales.

ICHNEUMON, an animal of the weasel tribe, worshipped in Egypt from its destroying the eggs of noxious reptiles, and of the crocodile in particular.

ICHOR, an ethereal fluid presumed to supply the place of blood in the veins of the Greek gods.

ICHTHYOSAURUS (lit. a fish-reptile), an extinct marine reptile in the shape of a fish, its limbs paddles, and with a long lizard-like tail.

ICONIUM, the capital of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, a flourishing city in St. Paul's time, who planted a church there, and of importance in the time of the Crusades; is now named Konieh.

ICONOCLASTS (i. e. breakers of images), the name given to a sect who, in the 8th century, opposed to the presence of images in churches and the worship paid to them, set about the demolition of them as savouring of idolatry, and even in 730 obtained a papal decree or condemnation of the practice; the enthusiasm died out in the next century, but the effect of it was felt in a controversy, which led to the separation of the Church of the East from that of the West.

ICTINUS, great Greek architect of the 5th century B.C., a contemporary of Pericles, designer of temples at Bussæ and Eleusis, and joint-designer with Callicrates of the world's one perfect building, the Parthenon, at Athens (437 B.C.).

IDA, the name of two mountains in the East, one in Crete, on which Zeus was brought up in a cave near it, and one in Asia Minor, near Troy, "Woody Ida," the scene of the rape of Ganymedes and of the judgment of Paris, also a seat of Cybele worship.

IDAHO (88), one of the north-western States of the American Union, surrounded by Washington and Oregon in the W., Nevada and Utah in the S., Wyoming in the E., and Montana, from which it is separated by a branch of the Rocky Mountains, in the NE., the short northern boundary touches Canada; the country is traversed by lofty mountain ranges cut up into deep river valleys and cañons, is extremely rugged in its northern parts, and chiefly useful for cattle-raising; there is a plateau in the centre, some arid prairie land in the S., and lake districts in the N. and in the SE.; grain farming is restricted to fringes along the river banks; the Snake River flows through the whole S.; silver, lead, gold, and copper mines are wrought successfully, and coal is found; the State was admitted to the Union in 1890; a fifth of the population are Mormons; there are still 4000 Indians. Boisé City (2) is the capital.

IDDESLEIGH, EARL OF, Sir Stafford Northcote, Conservative financier and statesman, born in London of old Devonshire stock; educated at Oxford; became private secretary to Mr. Gladstone in 1842, and five years later was called to the bar; entering Parliament in 1885, he sat in succession for Dudley, for Stamford, and for North Devon; under Lord Derby he was Financial Secretary to the Treasury in 1859, and President of the Board of Trade in 1866; under Disraeli he was at the India Office in 1868, and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1874; he succeeded Disraeli in the leadership of the Commons, and was raised to the peerage in 1885; was successively First Lord of the Treasury and Foreign Secretary under Lord Salisbury; in 1871 Mr. Gladstone appointed him Commissioner in the settlement of the Alabama claim, and he was elected Lord Hector of Edinburgh University in 1883; resigning from the Foreign Office in January 1887, he died suddenly a few days later at the Prime Minister's residence (1818-1887).

IDEALISM, that view of the universe which, in opposition to MATERIALISM (q. v.), refers everything to and derives everything from a spiritual root; is Subjective if traced no further back than the ego, and Objective if traced back to the non-ego likewise, its counterpart, or other, in the objective world. Idealism in art is art more or less at work in the region of the ideal in comparative disregard of the actual.

IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG, a German astronomer, born in Prussia; an authority on chronology, on which he wrote a handbook, as also a work on the reckoning of time among the Chinese (1766-1846).

IDENTICAL NOTE, a term in diplomacy to denote terms agreed upon by two Powers to coerce a third.

IDES, the name given in the Roman calendar to certain days that divide the month; in March, May, July, and October they fall on the 15th, in the rest on the 13th.

IDOLATRY, worship paid to a mere symbol of the divine while the heart is dead to all sense of that which it symbolises; a species of offence against the Most High, of which many are flagrantly guilty who affect to regard with pity the worshipper of idols of wood or stone. "Idolatry," says Buskin, apropos of Carlyle's well-known doctrine, "is summed up in the one broad wickedness of refusing to worship Force and resolving to worship No-Force; denying the Almighty, and bowing down to four-and-twopence with a stamp on it."

IDOMENEUS, king of Crete, grandson of Minos, and a hero of the Greeks in the war with Troy.

IDRIS, a giant, prince, and astronomer of Welsh tradition, whose rock-hewn chair on the summit of Cader Idris was supposed to mete out to the bard who spent a night upon it death, madness, or poetic inspiration.

IDUMÆA. See EDOM.

IDUNA, a Scandinavian goddess who kept a box of golden apples which the gods tasted when they wished to renew their youth; she was carried off one day, but being sent for by the gods, came back changed into a falcon.

IDYLL, a poem in celebration of everyday life or life in everyday costume amid natural, often pastoral and even romantic, and at times tragic surroundings.

IF, an islet in the Gulf of Marseilles, with a castle built by Francis I., and afterwards used as a State prison.

IGGDRASIL the Tree of Existence, as conceived of by the Norse, and reflecting the Norse idea of the universe, "has its roots deep down in the kingdoms of Hela, or Death; its trunk reaches up heaven-high, and spreads its boughs over the whole universe. At the foot of it, in the Death-Kingdom, sit the THREE NORNAS (q. v.) watering its roots from the sacred Well."

IGNATIEFF, NICHOLAS, Russian general and diplomatist, born at St. Petersburg; was ambassador at Pekin in 1859, and at Constantinople in 1864, and secured at both posts important concessions to Russia; he is a zealous Panslavist and Anti-Semite, too much so to carry with him the support of the country; b. 1832.

IGNATIUS, FATHER, the name by which the Rev. Joseph Lyne is known, born in London, educated at St. Paul's School and Glenalmond; commenced a movement to introduce monasticism into the Church of England, and built a monastery for monks and nuns near Llanthony Abbey, the members of which follow the rule and wear the garb of the Order of St. Benedict; b. 1837.

IGNATIUS, ST., surnamed Theophoros, an Apostolic Father of the Church, Bishop of Antioch; died a martyr at Rome about 115, by exposure to wild beasts, in the amphitheatre; is represented in Christian art as accompanied by lions, or exposed to them chained; left epistles which, if genuine as we have them, establish prelacy as the order of government in the primitive Church, and lay especial stress on the twofold nature of Christ.

IGNATIUS LOYOLA. See LOYOLA.

IGNORANTINES, a Jesuit association in the Roman Catholic Church founded in 1724, who give instruction to poor children gratis, with the object of winning them over to the Catholic faith.

IHRE, JOHAN, a learned Swedish philologist, born at Lund, of Scotch descent; was 40 years professor of Rhetoric and Political Economy at Upsala, and was the founder of Swedish philology (1707-1780).

ILE DE FRANCE, the province of France of which Paris is the capital; was also formerly the name of Mauritius.

ILE DU DIABLE, an island off the coast of French Guiana, where Captain Dreyfus was confined.

ILFRACOMBE, a popular watering-place on the coast of N. Devon, in the Bristol Channel; once a considerable place.

ILIAD, the great epic poem of Homer, consisting of 24 books, the subject of which is the "wrath of ACHILLES" (q. v.), and the events which followed during the last year of the ten years' Trojan War, so called from ILION, one of the names of Troy. See ILIUM.

ILITHYIA, the Greek goddess who presided over the travail of woman at childbirth, promoting or retarding the birth as the Fates might ordain.

ILIUM, TROY (q. v.), so called from Ilus, the son of Tros, who founded the city.

ILLINOIS (3,826), an American State as large as England and Wales; has the Mississippi for its western, the Ohio for its southern boundary, with Wisconsin and Lake Michigan in the N. and Indiana on the E.; fourth in population, seventeenth in area; "the Prairie State" is level, well watered, and extremely fertile; has a climate subject to extremes, but, except in the swamps, healthy. It produces enormous quantities of wheat, besides other cereals, of tobacco and temperate fruits. Flour-milling, pork-packing, and distilling are the chief industries. The most extensive coal-deposits in America are in this State; with navigable rivers on its borders, and traversing it Lake Michigan, a great canal, and the largest railway system in the Union, it is admirably situated for commercial development; originally acquired by Britain from the French, who entered it from Canada; it was ceded to the Americans in 1783, and admitted to the Union 1818; the State spends $12,000,000 annually on education, which is compulsory, and has a large and wealthy scientific and agricultural university at Urbana. Springfield (25) is the capital; but Chicago (1,100) is the largest city.

ILLUMINATED DOCTOR, a title bestowed on RAYMOND LULLY (q. v.).

ILLUMINATI, a class or fraternity of people who affect superior enlightenment, particularly on religious and social matters, tending of late in the one to Deism, and in the other to Republicanism, in France forming a body of materialists, and in Germany a body of idealists; the former to the disparagement of ideas, and the latter to the disparagement of reason, and both hostile to the Church.

ILLUMINATION, THE, the name given to the "advanced" thinking class who pride themselves in their emancipation from all authority in spiritual matters, the assumption of which they regard as an outrage not only against the right of private judgment, but the very constitution of man, which, they argue, is violated when respect is not before all paid to individual conviction. See AUFKLÄRUNG.

ILLYRIA, the name anciently given to a broad stretch of mountainous country of varying extent lying E. of the Adriatic Sea. The Illyrians were the last Balkan people to be civilised; becoming a Roman province 35 B.C., Illyria furnished several emperors, among them the notorious Diocletian. Constantine extended the province to include all the country S. of the Danube; at the division of the empire, Greece and Macedonia went to the East, the rest to the West; the name was revived by Napoleon, but has since been dropped.

ILUS, a legendary king of Troy, the grandson of Dardanus, and the founder of Ilium.

IMAGE WORSHIP in the Christian Church is reverence, as distinct from the supreme adoration of the Deity, paid to the crucifix and to pictures, images, or statues of saints and martyrs, and understood really as offered through these to the personages whom they represent. The practice, unknown in apostolic or sub-apostolic times, was prevalent in the 4th century, provoked by its excesses a severe reaction in the 8th century, but carefully defined by the second Council of Nice (787), has continued since both in the Greek and Roman communion; there is still controversy as to its propriety in the Anglican Church; the Lutherans still use the crucifix freely, but other Protestant Churches have entirely repudiated the practice. See ICONOCLASTS.

IMAGINARY CONVERSATIONS, a remarkable work by Landor, in 6 vols., much appreciated by many.

IMAGINATION, the name appropriate to the highest faculty of man, and defined by Ruskin as "mental creation," in the exercise of which the human being discharges his highest function as a responsible being, "the defect of which on common minds it is the main use," says Ruskin, "of works of fiction, and of the drama, as far as possible, to supply."

IMÂM is the title of the officer who leads the devotions in Mohammedan mosques, and in Turkey conducts marriage and funeral services, as well as performs the ceremonies connected with circumcision; the office was filled and the title borne by Mahomet, hence it sometimes signifies head of the faith, and is so applied to the Sultan of Turkey; good Mohammedans believe in the future advent of an Imâm--the hidden Imâm--who shall be greater than the Prophet himself.

IMAUS, a name the ancients gave to any large mountain chain in Asia, more particularly one bordering on India, or looking down upon it, as the home of the Aryans.

IMITATION OF CHRIST, a book of pious reflections, unique in its kind, and much esteemed by piously thoughtful people; ascribed to THOMAS À KEMPIS (q. v.).

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, the doctrine held by the Roman Catholic Church that the Virgin Mary was conceived and born without taint of sin; first distinctly propounded in the 12th century, at which time a festival was introduced in celebration of it, and which became matter of dispute in the 14th century, and it was only in 1854 that it became by a bull an article of the Catholic faith.

IMMANENCE, the idea that the creative intelligence which made, with the regulative intelligence which governs, the universe, is inherent in it and pervades it.

IMMENSITIES, CENTRE OF, an expression of Carlyle's to signify that wherever any one is, he is in touch with the whole universe of being, and is, if he knew it, as near the heart of it there as anywhere else he can be.

IMMENSITY, THE TEMPLE OF, the universe as felt to be in every corner of it a temple consecrated to worship in with wonder and awe.

IMMERMANN, KARL LEBERECHT, German novelist and dramatist, born at Magdeburg; fought at Waterloo; entered the public service of Prussia and obtained an appointment at Düsseldorf, where he died; his fame rests upon his miscellaneous tales and satirical novels, such as "Münchausen"; his dramas consisted of both tragedies and comedies (1796-1840).

IMMORTALITY, the doctrine of the continued existence of the soul of each individual after death, a doctrine the belief of which is, in one form or another, common to most religious systems; even to those which contemplate absorption in the Deity as the final goal of existence, as is evident from the prevalence in them of the doctrine of transmigration or reincarnation.

IMMORTALS, a regiment of 10,000 foot soldiers who formed the bodyguard of the ancient Persian kings; the name given to the 40 members of the French Academy.

IMOGEN, the daughter of Cymbeline, in Shakespeare's play of the name, a perfect female character, pronounced "the most tender and the most artless of all Shakespeare's women."

IMO`LA (12), a town in Italy, 10 m. N. of Faenza, with some fine palaces; manufactures leather, glass, silk, &c.

IMPANATION, a name employed to denote the union of the body of Christ with the bread of the Eucharist.

IMPENETRABILITY, the name given to that quality of matter whereby two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time.

IMPERATIVE, THE CATEGORICAL. See CATEGORICAL.

IMPERIAL FEDERATION, name given to a scheme for uniting more closely together the several interests of the British Empire.

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, South Kensington, founded by the exertions of the Prince of Wales in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria's jubilee, was opened by her in 1893; was intended to include a complete collection of the products of the British Empire, a grand commercial intelligence bureau, and a school of modern Oriental languages; the government to be carried on by a chartered body, whose form of constitution was granted by a royal warrant of date April 21, 1891; the idea is for the present abandoned, and the premises appropriated as henceforth the seat of the London University.

IMPERIALISM, the name given by English politicians to the policy which aims at the consolidation into one empire of all the colonies and dependencies along with the mother-country.

IMPETIGO, a cutaneous eruption, generally in clusters, of yellow-scaled pustules, which grow thicker and larger; common among children ill fed and ill cared for.

IMPEY, SIR ELIJAH, Indian judge, born at Hammersmith; educated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1756; was sent out to Bengal as first Chief-Justice in 1774; he supported Warren Hastings's administration, and presided over the court which sentenced Nuncomar to death for forgery; in the quarrel over Hastings's alleged resignation he decided in favour of the governor; was recalled and impeached for his conduct of the Nuncomar trial in 1783, but was honourably acquitted; resigning in 1789, he sat in Parliament for New Romney till 1796 (1732-1809).

IMPONDERABLES, the name given to light, heat, and electricity when they were supposed to be material substances, but without weight.

IMPRESSIONISM, a term in painting that denotes the principle of a new school originating in France before 1870, and introduced into this country some 10 years later; it is a revolt against traditionalism in art, and aims at reproducing on canvas not what the mind knows or by close study observes is in nature, but the "impression" which eye and mind gather. The influence of the movement has been strong, and promises to be lasting both here and in Germany, and not the least interesting work of the kind has of late years issued from the "Glasgow School" and the "London Impressionists."

IMPRESSMENT, legalised enforcement of service in the British navy, which has for years been in abeyance, and is not likely to be ever again revived.

IMPROPRIATION, the transference of the revenues of a benefice to a layman or lay body to be devoted to spiritual uses.

IMPUTATION, the theological dogma of the transference of guilt or merit from one to another who is descended naturally or spiritually from the same stock as the former, as of Adam's guilt to us by nature or Christ's righteousness to us by faith; although in Scripture the term generally, if not always, denotes the reckoning to a man of the merit or the demerit involved in, not another's doings, but his own, as in a single act of faith or a single act of unbelief, the one viewed as allying him with all that is good, or as a proof of his essential goodness, and the other as allying him with all that is evil, or as a proof of his essential wickedness.

IN CÆNA DOMINI (i. e. in the Supper of the Lord), a papal bull promulgated in the Middle Ages, denouncing excommunication against all who dispute the claims of the Church, and the promulgation of which was felt on all hands to be intolerable; the promulgation has been discontinued since 1773.

INACHOS, in Greek legend the first king of Argos, son of Oceanus and Tethys.

IN-AND-IN, a term applied to the breeding of animals from the same parentage.

INCA, a king or royal prince of the ancient original people of Peru.

INCANDESCENT LIGHT, or ELECTRIC LIGHT, a light produced by a thin strip of a non-conducting body, such as carbon, in a vacuum raised to intense heat by an electric current.

INCARNATION, the humanisation of the Divine in the person of Christ, a doctrine vehemently opposed in the early times of the Church by both Jews and Gnostics, by the former as inconsistent with the greatness of God, and by the latter as inconsistent with the inbred depravity of man.

INCENSE, a fragrance which arises from the burning of certain gums and burnt in connection with sundry religious observances, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church, as an expression of praise presumably well pleasing to God; a practice which Protestants repudiate as without warrant in Scripture.

INCHBALD, ELIZABETH, actress, dramatist, and novelist, daughter of John Simpson, a Suffolk farmer; came to London at the age of 18, seeking a theatrical engagement; after some adventures she met Joseph Inchbald, an actor of no note, to whom she was married in 1772; shortly afterwards she made her début as Cordelia at Bristol; after seven years in the provinces and nine in London, during which she failed to rise high in her profession, she turned to literature; she wrote and adapted many plays, but the works by which she is remembered are two novels, "A Simple Story" and "Nature and Art" (1753-1821).

INCHCOLM, an island in the Firth of Forth, near Aberdour, on the Fife coast, so called as the residence of St. Columba when engaged in the conversion of the Northern Picts; has the remains of an abbey founded by Alexander I.

INCHKEITH, an island in the Firth of Forth, in the county of Fife, 2½m. N. of Leith, and about ½ m. long, has a lighthouse with a revolving light, and fortifications to protect the Forth.

INCITATUS, the horse of CALIGULA (q. v.); had a house and a servant to itself, was fed from vessels of gold, admitted to the priesthood, and created a consul of Rome.

INCLEDON, CHARLES BENJAMIN, a celebrated ballad-singer with a fine tenor voice, born in Cornwall (1763-1826).

INCORRUPTIBLE, THE, ROBESPIERRE (q. v.), a man not to be seduced to betray his principles or party.

INCREMENT, UNEARNED, an expression denoting increase in the value of landed property due to increased demand and without any expenditure on the part of the proprietor.

INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF, a declaration made July 4, 1776, by the North American States declaring their independence of Great Britain.

INDEPENDENCE, THE WAR OF, the name given to the struggle which the North American colonists maintained against the mother country.

INDEPENDENCE DAY, a holiday observed throughout the United States annually on the 4th of July in celebration of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 that day.

INDEPENDENTS or CONGREGATIONALISTS are a Protestant sect deriving both names from their principle of government; repudiating both Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, they hold that every congregation should manage its own affairs, and elect its own officers independent of all authority save that of Christ; they profess to derive all rules of faith and practice from the Scriptures, and are closely akin to Presbyterians in doctrine. Numerous as early as Queen Elizabeth's time, they suffered persecution then; many fled or were banished to Holland, whence the Mayflower conveyed the Pilgrim Fathers to New England in 1620. Regaining ascendency under Cromwell, they again suffered at the Restoration; but political disabilities then imposed have gradually been removed, and now they are the most vigorous Dissenting body in England. The congregations in the English Union (a union for common purposes and mutual help) number 4700, those in the Scottish Union 100.

INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, a list of books issued by the Church of Rome, which, as hostile to her teaching, are placed under her ban, and are under penalties forbidden to be read. The first list published was by Pope Paul IV. in 1557, and in 1562 the Council of Trent appointed a committee whose special business it should be to draw up a complete list of obnoxious writings, a work which it fell to Paul IV. to finish after the sittings of the Council came to a close in an index issued in 1564.

INDIA (287,223), British dependency, consisting of the great peninsula in the S. of Asia, which has the Bay of Bengal on the E. and the Arabian Sea on the W., and is separated from the mainland by the Hindu-Kush and the Himalaya Mountains; politically the name includes besides the Punjab in the N. and Burma in the E.; the centre of the peninsula is a great plateau called the Deccan, between which and the snow-clad Himalaya stretch the great fertile basins of the Ganges, the Thar Desert, and the arid wastes of the Indus Valley; great varieties of climate are of course met with, but the temperature is prevailingly high, and the monsoons of the Indian Ocean determine the regularity of the rainy season, which occurs from June to October; the country generally is insalubrious; the vegetation is correspondingly varied, but largely tropical; rice, cereal crops, sugar, and tobacco are generally grown; cotton in Bombay and the Central Provinces, opium in the Ganges Valley, jute in Eastern Bengal, and indigo in Behar; coffee and tea are raised by Europeans in the hill country on virgin soil; the chief mineral deposits are extensive coal-fields between the Ganges and the Godavari, the most valuable salt deposits in the world in the Punjab, and deposits of iron, the purest found anywhere, in many parts of the country, which, however, are wrought only by native methods; native manufactures are being largely superseded by European methods, and the young cotton-weaving industry flourishes well; the country is well populated on the whole, with a relative scarcity of big towns; the people belong to many different races, and speak languages representing four distinct stocks; the vast bulk of them are Brahmanists or Hindus; there are many Mohammedans, Buddhists (in Burma), and Parsees (in Bombay); 2¼ millions are Christians, and there are other religions; India has been subject to many conquests; the Aryan, Greek, and Mussulman invasions swept from the NW.; the Portuguese obtained a footing on the SW. coast in the 15th century; the victories of Plassey 1757, and Seringapatam 1799, established British rule throughout the whole peninsula, and the principle that native princes where they retained their thrones were vassals; Sind was won in 1843 and the Punjab in 1849, and the powers of the East India Company transferred to the Queen in 1857, who was proclaimed Empress in 1877; the government is vested in a governor-general aided by an executive and a legislative council, under control, however, of a Secretary of State for India and council at home; there are governors and lieutenant-governors of the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and of the various provinces; native States are all attached to and subject to the supervision of the government of a province; there is a native army of 146,000 men, and 74,000 European troops are maintained in the country; British rule has developed the resources of the country, advanced its civilisation, and contributed to the welfare of the people; Indian finance is not yet satisfactory; the currency is based on silver, the steady depreciation of which metal has never ceased to hamper the national funds.

INDIA, (1) THE IMPERIAL ORDER OF THE CROWN OF, founded in 1878, includes the Queen and certain royal princes, English and Indian, female relatives of the Viceroy, of the governors of Bombay and Madras, and others in high places in India; (2) THE MOST EXALTED ORDER OF THE STAR OF, founded in 1861 and since enlarged, with the sovereign for head and the viceroy as grand-master, and three different grades of knights, designed severally G.C.S.I., K.C.S.I, and C.S.I., a blue ribbon with white stripes being the badge; and (3) THE MOST EMINENT ORDER OF THE EMPIRE OF, founded in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, with queen and empress at the head, and a knighthood similar to the preceding, their motto, "Imperatricis auspiciis."

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE, a service which, besides embracing the ordinary departments of civil administration, includes judicial, medical, territorial, and even military staff appointments, appointments dependent on the possession of regulated, more or less academic, qualifications.

INDIAN MUTINY, a wide-spread rebellion on the part chiefly of the Sepoys against British authority in 1857, and which was suppressed by a strong force under Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.

INDIAN OCEAN is that stretch of sea between Africa on the W. and Australia, Java, and Sumatra on the E., which separates in the N. into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal; the monsoons, or trade-winds, blow here with great regularity; from April to October they are strong from the SW., from October to April more gentle in the opposite direction; there are many islands and reefs of coral formation, such as the Maldive group; St. Paul's and Mauritius are volcanic, while Madagascar and Ceylon are typical continental islands.

INDIAN TERRITORY (186), a stretch of country in the basin of the Arkansas, Canadian, and Red Rivers, with Kansas on the N., Arkansas on the E., Oklahoma Territory on the W., and separated by the Red River from Texas on the S., set apart for the occupation of the Indian tribes of the western prairies; formerly double its present size, it has been reduced by the purchase in 1890 of Oklahoma.; in the centre and east are fertile plains and great forests of walnut and maple, in which deer and bears abound; the west is a treeless prairie supporting vast herds of cattle; mineral resources are probably rich, but are undeveloped; the principal tribes have their own organisations and civilised institutions, churches, schools, banks, and newspapers; the towns are small, Tahlequah, Lehigh, and M'Alister are the chief.

INDIANA (2,192), one of the smaller but most populous States of the American Union, lies between Lake Michigan and the Ohio River, with Ohio on the E. and Illinois on the W.; the climate is marked by extremes of heat and cold; the country is somewhat hilly in the S., is mostly level, well watered, and very fertile; agriculture is the chief industry, cereals, potatoes, and tobacco forming the chief crops; there is great mineral wealth, with extensive and varied industries, embracing iron, glass, and textile manufactures, waggon-building, and furniture-making; petroleum wells are abundant, and in one part of the territory natural gas is found in great quantities. First occupied by the French, Indiana was acquired by Britain in 1763, ceded to America 1783, and admitted to the Union in 1816; education in the State university and schools is free; besides Indianapolis, the capital, the largest towns are Evansville (50), Fort Wayne (30), and Terre Haute (30).

INDIANAPOLIS (169), capital of Indiana, on the White Ford River, in the centre of the State; a fine city, with wide, tree-lined streets, large iron, brass, and textile manufactures, and canned-meat industry; is a great railroad centre.

INDIANS, AMERICAN, the aborigines of America, and now gradually dying out; these aborigines were called Indians by Columbus, because when he discovered America he thought it was India. See AMERICAN INDIANS.

INDIA-RUBBER, CAOUTCHOUC, or GUM ELASTIC, is a product of the milky juices of several tropical and sub-tropical plants found in the West Indies, Central and South America, West Africa, and India; there is evidence that its properties were partially known to the Spaniards in the West Indies early in the 17th century; but its first introduction to this country was about 1770, when it was employed by artists for erasing black-lead pencil marks, hence its familiar name; it is collected by making incisions in the tree trunk and gathering the slowly exuding juice, which is first solidified by drying, then purified by boiling and washing; it is flexible and elastic, insoluble in water, and impenetrable to gases and fluids, and these qualities give it great commercial importance; the use of pure rubber has been greatly superseded by that of "vulcanised" rubber; mixed with from 1/40 to ½ of its weight of sulphur and combined by heat, the rubber acquires greater elasticity, is not hardened by cold or rendered viscid by heat, and is insoluble in many of the solvents of pure rubber; its usefulness is thus largely increased and greatly extended of late; the demand for rubber is in excess of the supply, but no substitute has been found effective; in recent years care has been bestowed on its economical collection and on its scientific culture.

INDICTION, a cycle of 15 years instituted by Constantine the Great, and which began on the 24th September 812, the day of his victory over Maxentius; to find the indiction of any year add 1 and divide by 15.

INDIUM, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and first discovered in zinc-blende in 1863.

INDIVIDUALISM, the name given to a social system which has respect to the rights of the individual as sovereign, and is strictly opposed to Socialism.

INDO-CHINA, called also the Eastern Peninsula or Farther India, the name given to the large peninsular territory which lies between the Bay of Bengal and the Chinese Sea, lying almost wholly within the Torrid Zone, and embracing the empires of Burma and Annam and the kingdom of Cambodia and Siam, as well as territories under Britain and France, all now mostly divided between the latter two and Siam; it is sparsely peopled owing to its mountainous character and the swampy lands, and the natives are mainly of the Mongolian type.

INDO-EUROPEAN, an epithet applied to a family of the human race with the languages of its several members descended from the Aryans, and found dispersed over an area including the better part of India and Europe.

INDO-GERMANIC, a term at one time employed especially among German writers, synonymous with Aryan.

INDORE, 1, a native principality (1,094), in Central India, somewhat larger than Wales, embraces the Vindbya and Satpura Mountains, and is traversed by the Nerbudda River; there are great forests on the mountains; the valley of the river is fertile; wheat, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and large quantities of opium are raised; the climate is sultry, and at certain seasons unhealthy; the natives are chiefly Mahratta Hindus; among the hills are Bhils and Gonds, the wildest tribes of India; the State is governed by a Maharajah styled Holkar, under supervision of an agent of the Governor-General; education is progressing. INDORE, 2, on the Kuthi River, the capital (92), is a poor city of brick and mud; the palace and the British residency, however, are fine buildings; it is connected by rail with Bombay, distant 400 m. SW., and with Ajmere; it was the scene of a British massacre in 1857.

INDRA, the king of heaven and national god of the Aryans; gives victory to his people, and is always ready to aid them; he is pre-eminently a warlike god, and as he stands on his war-chariot, drawn by five fawn-coloured horses, he is in a sort the type of an Aryan chieftain; he is sometimes assisted by other gods, but he more frequently fights alone; he is the dispenser, moreover, of all good gifts, and the author and preserver of all living; his power extends over the heavens, and he holds the earth in the hollow of his hand.

INDUCTION, the name given to the logical process by which from a study of particular instances we arrive at a general principle or law. The term is also applied to an electric or magnetic effect produced without direct contact and equal to the cause, being essentially its reproduction.

INDULGENCE, remission by Church authority of the guilt of a sin on the penitent confession of the sinner to a priest, which, according to Roman Catholic theology, the Church is enabled to dispense out of the inexhaustible treasury in reserve of the merits of Christ.

INDUS, a great river of India, 1800 m. long; rises in Thibet, on the N. of the Himalayas, flows NW. through Cashmere, then SW. through the Punjab and Sind to the sea; its upper course is through great gorges and very rapid, but after the entrance of the Kabul River its way lies through arid plains, and it is navigable; after receiving the Panjnad its volume decreases through evaporation and the sinking of some of the many streams into which it divides in the sand; on one of the branches of the delta stands the thriving port of Kurrachee.

INERTIA, that property of bodies by which they remain in a state of rest or of motion in a straight line till disturbed by a force moving them in the one case or arresting them in the other.

INEZ DE CASTRO. See CASTRO.

INFALLIBILITY, freedom from all error in the past and from all possibility of error in the future as claimed by the Church of Rome. This claim extends to all matters of faith, morals, and discipline in the Church, and is based on an interpretation of Matt. xvi. 18, xxviii. 19; Eph. iv. 11-16, and other passages. It is held that the Church is incapable of embracing any false doctrine from whatever quarter suggested, and that she is guided by the Divine Spirit in actively opposing heresy, in teaching all necessary truth, and in deciding all relative matters of controversy. Infallibility is not claimed in connection with matters of fact, science, or general opinion. The seat of infallibility has been much disputed even in the Roman Catholic Church itself, and the infallibility of the Pope was only decreed so recently as the Vatican Council in 1870. It was always agreed that where the Pope and Bishops were unanimous they were infallible, and their unanimity might be expressed either in a general council, or in a decree of a local council tacitly accepted by the Pope and the rest of the Church, or even in a decree of the Pope alone if the bishops either expressly or tacitly affirmed it. But the Vatican Council decided "that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedrâ--that is, when he, using his office as pastor and doctor of all Christians, in virtue of his apostolic office, defines a doctrine of faith and morals to be held by the whole Church--he by the Divine assistance, promised to him by the blessed Peter, possesses that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer was pleased to invest His Church in the definition of doctrine in faith or morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in their own nature and not because of the consent of the Church." The Greek Church puts forward a moderate claim to inerrancy, holding that as a matter of fact those councils which she regards as oecumenical have not erred in their decrees affecting faith and morals.

INFANTE, INFANTA, the titles given respectively to the royal princes and princesses of Spain and Portugal.

INFERI, the name given by the Latins to the nether world and the gods of it.

INFERNO, the hell of Dante, represented as included in nine circles, of which the first six, constituting the uppermost hell, are occupied by those who cannot govern themselves yet have no mind to harm any one else, of which the seventh, constituting the mid-hell, is occupied by those who cannot govern their thoughts, and of which the eighth and ninth, constituting the nether hell, are occupied by those who have wilfully done harm to other people, those in the eighth in hot blood and those in the ninth or lowest in cold blood, the former in passion and the latter without passion, far down below the freezing-point. See Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera," more fully, and by way of authority for this.

INFLECTION, the name given to the changes in the end of words to indicate relations, not so common in English--being usually expressed among us by prepositions--as in Latin, Greek, and other languages, but occurring in English as king's, mine, ours, to indicate possession; inflection in nouns is called declension, and in verbs conjugation.

INFLUENZA, an epidemic disease, closely resembles, but is quite distinct from, cold in the head. It is characterised by early and marked debility and depression; though usually of short duration, attacks must not be disregarded; fatal results often ensue on carelessness. Convalescence is slow, and complications may ensue. The cause of the malady is obscure; sporadic cases always occur, but from time to time great epidemics of this disease have travelled westward over the world. Their movement seems to depend on atmospheric conditions, but is independent of the season of the year and often contrary to the direction of the wind. Visitations occurred in Britain in 1837-38, 1847-48, and 1889-91.

INFRALAPSARIANS, those Calvinists who believe that election and predestination are subsequent to the Fall, while the Supralapsarians believe that these ordinations are as old as eternity.

INFUSORIA, a name given to certain classes of animalculæ engendered in stagnant water infused with decaying organic matter.

INGELOW, JEAN, poetess and novelist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire, died at Kensington; her earliest work appeared anonymously, but a volume of verses under her name was successful in 1863; her poetry is chiefly religious and devotional; later she wrote for children; subsequently she turned to novels, and produced besides several others "Off the Skelligs" in 1872; she will be remembered for her ballad "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," and a song "Supper at the Mill" (1820-1897).

INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN, a Danish poet and novelist; in the latter regard took Scott for his model, his subjects being historical; was a man of varied literary ability (1789-1862).

INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD, Shakespearian scholar, born near Birmingham, passed from Cambridge, where he graduated in 1847, to practise as a solicitor, but abandoned law for literature in 1859; his early works were of a philosophical nature, but he is best known as the author of a long series of works on Shakespearian subjects, of which "The Shakespeare Fabrications" was the first and "Shakespeare: the Man and the Book" the chief; he was a Vice-President of the Royal Society of Literature (1823-1886).

INGLESANT, JOHN, a celebrated romance by J. H. Shorthouse.

INGLIS, SIR JAMES, a Fifeshire gentleman, who in the reign of James IV. distinguished himself against the English and was knighted; author of "Complaint of Scotland"; d. 1554.

INGLIS, SIR JOHN, English general; entered the army at 19, served in Canada in 1837; was sent to India, and distinguished himself in the Punjab in 1848; at the outbreak of the Mutiny was stationed at Lucknow, where he heroically defended the residency for 87 days till the relief of the city by Havelock and Outram (1814-1862).

INGLIS, SIR ROBERT HARRY, Conservative statesman, opposed every Liberal measure of the period, from that of Catholic Emancipation to the Abolition of the Corn Laws (1786-1855).

INGOLDSBY, THOMAS, the pseudonym of REV. RICHARD BARHAM (q. v.), author of "Ingoldsby Legends," a collection of humorous tales in verse.

INGOLSTADT (16), a Bavarian town and fortress on the Danube, 50 m. N. of Münich, has many ancient associations; once the seat of a university; its manufactures now are beer, cannon, gunpowder; salt is mined in the vicinity.

INGRAHAM, JOSEPH HOLT, author of "The Prince of the House of David," born at Portland, Maine; after some years spent at sea, became a teacher of languages in Mississippi, and was ordained Episcopal clergyman in 1855; prior to his ordination he wrote stories of adventure, "Captain Kyd," &c., but subsequently confined himself to biblical subjects (1809-1860).

INGRES, JEAN DOMINIQUE AUGUSTE, a great French painter, born at Montauban; studied in Paris; in 1806 went to Rome, and 14 years after to Florence, but became professor of Fine Arts at the Academy in Paris in 1824; wounded by hostile criticisms he left Paris for Rome again in 1834, where he became Director of the French Academy in Rome; in 1841 he returned to Paris, where he died; he followed his master David in his choice of classical subjects, but his work met with varied reception, now favourable, now the reverse; the "Portrait of Cherubini," and other pictures, however, won for him great admiration in his later days; he was made a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (1781-1867).

INGULPH, abbot of Croyland, long credited with the authorship of a history of the monastery, which has since been proved to be a fabrication of a later date, of probably the 13th or 14th century; he was appointed abbot in 1080; d. 1109.

INKERMANN, a small Tartar village E. of Sebastopol harbour; the scene of a battle between the Russians and allied forces, to the defeat of the former after a prolonged struggle on 5th November 1854.

INNER TEMPLE. See INNS OF COURT.

INNES, COSMO, lawyer and antiquary, born at Durris, of an old Scotch family; professor of History in Edinburgh University; author of "Scotland in the Middle Ages," "Lectures on Scotch Legal Antiquities," and "Sketches of Early Scotch History" (1798-1874).

INNES, THOMAS (FATHER INNES) Scotch historian, born in Aberdeenshire, educated at Paris; became a priest in 1692; after three years' service in Banffshire he returned to Paris, where he held a scholastic appointment till his death; in politics a Jacobite, in religious matters he had leanings to the Jansenist heresy; a diligent student of Scottish history, he produced the earliest scientific Scoto-historical works; his "Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland" and "Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland" (unfinished), display honesty and penetration (1662-1744).

INNISFAIL, an ancient name of Ireland.

INNOCENT, the name of 13 popes: INNOCENT I., Pope from 402 to 417; INNOCENT II., pope from 1130 to 1143; INNOCENT III., Pope from 1198 to 1216; INNOCENT IV., Pope from 1243 to 1254; INNOCENT V., Pope in 1276; INNOCENT VI., Pope from 1352 to 1362, resided at Avignon; INNOCENT VII., Pope from 1404 to 1406; INNOCENT VIII., Pope from 1484 to 1492; INNOCENT IX., Pope in 1591; INNOCENT X., Pope from 1644 to 1655, condemned Jansenism; INNOCENT XI., Pope from 1676 to 1689; INNOCENT XII., Pope from 1691 to 1700; INNOCENT XIII., Pope from 1721 to 1724; of these there were two of note.

INNOCENT III., the greatest of the name, born in Arragon; succeeded Celestine III.; extended the territorial power of the Church, and made nearly all Christendom subject to its sway; essayed the recovery of Palestine, and promoted a crusade against the Albigenses; excommunicated Otto IV., emperor of Germany; put England under an interdict, and deposed King John; was zealous for the purity as well as supremacy of the Church, and countenanced every movement that contributed to enhance its influence and stereotype its beliefs as well as its forms of worship, transubstantiation among the one and auricular confession among the other; though harsh, and even cruel, to those whom he conceived to be the enemies of the faith, he was personally a man of blameless life, and did much to reform the morals of the clergy.

INNOCENT XI., succeeded Clement X., is celebrated for his contest with Louis XIV., and as giving occasion thereby to a protest of the Gallican clergy, and a declaration on their part of what is known as the GALLICAN LIBERTIES (q. v.), and for a further contest he had with Louis in regard to certain immunities claimed, to the scandal of the Church, by foreign ambassadors residing in Rome, an interference which Louis resented on behalf of his representatives among them, but, as it happened in vain.

INNOCENTS, THE HOLY, FEAST OF, a festival celebrated in the Western Church on the 28th December and in the Eastern on the 29th, to commemorate the slaughter by Herod of the children at Bethlehem from two years old and under, and who have from the earliest times been included among the holy martyrs of the Church.

INNS OF COURT, are four voluntary societies--Lincoln's Inn, the Inner and the Middle Temple, and Gray's Inn--with whom rests the exclusive right to call men to the English bar; they provide lectures and hold examinations in law, and they have discretionary powers to refuse admission to the bar or to expel and disqualify persons of unsuitable character from it; each Inn possesses considerable property, a dining hall, library, and chapel, and is subject to the jurisdiction of an irresponsible, self-elective body of Benchers, who are usually judges or senior counsel; these societies originated in the 13th century, when the practice of law passed out of the hands of the clergy.

INNSBRUCK (23), on the Inn, at the head of the Brenner Pass, 100 m. S. of Münich; is the capital of the Austrian Tyrol, an ancient and beautiful town, rich in art treasures, with a university and manufactures of woollen cloth, glass ware, and stained glass.

INO, the daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, the wife of Athamas, king of Thebes, who was changed into a sea-deity as she fled for refuge from her husband, who had gone raving mad and sought her life.

INOCULATION is the introduction of disease germs into the system, usually by puncture of the skin or hypodermic injection; many diseases so introduced assume a mild form, and render the subject not liable to the severe form. Inoculation for smallpox, the virus being taken from actual smallpox pustules, was practised by the ancient Brahmans and by the Chinese 600 years before Christ, and its practice continued in the East. It was introduced to this country from Turkey in 1717, and extensively practised until superseded by Jenner's discovery of vaccination at the end of the century, and finally prohibited by law in 1840. Inoculation has been found successful in the prevention of other diseases, notably anthrax, hydrophobia, and recently malaria.

INQUISITION, an ecclesiastical tribunal established in 1248 under Pope Innocent IV., and set up successively in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the S. of France, for the trial and punishment of heretics, of which that established in Spain achieved the greatest notoriety from the number of victims it sacrificed, and the remorseless tortures to which they were subjected, both when under examination to extort confession and after conviction. The rigour of its action began to abate in the 17th century, but it was not till 1835, after frequent attempts to limit its power and suppress it, that it was abolished in Spain. Napoleon suppressed it in France in 1808, and after an attempted revival from 1814 to 1820, its operations there came to an end. ST. DOMINIC (q. v.) has the credit of having invented the institution by the zeal which animated him for the orthodoxy of the Church.

INSANITY. See INSPIRATION.

INSPIRATION, an earnest, divinely-awakened, soul-subduing sense and perception of the presence of the invisible in the visible, of the infinite in the finite, of the ideal in the real, of the divine in the human, and, in ecstatic moments, of very God in man, accompanied with a burning desire to impart to others the vision revealed; distinguished as "seraphic" from insanity as "demonic" by this, that the inspired man sees an invisible which is there, and the insane an invisible which is not there, states of mind so like otherwise that the one may be, and often is, mistaken for the other, the inspired man taken for an insane, and the insane man for an inspired.

INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. According to one view the Scriptures are throughout verbally inspired, and every word in them dictated by the Spirit of God; according to another, though they are not verbally inspired, they contain a record of divine things written under divine inspiration; according to a third, though not written under divine inspiration in any part, they contain a faithful record of a divine revelation; and according to a fourth, they contain a record merely of what a succession of God-fearing men in sympathy with each other and their race saw and felt to be the clear purpose of God in His providence of the world.

INSPIRED IDIOT, Horace Walpole's name for Oliver Goldsmith.

INSTITUTE OF FRANCE was established by the Directory in 1795, to take the place of the four academies suppressed by the Convention two years previously. In 1816 Louis XVIII. gave back the old names to its four sections, viz. L'Académie Française, L'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, L'Académie des Sciences, and L'Académie des Beaux Arts. In 1832 was added L'Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. Each academy has its own separate organisation and work, and participates besides in the advantages of the common library, archives, and funds. Election, which is in every case subject to government confirmation, is by ballot, and every member receives an annual salary of at least 1500 francs. Government votes a sum of money annually to the Institute. Members of the French Academy have special duties and privileges, and in some cases special remuneration. They allot every year prizes for eloquence and poetry; a prize "to the poor Frenchman who has done the most virtuous action throughout the year," and one to the Frenchman "who has written and published the book most conducive to good morals." Membership in the Académie Française is strictly limited to 40 Frenchmen. The others have, besides, from 40 to 70 members each, also Associate, foreign and corresponding, members. The Institute centralises the pursuit of all branches of knowledge and art, and has been the model of similar national institutes in Madrid, Lisbon, Stockholm, and St. Petersburg.

INSTITUTES OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION, a celebrated work of Calvin's, in exposition of the doctrines of the French Protestants, hence called Calvinists in France. See CALVIN.

INTAGLIO, name given to a gem with a design incised in the surface.

INTELLECT, the faculty of clear and decisive intelligence, or of instant and sure perception.

INTERLAKEN (2), a small town, a pretty place, on the Aar, in Switzerland, "between the lakes" Thun and Brienz; it is near to some of the finest Swiss scenery, and is a famous health resort, and visited annually by 25,000 tourists.

INTERNATIONAL, THE, a secret socialistic organisation, the outcome of the teaching of Karl Marx, which, though it has changed its name, has wide-spread ramifications throughout Europe, the object of which appears to be the emancipation of labour, and the assertion everywhere of the sovereign rights of the working-man, to the extinction of all merely national and class interests.

INTUITION, a name given to immediate knowledge, as distinct from mediate or inferential knowledge, and which is matter of consciousness or direct perception.

INTUS-SUSCEPTION, a displacement of the bowel, in which a higher portion becomes folded or telescoped into a lower; is a frequent cause of obstruction, and a serious, though not always fatal, condition; the term is also applied to the process by which nutriment is absorbed and becomes part of the system.

INVALIDES, HÔTEL DES, an institution in Paris, founded by Louis XIV. in 1674, for retired court servants and invalided soldiers; the church, the nave of which is adorned with military trophies, is surmounted by a majestic dome, under which the remains of Napoleon were deposited in 1840.

INVERARAY, county town of Argyllshire, on the NW. shore of Loch Fyne, close to which is the castle, the residence of the Duke of Argyll.

INVERNESS (21), county town of Inverness-shire and capital of the Northern Highlands, is situated on the Ness, near the Moray Firth, amid picturesque surroundings, is rich in interesting memories; has several public institutions, several manufactures, and a considerable trade; the inhabitants are distinguished for the purity of their English.

INVERNESS-SHIRE (90), the largest county in Scotland, stretches from the Moray Firth to the Atlantic, and includes many islands, Skye, the Outer Hebrides (except Lewis), and others; it embraces a large part of the Highlands, is very mountainous, has many glens and lochs, but little fertile land; there are large deer forests, grouse moors, and sheep runs; Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles (4406 ft.), is in this county.

INVISIBLE, THE, He who or that which cannot be seen, felt, handled, or even conceived of, and yet who or which is, and alone is, as no one, as nothing else can be.

IO, in the Greek mythology a daughter of INACHOS (q. v.), beloved by Zeus, whom Hera out of jealousy changed into a heifer and set the hundred-eyed Argus to watch, but when Zeus had by Hermes slain the watcher, Hera sent a gadfly to goad over the world, over which she ranged distractedly till she reached Egypt, where Osiris married her, and was in connection with him worshipped as Isis.

IODINE, a non-metallic element originally obtained from kelp, but now found in South America in combination with sodium, used largely both free and in combination in medicine and surgery, in photography, and in making aniline dyes.

IODOFORM, a crystalline substance similar to chloroform in composition, only in it iodine takes the place of chlorine; it is used in surgery as an antiseptic.

IOLCUS, a town in Thessaly, the port from which the Argonauts sailed in quest of the Golden Fleece.

ION, in the Greek mythology son of Apollo by Creusa, and exposed by her in the cave where she bore him, but who was conveyed by the god to Delphi and educated by a priestess, and was afterwards owned by his mother, and became the ancestor of the Ionians, her husband, Xuthus, being kept throughout in the dark.

IONA, a fertile little island 1½ m. W. of Mull, where St. Columba landed from Ireland A.D. 563, and built a monastery which was for centuries the centre of ecclesiastical life and missionary enterprise among the Scots of Scotland and Ireland and the Angles of the N. of England. It is 3½ m. long and 1½ broad.

IONIA, ancient name of the western districts of Asia Minor between the Hermus and the Mæander, with adjacent islands; was colonised by Greeks 1050 B.C., and its chief cities, including Miletus, Ephesus, Samos, Chios, and later Smyrna, formed the Ionian League; the Ionians were noted for wealth, art, and luxury; coming under Persian yoke in 557 B.C. they deserted to Greece 479 B.C., in the great war, and became again independent; from 387 B.C. they were again under Persia till Alexander the Great took them and merged their history in that of the surrounding peoples.

IONIAN ISLANDS (250), a chain of forty mountainous islands lying off the W. coast of Greece, the largest being Corfu (78), Santa Maura (25), Cephalonia (80), and Zante (44). The climate is good, and there is much fertile soil in the valleys except in Cephalonia; corn, grapes, and currants are grown; sulphur and coal are found in Corfu; their history has been very chequered; after belonging at different times to Venice, France and Turkey, they were seized by Britain and constituted a dependency in 1815; never satisfied with British rule, they were a source of constant friction which Mr. Gladstone's mission in 1858 was insufficient to allay, and were handed over to Greece in 1863.

IONIC ORDER, an order of Grecian architecture, characterised by the volute of its capital in the form of a ram's horn, and in which the cornice is dentated, the shaft fluted, and the entablature plain or embellished.

IONIC SCHOOL, the name of the earliest of the schools of philosophy in Greece, the prominent members of which were natives of Ionia, one and all of whom traced the beginning or basis of things back to the action of some physical agent, such as water, air, fire, &c., and among whom are reckoned such men as Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus.

IOWA (1,754), one of the United States, on the right bank of the Mississippi River, with Minnesota to the N. and Missouri to the S., and the Missouri River on its western border; is well watered, very fertile, and, though liable to extremes of temperature, very healthy; agriculture flourishes, the country being an undulating plain and most of the soil being arable; cereals and root crops are raised, cattle fed; there are poultry and dairy farms; coal, gypsum, and lead are mined; manufactures include mill products, canned meats, and agricultural implements; general education in the State is advanced, State policy in this respect being liberal; Iowa was admitted to the Union, 1846; Des Moines (32) is the capital; Iowa (7) is the seat of the State University and of some flour-mills and factories.

IPHICRATES, a famous Athenian general, the son of a shoemaker, celebrated throughout Greece for his defeat of the Spartans in 392, as well as for other great military exploits, for which he was rewarded by his countrymen with almost unprecedented honours; d. 348 B.C.

IPHIGENIA, the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra; her father having killed a favourite deer belonging to Artemis in Aulis as he was setting out for Troy, the goddess was offended, and CALCHAS (q. v.), when consulted, told him she could only be appeased by the sacrifice of his daughter; this he proceeded to do, but as he was preparing to offer her up the goddess descended in a cloud, carried her off to Tauris, and made her a priestess in her temple. The story has been dramatised by Euripides, Racine, and Geothe.

IPSUS, a small town in Phrygia, the scene of a great contest between the generals of Alexander for succession to the empire.

IPSWICH (57), a town in Suffolk, on the Orwell, 12 m. from the sea; is an old town, and has a number of interesting, as well as some old-fashioned, buildings; is well provided with churches and educational establishments, and was the birthplace of Cardinal Wolsey; manufactures agricultural implements, and exports besides these leather, oil, coke and agricultural produce.

IQUIQUE (16), important seaport in the N. of Chili; exports nitrates, iodine, and silver.

IRAK-ARABI, ancient Babylonia watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris.

IRAN, the ancient name or plateau of Asia, extending N. and S. between the Hindu Kush and the Persian Gulf, and E. and W. between the Indus and Kurdistan; inhabited by the Aryans; is the official name for Persia.

IRANIANS, the inhabitants of Iran, a people constituting an important branch of the Indo-European family, including the Persians, Medes, &c.

IRAWADI, a river, navigable throughout its whole course, formed by the union of two streams from the mountains of Thibet; flows S. through Burma 700 miles, passing Mandalay, and falling into the Bay of Bengal in a delta, on one branch of which stands Rangoon.

IRELAND (5,175), an island rather more than half the size of and lying to the west of England and Wales, from which it is divided by the North Channel (13 m. wide), the Irish Sea (140 m.), and the St. George's Channel (50 m.). It consists of a large undulating plain in the centre, containing extensive bogs, several large loughs--Neagh, the Erne, Allen, Derg, drained by the rivers Shannon, Barrow, Liffey, and Boyne, and surrounded on almost all sides by maritime highlands, of which those on the SW., NW., and E. are the highest. The N. and W. coasts are rugged and much indented. The climate is milder, more equable, and somewhat more rainy than that of England; but the cereal and green crops are the same. Flax is grown in the N. The tendency is to revert to pasturage however, agriculture being generally in a backward state. Unfavourable land-laws, small holdings, and want of capital have told heavily against the Irish peasantry. Fisheries are declining. The chief manufacture is linen in Belfast and other Ulster towns. Irish exports consist of dairy produce, cattle, and linen, and are chiefly to Great Britain. Primary education is largely supported by government grants; there are many excellent schools and colleges; the chief universities are Dublin and the Royal (an examining body only). In Ulster the Protestants slightly outnumber the Roman Catholics, in all other parts the Roman Catholics are in a vast majority. Ireland was occupied by Iberian peoples in prehistoric times; these were conquered and absorbed by Celtic tribes; many kingdoms were set up, and strife and confusion prevailed. There was Christianity in the island before St. Patrick crossed from Strathclyde in the 5th century. Invasions by Danes, 8th to 10th centuries, and conquest by Normans under Henry II. 1162-1172, fomented the national disquiet. Under Tudor and Stuart rule the history of the country is a long story of faction and feud among the chiefs and nobles, of rebellions, expeditions, massacres, and confiscations. Sympathy with the Stuarts brought on it the scourge of Cromwell (1649) and the invasion by William III. Thereafter the penal laws excluded Roman Catholics from Parliament. The union of the Irish with the British Parliament took place in 1801. Catholic disabilities were removed 1829. An agitation for the repeal of the Union was begun in 1842 by Daniel O'Connell, and carried on by the Fenian movement of 1867 and the Home Rule movement led by Charles Parnell. A Home Rule bill was lost in the Commons in 1886, and another in the Lords in 1893. The Church of Ireland (Protestant Episcopal) was disestablished in 1871. Since the Union the executive has been in the hands of a lord-lieutenant, secretary, and council appointed by the Crown. Ireland is far behind Great Britain in wealth, and its population has been steadily declining.

IRELAND, SAMUEL WILLIAM HENRY, a notorious forger of Shakespearian relics, born in London, son of a dealer in old books and prints; imposed on his father and a number of lovers of the antique, till he was exposed by Malone; he published a confession of his forgeries, and died in obscurity and poverty (1777-1835).

IRENÆUS, one of the Fathers of the Church; was bishop of Lyons, and suffered martyrdom about 202; had been a disciple of Polycarp; wrote against the Gnostics in a work in Greek, which all to a few fragments in Latin is lost.

IRE`NE, the daughter of Zeus and Themis, the Greek goddess of peace; she was an object of worship both in Athens and Rome, is represented as holding in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her right hand an olive branch.

IRENE, empress of Constantinople, born in Athens, a poor orphan girl, famous for her beauty, her talents, and her crimes; was banished to Lesbos, where she maintained herself by spinning; has been canonised by the Greek Church for her zeal in image worship (752-803).

IRETON, HENRY, born at Altenborough, Notts; graduated at Cambridge 1629, and studied law; on outbreak of Civil War he joined the Parliamentarian party, and marrying Cromwell's daughter acquired great influence; took a leading part in the prosecution of the king, was one of his judges, and signed the warrant for his execution; kept by Cromwell in Ireland in 1650, he proved a stern deputy, and died of the plague before Limerick; he was a man of great vigour of character, whose zeal for justice made him almost cruel (1611-1651).

IRIDIUM, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and found in the ores of platinum.

IRIS, the daughter of Thaumus (i. e. wonder) and of the ocean nymph Electra (i. e. splendour); was the goddess of the rainbow, and as such the messenger of the gods, particularly of Zeus and Hera, the appearance of the rainbow being regarded as a sign that communications of good omen were passing between heaven and earth, as it was to Noah that they would continue to be kept up; she is represented as dressed in a long wide tunic, over which hangs a light upper garment, and with golden wings on her shoulders.

IRKUTSK (421), a central Siberian province, separated from China by the Sayan Mountains; it has Lake Baikal on the E., Yenisei and Yakutsk on the W. and N.; a rich pastoral country, watered by the navigable rivers Angara and the Lena, agriculture, cattle rearing are prosperous industries; there are gold, iron, and salt mines; one-third of the population are forced colonists; the capital, Irkutsk (45), is the seat of government for Eastern Siberia, an ecclesiastical centre, and the chief emporium of commerce; it is the finest city in Siberia.

IRMIN, a Teutonic tribal deity; was honoured by wooden pillars with his image on the top, greatly reverenced by the people; the constellation "The Plough" was known as "Irmin's Chariot."

IRON AGE, the last of the three stages, stone, bronze, iron, which mark the prehistoric development of most now civilised peoples; these, of course, occurred at different periods, and were of different duration in different cases; they are named from the material employed in making cutting instruments and weapons; the forms of instruments are freer than in the bronze period, and rectilineal gives places to free curvilineal decoration; this age is marked, too, by the introduction of writing and the beginning of literary and historic records. See AGES.

IRON CITY, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, from its numerous iron-works.

IRON CROWN, the crown of the ancient Lombard kings, a golden circlet studded with jewels, and so called as enclosing a ring of iron said to have been one of the nails of the cross, beaten out; Napoleon had it brought from Monza, and crowned himself with it as king of Italy. It is now in Vienna.

IRON DUKE, Duke of Wellington, from his iron will, it is surmised.

IRON GATE, the name given to dangerous rapids in the Danube at Orsova, as it issues out of Hungary.

IRON HAND, GOETZ VON BERLICHINGEN (q. v.).

IRON MASK, MAN WITH THE, a prisoner who in the reign of Louis XIV. wore, when he was transferred from prison to prison, what seemed an iron mask to prevent any one discovering and revealing his identity, over which to this day there hangs an impenetrable veil; he is reported to have been young and of noble form, and the conclusion is that he was a man of distinction.

IRONCLADS were originally wooden vessels protected by iron plates; they were used at the siege of Gibraltar in 1782; the French had them in the Crimean War, and in 1858 built four iron-plated line-of-battle ships; in 1860 England built the Warrior, an iron steam battleship with 4½-inch plates; since then new types have succeeded each other very quickly; the modern ironclad is built of steel and armed with steel plates sometimes 2 feet thick; the term is now loosely applied to all armoured vessels, whether battleships, or cruisers, or gunboats, and whether of iron or steel.

IRONSIDES, Cromwell's troopers, a thousand strong, and raised by him in the Eastern counties of England, so called at first from the invincibility displayed by them at Marston Moor; were selected by Cromwell "as men," he says, "that had the fear of God before them, and made conscience of what they did.... They were never beaten," he adds, "and wherever they were engaged against the enemy, they beat continually."

IRONY is a subtle figure of speech in which, while one thing is said, some indication serves to show that quite the opposite is meant; thus apparent praise becomes severe condemnation or ridicule; practical irony is evinced in ostensibly furthering some one's hopes and wishes while really leading him to his overthrow. Life and history are full of irony in the contrast between ambitions and their realisation.

IRONY, SOCRATIC, the name given to a practice of Socrates with pretentious people; "affecting ignorance and pretending to solicit information, he was in the habit of turning round upon the sciolist and confounding his presumption, both by the unlooked-for consequences he educed by his incessant questions and by the glaring contradictions the other was in the end landed by his admissions."

IROQUOIS, one of the most intelligent branches of the North American Indians, comprised a confederation of five, afterwards six, tribes, among whom the leading place was taken by the Mohawks; their territory lay inland in what is now New York State and the basin of the St. Lawrence. Numbering some 25,000, they maintained their own against the hereditary foes by whom they were surrounded; they took kindly to English and Dutch settlers, but were hostile to the French, and in the wars of the 18th century were allies of England against the French; their descendants, about 12,000, in reservations in Canada and New York are a peaceful people, have accepted English religion and culture, and have proved themselves skilful and industrious agriculturists.

IRREDUCIBLE CASE, name given to a cubic equation which cannot be solved by the rule of CARDAN (q. v.).

IRTISH, an enormous river of Western Siberia and chief tributary of the Obi; its course from the Altai Mountains runs NW. through the Siberian plains for 1200 m.; it is navigable almost all the way in summer, and in winter it is a highway for sledge traffic; on its banks stand Semipalatinsk, Omsk, and Tobolsk.

IRVING, EDWARD, a great pulpit orator, born in Annan, Dumfriesshire; bred for the Scotch Church, became in 1819 assistant to Dr. Chalmers in Glasgow, and removed in 1822 to the Caledonian Church, London, where he attracted to his preaching the world of fashion as well as intellect in the city, who soon grew tired of him and left him, after which he took to extravagances which did not draw them back, and drew around him instead a set of people more fanatical than himself, and whose influence over him, to which he weakly yielded, infatuated him still more; the result was that he was deposed from the ministry of the Church that sent him forth, and became for a time the centre of an organisation which still exists, in a modified form, and bears his name; he was the bosom friend in his early days of Thomas Carlyle, and no one mourned more over his aberration than he, for he loved him to the end. "But for Irving," he says, "I had never known what the communion of man with man means. His was the freest, brotherliest, bravest human soul mine ever came in contact with; I call him on the whole the best man I have ever, after trial enough, found in this world, or now hope to find. Scotland sent him forth," he says, "a herculean man, but our mad Babylon wore him and wasted him with all her engines, and it took her 12 years"; he died in Glasgow, aged 42, "hoary as with extreme age," and lies buried in a crypt of the cathedral there (1792-1834).

IRVING, SIR HENRY (John Henry Brodribb), born near Glastonbury; was at first a clerk in London, appeared on the Sunderland stage in 1856, spent three years in Edinburgh, and gradually worked his way at Glasgow and Manchester, till he was invited to London ten years afterwards; his performance of Hamlet at the Lyceum in 1874 established his reputation as a tragedian; since then he has remained at the head of his profession, and both in this country and in America secured many triumphs in Macbeth, Shylock, and other Shakespearian characters, and in roles like those of Matthias in "The Bells," "Mephistopheles in Faust," &c.; he has contributed to the literature of Acting, and received knighthood in 1895: b. 1838.

IRVING, WASHINGTON, popular American essayist and historian, born of British parentage in New York, was delicate in early life; his education suffered accordingly, and he travelled in Europe, 1804-6, visiting Italy, France, and England; returning to New York he was called to the bar, put he devoted himself to a literary career, only interrupted by one period of commercial life, and occasional short terms of diplomatic service; he first won fame by his "History of New York, by Diedrich Knickerbocker," 1809, a good-natured satire on the Dutch settlers; the years 1815-32 he spent in Europe studying and writing; his "Sketch-Book," 1819-20, was very successful, as were "Bracebridge Hall," "Tales of a Traveller," and other volumes which followed it; going to Spain in 1826 he began his researches in Spanish history which resulted in "The Life of Columbus," "The Conquest of Granada," and other works which introduced English readers to the Spain of the 15th and 16th centuries; on his return to America he was treated with great respect by his countrymen; declining the honours they would have given him had he turned aside to politics, he continued to write; among his latest works were "Mahomet and his Successors" and a "Life of Washington"; much courted in society, he was kind and generous in disposition; his writings are marked by humour, observation, and descriptive power; these qualities with an excellent style place him in the foremost rank of American authors; he died, unmarried, at Tarrytown, New York (1783-1859).

IRVINGITES, the name given to the Catholic Apostolic Church as founded by Edward Irving, which is repudiated by them, as disclaiming all earthly leadership; their ministry is after the Apostolic order, includes prophets, evangelists, and pastors, and they employ material symbols in their worship besides those of water in baptism and wine in communion, such as incense; the Eucharist they regard as a sacrifice, and they believe in the permanency of the spiritual gifts of the primitive Church.

ISAAC, a Hebrew patriarch, son of Abraham, born to him when he was old; a mild man with no great force of character, and a contrast to Ishmael, his half-brother; lived to a great age.

ISSAC I., COMNENUS, Emperor of the East from 1057 to 1059; raised to the throne by the army; ruled well, but falling ill and fearing he had not long to live. He retired and spent his two remaining years in a monastery; he was a student and annotator of Homer.

ISSAC II., ANGELUS, Emperor of the East; a good man, but weak; became emperor in 1185, was dethroned by his brother Alexis in 1195; reinstated by the Crusaders in 1203, but overthrown six months after in 1204.

ISAC OF YORK, the father of Rebecca in "Ivanhoe."

ISABELLA, queen of Castile; her marriage with Ferdinand of Aragon led to the union under one sceptre of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, which was followed 10 years after by their united occupancy of the throne of all Spain; she was an able woman, and associated with her husband in every affair of State (1451-1504). See FERDINAND V.

ISABELLA II., ex-queen of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand VII.; succeeded him in 1833; was forced to leave the country in 1868; took refuge in France, and in 1870 abdicated in favour of her son.

ISABEY JEAN BAPTISTE, French portrait-painter, born at Nancy; painted many of the notabilities of France in his day (1767-1855).

ISÆUS, an Attic orator, and the teacher of Demosthenes; wrote 64 orations, of which only 10 are extant, and these not on political issues but forensic, and particularly the law of inheritance.

ISAIAH, one of the great Hebrew prophets, the son of one Amoz; was a citizen of Jerusalem, evidently of some standing, and who flourished between 750 and 700 B.C.; like AMOS (q. v.), he foresaw the judgment that was coming on the nation for its unfaithfulness, but felt assured that God would not altogether forsake His people, and that "a remnant," God's elect among them, would be saved--that though the casket would be shattered in pieces, the jewel it contained would be preserved. See HEBREW PROPHECY.

ISAIAH, THE ASCENSION OF, an apocryphal book giving an incoherent account of the martyrdom of Isaiah, and a vision he had under the reign of Hezekiah, apparently the origin of the tradition in Heb. xi. 37, about the prophet having been "sawn asunder."

ISAIAH, THE PROPHECIES OF, consist of two divisions, the first extending from chap. i. to chap. xxxix., and the second from chap. xl. to the end; these two divisions were for long believed to be throughout the work of Isaiah the son of Amoz, but modern criticism assigns them in the main to different authors, the one living 150 years after the other; and the reasons for this conclusion are that the author of the latter belonged to a different period of Jewish history from that of the former, is not of the same temper, and has much deeper spiritual insight, while his hopes and expectations are built on a more spiritual view of the method of salvation, the Messiah of the former, for instance, being a conquering king, and that of the latter a suffering Redeemer, who to save the nation has to bear the burden of its sins, and the brunt of them, and so bearing, bear them away.

ISAMBERT, FRANÇOIS ANDRÉ, a noteworthy French lawyer, politician, and historian, born at Aunay; began to practise in Paris at the age of twenty-six; becoming known in politics, he gained considerable renown by certain works on French law and by his advocacy of the claims of the liberated slaves in the French West Indies; entering the Chamber of Deputies after the Revolution of July 1830, he set himself to oppose the Jesuits and to further freedom; "The Religious Conditions of France and Europe" and a "History of Jerusalem" were among his later works; he died at Paris (1792-1857).

ISANDULA, place 110 m. NW. of Durban, where a force of British troops was encamped in January 22, 1879, and was set upon and almost annihilated by a body of Zulus.

ISAURIA, in ancient times this name was given to the northern slopes of the Taurus in Asia Minor, what is now Karamania; the Isaurians were a wild, savage people; from the 1st to the 4th centuries they were the terror of neighbouring States, and gave Rome herself considerable trouble; but from the 5th century they disappear from history.

ISCHIA (22), a beautiful volcanic island 6 m. off the Bay of Naples; its scenery, climate, and mineral springs make it a health resort; it produces excellent fruits and wines; it is liable to severe earthquakes; in the last (1883), 4000 persons perished. The chief town (3) bears the same name.

ISCHL, a town in Upper Austria, picturesquely situated on the river Traun, 33 m. SE. of Salzburg; famous for its saline baths; has salt-works, where 8000 tons of salt are annually manufactured.

ISENGRIN, the wolf, typifying the feudal baron in the epic tale of Reynard the Fox, as the fox does the Church. See REYNARD.

ISER, a German river, which rises in the Tyrol N. of Innsbruck, passes through Münich, and falls into the Danube after a course of 180 m.

ISÈRE, a river in the SE. of France, which gives name to a dep. (572), and which, after a course of 180 m. falls into the Rhône near Valence.

ISERLOHN (22), a town in Prussian Westphalia, 14 m. SE. of Dortmund; is picturesquely situated, and is engaged in iron-ware manufacture.

ISHMAEL, the son of Abraham and the handmaid Hagar, cast out of Abraham's household at 15; he became skilful with the bow, and founded a great nation, the Arabs; for the offering of Isaac on Moriah the Arabs substitute the offering of Ishmael on Arafat, near Mecca; Mahomet claimed descent from him; he gives name in modern life to a social outcast driven into antagonism to social arrangements.

ISIDORE, ST., BISHOP OF SEVILLE, born at Carthagena, a distinguished man and ecclesiastic, who exercised great influence on Latin Christianity, and on both civil and ecclesiastical matters in Spain, and left a large number of writings of varied interest; he was animated at once by a severe sense of duty and by an admirable Christian spirit (570-638). Festival, April 4.

ISINGLASS, a gelatine substance prepared from the sounds or air-bladders of certain fresh-water fishes, the sturgeon in particular; it is imported from Russia, Brazil, and the Hudson Bay Territory.

ISIS, an Egyptian divinity, the wife and sister of Osiris and mother of Horus, the three together forming a trinity, which is characteristically Egyptian, and such as often repeats itself in Egyptian mythology, and typifying the life of the sun, Osiris representing that luminary slain at night and sorrowed over by his sister Isis, reviving in the morning in his son Horus, and wedded anew to his sister Isis as his wife; passed into the mythology of the Greeks, Isis became identified first with Demeter and then with the Moon, while in that of Rome she figures as the Universe-mother.

ISLA, JOSÉ FRANCISCO DE, a Spanish Jesuit, celebrated as a preacher and a humorist and satirist of the stamp of Cervantes; his principal work "Friar Gerund," a satire on the charlatanism and bombast of the popular preaching friars of the day, as Don Quixote was on the false chivalry; the friars he satirised were too strong for him, and he was expelled from Spain, retired to Italy, and died at Bologna in extreme poverty (1703-1781).

ISLAM or ISLAMISM, the religion of Mahomet, "that we must submit to God; that our whole strength lies in resigned submission to Him, whatsoever He do to us, for this world and the other; this is the soul of Islam; it is properly the soul of Christianity; Christianity also commands us, before all, to be resigned to God. This is yet the highest wisdom that Heaven has revealed to our earth." See "Heroes and Hero-Worship."

ISLAND OF SAINTS, a name given to Ireland in the Middle Ages.

ISLANDS OF THE BLESSED, fabled islands of the far west of the ocean, where the favoured of the gods after death are conceived to dwell in everlasting blessedness.

ISLAY (7), a large mountainous Island 13 m. W. of Kintyre, Scotland; much of it is cultivated; dairy produce, cattle, and sheep are exported; there are lead, copper, and manganese mines, marble quarries, and salmon fisheries; the distilleries produce 400,000 gallons of whisky annually.

ISLINGTON (319), a district of London, 2½ m. N. of St. Paul's; contains the division of Holloway, Highbury, Barnsbury, and part of Kingsland.

ISMAIL PASHA, khedive of Egypt from 1863, who was obliged by the Powers to abdicate in 1879.

ISMAILIA, a small town on Suez Canal; was the head-quarters of the work during the construction of the Canal.

ISMAÎLIS, one of the Mohammedan sects which support the claim of the house of Ali, Mahomet's cousin, to supremacy among the faithful; originating about A.D. 770, they rose to importance in the 10th century under Abdallah, a Persian, who introduced Zoroastrian ideas into their creed and prophesied the appearance of a Madhi or Messiah who should be greater than the Prophet himself; becoming latterly extremely rationalistic the sect lost its influence in the 13th century, and its representatives in Syria and Persia are now comparatively obscure; in Turkey and Egypt, however, several Madhis have arisen, of whom the last, Mohammed Ahmed, b. 1843, gained possession of the Soudan, defeated the Egyptian army in 1883, two years later captured Khartoum, but died at Omdurman shortly afterwards.

ISMENË, the sister of Antigone, who requested, as her accomplice, to be promoted to be sharer in her fate.

ISOCRATES, an Athenian rhetorician, of a school that was an offshoot of the SOPHISTS (q. v.), and the whole merit of whose oratory depended upon style or literary finish and display; he is said to have starved himself to death after the battle of Cheronea at the age of 98 because he could not brook to outlive the humiliation of Greece by Philip of Macedon and the destruction of its freedom (436-338 B.C.).

ISODORIAN DECRETALS, a body of ecclesiastical decretals imposed upon the Church under the name of ISODORE OF SEVILLE (q. v.).

ISOLDE, the wife of King Mark of Cornwall, who, under the potency of some philter which she had inadvertently taken, conceived an illicit passion for Sir Tristram, her husband's nephew, the story of which is celebrated in mediæval romance.

ISPAHÂN (60), the ancient capital of Persia, 226 m. S. of Teheran, on the river Zenderud, which, as its greatest glory, is spanned by a noble bridge of 34 arches; it stands in a fertile plain abounding in groves and orchards, amid ruins of its former grandeur, and is a centre of Mohammedan learning; the inhabitants are said to have at one time numbered a million; it produces rich brocades and velvets, firearms, sword-blades, and much ornamental ware; there are many fine buildings, and signs of returning prosperity.

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF, the name given to the northern kingdom of the 10 tribes of the Israelites which revolted from the kingdom of Judah after the death of Solomon.

ISRÄELS, JOSEF, a Dutch oil and water-colour artist and etcher, born in Gröningen; studied in Amsterdam and Paris; devoting himself to genre subjects, he has depicted the pathetic side of the life of the Dutch fisher-folks with great sympathy and power; he won a grand prix at the Paris Exhibition of 1889; b. 1824.

ISRAFEEL, in the Mohammedan mythology an angel whose office it will be to sound the trumpet on the resurrection morning.

ISSUS, a river in Cilicia, Asia Minor, where Alexander the Great defeated Darius, 333 B.C.

ISSY (12), a village ½ m. SW. of Paris, where Davout was defeated by Blücher on 3rd July 1815, and which suffered severely during the siege of Paris by the Germans in 1870-71.

ISTAMBOUL, the Turkish name for Constantinople.

ISTHMIAN GAMES, one of the four Pan-Hellenic festivals; they were periodically celebrated in honour of Poseidon or Neptune at the isthmus of Corinth, in Greece, whence the name.

ISTRIA (299), a mountainous territory of Austria, in the NE. corner of the Adriatic; yields olive-oil, figs, and vines, though often swept by sirocco and bora winds.

ISUMBRAS, ST., a hero of mediæval romance, a proud man subdued by God's justice into a penitent and a humble.

ITALIAN ARCHITECTURE. The style of architecture called Italian was first developed by Filippo Bruneschelli, and flourished during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries; it was an adaptation of classical circular-arch form to modern requirements. In Rome it conformed most to ancient types; in Venice it assumed its most graceful form. It was more suitable to domestic than to ecclesiastical work; but the dome is an impressive feature, and St. Peter's a noble church.

ITALIC SCHOOL, the name given to the school of PYTHAGORAS (q. v.) who taught philosophy in Italy.

ITALIC VERSION, THE, a version of the Scriptures into Latin on the basis of the Septuagint, executed in N. Italy under episcopal authority from other versions in circulation; being of mixed quality and far from satisfactory, JEROME (q. v.) undertook its revision with the view of a new translation into Latin known as the Vulgate direct from the Hebrew and Greek originals.

ITALY (30,536), the central one of three peninsulas stretching into the Mediterranean Sea, in the S. of Europe, has the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas respectively on the E. and W., and is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria in the N. by the various ranges of the Alps. Between the Alps and the Apennines lies the extensive, fertile plain of Lombardy, watered by the river Po, and containing several large lakes, such as Garda, Como, and Maggiore. The Apennines form a very picturesque chain of mountains 5000 ft. high down the centre of the country. The climate varies in different districts, but is mostly warm. Malaria curses many parts in autumn. Agriculture is extensive, but primitive in manner, and the peasantry are very poor. The most important crops are cereals, including rice and maize, grapes, olives, and chestnuts, and in the S. oranges and lemons. Italian wines are of indifferent quality. Coal and iron are scarce; sulphur is produced in large quantities in Sicily. There are large quarries of marble and alabaster. The most important industries are silk, glass, and porcelain. There is an extensive foreign trade, chiefly with France and Great Britain; the exports consist of silk, sulphur, marble, fruit, and wine; the imports of coal, iron, and textile goods. The religion is Roman Catholic; education is now compulsory. The Gothic kingdom of Italy was founded on the ruins of the Roman Empire, A.D. 489. In succession the country was conquered by the forces of the Byzantine Empire, by the Lombards, and by the Franks. From the 11th century onwards its history has been one of constant internal strife and confusion. The presence of the papal power in Rome, the rise of such rich trading republics as the cities of Milan, Florence, Naples, Genoa, and Venice, the pretensions of French kings and German emperors, and factions like those of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, produced endless complications and ruinous wars. In the 16th century the influence of the Austro-Spanish house of Charles V. became dominant; his son, Philip II., was king of Milan and Naples. In more recent times the small states of Italy were continually involved in the wars which devastated Europe, and passed in alliance or in subordination into the hands of Austria, France, and Spain alternately. The last 50 years have seen the unification of the kingdom. After the abortive movement of Mazzini came Cavour and Garibaldi, who, after severe struggles against the Austrians in the North and the despots of Southern Italy, proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy in 1861. By various steps the whole of the peninsula, with the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, have been brought into the kingdom. The temporal power of the Pope ceased in 1870. The Government is a constitutional monarchy. Franchise is exercised by every citizen who can read and write. Conscription is in force for army and navy. These are both strong, the navy one of the best in Europe. Finances are bad; the debt amounts to £520,000,000, and taxation is ruinous.

ITHACA (10), one of the Ionian Islands, and one of the smallest, known now under the name Thiaki; it was the home of Ulysses, and his domain as king when he set out for the Trojan War, and which he did not see again till his return after twenty years. Also a town (11) in New York State, U.S., seat of CORNELL UNIVERSITY (q. v.).

ITHURIEL, an angel whom Milton represents as sent by Gabriel to search for Satan in Paradise, who had found entrance by eluding the vigilance of the guard; he was armed with a spear, the touch of which could unmask any disguise, and by means of which he discovered Satan lurking in the garden in the form of a toad.

ITINERARY, a name given among the Romans to an account or a map of the principal routes through the empire and the stations along them.

ITURBIDE, AUGUSTINE DE, a Mexican general, emancipated Mexico from the yoke of Spain; seized the crown and was proclaimed emperor in 1822, was obliged to abdicate next year and leave the country, but returning, was immediately arrested, and shot (1783-1824).

IVAN (i. e. John), the name of two grand-dukes and four czars of Russia; the two grand-dukes were Ivan I., grand-duke from 1328 to 1340, and Ivan II., his son, grand-duke from 1353 to 1359.

IVAN III., surnamed The Threatening, sought to free Russia from the yoke of the Tartars who had held it tributary for two centuries; gained victories over the Tartars and the Poles, and was the first to receive at Moscow ambassadors from other Powers of Europe; reigned from 1462 to 1505.

IVAN IV., surnamed The Terrible, grandson of the preceding, assumed the sovereignty at 14, had himself crowned in 1545, and took the title of Czar; his first great ambition was to destroy the Tartar power, which he did at Kasan and Astrakhan, receiving homage thereafter from almost all the Tartar chiefs; on the death of his wife in 1563 he lost all self-restraint, and by the ferocity of his wars provoked hostility which the Pope, who had been appealed to, interposed to appease; in a fit of passion he killed his eldest son, whom he loved, remorse for which embittered his last days and hastened his end (1530-1584).

IVANHOE, the hero of Sir Walter Scott's novel of the name, the disinherited son of Cedric of Rotherwood, who falls in love with Rowena, a ward of his father, but by the exhibition of his prowess as a knight is at the intercession of King Richard, reconciled to his father, with the result that he marries Rowena.

IVANOVA (32), a Russian town in Vladimir, 210 m. NE. of Moscow, engaged in the manufacture of cotton, and known as the "Manchester of Russia."

IVANOVITCH, IVAN, a lazy, good-natured impersonation of the typical Russian, as John Bull is of the Englishman, and Brother Jonathan of the American.

IVES, ST., a town on the Ouse, in Huntingdonshire, 50 m. N. of London, where Oliver Cromwell resided from 1631 to 1635; the chief industries are malting and brewing.

IVIZA (22), the most westerly of the Balearic Isles, is hilly and well wooded, with fertile valleys and important fisheries.

IVORY COAST, a territory on the K. of the Gulf of Guinea, belonging partly to Liberia and partly to France and Britain.

IVORY GATE, the gate spoken of in Virgil through which dreams pass that do not turn out true. See HORN GATE.

IVRY, a village in the dep. of Eure, NE. of Dreux, famous for the victory of Henry of Navarre over the Leaguers in 1590.

IXION, the king of the LAPITHÆ (q. v.), who being admitted to heaven attempted to do violence to Hera, and whom Zeus deluded to embrace a phantom image of her instead, whereby he became the father of the Centaurs, and whom Zeus thereafter punished by fastening him hands and feet to an eternally revolving wheel in hell.

IZALIO, a volcano in the republic of San Salvador, which first announced its existence by a fissure opening in 1798 on the plain that now surrounds it, from which there vomited lava and cinders, accompanied with earthquake.

J

JABALPUR (84), a town, district, and one of the four divisions of the Central Provinces, India; the town is an important commercial and railway centre, situated 228 m. SW. of Allahabad; cotton and carpets are amongst its chief manufactures.

JACK, a familiar form of John, the most widely spread of Christian names, and said to be derived from the French JACQUES or, as others maintain, from JANKIN, a distinctive form of JOHAN or JOHN; JOHNKIN gives us JOCK and JOCKEY; from its extreme commonness it has acquired that slightly contemptuous signification observable in such compounds as "every man JACK," "JACK-of-all-trades," "JACK-an-apes," and the name as applied to the knaves in playing-cards, and to the small white ball used as a mark in the game of bowls is an example of its transferred sense.

JACKAROO, name given in Australia to a green-horn from England inexperienced in bush life.

JACKDAW OF RHEIMS, one of the INGOLDSBY LEGENDS (q. v.).

JACKSON, 1, a prosperous manufacturing city (21) in Michigan, U.S.A., on the Grand River, 70 m. W. of Detroit; has various mills, iron-works, breweries, &c., and bituminous coal-mines on its outskirts. 2, A cotton market-town (10), capital of Madison County, Tennessee, on the South Fork of the Forked Deer River, 107 m. SE. of Cairo, Illinois.

JACKSON, ANDREW, GENERAL, president of the United States, born at Waxhaw, N. Carolina, adopted law as a profession, and in 1788 became public prosecutor at Nashville; took a prominent part in establishing the State of Tennessee, of which he subsequently became a senator and a, judge; during the war with Britain (1812-14) be came to the front and crowned a series of successes by his great victory over Sir E. Pakenham at New Orleans; for a time he was governor of the newly purchased State of Florida, but resigning, he again entered the U.S. Senate in 1823; five years later he became President, and in 1832 was again elected; his Presidency is associated with the readjustment of the tariff on a purely protective basis, which led to disputes with S. Carolina, the sweeping away of the United States Bank, the wiping out of the national debt in 1835, and the vigorous enforcement of claims against the French for damage done during the Napoleonic wars; his imperious yet honest nature led him to make a more frequent use of the President's veto than any of his predecessors (1767-1845).

JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN, known as Stonewall Jackson, an American general, born in Virginia; bred for the army; distinguished himself in the Mexican War; retired from the army in 1853, and became a professor in Mathematics and Military Science in Virginia; was appointed brigadier-general in the Confederate army at the outbreak of the Civil War, and earned the nom de guerre of "Stonewall" by his firmness at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861; distinguished himself in subsequent engagements; at Chancellorville was by mistake fired at in the dark and mortally wounded by his own men on May 6, 1863; he was a man of the Cromwell stamp, and his death was not only a blow to his own party, but matter of grief to the whole American nation (1824-1863).

JACKSONVILLE, 1, the chief seat of commerce (17) in Florida State, is situated on St. John's River, some 20 m. from its mouth; is a busy railway centre, and has an active river trade in lumber, cotton, fruits, &c., and is a health resort. 2, Capital (13) of Morgan County, Illinois, is pleasantly situated on a fertile plain, 34 m. SW. of Springfield; is noted as an educational centre, and for its many charity asylums; its manufactures embrace woollens, paper, &c.

JACOB, a Hebrew patriarch, younger son of Isaac and Rebecca, the favourite of his mother, and had twelve sons, the fathers of the twelve tribes of Israel; his character and the story of his life are naïvely delineated in the book of Genesis.

JACOB, JEAN CLAUDE, a serf from the Jura Mountains, 120 years old, who was brought from his native place to figure as "dean of the human race" in Paris at the great federation festival of June 1790.

JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH, a German philosopher, born at Düsseldorf; bred for business, and after engaging in it for a time threw it up for a revenue appointment; devoted all his by-hours to philosophy and correspondence with eminent men, and was appointed President of the Academy of Sciences at Münich in 1807; he formed no system and he founded no school; his thoughts present themselves in a detached form, and are to be gathered from letters, dialogues, and imaginative works; he contended for the dogma of "immediate cognition as the special organ of the supersensuous," and failed to see, as SCHWEGLER notes, that said cognition "has already described a series of subjective intermediating movements, and can pretend to immediacy only in entire oblivion of its own nature and origin" (1743-1819).

JACOBI, KARL GUSTAVO, a celebrated German mathematician, born at Potsdam, of Jewish birth; was professor at Königsberg and Berlin, and one of the founders of the theory of determinants (1801-1851).

JACOBINS, a political club, originally known as the Club Breton, which was founded in Paris during the French Revolution; so called from its place of meeting in the Rue St. Honoré, which had previously been a Jacobin friar convent; it exercised a great influence over the course of the Revolution, and had affiliated societies all over the country, working along with it; its members were men of extreme revolutionary views, procured the death of the king, exterminated the Girondists, roused the lowest classes against the middle, and were the ruling spirits during the Reign of Terror, of whom Robespierre was the chief, the fall of whom sealed their doom; they were mobbed out of their place of meeting with execrations on Hallow-Eve 1794.

JACOBITES, a name given to certain partisans of Eutychean sect in the 17th century in the East, from the name of their leader.

JACOBITES, the name given to the adherents of the Stuart dynasty in Great Britain after their expulsion from the throne in 1688, and derived from that of James II., the last Stuart king; they made two great attempts to restore the exiled dynasty, in 1715 and 1745, but both were unsuccessful, after which the movement exhausted itself in an idle sentimentality, which also is by this time as good as extinct.

JACOBS, a German Greek scholar, born at Gotha; editor of "Anthologia Græca" (1767-1847).

JACOBUS, a gold coin of the reign of James I., worth 25 shillings.

JACOBY, JOHAN, a Prussian politician, born in Königsberg; bred to medicine, but best known as a politician in a liberal interest, which involved him in prosecutions; was imprisoned for protesting against the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine; he was a man of fearless honesty, and one day had the courage to say to the Emperor William I., "It is the misfortune of kings that they will not listen to the truth" (1805-1877).

JACOTOT, JEAN JOSEPH, a celebrated educationalist, born at Dijon, France; after holding various educational appointments, he in 1818 became professor of the French Language and Literature at Louvain, and subsequently held the post of Director of the Military Normal School; he is noted for his "Universal Method" of education, which is based on his assumption that men's minds are of equal calibre (1770-1840).

JACQUARD LOOM, a loom with an apparatus for weaving figures in textiles, such as silks, muslins, and carpets, which was the invention of an ingenious Frenchman, born in Lyons, of the name of Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834).

JACQUERIE, the name given to an insurrection of French peasants against the nobles in the ILE OF FRANCE (q. v.), which broke out on May 21, 1358, during the absence of King John as a prisoner in England; it was caused by the oppressive exactions of the nobles, and was accompanied with much savagery and violence, but the nobles combined against the revolt, as they did not do at the time of Revolution, preferring rather to leave the country in a pet, and it was extinguished on the 9th June following.

JACQUES BONHOMME, a name given to a French peasant as tamely submissive to taxation.

JADE, is the common name of about 150 ornamental stones, but belongs properly only to nephrite, a pale grey, yellowish, or white mineral found in New Zealand, Siberia, and chiefly in China, where it is highly valued.

JAEL, the Jewish matron who slew Sisera the Canaanitish captain, smiting a nail into his temples as he lay asleep in her tent, Judges iv. 18, 21.

JAEN (26), a picturesque cathedral city, capital of a province of the same name, in Andalusia, Spain, on a tributary of the Guadalquivir, 50 m. NW. of Granada; the province (438) lies along the valley of the Guadalquivir, and was once a Moorish kingdom.

JAGGANNATHA. See JUGGERNAUT.

JAGHIR, revenue from land or the produce of it, assigned in India by the Government to an individual as a reward for some special service.

JAHN, FRED. L., a German patriot, born in Pomerania; did much to rouse his country into revolt against the domination of France in 1813 (1778-1852).

JAHN, JOHAN, a Catholic theologian and Orientalist, born in Moravia; held professorships in Olmütz and Vienna; was distinguished as a Biblical scholar, author of "Biblical Archæology," in five vols., as well as an Introduction to the Old Testament, with Grammar, Lexicons, &c., in connection with the Biblical languages (1750-1816).

JAHN, OTTO, philologist and archæologist, born at Kiel; after holding the post of lecturer at Kiel and Greifswald he, in 1847, was appointed to the chair of Archæology in Leipzig; becoming involved in the political troubles of 1848-49, he lost his professorial position, but subsequently held similar appointments at Bonn and Berlin; his voluminous writings, which cover the field of Greek and Roman art and literature, and include valuable contributions to the history of music, are of first-rate importance (1813-1869).

JAIL FEVER, the popular name of a fever now known to be a severe form of typhus, such as happened in 1579 at the "Black Assize," so called as so many of those in the conduct of it died infected by the prisoners.

JAINAS, sects of Hindus scattered up and down India, allied to the Buddhists, though ecclesiastically in open antagonism to them; they reject the Veda of the Brahmans, and oppose to it another of their own, as also their caste and their sacerdotalism, though they observe the rules of caste among themselves; like the Buddhists, they are divided into an ascetic class and a lay, but monasticism is not developed to the same degree among them. There are two principal sects, "the white-gowns" and "the air-clad," i. e. naked, though it is only at meals, which they eat in common, that the latter strip naked; "Not only do they abstain from animal food, but they drink only filtered water, breathe only through a veil, and go sweeping the ground before them for fear of swallowing or crushing any smallest animalcule." In religion they are atheists, and admit of no Creator or of any perfection of being at the beginning, only at the end. They distinguish between soul and body, and regard the former as eternal; evil is not in mere existence, but in life, and their Nirvâna is a blessedness without break or end. We know little or nothing of the history of these sects; with them conduct is everything; their origin is of later date than that of the Buddhists. See BARTH'S "RELIGIONS OF INDIA," translated by the Editor.

JALAPA (16), capital of the Mexican State of Vera Cruz, is prettily situated at the base of the Cordilleras, 60 m. NW. of Vera Cruz city.

JALISCO (1,250), a maritime state in Mexico facing the Pacific; consists chiefly of elevated plateau; enjoys a fine climate; has long-established mining industries, some agriculture, and a growing trade in cotton and woollen goods, tobacco, &c.; capital, Guadalajara.

JAMAICA ("Land of Springs") (640, of which 15 are whites), a British crown colony, the largest and most important of the British West India Islands; is one of the Greater Antilles group, and lies some 90 m. S. of the eastern end of Cuba; its greatest length E. and W. 144 m.; is traversed by the Blue Mountains (7400 ft.), whose slopes are clad with luxuriant forests of mahogany, cedar, satin-wood, palm, and other trees; of the numerous rivers, only one, the Black River, is navigable and that for only flat-bottomed boats and canoes; there are many harbours (Kingston finest), while good roads intersect the island; the climate is oppressively warm and somewhat unhealthy on the coast, but delightful in the interior highlands; for administrative purposes the land area is divided into three counties, Surrey, Middlesex, and Cornwall; the chief trade-products are dye-woods, fruit, sugar, rum, coffee, and spices; discovered in 1494 by Columbus, and since 1670 a possession of England.

JAMES, the name of three disciples of Christ; James, the elder son of Zebedee, by order of the high-priest was put to death by Herod Agrippa; James, the younger son of Alphæus; and James, the brother of the Lord, stoned to death.

JAMES I., king of Scotland from 1406 to 1437, son of Robert III., born at Dunfermline; in 1406, while on a voyage to France, he was captured by the English and detained by Henry IV. for 18 years, during which time, however, he was carefully trained in letters and in all knightly exercises; returning to Scotland in 1424 with his bride, Jane Beaufort, niece of the English king, he took up the reins of government with a firm hand; he avenged himself on the nobles by whose connivance he had been kept so long out of his throne, reduced the turbulent Highlanders to order, and introduced a number of beneficial reforms (e. g. a wider parliamentary franchise, a fixed standard for the coinage, a supreme court of civil jurisdiction, a renovated system of weights and measures), and widened Scotland's commercial relations with the Continent; he was a man of scholarly tastes, a patron of learning, and exhibits no mean poetic gift in his well-known poem the "King's Quhair"; his vigorous and sometimes harsh and vindictive efforts to lower the powers of the nobility procured him their inveterate hatred, and in 1437 he was murdered in the Dominican monastery at Perth by a band of conspirators (1394-1437).

JAMES II., king of Scotland from 1437 to 1460, son of preceding; during his minority the country was torn by rival factions amongst the nobility, the chief point of contest being the wardship of the young king; an attempt on the part of the conspirators who had murdered James I. to place their leader, the Earl of Athole, on the throne, was frustrated; in 1449 James assumed the duties of his kingship, and in the same year married Mary, the daughter of the Duke of Gueldres; an English war then being waged on the Borders was brought to a close, and the young king entered vigorously upon administrative reforms; in these efforts he was hampered by the opposition of the nobility, and his fiery temper led him to participate in the murder of the chief obstructionist, the Earl of Douglas; protection given to the exiled Douglases by the Yorkists led James to support the claims of Henry VI. in England; he was killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh Castle (1430-1460).

JAMES III., king of Scotland from 1460 to 1488, son of James II.; was during his minority under the care of his mother and Bishop Kennedy of St. Andrews, the Earl of Angus being lieutenant-general of the kingdom; but the bishop and the earl died before he was 14, and the nobility fell into faction and disorder again; the first to gain power was Lord Boyd (whose son married the king's sister), but a charge of treason brought about his downfall and exile; the king married Princess Margaret of Denmark in 1469, and gave himself up to a life of quiet ease surrounded by men of art and culture, while his brothers Albany and Mar, by their military tastes and achievements, won the affections of the nobles; James, becoming jealous, imprisoned them; Albany, who had intrigued with Edward IV., fled to France, Mar died in Craigmillar Castle; while the king and his army were marching to meet expected English action in 1482 the nobles, instigated by Archibald, Bell-the-Cat, seized and hanged the royal favourites at Lauder, and committed the king to Edinburgh Castle; a short reconciliation was effected, but was soon broken, and civil war ensued; the defeat of the royalist forces at Sauchieburn took place in 1488; the king escaped from the field, but was thrown from his horse, and taking refuge in a house at Beaton's Mill, was there slain (1462-1488).

JAMES IV., king of Scotland from 1488 to 1513, participated in the rebellion which overthrew his father, James III., and succeeded him; but in remorse for his unfilial conduct wore an iron belt all his life; during his youth his supporters carried on the government in their own interests, and despoiled the nobles who had been loyal to the late king; but when he came of age he showed his independence in choosing good advisers, among them Sir Andrew Wood; his reign was marked by resistance to the claims of the Roman pontiff, by the firm and wise administration of law, the fostering of agriculture, of shipbuilding, and other industries; in 1503 James married Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.; after that king's death relations between the two countries became strained; two English men-of-war captured Andrew Barton's privateers; the jewels which the queen inherited from her father were retained by Henry VIII., and James maintained an alliance with Henry's enemy, France; at the solicitation of the French queen, against the advice of his own queen and nobles, he invaded England in 1513, but the invasion ended in disaster at Flodden, where he and the flower of his army perished; he was an able but a headstrong, a pleasure-loving, and an extravagant man (1472-1513).

JAMES V., king of Scotland from 1513 to 1542, was only an infant when he succeeded to his father's throne; his mother was regent till her marriage with young Angus, when the nobles called James IV.'s cousin, Albany, from France to assume the regency; French and English factions sprang up; Henry VIII. intrigued in the affairs of the country; anarchy and civil war ensued, and Albany retired to France in 1524; in that year the queen-mother, aided by Henry, took the young king from Sir David Lyndsay, to whom he had been entrusted, and assumed the government again in his name; the Douglas family usurped his person and the government in 1525; but James asserted himself three years later, and began to reign in person, displaying judgment and resolution, banishing the Douglases, keeping order in the Highlands and on the Borders, establishing the College of Justice, protecting the peasantry from the tyranny of the barons, and fostering trade by a commercial treaty with the Netherlands; he married (1) Princess Magdalene of France in 1537, and (2) Mary of Guise in 1538; Henry, aggrieved by James's failure to meet him in conference on Church matters, and otherwise annoyed, sent 30,000 men into Scotland in 1542; disaffection prevented the Scottish forces from acting energetically, and the rout of Solway Moss took place; the king, vexed and shamed, sank into a fever and died at Falkland; in this reign the Reformation began to make progress in Scotland, and would have advanced much farther but that James had to support the clergy to play off their power against the nobles (1512-1542)

JAMES VI. OF SCOTLAND AND I. OF ENGLAND, son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Darnley, born in Edinburgh Castle; was proclaimed king of Scotland when only 13 months old, in 1567; entrusted to the Earl of Mar, and educated by George Buchanan; Moray, Lennox, Mar, and Morton were successively regents, till James assumed the government in 1581, executing Morton and choosing Arran and Lennox for his advisers; plots and counter-plots, the Raid of Ruthven (1582), the siege of Stirling by some of the nobles with 10,000 troops, mostly from England, the surrender of the king and the fall of Arran in 1585, the insurrection of the Catholic nobles 1491-94, and the Gowrie Conspiracy in 1600, betrayed the restlessness of the kingdom, and the weakness of the king; James married Anne of Denmark 1589; on the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, he succeeded to the throne of England as JAMES I.; was at first popular, but soon forfeited all confidence by his favouritism; he governed through creatures like Carr, Earl of Somerset, and the infamous Buckingham, whose indiscretion brought about a war with Spain in 1624; James died immediately afterwards; he has been described by Sully as "the wisest fool in Christendom"; his conduct was certainly much less creditable than his conversation; he held absurdly high views of the royal prerogative; but he sold patents of nobility, and was careless of the misdeeds of his ministers; he did not live to see revolution, but he saw its precursor in the loosening of the bonds of sympathy between sovereign and people (1566-1625).

JAMES II. OF ENGLAND AND VII. OF SCOTLAND, the son of Charles I., reigned in succession to Charles II. from 1685 to 1688; during the Commonwealth he was a soldier in France and Spain; at the Restoration returned to England as Duke of York, and became Lord High Admiral; avowing himself a Catholic in 1671, the Test Act of 1673 enforced his resignation, and thenceforward repeated attempts were made to exclude him from the succession; on becoming king he promised to maintain the Church and to respect the liberties of the people, but his government all the same was arbitrary and tyrannical; he paraded his Catholicism, persecuted the Covenanters, subordinated English interests to French, permitted the "Bloody Assize," suspended the Test Act, violated the rights of the Universities, gave Church offices to Roman Catholics, and by these and many other acts of despotism made his deposition necessary; leading statesmen invited William of Orange to assume the throne, and James fled to France; an invasion of Ireland in 1689 ended in his defeat at Boyne Water; he retired again to France, and lived at St. Germains till his death (1633-1701).

JAMES, EPISTLE OF, a Catholic epistle of the New Testament, presumed to have been written by James, the brother of the Lord, addressed to Jewish Christians who, in accepting Christianity, had not renounced Judaism, and the sphere in which it moves is that of Christian morality, agreeably to the standard of ethics given in the Sermon on the Mount. The author looks upon Judaism as the basis of Christianity, and as on the moral side leading up to it, in correspondence with the attestation of Christ, that "salvation is of the Jews."

JAMES, G. P. R., historical novelist, born in London; wrote as many as a hundred novels, beginning with "Richelieu" in 1829, which brought him popularity, profit, and honour; was burlesqued by Thackeray (1801-1860).

JAMES, SIR HENRY, military engineer; superintended the geological survey of Ireland, and became in 1854 director-general of the Ordnance Survey (1803-1877).

JAMES, HENRY, an American theological writer, a disciple of Swedenborg, and an exponent of his system (1811-1882).

JAMES, HENRY, American novelist, born in New York: studied law at Harvard, but was eventually drawn into literature, and after a spell of magazine work established his reputation as a novelist in 1875 with "Roderick Hudson"; most of his life has been spent in Italy and England, and the writing of fiction has been varied with several volumes of felicitous criticism, chiefly on French life and literature; his novels are characterised by a charming style, by a delicate discriminating analysis of rather uneventful lives, and by an almost complete absence of strong dramatic situation; b. 1843.

JAMES, JOHN ANGELL, most influential Congregationalist of his time, born in Dorsetshire; was pastor of Carr's Lane Chapel, Birmingham, from 1805 to 1859; won the esteem of all parties; published the "Anxious Inquirer," and many other works (1785-1859).

JAMES, ST., James, the son of Zebedee, the patron saint of Spain; his attribute the sword, by which he was decapitated.

JAMES RIVER, an important river of Virginia, U.S., formed by the junction of the Jackson and the Cowpasture, and flows in a south-easterly direction across Virginia, falling into the Atlantic at the S. end of Chesapeake Bay. It has a course of 450 m., and is navigable as far as City Point.

JAMESON, ANNA, née Murphy, English literary lady and art critic, born in Dublin; authoress of "Sacred and Legendary Art," "Legends of the Monastic Orders," "Legends of the Madonna," &c.; left unfinished at her death a work on Our Lord and John the Baptist as represented in art, which was completed afterwards by Lady Eastlake (1794-1860).

JAMESON, GEORGE, a Scotch portrait-painter, born in Aberdeen; many of his portraits are to be met with in Scottish mansion-houses; his work has been unduly lauded, and himself extravagantly designated the "Scottish Vandyck" (1586-1644).

JAMESON, DR. LEANDER STARR, leader of the raid upon Johannesburg, born at Edinburgh; studied medicine in his native city and in London; established himself at Kimberley in 1878, and under the patronage of Mr. Rhodes became the popular administrator for the South Africa Company at Fort Salisbury in 1891; from Mafeking in December of 1896 he started, with a body of 500 troopers, upon his ill-fated incursion into the Transvaal to assist the Uitlanders of Johannesburg; at Krugersdorp the raiders, exhausted by a 24 hours' ride, were repelled by a superior force of Boers, and compelled to surrender; having been handed over to the British authorities, "Dr. Jim," as he was familiarly called, was tried in London, and condemned to 15 months' imprisonment, but was liberated on account of ill-health after about five months' incarceration; b. 1853.

JAMESON, ROBERT, naturalist, born in Leith; appointed professor of Natural History in Edinburgh University in 1804; wrote several works on mineralogy and geology (1773-1853).

JAMES'S PALACE, ST., a palace, a brick building adjoining St. James's Park, London, where drawing-rooms were held, and gave name to the English Court in those days as St. Stephen's does of the Parliament.

JAMIESON, DR. JOHN, a Scotch antiquary, born in Glasgow; bred for the Church; was Dissenting minister in Nicolson Street Church, Edinburgh; widely known as author of the "Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language"; wrote other works of less note (1759-1838).

JAMYN, AMADIS, a French poet, a protégé of Ronsard's; was a good Greek scholar.

JAN MAYEN LAND, a volcanic island, 35 m. in length, situated in the Arctic Ocean between Iceland and Spitzbergen; is the head-quarters of considerable seal and whale fisheries; discovered in 1611 by a Dutch navigator.

JANE EYRE, a novel by Charlotte Brontë; published in 1847.

JANICULUM, one of the hills of Rome, on the right bank of the Tiber.

JANIN, JULES GABRIEL, critic and novelist, born at St. Étienne, France; took to journalism early, and established a reputation by his lively dramatic criticisms in the Journal des Débats; his gift of ready composition betrayed him into a too prolific output of work, and it is doubtful if any of his many novels and articles will long survive his day and generation; they, however, brought him wealth and celebrity in his own lifetime; he succeeded in 1870 to Sainte-Beuve's chair in the French Academy (1804-1874).

JANIZARIES, a Turkish military force organised in 1330, and more perfectly in 1336; composed originally of Christian youths taken prisoners in war or kidnapped, and trained as Mohammedans; from being at first 10,000, and fostered by the privileges granted them, increased to 300,000 or 400,000 strong, till they became unruly and a danger to the State, when, after various unsuccessful attempts to crush them, they were in 1826 overborne by the Sultan Mahmoud II. and dissolved.

JANNÆUS, ALEXANDER, the second of the Asmonæan kings of Judea; reigned in the beginning of the century before Christ; insulted the Jews by profaning the rites of their religion, and roused a hostility against him which was appeased only by his death, the news of which was received with expressions of triumphant exultation.

JANNES AND JAMBRES, the two Egyptian magicians who thought to outrival Moses in the performance of his miracles; supposed to be referred to in 2 Tim. iii. 8 as "withstanding" him.

JANSEN, CORNELIUS, a Dutch theologian and bishop of Ypres, born in Louvain; studied the works of Augustine, and wrote a book entitled "Augustinus" in exposition of that great Father's doctrine of grace, which was published after his death, and which gave occasion to a great controversy between his followers, in France especially, and the Jesuits (1585-1638).

JANSENISTS, a party in the Roman Catholic Church, supporters of Jansen's views, who, in opposition to the Jesuits, maintained the Augustinian principle of the sovereign and irresistible nature of divine grace. The most celebrated members of the party were the PORT-ROYALISTS (q. v.) of France, in particular Arnauld and Pascal, and they were opposed not only by the Jesuits, but by both Louis XIV. and the Pope. Driven from France on the death of Louis, they took refuge in Holland, and thither the Pope Clement XI. followed them, first in 1713, hurling a bull against them, and then in 1719 by ex-communicating them and driving them for good from within the pale of the Catholic Church.

JANUARIUS, ST., a Christian who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, and whose head is preserved in Naples with a phial containing his blood which, on certain occasions, liquefies when brought into contact with the head. Recourse is had to it on the occasion of public calamities, not without desired effects, and it is an object of worship. Festival, September 19.

JANUARY, the first month of the year, so called as sacred to JANUS (q. v.).

JANUARY, EDICT OF, edict of date January 17, 1562, on which Catherine de Médecis granted certain concessions to the Protestants.

JANUS, a very ancient Italian deity who presided over the beginning of the several divisions of time, as well as the beginning of all enterprises, in connection with which he was worshipped; he had two heads, or faces, one of which looked behind into the past and the other before into the future, and this power of penetrating into both it is said Saturn endowed him with as a reward for receiving him on earth when he was driven out of heaven.

JAPAN (40,719), an island empire of the N. Pacific, lying along the E. coast of Asia, and separated from Corea and Primorsk by the Sea of Japan, consists of Honshiu (31,000), Shikoku (3,000), Kyushu (6,000), Yezo (314), and 4000 small islands; though not of volcanic origin, the islands are the most mountainous in the world, have many volcanoes and sulphur springs, and are subject to earthquakes; they are very picturesque, and have peaks from 8000 to 12,000 ft. high; the rivers are too swift for navigation; the coast, not much indented, has yet some good harbours; the valleys are well wooded, but the soil not very fertile; temperature and climate are various; nowhere is the heat intense, but in some parts the winter is very cold; there is much rain, but on the whole it is healthy; the chief industry is agriculture; farming is careful and intelligent; rice, cereals, pulse, tea, cotton, and tobacco are raised, and many fruits; gold, silver, all the useful metals, coal, granite, some decorative stones are found, but good building-stone is scarce; the manufacture of porcelain, lacquer-work, and silk is extensive, and in some artistic work the Japanese are unrivalled; the chief ports are Yokohama (143), on the E. of Honshiu, which has grown up since 1854, when the country was opened to trade; and Hyogo (143), on the S. coast of the same island, where are also shipbuilding yards; the chief exports are tea, silk, and rice; imports cotton, woollen, iron goods, and chemicals; the Japanese, sprung from an ancient union of Tartars with Ainos and with S. Malays, are a kindly, courteous, law-abiding folk, with highly developed artistic tastes; education is compulsory, and well provided for; religion is Shintoism and Buddhism, but Christianity is gaining rapid ground; the government is in the hands of the Mikado, who rules now with the aid of ministers and two houses of parliament; education, government, army, and navy--indeed the whole modern civilisation of the country--is on Western lines, though until 1853 foreigners were excluded; a civil war in 1867-68 effected the change from the old feudalism, and the amazing success of Japan in the war against China in 1894 has proved that the new civilisation is no mere veneer; the capital is Tokyo (1,162).

JAPHETH, one of the three sons of Noah and the ancestor of the Gentiles, as distinct from the descendants of Shem, or the Semites, and of Ham, or the Hamites. See IAPETOS.

JAQUES, or the "melancholy" a cynical moraliser in Shakespeare's "As You Like It."

JARNAC, a town on the Charente, celebrated as the scene of a victory which the Catholics, commanded by the Duc d'Anjou, afterwards Henry III. obtained in 1569 over the Huguenots commanded by Condé.

JAROSLAV (79), on the Volga, 160 m. NE. of Moscow, is capital of the government of Jaroslav; is an important river-port, a seat of theological and legal culture, and has cotton manufactures.

JARPNOONK, a mesmeric or hypnotic state produced by Hindu conjurers.

JARROW (34), in Durham, on the Tyne, 7 m. below Newcastle; is a coal-shipping port, and has extensive shipbuilding and iron manufactures; in ancient times its monastery was made famous by the Venerable Bede.

JARVIE, BAILIE NICOL, a Glasgow magistrate; an original character in Scott's "Rob Roy."

JASHER, BOOK OF, a Hebrew book twice quoted in the Old Testament, no longer extant; believed to have been a collection of national ballads.

JASMIN, JACQUES, a Gascon barber and poet, who by his romances, burlesques, and odes, published between 1835 and 1849, raised the patois of the S. of France to the status of a literary language, and created a wholesome influence on French life and letters (1778-1864).

JASON, a mythological Greek hero, son of Æson, king of Iolcos; brought up by the centaur Chiron, was supplanted on the throne by his half-brother Pelias; undertook the leadership of the Argonautic expedition, assisted by Medea in this enterprise; he took her to wife, but cast her off for Creusa, whom Medea to avenge herself killed, with her father and her two sons by Jason, she herself escaping to Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons; Jason took refuge from her fury in the sanctuary of Poseidon near Corinth, where the timber of the ship Argo deposited there breaking up fell upon him and crushed him to death.

JASPER, an opaque quartz found in all colours, and spotted, striped, and clouded; is valued in ornamental lapidary work because of the polish it takes.

JASSY (90), ancient capital of Moldavia, situated 89 m. NE. of Bucharest; is the seat of an archbishop and a university, and has a large community of Jews; trades largely with Russia in corn, spirits, and wine.

JÂTAKA, a Pâli collection of stories recounting 550 previous "births" of the Buddha, the earliest collection of popular tales, and the ultimate source of many of Æsop's fables and Western folk-lore legends.

JATS, are the principal race in the Punjab, where they number 4½ millions, and are engaged in agriculture. There is much debate as to their origin and their racial relationship.

JAVA (23,868), the finest island of the Indian Archipelago, lying between Sumatra and Bali, with the Indian Ocean on the S. and the Java Sea separating it from Borneo on the N., lies E. and W., traversed by a mountain chain with a rich alluvial plain on the N.; there are many volcanoes; the climate is hot, and on the coast unhealthy; the mountains are densely wooded, and the teak forests are valuable; the plain is fertile; coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, and tobacco are grown and exported; all kinds of manufactured goods, wine, spirits, and provisions are imported; the natives are Malays, more civilised than on neighbouring islands; there are 240,000 Chinese, many Europeans and Arabs; the island is nearly as large as England, and belongs to Holland; the chief towns are Batavia (105) and Samarang (70), both on the N.

JAY, JOHN, American statesman, born in New York, and called to the bar in 1768; took a part in the struggle for independence second only to Washington's; represented his country subsequently in Madrid and London; was first Chief-Justice of the United States, and from 1795 to 1801 governor of New York (1745-1829).

JAY, WILLIAM, eminent Congregationalist minister, born in Wiltshire; was first a stone-mason, but entered the ministry, and after a short term of service near Chippenham was pastor of Argyle Chapel, Bath, for 62 years. He was an impressive preacher and a popular writer (1769-1853).

JAYADEVA, a Hindu poet, born near Burdwân, in Bengal, flourished in the 12th century, whose great work, the "Gita Govinda," the "Song of the Shepherd Krishna," has been translated by Sir Edwin Arnold as the "Indian Song of Songs," in celebration of the love of Krishna and his wife Radha; it has often been compared with the "Song of Songs," in the Hebrew Scriptures.

JEAN D'ÉPEE (Jean, i. e. the Frenchman with the sword), a name given to Napoleon by his partisans who conspired for his restoration in 1814.

JEAN JACQUES, Rousseau, from his Christian name.

JEAN PAUL, RICHTER (q. v.), from his Christian name.

JEANNE D'ALBRET. See D'ALBRET, JEANNE.

JEANNE D'ARC. See JOAN OF ARC.

JEBB, PROFESSOR, eminent Greek scholar, born in Dundee; elected in 1889 Regius Professor of Greek in Cambridge; has represented Cambridge in Parliament since 1891; edited "Sophocles," "The Attic Orators," "Introduction to Homer," &c.; B. 1841.

JEDBURGH (3), county town of Roxburghshire, picturesquely situated on the Jed, 30 m. SW. of Berwick, and 10 m. SW. of Kelso; is an ancient town of many historic memories; made a royal burgh by David I.; contains the ruins of an abbey, and has some woollen manufactures.

JEDDAH (46), a town on the Red Sea, 65 m. W. of Mecca, of which it is the port, where the pilgrims disembark for the holy city; is a place of trade, less considerable than it once was.

JEEJEEBHOY, SIR JAMSETJEE, Indian philanthropist, a Parsee by birth and creed, born in Bombay; realised a fortune as a merchant, and employed it in releasing debtors from jail by paying their debts, and in founding a hospital and schools; in 1857 was made a baronet (1783-1859).

JEFFERIES, JOHN RICHARD, writer on rural subjects, born near Swindon, Wilts, son of a gamekeeper; was first a journalist and novelist, but attained success in "The Gamekeeper at Home," 1878; other books display a very accurate faculty of observation and description, a reverence for nature, for rural scenes and people; "The Story of my Heart," 1883, is an introspective and somewhat morbid autobiography; he died after six years' illness at Goring, Sussex; Prof. Saintsbury pronounces him "the greatest minute describer of English country life since White of Selborne" (1848-1887).

JEFFERSON, JOSEPH, comedian, born in Philadelphia, of theatrical lineage; was on the stage at the age of 3; made his first success in New York as Dr. Pangloss in 1857, and in London in 1865 began to play his most famous rôle, Rip van Winkle, a most exquisite exhibition of histrionic genius; B. 1829.

JEFFERSON, THOMAS, American statesman, born at Shadwell, Virginia; took a prominent part in the Revolution, and claimed to have drawn up the Declaration of Independence; he secured the decimal coinage for the States in 1783; was plenipotentiary in France in 1784, and subsequently minister there; third President, 1801-1807, he saw the Louisiana purchase and the prohibition of the slave-trade; after his retirement he devoted himself to furthering education till his death at Monticello, Va.; he was a man of extremes, but honest and consistent in his policy (1743-1826).

JEFFREY, FRANCIS, LORD, a celebrated critic and lawyer, born in Edinburgh; trained for and called to the bar in 1794; with a fine cultivated literary taste devoted himself principally to literary criticism, and being a Whig in politics was associated with the originators of the EDINBURGH REVIEW (q. v.), and became its first editor in 1802, which he continued to be till 1829, contributing to its pages all along articles of great brilliancy; he was distinguished also at the bar in several famous trials; became Lord Advocate of Scotland in 1830, M.P. for Edinburgh in 1832, and finally, in 1834, one of the judges in the Court of Session; lie was a dark-eyed, nimble little man, of alert intelligence and quick in all his movements; died at Craigcrook, near Edinburgh (1773-1850).

JEFFREYS, BARON, of infamous memory, born in Wales; became Chief-Justice of England in 1863; was one of the advisers and promoters of the tyrannical proceedings of James II.'s reign, and notorious for his cruel and vindictive judgments as a judge, to the indignation of the people; tried to escape on the arrival of William; was discovered lurking in a public-house at Wapping, and apprehended and committed to the Tower, where he died (1648-1689).

JEHOVAH, the name of God in the Hebrew Scriptures as self-existent, and the Creator and Lord of all things, in the regard of the Jews too sacred to be pronounced, and which in the Authorised Version is often rendered by the word LORD in small capital letters.

JEHOVIST, the presumed author of the Jehoistic portions of the Pentateuch. See ELOHIST.

JEKYLL, DR., AND MR. HYDE, the good nature and the bad struggling for the ascendency in the same person, generally to the defeat of the former.

JELF, RICHARD WILLIAM, Principal of King's College, London; was educated at Oxford, became Fellow of Oriel, canon of Christ's Church, and Principal of King's College; is remembered chiefly for his rigid orthodoxy and for the part he played in depriving Maurice of his professorship at King's College (1798-1871).

JEMAPPES (11), a manufacturing Belgian town, 3 m. W. of Mons, where Dumouriez in the name of the French Republic defeated the Austrians in 1792.

JEMINDAR, a native officer in the Indian army of rank equal to that of lieutenant in the British.

JENA (13), in Saxe-Weimar, on the Saale, 14 m. SE. of Weimar, an old town with memories of Luther, Goethe, and Schiller; has a university founded to be a centre of Reformation influence, and since associated with Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, and the Schlegels, who were teachers there; on the same day in October 14, 1806, two victories were won near the town by French troops over the Prussians, the collective name for both being "the battle of Jena."

"JENKINS'S EAR," refers to an incident which provoked a war with Spain in 1739, viz., the conduct of the officer of a Spanish guardship not far from Havana towards the captain of an English trading ship of the name of Jenkins; the Spaniards boarded his ship, could find nothing contraband on board, but treated him cruelly, cut off his left ear, which he brought home in wadding, to the inflaming of the English people against Spain, with the above-named issue.

JENNER, EDWARD, an English physician, born in Berkeley, and practised there; was the discoverer of inoculation with cowpox as a preventive of smallpox, or vaccination as it is called, a discovery which has immortalised his name (1749-1822).

JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, an eminent physician, born at Chatham; held several professorships in University College; was physician to the Queen and the Prince of Wales; discovered the symptoms which differentiate typhus from typhoid fever (1815-1899).

JEPHTHAH, one of the Judges of Israel, famed for his rash vow in the event of victory to offer in sacrifice the first object that came out of his house on his return, and which happened to be his daughter and only child, and whom it would seem he sacrificed, after allowing her two months to bewail her fate along with her maidens; it is not said her father sacrificed her, and it is thought she was only doomed to perpetual virginity.

JEREMIAD, a lament over degeneracy in modern times.

JEREMIAH, a Hebrew prophet, born at Anathoth, a priestly city 3 m. N. of Jerusalem, where, after his removal thither, he spent as a prophet the greater part of his life, viz., from 629 to 588 B.C.; his prophecy was a lifelong protest against the iniquity and folly of his countrymen, and was conceived in bitter foreboding of the hopeless ruin they were bringing down upon their heads; his faithfulness offended friend and foe alike, and more than one plot was laid against his life, which was one of ever-deepening sadness and one long wail over the ruin of the country he so loved; he lived to see the issue of his prediction in the captivity of the people, though he did not go into captivity with them, the conqueror having allowed him to remain as he wished; he appears to have died in Egypt; he was the author of "Lamentations," and it is thought of sundry of the Psalms. See HEBREW PROPHECY.

JERICHO, an ancient city of Palestine, in the SW. of a plain of the same name that extends W. of the Jordan and NW. of the Dead Sea; it was the first city taken by the Israelites when they entered the Holy Land, the walls falling down before them after being compassed for seven days by the priests blowing on rams' horns and followed by the people.

JEROME, JEROME KLAPTA, dramatist, journalist, &c., author of "Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow," "Three Men in a Boat," "Diary of a Pilgrimage," &c., as also of plays; editor of the Idler and of a weekly magazine journal, To-Day; b. 1861.

JEROME, ST., a Father of the Church, born in N. Illyria, of rich parents, presumably Christian, although he first became Christian himself of his own election after he was grown up; and from the day of his baptism, "he left," as he says, "not only parents and kindred, but the accustomed luxuries of delicate life"; his fame rests on a translation of the Scriptures into Latin, known as the Vulgate, which he executed at Bethlehem at intervals from A.D. 385 to 404, with the design of showing to the Latin world what was and what was not contained in the original documents for the faith of the Church, and with the result, that in the long run the Old and the New Testaments were for the first time presented to and received by the Church as both of equal, or at least common authority, and as both sections of one book (331-420).

JEROME OF PRAGUE, born at Prague; studied there and at Oxford (where he came under Wycliffe's influence), Paris, Heidelberg, and Cologne; acquired great learning, and displayed great energy and oratorical power; attracted the notice of the Kings of Poland and Hungary; joined John Huss in his agitation against the abuses of the Church; became involved in the movement against Huss, and though he recanted, afterwards withdrew his recantation, and was burned at Constance (about 1365-1416.)

JERROLD, DOUGLAS, dramatist and celebrated wit, born in London, son of a theatrical magistrate; began life as a printer; composed "Black-eyed Susan"; contributed to Punch "Mrs. Caudle's Lectures" among other pieces, and edited magazines; the keenness of his satire was the reflex of a feeling heart (1803-1857).

JERSEY (55), the largest and richest of the Channel Islands, lies 15 m. off the French coast, 100 m. S. of Portland Bill, is oblong in shape, with great bays in the coast, and slopes from the N. to the SW.; the soil is devoted chiefly to pasture and potato culture; the exports are early potatoes for the London market and the famous Jersey cattle, the purity of whose breed is carefully preserved; the island is self-governing, has a somewhat primitive land tenure, is remarkably free from poverty and crime, has been under the English crown since 1066; the capital is St. Helier (29), where there is a college, a public library, a harbour, and a good market.

JERSEY CITY (206), the most populous city in New Jersey, is separated from New York, of which it is practically a part, only by the Hudson River; has no pretension to beauty, but is a busy railway centre; has very varied manufactures, including sugar, flour, machinery, and chemicals, extensive shipping interests, and great trade in iron, coal, and agricultural produce.

JERUSALEM (41), the capital of Palestine, holy city of the Jews, belonged originally to the Jebusites, but was captured by David and made his capital; a strong place, built on four hills 2000 ft. above the Mediterranean, enclosed within walls and protected nearly all round by deep valleys and rising grounds beyond; it has been so often besieged, overthrown, and rebuilt that the present city stands on rubbish heaps, the ruins of ancient structures.

JERUSALEM, KINGDOM OF, kingdom founded by Godfrey of Bouillon in 1099 and overthrown by Saladin in 1187.

JERUSALEM DELIVERED, an epic poem in 20 cantos by Tasso and published in 1575, the appearance of which constitutes one of the great epochs in the history of literature.

JERVIS, SIR JOHN, an English admiral, born in Staffordshire; entered the navy at 10, rose to be Rear-Admiral of the White in 1790; his great feat his defeat of the Spanish fleet of 27 ships with one of 15 ships off St. Vincent in 1797, in consequence of which he was raised to the peerage as Earl St. Vincent; was buried in St. Paul's, London (1734-1823).

JESSICA, Shylock's daughter, in the "Merchant of Venice".

JESUITISM, popularly regarded as an attempt to achieve holy ends by unholy means, but really and radically the apotheosis of falsehood and unreality to the dethronement of faith in the true, the genuine and the real, a deliberate shutting of the eyes to the truth, a belief in a lie in the name of God, a belief in symbols and formulas as in themselves sacred, salutary, and divine, fiction superseding fact, and fancy faith in God or the divine reality of things, the embodiment of the genius of cant persuading itself to believe that that which is not is, while atheism, on the other hand, tries to persuade itself to believe that that which is is not.

JESUITS, or SOCIETY OF JESUS, the religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1534, and approved of by bull of Paul III. in 1540, for the conversion of heretics and the propagation of the Roman Catholic faith, and reputed, however self-denying at times, to be unscrupulous in the means they employ to achieve their ends, which is, broadly speaking, re-establishing over Christendom the tyranny of the Church; they established themselves in the several countries of Europe, but their policy was found dangerous to political liberty as well as religious, and they are now everywhere nearly stamped out; there are nevertheless still several communities of them in the south of Europe, and even colleges in England, Ireland, and the United States, as well as missions under them in heathen parts.

JESUS, THE SON OF SIRACH, the author of the book of ECCLESIASTICUS (q. v.).

JESUS CHRIST (i. e. the anointed Divine Saviour), the Son of God and the hope of Israel, Saviour of mankind, born in Bethlehem of the Virgin Mary four years before the commencement of the Christian era, and who suffered death on the cross for the salvation of His people in A.D. 33, after a life of sorrow over the sins of the world and an earnest pleading with men to turn from sin unto God as revealed in Himself, in the life He led, the words He spoke, and the death He died, and after leaving behind Him a Spirit which He promised would guide those who believed in Him unto all truth, a Spirit which was and would prove to be the spirit of His manifestation in the flesh from birth onwards to death, and through death to the very grave. See CHRISTIANITY.

JET, a hard, black, bituminous lignite, capable of an excellent polish and easily carved, hence useful for trinkets and ornaments, which have been made of it from very early times; is found in France, Spain, and Saxony, but the best supplies come from Whitby, Yorkshire.

JETSAM, part of the cargo of a ship thrown overboard to lighten her in a case of peril.

JEU DE PAUME, an oath which the deputies of the Third Estate took on June 13, 1789, not to separate till they had given France a constitution.

JEUNESSE DORÉE (lit. gilded youth), name given to a body of young dandies who, after the fall of Robespierre, strove to bring about a counter-revolution.

JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY, logician and political economist, born in Liverpool; in 1866 was professor of Logic of Owens College, Manchester, and 10 years later professor of Political Economy in University College, London; distinguished himself in the departments of both chairs both as a lecturer and a writer; was drowned while bathing at Bexhill, near Hastings (1835-1882).

JEW, THE WANDERING, a Jew bearing the name of Ahasuérus, whom, according to an old legend, Christ condemned to wander over the earth till He should return again to judgment, because He drove Him brutally away as, weary with the cross He carried, He sat down to rest on a stone before his door; in symbolic token, it is surmised, of the dispersion of the whole Jewish people over the earth as homeless wanderers by way of judgment for their rejection of Christ.

JEWELL, JOHN, early English Protestant divine, born near Ilfracombe; educated at Oxford; became Tutor of Corpus Christi; embraced the Reformed faith, and was secretary to Peter Martyr in 1547; he received the living of Sunningwell, Berks, in 1551, but on Mary's accession fled to Strasburg; Elizabeth made him Bishop of Salisbury in 1559, and three years later he published his "Apology for the English Church," in his defence of which he sought to base the faith of the Church on the direct teaching of Christ apart from that of the Fathers and tradition (1522-1571).

JEWS, THE, a people of Semitic origin, descended from Abraham in the line of Jacob; conspicuous for the profession of a religion that has issued from them, and affected to the core the rest of the civilised world. Their religion was determined by a moral standard; through them more than through any other race has the moral principle, or the law of conscience, been evolved in humanity as the sovereign law of life, and this at length resolved itself into a faith in one God, the sole ruler in heaven and on earth, the law of whose government is truth and righteousness, only they stopped short with the assertion of this divine unity, and in their hard monotheism stubbornly refused, as they do still, to accept the doctrine of trinity in unity which, spiritually understood is, as it has been well defined, the central principle of the Christian faith, the principle that to have a living morality one must have a faith in a Divine Father, a Divine Son, and a Divine Spirit, all three equally Divine. But, indeed, it is to be noted that the Jewish religion never was nor ever has been the religion of the Jewish people, but was from first to last solely the religion of the law-givers and prophets sent to teach them, to whom they never as a race paid any heed. There was never such antagonism of Yea to God and Nay to Him in the history of any nation as among them; never such openness to whisperings, and such callousness to the thunder of God's voice; on the one side, never such tenderness, and on the other, never such hardness, of heart. Nor except by their religion, which they did not believe at heart themselves, and of which they have but been the vehicles, have they as a race contributed anything to the true wealth of the world, "being mere dealers in money, gold, jewels, or else old clothes, material and spiritual." And it has been noted they have all along shown a want of humour, a want of gentle sympathy with the under side, "a fatal defect, as without it no man or people is good for anything." They were never good for much as a nation, and they are still more powerless for good since it was broken up, numerous as they have been, and are in their widely scattered state; for there are 4,500,000 in Russia, 1,600,000 in Austria-Hungary, 1,567,000 in Germany, 567,000 in Roumania, 300,000 in Turkey, 120,000 in Holland, 97,000 in France, 72,000 in England, 101,000 in Italy, 50,000 in Switzerland, 4652 in Servia, and 15,792 in Greece, in all, 7,701,261 in Europe; throughout the globe altogether 11,000,000, while the numbers in Palestine are increasing.

JEYPORE (2,832), a native state in Rajputana; has been under British protection since 1818, and was loyal at the Mutiny; the soil is rocky and sandy, but there is much irrigation; copper, iron, and cobalt are found; enamelled gold ware and salt are manufactured; education is well provided for; at the capital, Jeypore (159), the handsomest town in India, there is a State college and a school of art; its business is chiefly banking and exchange.

JEZEBEL, the wicked wife of Ahab, king of Israel, whose fate is recorded in 2 Kings ix. 30-37; gives name to a bold, flaunting woman of loose morals.

JINA (lit. the "victorious" one as contrasted with Buddha the merely "awakened" one) is in the religion of the JAINAS (q. v.) a sage who has achieved omniscience, and who came to re-establish the law in its purity where it has become corrupted among men; one of a class, of which it appears there have been 24 in number, who have appeared at intervals after long periods of time, in shapes less imposing or awe-inspiring than at first, and after less and less intervals as time goes on The Jainas claim that Buddha was a disciple of the Jina, their founder, who had finished the faith to which the latter had only been awakened.

JINGO, a name, of uncertain derivation, given to a political party favourable to an aggressive, menacing policy in foreign affairs, and first applied in 1877 to that political section in Great Britain which provoked the Turco-Russian war.

JINN, in the Arabian mythology one of a class of genii born of fire, some of them good spirits and some of them evil, with the power of assuming visible forms, hideous or bewitching, corresponding to their character.

JOAB, the nephew and a general of David's; put to death by order of Solomon 1014 B.C.

JOACHIM, JOSEPH, a distinguished violinist, born near Presburg, in Hungary; famous as a youthful prodigy; was encouraged by Mendelssohn; has visited London every year since 1844, and has been principal leader in the Monday and Saturday Popular Concerts from the first, and became head of the Academy of Music at Berlin in 1869; the fiftieth anniversary of his first appearance was celebrated on March 17, 1889, when his admirers presented him with a magnificent violin; b. 1831.

JOACHIM, ST., the husband of St. Anne, and the father of the Virgin Mary.

JOAN, POPE, a woman who, in the guise of a man with male accomplishments, is said for two years five months and four days to have been Pope of Rome between Leo IV. and Benedict III. about 853-855, and whose sex was discovered by the premature birth of a child during some public procession. She is said to have been of English parentage, and to have borne the name of Gilberte. However, it is but fair to say that the story is of doubtful authenticity.

JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS, a French heroine, born at Domrémy, of poor parents, but nursed in an atmosphere of religious enthusiasm, and subject, in consequence, to fits of religious ecstasy, in one of which she seemed to hear voices calling to her from heaven to devote herself to the deliverance of France, which was then being laid desolate by an English invasion, occupied at the time in besieging Orleans; inspired with the passion thus awakened she sought access to Charles VII., then Dauphin, and offered to raise the siege referred to, and thereafter conduct him to Reims to be crowned; whereupon, permission being granted, she marched from Blois at the head of 10,000 men, whom she had inspired with faith in her divine mission; drove the English from their entrenchments, sent them careering to a distance, and thereafter conducted Charles to Reims to be crowned, standing beside him till the coronation ceremony was ended; with this act she considered her mission ended, but she was tempted afterwards to assist in raising the siege of Compiègne, and on the occasion of a sally was taken prisoner by the besieging English, and after an imprisonment of four months tried for sorcery, and condemned to be burned alive; she met her fate in the market-place of Rouen with fortitude in the twenty-ninth year of her age (1412-1431).

JOANNUS DAMASCENUS, theologian and hymn-writer, born at Damascus; was a zealous defender of image-worship; was said to have had his right hand chopped off by the machinations of his foes, which was afterwards restored to him by the Virgin; d. 754, at the age of 70.

JOB, BOOK OF pronounced by Carlyle "one of the grandest things ever written with pen; grand in its sincerity, in its simplicity, in its epic melody and repose of reconcilement"; one perceives in it "the seeing eye, the mildly understanding heart, true eyesight and vision for all things; sublime sorrow and sublime reconciliation; oldest choral melody as of the heart of mankind; so soft and great as the summer midnight, as the world with its seas and stars"; the whole giving evidence "of a literary merit unsurpassed by anything written in Bible or out of it; not a Jew's book merely, but all men's book." It is partly didactic and partly biographic; that is to say, the object of the author is to solve a problem in part speculatively, or in the intelligence, and in part spiritually, or in the life; the speculative solution being, that sufferings are to prove and purify the righteous; and the spiritual, consisting in accepting them not as of merely Divine appointment, but manifestations of God Himself, which is accomplished in the experience of Job when he exclaims at last, "Now mine eye seeth Thee." It is very idle to ask if the story is a real one, since its interest and value do not depend on its historic, but its universal and eternal truth; nor is the question of the authorship of any more consequence, even if there were any clue to it, which there is not, as the book offers no difficulty to the interpreter which any knowledge of the author would the least contribute to remove. In such a case the challenge of Goethe is apropos, "What have I to do with names when it is a work of the spirit I am considering?" The book of Job was for long believed to be one of the oldest books in the world, and to have had its origin among a patriarchal people, such as the Arabs, but is now pretty confidently referred to a period between that of David and the return from the captivity, the character of it bespeaking a knowledge and experience peculiarly Jewish.

JOCASTE, the wife of Laius, king of Thebes, and mother of Oedipus; she afterwards married him not knowing that he was her son, and on discovery of the crime put an end to herself, though not till after she had become the mother of Etéocles, Polynices, Antigone, and Ismenë.

JOCELIN DE BRAKELONDA, an old 12th-century St. Edmundsbury monk, who left behind him a "Chronical" of the Abbey from 1173 to 1202, and which, published in 1840 by the Camden Society, gave occasion to the "Past and Present" of Thomas Carlyle; he had been chaplain to the Abbot Samson, the hero of his book, living beside him night and day for the space of six years, "an ingenious and ingenuous, a cheery-hearted, innocent, yet withal shrewd, noticing, quick-witted man"; d. 1211.

JODHPUR (2,522), largest Rajputana State, under British protection since 1818; is backward in government, education, agriculture, and manufactures; tin, lead, and iron are found; salt is made at Sambhar Lake. The state revolted at the Mutiny. JODHPUR (62), the capital, is 350 m. SW. of Delhi, and is connected by rail with Jeypore and Bombay.

JOE MILLER, an English actor, the author of a book of jests (1684-1738).

JOEL, a Hebrew prophet, author of a book of the Old Testament that bears his name, and which is of uncertain date, but is written on the great broad lines of all Hebrew prophecy, and reads us the same moral lesson, that from the judgments of God there is no outlet for the sinner except in repentance, and that in repentance lies the pledge of deliverance from all evil and of the enjoyment of all good.

JOHANNESBURG (40), the largest town in the Transvaal, 30 m. S. of Pretoria, and 800 m. NE. of Cape Town; is the centre of Witwatersrand gold-mining fields. Until recently an ill-equipped town, it has made rapid progress. Since 1892 railways connect it with Delagoa Bay, Durban, Port Elizabeth, and Cape Town. Magnificent buildings and residential suburbs are springing up. The water-supply is bad, and dust-storms are frequent, otherwise the climate is very healthy. Johannesburg was the seat of the dissatisfaction among the Uitlanders in 1895, which led to Dr. Jameson's raid.

JOHN, king of England from 1199 to 1216, was clever and vivacious, but the most vicious, profane, false, short-sighted, tyrannical, and unscrupulous of English monarchs; the son of Henry II., he married Hawisa of Gloucester, and succeeded his brother Richard I., being Richard's nominee, and the tacitly elect of the people; his nephew, Arthur, claimed the French dominions, and was supported by the French king, Philip; in 1200 he divorced Hawisa, and married Isabel of Angoulême, a child-heiress; this provoked the French barons; in the war that ensued Arthur was captured, and subsequently murdered either by John himself or by his orders; Philip invaded Normandy, and with the fall of the Château-Gaillard in 1204, most of the French possessions were lost to the English crown; then followed John's quarrel with Pope Innocent III. over the election of an archbishop of Canterbury; the Pope consecrated Stephen Langton; John refused to receive him; in 1208 the kingdom was placed under an interdict, and next year the king was excommunicated; John on his side confiscated Church property, exiled the bishops, exacted homage of William of Scotland, and put down risings in Ireland and Wales; but a bull, deposing him and absolving his vassals from allegiance, forced him to submit, and he resigned his crown to the Pope's envoy in 1213; this exaction on Innocent's part initiated the opposition to Rome which culminated in the English Reformation; the rest of the reign was a struggle between the king, relying on his suzerain the Pope, and the people, barons, and clergy, for the first time on one side; war broke out; the king was forced to sign Magna Charta at Runnymede in 1215, but the Pope annulled the Charter; the barons appealed for help to the Dauphin, and were prosecuting the war when John died at Newark (1167-1216).

JOHN, the name of no fewer than 23 popes. J. I., Pope from 523 to 526, was canonised; J. II., pope from 532 to 535; J. III., Pope from 560 to 578; J. IV., pope from 640 to 642; J. V., Pope from 686 to 687; J. VI., pope from 701 to 705; J. VII., Pope from 705 to 707; J. VIII., pope from 872 to 882; J. IX., Pope from 898 to 900; J. X., pope from 914 to 928; J. XI., Pope from 931 to 936; J. XII., Pope from 956 to 964--was only 18 when elected, led a licentious life; J. XIII., pope from 965 to 972; J. XIV., Pope from 984 to 985; J. XV., pope in 985; J. XVI., Pope from 985 to 996; J. XVII., pope in 1003; J. XVIII., Pope from 1003 to 1009; J. XIX., pope from 1024 to 1033; J. XX., Anti-Pope from 1043 to 1046; J. XXI., Pope from 1276 to 1277; J. XXII., Pope from 1316 to 1334--a learned man, a steadfast, and a courageous; J. XXIII., Pope in 1410, deposed in 1415--was an able man, but an unscrupulous.

JOHN, EPISTLES OF, three Epistles, presumed to have been written by the author of the Gospel, from the correspondence between them both as regards thought and expression; the occasion of writing them was the appearance of Antichrist within the bounds of the Church, in the denial of Christ as God manifest in flesh, and the object of writing them was to emphasise the fact that eternal life had appeared in Him.

JOHN, KNIGHTS OF ST., a religious order of knights, founded in 1048, and instituted properly in 1110, for the defence of pilgrims to Jerusalem; established a church and a cloister there, with a hospital for poor and sick pilgrims, and were hence called the Hospital Brothers of St. John of Jerusalem; the knights consisted of three classes, knights of noble birth to bear arms, priests to conduct worship, and serving brothers to tend the sick; on the fall of Jerusalem they retired to Cyprus, conquered Rhodes, and called themselves Knights of Rhodes; driven from which they settled in Malta and took the name of Knights of Malta, after which the knighthood had various fortunes.

JOHN, PRESTER, a supposed king and priest of a mediæval kingdom in the interior of Asia; converted to Christianity by the Nestorian missionaries; was defeated and killed in 1202 by Genghis Khan, who had been tributary to him but had revolted; he was distinguished for piety and magnificence.

JOHN, ST., the Apostle, the son of Zebedee and Salome, the sister of the virgin Mary; originally a fisherman on the Galilæan Lake; after being a disciple of John the Baptist became one of the earliest disciples of Christ; much beloved and trusted by his Master; lived after His death for a time in Jerusalem, and then at Ephesus as bishop, where he died at a great age; he lived to see the rise of the Gnostic heresy, against which, as a denial that Christ had come in the flesh, he protested with his last breath as an utter denial of Christ; he is represented in Christian art as either writing his Gospel, or as bearing a chalice out of which a serpent issues, or as in a caldron of boiling oil.

JOHN, THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO, the fourth Gospel, of which tradition alleges St. John was the author, and which is presumed to have been written by him at Ephesus about A.D. 78; its great design is to bear witness to the Son of God as having come in the flesh, as being not an ideal, therefore, but a real incarnation, and as in the reality of that being the light and life of man; whereas the scene of the other Gospels is chiefly laid in Galilee, that of John's is mostly in Judea, recording, as it does, no fewer than seven visits to the capital, and while it portrays the person of Christ as the light of life, it represents him as again and again misunderstood, even by those well disposed to Him, as if the text of his Gospel were "the light shineth in darkness, and the darkness comprehendeth it not"; the authenticity of this Gospel has been much debated, and its composition has by recent criticism been referred to somewhere between A.D. 160 and 170.

JOHN BULL, a humorous impersonation of the English people, conceived of as well fed, good natured, honest hearted, justice loving, and plain spoken.

JOHN OF GAUNT, Duke of Lancaster, third son of Edward III.; an ambitious man; vainly seized the crown of Castile; supported the Wycliffites against the clergy; married Blanche of Lancaster, and was made duke by Henry IV. (1340-1399).

JOHN O' GROAT'S HOUSE, on the Caithness coast, 1¾ m. W. of Duncansby Head, marks the northern limit of the Scottish mainland; the house was said to be erected, eight-sided, with a door at each side and an octagonal table within, to compromise the question of precedence among eight branches of the descendants of a certain Dutchman, John o' Groot.

JOHN OF LEYDEN, originally a tailor; attained great power as an orator; joined the Anabaptists, and in 1534 established at Münster, in Westphalia, a society based on communistic and polygamic principles; but the bishop of Münster interfered, and next year John was put to death with great cruelty (1509-1536).

JOHN OF SALISBUSY, bishop of Chartres, born at Salisbury, of Saxon lineage; was a pupil of Abelard; was secretary first to Theobald and then to Thomas á Becket, archbishop of Canterbury; was present at the assassination of the latter; afterwards he retired to France and was made bishop; wrote the Lives of St. Thomas and St. Anselm, and other works of importance in connection with the scholasticism of the time (1120-1180).

JOHN THE BAPTIST, the forerunner of Christ, who baptized with water unto, or on the confession of, repentance, in anticipation of, and in preparation for, the appearance in the immediate future of One who would baptize with the Spirit and with fire; his fate is well known, and the motive of it.

JOHN THE GOOD, king of France from 1350 to 1364, succeeded his father Philip VI.; at the battle of Poitiers he was captured and carried to England; four years later he was allowed to return on leaving his son as hostage; the hostage made his escape; John chivalrously came back to London, and died in captivity (1319-1364).

JOHN'S EVE, ST., a festival celebrated with fires on Midsummer Eve; very universally observed and with similar rites throughout Europe, in the Middle Ages, and the celebration of it was associated with many superstitious practices.

JOHNSON, ANDREW, American President, born at Raleigh, N. Carolina; was entirely self-educated, and became a tailor; settling in Tennessee he entered the State legislature in 1839; he sat in Congress from 1843 till 1853; was for four years Governor of Tennessee, and sat in the Senate from 1857 to 1863; though in favour of slavery, he discountenanced secession and supported Lincoln, whom he succeeded as President in 1865, and whose policy he continued; but he lost the confidence of Congress, which indeed he treated somewhat cavalierly; his removal of Secretary Stanton led to his impeachment for violation of the Tenure of Office Act; he was tried before the Senate, but acquitted, and completed his term (1808-1875).

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, the great English lexicographer, born in Lichfield, the son of a bookseller; received his early education in his native town and completed it at Pembroke College, Oxford, in 1728; in 1736 he married a widow named Porter, who brought him £800; started a boarding-school, which did not prosper, and in the end of a year he removed to London along with David Garrick, who had been a pupil under him; here he became connected with Cave, a printer, the proprietor of the Gentleman's Magazine, with whom he had previously corresponded, and contributed to the pages of the magazine, earning thereby a meagre livelihood, eking out his means by reporting Parliamentary debates in terms which expressed the drift of them, but in his own pompous language; in 1740 he published a poem entitled the "Vanity of Human Wishes," and about the same time commenced his world-famous Dictionary, which was Published in 1755, "a great, solid, square-built edifice, finished, symmetrically complete, the best of all dictionaries"; during the progress of the Dictionary Johnson edited the Rambler, writing most of the contents himself, carrying it on for two years; in 1758 he started the Idler; in 1762 the king granted him a pension of £300, and by this he was raised above the straitened circumstances which till then had all along weighed upon him, and able to live in comparative affluence for the last 22 years of his life; five years after he instituted the Literary Club, which consisted of the most celebrated men of the time, his biographer, Boswell, having by this time been introduced to him, as subsequently the family of Mr. Thrale; in 1770 he began his "Lives of the English Poets," and in 1773 he made a tour in the Highlands along with Boswell, of which journey he shortly afterwards published an account; Johnson's writings are now dead, as are many of his opinions, but the story of his life as written by BOSWELL (q. v.) will last as long as men revere those qualities of mind and heart that distinguish the English race, of which he is the typical representative (1709-1783).

JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH, cartographer, born at Kirkhill, Midlothian; was an engraver by trade, and devoted himself with singular success to the preparation of atlases; the "National Atlas" was published in 1843, and the "Royal Atlas of Geography" (1861) was the finest till then produced; he also executed atlases physical, geological, and astronomical, and constructed the first physical globe; honours were showered upon him by home and foreign geographical societies; he died at Ben Rhydding (1804-1871).

JOHNSTON, JAMES FINLAY WEIR, agricultural chemist, born at Paisley, educated at Glasgow; acquired a fortune by his marriage in 1830, and devoted himself to studying chemistry; after some years in Sweden he was chosen lecturer in Durham University, but he resided in Edinburgh, and wrote his "Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry," since translated into most European languages, and his "Chemistry of Common Life"; he died at Durham (1796-1855).

JOHNSTONE (10), a Renfrewshire manufacturing town, on the Black Cart, 3½ m. W. of Paisley; has flax, cotton, paper, and iron industries.

JOHNSTOWN (22), a city of Pennsylvania, engaged in iron and steel manufactures; was overwhelmed by the bursting of a reservoir, May 31, 1889.

JOHORE (200), a Mohammedan State in the S. of the Malayan Peninsula, 15 m. N. of Singapore; half the population are Chinese; exports gambier, pepper, and coffee.

JOINVILLE, JEAN, SIRE DE, French chronicler, seneschal of Champagne, born in Châlons-sur-Marne; author of the "Vie de St. Louis"; followed Louis IX. in the crusade of 1248, but refused to join in that of 1270; he lived through six reigns, and his biography of his sovereign is one of the most remarkable books of the Middle Ages; his "Vie de St. Louis" deals chiefly with the Crusade, and is, says Prof. Saintsbury, "one of the most circumstantial records we have of mediæval life and thought"; it is gossipy, and abounds in digressions (1224-1319).

JOKAI MAURICE or MORITZ, Hungarian novelist and voluminous author, born at Komorn; published his first novel, "Working Days," in 1845; in 1848 took a prominent part in the Hungarian struggle, but afterwards devoted himself to literature; wrote over 300 books, novels, romances, dramas, essays, and poems, and edited several newspapers; his work resuscitated Hungarian literature; was in his old age an able debater in the House of Representatives; b. 1825.

JONAH, a Hebrew prophet, who, born in Gathhepher, belonged to the northern kingdom of Israel; prophesied in the reign of Jeroboam II., and whose special mission it was, at the bidding of the Lord, to preach repentance to the people of Nineveh; his book, which records his mission and the story of it, written apparently, as by God's dealings with the Ninevites he had himself been, to admonish the Jews that the heathen nations whom they regarded as God's enemies were as much the objects of His mercy as themselves.

JONATHAN, BROTHER, an impersonation of the American people, given to them from the name of one Jonathan Trumbull, in whose judgment Washington had great confidence, and whom he said he would have to consult at a crisis of his affairs.

JONES, EBENEZER, poet, born in Islington; author of "Studies in Sensation and Event," fraught with genuine poetic feeling; published a pamphlet on "Land Monopoly," in which he advocated the nationalisation of land, apparently as a disciple of Carlyle (1820-1860).

JONES, EDWARD BURNE. See BURNE-JONES.

JONES, ERNEST, Chartist leader and poet, born at Berlin, of English parentage, educated at Göttingen; came to England in 1838, and six years later was called to the bar; in 1845 he threw himself into the Chartist movement, and devoted the rest of his life to the amelioration and elevation of the working-classes, suffering two years' (1848-1850) solitary imprisonment for a speech made at Kensington; he wrote, besides pamphlets and papers in the Chartist cause, several poems; "The Revolt of Hindostan" was written in prison, with his own blood, he said, on the fly-leaves of a prayer-book; he never succeeded in getting into Parliament (1819-1869).

JONES, HENRY ARTHUR, dramatist, born at Grandborough, Bucks; author of the "Silver King," "Judah," the "Dancing Girl," and many other plays; b. 1831.

JONES, INIGO, architect, born in London, son of a cloth-worker; studied in Italy, and, returning to England, obtained the patronage of James I., and became chief architect in the country; the Royal Chapel at Whitehall is reckoned his masterpiece; Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, is from his design; his style follows Palladio of Venice (1573-1652).

JONES, PAUL, a naval adventurer, whose real name was John Paul, born in Kirkcudbright, Scotland, son of a gardener; took to the sea, engaged in the slave-trade, settled in Virginia, threw in his lot with the colonists and against the mother-country, and offered his services as a sea-captain in the war with a ship of 18 guns; he in 1778 infested the British coast, and made a descent on the shores of his native county; his sympathies were with the French in their struggles for liberty, and he fought in their service as well, making the "proud Forth quake at his bellying sails," and capturing two British war-vessels off Flamborough Head; he died in Paris, where he languished in poverty, but the National Assembly granted him a "ceremonial funeral," attended by a deputation; "as good," reflects Carlyle in his apostrophe to him--"as good had been the natural Presbyterian kirk-bell, and six feet of Scottish earth, among the dust of thy loved ones" (1747-1792).

JONES, SIR WILLIAM, English Orientalist, born in London; passed through Oxford to the English bar in 1774, and was made a judge in Bengal in 1783; early devoted to Eastern languages and literature, he published numerous translations and other works, concluding with "Sakuntala" and "The Laws of Manu"; he founded the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, where he died (1746-1794).

JONGLEURS, were mediæval minstrels of Provence and Northern France, who sang and often composed songs and tales, but whose jesting and buffoonery distinguished them from the knightly troubadours and trouvères.

JONSON, BEN, dramatist, born at Westminster, posthumous son of a clergyman of Scottish descent; was in his youth first a bricklayer, afterwards a soldier in the Netherlands, whence he returned about 1592; married a shrew, and became connected with the stage; he was one of the most learned men of his age, and for forty years the foremost, except Shakespeare, in the dramatic and literary world; killing his challenger in a duel nearly cost him his life in 1598; he was branded on the left thumb, imprisoned, and his goods confiscated; in prison he turned Catholic, but twelve years later reverted to Protestantism; the opening of the century brought an unpleasant difference with Dekker and Marston, and saw the famous Mermaid Club at its zenith; for nine years after Shakespeare's death he produced no dramas; in 1619 he received a degree, M.A., from Oxford, the laureateship, and a small pension from the king; now a widower, he founded with Herrick, Suckling, Carew, and others the Apollo Club at the Devil Tavern; in the new reign he turned again to dramatic work with sadly diminished power; he died in poverty, but was buried in Westminster Abbey, his tombstone bearing the words "O rare Ben Jonson"; he wrote at least sixteen plays, among them "Every Man is his Humour" (1598), in which Shakespeare acted, "The Poetaster" (1601), which vexed Dekker, the tragedy of "Sejanus" (1603), "The Silent Woman" (1609), a farcical comedy, Dryden's favourite play, and his most elaborate and masterly work, "The Alchemist" (1610); he wrote also thirty-five masques of singular richness and grace, in the production of which Inigo Jones provided the mechanism; but his best work was his lyrics, first of which stands "Drink to me only with thine eyes," whose exquisite delicacy and beauty everybody knows (1573-1637).

JOPPA, an ancient town and seaport, now Jaffa, on the coast of Palestine, 35 m. NW. from Jerusalem; a place of note in sacred and mediæval history; here Jonah took ship to Tarshish.

JORDAENS, JAKOB, a Dutch painter and engraver, born at Antwerp; was a friend of Rubens, and ranks next him among the Flemings (1615-1678).

JORDAN, a river of Palestine, which rises on the western side of Mount Hermon, and flows S. below Cæsarea-Philippi within banks, after which it expands into lagoons that collect at length into a mass in Lake Merom (Huleh), 2 m. below which it plunges into a gorge and rushes on for 9 m. in a torrent, till it collects again in the Sea of Galilee to lose itself finally in the Dead Sea after winding along a distance of 65 m. as the crow flies; at its rise it is 1080 ft. above and at the Dead Sea 1300 ft. below the sea-level.

JORDAN, MRS. DOROTHEA, the stage name of Miss Bland, daughter of an actress, born at Waterford; played first in Dublin, then in Yorkshire, and appeared at Drury Lane in "The Country Girl" in 1785; her popularity was immense, and she maintained it for thirty years in the roles of boys and romping girls, her wonderful laugh winning lasting fame; she attained considerable wealth, and was from 1790 to 1811 the mistress of the Duke of Clarence, who, when William IV., ennobled her eldest son; she died, however, in humble circumstances in St. Cloud, near Paris (1762-1816).

JORTIN, JOHN, English divine, born in London, of Huguenot descent; held various appointments, was a prebend of St. Paul's, wrote on ecclesiastical history (1698-1770).

JORULLO, a volcano in Mexico, 150 m. SW. of Mexico city, rose one night from a high-lying plateau on Sept. 8, 1759, the central crater at a height 4625 ft. above the sea-level.

JOSEPH, the name of four persons in scripture. 1, JOSEPH, the son of Jacob and Rachel, and the story of whose life is given in Genesis. 2, JOSEPH, ST. the carpenter, the husband of the Virgin Mary and the reputed father of Jesus. 3, JOSEPH OF ARAMATHEA, a member of the Jewish Sanhedrin, who begged the body of Jesus to bury it in his own tomb. 4, JOSEPH, surnamed BARSABAS, one of the disciples of Jesus, and deemed worthy to be nominated to fill the place vacated by Judas.

JOSÉPHINE, the Empress of the French, born in Martinique; came to France at the age of 15; was in 1779 married to Viscount Beauharnais, who was one of the victims of the Revolution, and to whom she bore a daughter, Hortense, the mother of Napoleon III.; married in 1796 to Napoleon Bonaparte, to whom she proved a devoted wife as well as a wise counsellor; she became empress in 1804, but failing to bear him any children, was divorced in 1809, though she still corresponded with Napoleon and retained the title of Empress to the last, living at Malmaison, where she died (1763-1814).

JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS, Jewish historian, born at Jerusalem, of royal and priestly lineage; was a man of eminent ability and scholarly accomplishments, distinguished no less for his judgment than his learning; gained favour at Rome; was present with Titus at the siege of Jerusalem, and by his intercession saved the lives of several of the citizens; he accompanied Titus back to Rome, and received the freedom of the city; devoting himself there to literary studies, wrote the "History of the Jewish War" and "Jewish Antiquities"; he was of the Pharisaic party, but his religious views were rationalistic; he discards the miraculous; takes no note of the rise of Christianity or of the person of its Founder (37-98).

JOSHUA, a Jewish military leader, born of the tribe of Ephraim, the minister and successor of Moses, under whose leadership the Jews obtained a footing in the Land of Canaan.

JOSHUA, THE BOOK OF, a book of the Bible, is closely connected with the Pentateuch, and now regarded as the continuation and completion of it, constituting along with it what is called the Hexateuch, or sixfold book; it covers a period of 25 years, and contains a history of Israel under the guidance of Joshua, commencing with his appointment as leader and concluding with his death.

JOSIAH, a king of Judah from 639 to 609 B.C.; was zealous for the restoration of the Jewish worship according to the ritual of Moses, as recently come to light in the discovery by Hilkiah the high-priest of the "Book of the Law"; he fell in battle before an invading Assyrian host.

JOSS, a Chinese god or his idol.

JÖTUNHEIM, the abode of the Jötuns in the Norse mythology, as Asenheim is that of the Norse deities.

JÖTUNS, a race of giants in the Norse mythology, "huge, shaggy beings of a demonic character, representing the dark hostile Powers of Nature, such as Frost, Fire, Sea-tempest, who dwelt in Jötunheim, a distant, dark chaotic land ... in perpetual internecine feud with the gods, or friendly powers, such as Summer-heat and the Sun, and who dwelt far apart."

JOUBERT, BARTHÉLEMI, French general; distinguished himself in the Rhine and Italian campaigns, and fell mortally wounded at the battle of Novi; one of the most promising generals France ever had (1769-1799).

JOUBERT, JOSEPH, author of "Pensées," born in Montignac, Périgord; educated in Toulouse, succeeded to a small competency, came to Paris, got access to the best literary circles, and was the most brilliant figure in the salon of Madame de Beaumont; his works were exclusively pensées and maxims, and bear at once on ethics, politics, theology, and literature; "There is probably," Professor Saintsbury says, "no writer in any language who has said an equal number of remarkable things on an equal variety of subjects in an equally small space and with an equally high and unbroken excellence of style and expression;... all alike have the characteristic of intense compression; he describes his literary aim in the phrase 'tormented by the ambition of putting a book into a page, a page into a phrase, and a phrase into a word'" (1754-1824).

JOUFFROY D'ABBANS, CLAUDE, MARQUIS DE, is claimed by the French as the first inventor of the steamboat; he made a paddle-steamer ply on the Rhône in 1783, but misfortunes due to the Revolution hindered his progress, till he was forestalled by Fulton on the Seine in 1803 (1751-1832).

JOUGS, an iron collar hung by a chain in some public place, was fastened round a culprit's neck, who was thus exposed in a sort of pillory; in use in Scotland from the 16th to the 18th centuries.

JOULE, JAMES PRESCOTT, a celebrated physicist, born at Salford; was a pupil of Dalton's, and devoted his time to physical and chemical research; made discoveries in connection with the production of heat by voltaic electricity, demonstrated the equivalence of heat and energy, and established on experimental grounds the doctrine of the conservation of energy (1818-1889).

JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COMTE VON, marshal of France, born at Limoges; gained for the Republic the victory of Fleurus in 1794, but was in 1795 defeated at Höchst, and subsequently by the Archduke Charles of Austria; served under Napoleon, and became Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides under Louis Philippe (1762-1833).

JOWETT, BENJAMIN, Master of Balliol College, Oxford, born at Camberwell; was a fellow and tutor of his college till his election to the mastership in 1870; his name will always be associated with Balliol College, where his influence was felt, and made the deepest impression; he wrote an article "On the Interpretation of Scripture" in the "Essays and Reviews," and a commentary on certain epistles of St. Paul, but he achieved his greatest literary successes by his translations of Plato's "Dialogues," the "History" of Thucydides, and the "Politics" of Aristotle (1817-1893).

JUAN, DON, a poem of Byron's, a work which, as Stopford Brooke remarks, "was written in bold revolt against all the conventionality of social morality, religion, and politics, and in which--escaped from his morbid self, he ran into the opposite extreme--he claimed for himself and others absolute freedom of individual act and thought in opposition to the force of society which tends to make all men after one pattern."

JUAN FERNANDEZ, a mountainous island 3000 ft. high, off the Chilian coast, 420 m. W. of Valparaiso; was the lonely residence of ALEXANDER SELKIRK (1704-1709) (q. v.); was used as a penal settlement from 1819 to 1835, and is inhabited by a few seal and sea-lion hunters.

JUAREZ, BENITO, president of Mexico, born in Oaxaca, of Indian extraction; was elected to the Presidency twice over, in 1861 and 1867 (1806-1872).

JUBA, a great river rising in the Abyssinian mountains and flowing S. into the Indian Ocean, with a town of the same name at its mouth; marks the northern limit of British East Africa.

JUBILEE, a festival among the Jews every fiftieth year in celebration of their emancipation from Egypt.

JUBILEE, YEAR OF, a year during which it was required that all land which had passed out of the original owner's hands during the 50 years preceding should be restored, all who during that time had been forced to sell their liberty should be released, and all debts contracted in that period should be remitted, a requirement, however, which does not appear to have been very rigorously or regularly observed.

JUDÆA, a southern district of Palestine extending in one direction between Samaria and the desert of Arabia, and in the other between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea.

JUDAH, KINGDOM OF, the kingdom in the S. of Palestine of the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin that remained true to the house of David after the revolt of the other ten under Jeroboam, who formed what was called the kingdom of Israel, a larger, but a weaker.

JUDAIZERS, a party, called also EBIONITES, in the primitive Church who sought to overlay the simple ordinances of Christianity with Judaic observances and rites, "a yoke which neither they nor their fathers were able to bear."

JUDAS, surnamed ISCARIOT, one of the twelve Apostles of Christ, who from some infatuation that unaccountably possessed him, and to his everlasting infamy, betrayed his Master to His enemies for 30 pieces of silver; was designated by Christ as the Son of Perdition.

JUDAS MACCABÆUS, a son of MATTATHIAS (q. v.), who succeeded his father in the leadership of the Jews against the Syrians in the war of the Maccabees, and who gave name to the movement, a man of chivalric temper, great energy, firm determination, dauntless courage, and powerful physique; who, with the elect of his countrymen of kindred spirit encountered and overthrew the Syrians in successive engagements, till before a great muster of the foe his little army was overwhelmed and himself slain in 160 B.C. See MACCABEES.

JUDE, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in the New Testament, of which Judas, the brother of James, was the author; written to some unknown community in the primitive Church, in which a spirit of antinomian libertinism had arisen, and the members of which are denounced as denying the sovereign authority of the Church's Head by the practical disobedience and scorn of the laws of His kingdom. For the drift and modern uses of this epistle see Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera," chaps. lxvi. and lxvii., where it is shown that the enemies of the faith in Jude's day are its real enemies in ours.

JUDGES, BOOK OF, a book of the Old Testament; gives an account of a series of deliverances achieved on behalf of Israel by ministers of God of the nation so called, when, after their occupation of the land, now this tribe and now that was threatened with extinction by the Canaanites; these deliverers bore the character of heroes rather than judges, but they were rather tribal heroes than national, there being as yet no king in Israel to unite them into one; of these the names of twelve are given, of which only six attained special distinction, and their rule covered a period of 300 years, which extended between the death of Joshua and the birth of Samuel; the story throughout is one: apostasy and consequent judgment, but the return of the Divine favour on repentance insured.

JUDGMENT, PRIVATE, assumption of judgment by individual reason on matters which are not amenable to a lower tribunal than the universal reason of the race.

JUDITH, a wealthy, beautiful, and pious Jewish widow who, as recorded in one of the books of the Apocrypha called after her, entered, with only a single maid as attendant, the camp of the Assyrian army under Holofernes, that lay investing Bethulia, her native place; won the confidence of the chief, persuaded him to drink while alone with him in his tent till he was brutally intoxicated, cut off his head, and making good her escape, suspended it from the walls of the place, with the issue of the utter rout of his army by a sally of the townsfolk.

JUDSON, ADONIRAM, Burmese missionary and scholar, born at Maiden, Mass.; sailed for Burma 1812, and for 40 years laboured devotedly, translating the Bible into Burmese, and compiling a Burmese-English dictionary; he died at sea on his way home (1788-1850).

JUGGERNAUT (22) or PURI, a town on the S. coast of Orissa, in Bengal; one of the holy places of India, with a temple dedicated to Vishnu, and containing an idol of him called Jagannâtha (or the Lord of the World), which, in festival times, attracts thousands of pilgrims to worship at its shrine, on one of which occasions the idol is dragged forth in a ponderous car by the pilgrims and back again, under the wheels of which, till prohibited, multitudes would throw themselves to be crushed to death in the hope of thereby attaining a state of eternal beatitude.

JUGURTHA, king of Numidia; succeeded by violent measures to the throne, and maintained his ground in defiance of the Romans, who took up arms against him and at last led him captive to Rome to die of hunger in a dungeon.

JUKES, JOSEPH BEET, geologist, born near Birmingham; graduated at Cambridge; took part in several expeditions, and finally became lecturer in the Royal College of Science, Dublin, where he died; he published among other works a "Student's Manual of Geology" (1811-1869).

JULIA, daughter and only child of Augustus Cæsar; celebrated for her beauty and the dissoluteness of her morals, and became the wife in succession of Marcellus, Agrippa, and Tiberius.

JULIAN THE APOSTATE, Roman emperor for 18 months, from 361 to 363; was born at Constantinople, his father being a half-brother of Constantine the Great, on whose death most of Julian's family were murdered; embittered by this event, Julian threw himself into philosophic studies, and secretly renounced Christianity; as joint emperor with his cousin from 355 he showed himself a capable soldier, a vigorous and wise administrator; on becoming sole emperor he proclaimed his apostasy, and sought to restore paganism, but without persecuting the Church; though painted in blackest colours by the Christian Fathers, he was a lover of truth, chaste, abstinent, just, and affectionate, if somewhat vain and superstitious; he was killed in an expedition against Persia; several writings of his are extant, but a work he wrote against the Christians is lost (331-363).

JÜLICH, a duchy on the W. bank of the Rhine, its capital a place of the same name, 20 m. W. of Köln.

JULIEN, STANISLAS AIGNAN, an eminent Sinalogue, born in Orleans, originally eminent in Greek; turned his attention to Chinese, and in 12 months time translated a part of one of the classical works in that language; originally professor of Greek, he became in 1827 professor of Chinese in the College of France in succession to Rémusat; he was not less distinguished as a Sanskrit and Pâli scholar (1797-1873).

JULIUS, the name of three popes: ST. J. I., Pope from 337 to 332; J. II., pope from 1502 to 1513; J. III., Pope from 1550 to 1555, of which only J. II. deserves notice. J. II., an Italian by birth, was more of a soldier than a priest, and, during his pontificate, was almost wholly occupied with wars against the Venetians for the recovery of Romagna, and against the French to drive them out of Italy, in which attempt he called to his aid the spiritual artillery at his command, by ex-communicating Louis XII. and putting his kingdom under an interdict in 1542; he sanctioned the marriage of Henry VIII. with Catharine of Aragon, commenced to rebuild St. Peter's at Rome, and was the patron of Michael Angelo and Raphael.

JULLIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE, a distinguished musical conductor, born in the Basses-Alpes; did much to popularise music by large bands, but he was unfortunate in his speculations, and died insane and in debt (1812-1860).

JULY, the seventh month of the year, so called in honour of Julius Cæsar, who reformed the calendar, and was born in this month; it was famous as the month of the outbreak of the second Revolution of France in Paris in 1830.

JUMNA, the chief affluent of the Ganges, which it joins at Allahabad, rises in the Punjab, and flows through the North-West Provinces, having Delhi and Agra on its banks; its course is 860 m., and it falls over 10,000 ft.; its waters are used for irrigation by means of canals, being of little use for navigation.

JUMPERS, name of a certain religious sect in America, from the dancing associated with its services.

JUNE, the sixth month of the year, so named from the Roman gens or clan Junius, or perhaps from Juno.

JUNG STILLING, a German mystic, born in Nassau; first a tailor, then a schoolmaster; went to Strasburg, became intimate with Goethe, studied medicine there, and afterwards practised in Elberfeld; became professor of Political Economy at Marburg and in Heidelberg; is best known by his autobiography: Kant and Lavater were friends of his (1740-1817).

JUNGFRAU (Maiden), a peak of the Bernese Alps, 13,671 ft. in height; was first ascended by the brothers Meyer in 1811.

JUNIUS, LETTERS OF, seventy letters on public affairs which appeared under that signature in the Public Advertiser 1769 to 1772, and were with others reprinted in book form; were, though severe in tone, the prototype of the modern leading article. Their authorship has never been discovered; but some hold that evidence points to Sir Philip Francis as responsible for them.

JUNK, a Chinese boat with a flat bottom, a square prow, a high stern, and a pole for mast.

JUNKER, a name given in Germany to the younger members of the aristocracy, or of the landed gentry, as representing a reactionary party in modern politics.

JUNO, a Roman goddess, the wife of Jupiter, and the queen of heaven, corresponding to the HERA (q. v.) of the Greeks; the impersonation of womanhood, and the special protectress of the rights of women, especially married women, and bore the names of Virginalis and Matrona. She was the patroness of household and even state economy. See ZEUS.

JUNOT, ANDOCHE, DUC D'ABRANTES, French general; was Napoleon's aide-de-camp in his first Campaign in Italy; took part in the expedition to Egypt; distinguished himself in the invasion of Portugal, but soon experienced reverse after reverse; in a fit of madness he threw himself one day out of a window, and died from the effect (1771-1813).

JUNTO, the name given to a Whig faction in the reign of William III., that for 20 years exercised a great influence in the affairs of the nation, of which Russell, Lord-Keeper Somers, and Charles Montague were the leading members.

JUPITER. See ZEUS.

JUPITER, one of the exterior planets of the solar system, and the largest; revolves in an orbit outside that of the asteroids, at a mean distance from the sun of 480 millions of miles, completing its revolution round the sun in 4338 days, and taking 10 hours to revolve on its own axis; it is surrounded by belts considered to be openings in the cloudy atmosphere which invests it, and is accompanied by four moons, all nearly of the same size but at different distances, and with different periods of revolution round it; it is in volume 1300 times larger than that of the earth, while its weight is only 300 times that of the earth, is therefore less than one-fourth of the density of the earth.

JUPITER CARLYLE, a sobriquet given to the REV. ALEXANDER CARLYLE (q. v.), from his resemblance to the artist's conception of Jupiter, particularly in the head.

JUPITER SCAPIN, a nickname given by the Abbé de Pradt to Napoleon, after a valet of the name of Scapin in a comedy of Molière's, noted for his knaveries.

JURA, an Argyllshire island NE. of Islay, mountainous (2500 ft.); the eastern slopes yield some crops, but most of the island is deer forest and cattle-grazing land.

JURY, a body of citizens set to try a question of fact, or to assess damages; in England and Ireland a jury numbers 12, and its verdict must be unanimous; in Scotland the verdict is by majority, and the jury numbers 12 in civil and 15 in criminal cases.

JUSSIEU, ANTOINE LAURENT DE, celebrated French botanist, born at Lyons; his book, entitled "Genera Plantarum," published in 1789, lays down the principle on which the modern classification of plants is based; he was one of a family of botanists (1748-1836).

JUSTICE, 1, HIGH COURT OF, one of the two great sections of the English Supreme Courts; 2, LORD CHIEF, the chief judge of the Queen's Bench division of it; 3, LORD JUSTICE-GENERAL, supreme judge in Scotland, the Lord President of the Court of Session; 4, OF THE PEACE, the title of a petty county or borough magistrate of multifarious duties and jurisdiction; 5, LORDS JUSTICES, judges of the English Court of Appeal.

JUSTICE, BED OF, a formal session of Parliament of Paris under the presidency of the king, for the compulsory registration of royal edicts.

JUSTICIARY COURT, the highest court for the trial of criminal cases in Scotland.

JUSTIN, surnamed the Martyr, an early Christian apologist, born in Sichem, Samaria; a heathen by birth, who studied philosophy in the Stoic and Platonic schools, and was converted to Christianity from observing the strength of the convictions with which it was embraced; was the author of two "Apologies for the Christians," rather than for Christianity or its dogmas, and a "Dialogue with Trypho the Jew," and suffered martyrdom in 168. Festival, June 12.

JUSTINIAN I., Roman emperor and jurist, born in Illyria; became co-emperor with Justin I. in 527; married the infamous Theodora, and for 38 years enjoyed a reign, the most brilliant of the late Empire, but not without dangers from foes outside and factions within; his fame rests on the codification and reform of the laws which he carried out; he improved the status of slaves, revised the laws of divorce and of intestate succession; and in his "Digest," "Institutes," and other sections of the "Corpus Juris Civilis," first gave definiteness to Roman law and laid the basis of the civil law of most modern nations (482-565).

JUSTINIAN PANDECTS, a code of Roman laws compiled under the direction of the Emperor Justinian, with a digest of the commentaries of the jurists thereupon.

JUTLAND, at the mouth of the Baltic Sea, is the only European peninsula that stretches northward; it comprises the continental portion of the kingdom of Denmark.

JUVENAL, a celebrated Latin poet and satirist, born at Aquinum; a friend of Martial and contemporary of Statius and Quintilian; his satires, 16 in number, are written in indignant scorn of the vices of the Romans under the Empire, and in the descriptions of which the historian finds a portrait of the manners and morals of the time (42-120).

JUXON, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, born in Chichester; became in succession bishop of Worcester and bishop of London, and attended Charles I. in prison and on the scaffold; lived in privacy till the Restoration, four months after which he was made archbishop, and died about two years after his elevation (1582-1663).

K

KAABA. See CAABA.

KABUL (70), on the Kabul River, at the foot of the Takht-i-Shah Hills, 650 m. NW. of Delhi, is the capital of Afghanistan, an ancient, mud-built city, but progressing; noted for its fruit and trading in carpets, camel-hair cloth, and skins; the town was taken by General Pollok 1842, avenging the death of Burnes and Macnaughten, and by General Roberts in 1879, avenging the murder of Cavagnari.

KABYLES, the name given to a division of the Berbers of N. Africa, who occupy the coast and tablelands of Mauritania, and are indigenous to it.

KADIJAH, a rich widow, the wife of Mahomet, who had been her steward and factotum, and whom he married when she was forty and himself only twenty-five, and with whom he lived till her death, "loving her truly and her alone," himself now a man of fifty; he had begun his mission as a prophet before she died, and one service she did him he never forgot as the greatest of them all: she believed in him, when no one else did.

KADRIS, a set of Mohammedan dervishes who lacerate themselves with scourges, like the Flagellants.

KAFFIRS, including Kaffirs proper and Zulus, a division of the Bantu negroes, found all over S. Africa, are a pastoral and latterly agricultural people of fine physique, naturally hospitable, honest, and truthful, but now much contaminated by the white man; Kaffir wars broke out in 1834, 1846, 1850, and 1877; the name, which means infidel, was originally applied by the Mohammedans to all pagans.

KAFIRISTAN (200), a lofty mountainous region in the E. of Afghanistan, S. of the Hindu-Kush, with the Panjshir, Kabul, and Chitral Rivers on the W., S., and E.; the people are undersized, pastoral, and devoted to their Aryan faith, which here has its last stronghold, not organised politically, but united in their love of independence and hatred of Mohammedanism.

KAIRWAN` (5), the sacred city of Northern Africa, in Tunis, 80 m. S. of Tunis, a decayed town, was the chief seat of the Mohammedans in N. Africa, and a sacred city; manufactures copper vessels, carpets, and articles of leather.

KAISAR-I-HIND (i. e. Cæsar of India), a title applied to Queen Victoria as Empress of India since 1876.

KAISER, the name, derived from the Latin Cæsar, given to the emperor of the old German Empire or Reich, and resumed by the modern Emperor, William I., and his successors.

KAISER WILHELM'S LAND (116), the N. of the eastern half of New Guinea, belonging partly to Britain, partly to Holland, and partly to Germany.

KAITHAL (15), in the Punjab, 90 m. NW. of Delhi, an ancient town, with saltpetre refineries; has old associations with the Hindu monkey-god, HANUMAN (q. v.).

KÂLA, the Hindu Chronus, or god of time, who, as in the Greek mythology, at once produces and devours all things.

KALAHARI DESERT, in S. Africa, stretches far northward from the Orange River between German SW. Africa and the Transvaal, an elevated plateau, not really desert, but covered with scrub and affording coarse pasturage for cattle.

KALAMAZOO` (18), a railway centre and flourishing town in the SW. of Michigan, 144 m. NE. of Chicago; manufactures machinery, paper, and flour.

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, invented by Sir David Brewster in 1817, consisting of a cylinder with two mirrors set lengthwise inside, two plates of glass with bits of coloured glass loose between at one end and an eye-hole at the other, presents varying patterns on rotation.

KALEVALE, a collection of popular songs current among the peasantry of Finland from earliest times.

KALI (i. e. the black one), one of the names of the wife of SIVA (q. v.), and of whom she is the female counterpart, and has been identified with the GREEK HECATE (q. v.); she is represented with a necklace of human heads.

KÁLIDÁSA, a great Indian dramatist and poet, probably of the 6th century A.D.; was author of "The Lost Ring" and "The Hero and the Nymph," translated by Sir William Jones, much praised by Goethe and Max Müller.

KALMAR (12), seaport in SE. of Sweden, on an island in Kalmar Sound; carries on a large timber trade, and manufactures of tobacco and matches.

KALMUCKS, the name given to the Western Moguls, inhabiting Central Asia, and considerably intermingled with their neighbours, the Russians, Persians, and Turks; they are Buddhists, nomadic, and have herds of horses and cattle.

KALPA, a Braminical name for the immense period of time which separates one destruction of the world from the next, a day and a night of Brahma.

KALPI (14), a decaying town in the NW. Provinces of India, on the Jumna, 50 m. SW. of Cawnpore; was the scene of the defeat of 12,000 mutineers in 1858; manufactures paper, and exports grain and cotton.

KÂMA, the Hindu Cupid, or god of love, a potent god of the Hindu pantheon, able to subdue nearly all the rest of the gods except Siva, who once with a single glance of his Cyclop eye reduced him to ashes for daring to bring trouble into his breast; he is one of the primitive gods of the Hindu pantheon, like the EROS (q. v.) of the Greeks.

KAMCHATKA (7), a long narrow peninsula on the E. coast of Siberia, stretching southwards between the Behring Sea and the Sea of Okhotsk, with a precipitous coast and a volcanic range of mountains down the centre, has a cold, wet climate, grass and tree vegetation, and many hot springs; the people live by fishing, hunting, and trading in furs; they are Russianised, the peninsula having been Russian since the 17th century.

KAMES, HENRY HOME, LORD, Scottish judge and philosopher, born in Berwickshire; became an advocate in 1723 and judge in 1752; wrote books on law, "Essays on Morality and Natural Religion," and other philosophical works, in which he indulged in a wide and often fanciful range of speculation; was noted for his sociality and public spirit, and died at Edinburgh (1696-1782).

KAMPEN (19), a reviving Dutch town on the Yssel, 3 m. from the Zuyder Zee, and 5½ m. W. of Zwolle; has shipbuilding and fishing industries; the inhabitants are the proverbial fools of Holland.

KAMPTULICON, a floorcloth composed of cork and india-rubber or similar substance.

KAMTHI (43), a town of recent origin in the Central Provinces of India, 9 m. NW. of Nagpur; trades in cattle and grain, salt, and timber.

KANARA, a rainy district on the W. coast of India, between Goa and Malabar, mostly malarial forest country, with the Ghat Mountains and many rivers. NORTH KANARA (446) is in Bombay Presidency. SOUTH KANARA (1,056), capital Mangalore, is in Madras.

KANARIS, CONSTANTIN, an intrepid Greek sea-captain who distinguished himself by his exploits in the Greek War of Independence, particularly in the destruction of the Turkish vessels by means of fire-ships; he attained the rank of admiral in 1862, and took part in the revolution which overthrew King Otho (1780-1877).

KANDAHAR, capital of Southern Afghanistan, near the Argandab River, 200 m. SW. of Kabul; a well-watered, regularly built town in the middle of orchards and vineyards; is of great political and commercial importance; a centre of trade with India, Persia, and Turkestan; it was held by the British through the war of 1839-41, and again in 1880-81; population variously estimated from 25,000 to 100,000.

KANDY (20), a town on a mountain lake in the middle of Ceylon, 75 m. NE. of Colombo; is a railway centre; has the ruins of the palace of the old native kings, and a temple with the famous tooth of Buddha.

KANE, ELISHA KENT, an American explorer, born in Philadelphia; bred to medicine; became a surgeon in the navy; acquired a taste for adventure; from his experiences in such accompanied, in 1850, the first Grinnell expedition to the Arctic seas, and commanded the second in 1853, after three years returning with many discoveries; he wrote accounts of both expeditions (1820-1857).

KANE, SIR ROBERT, chemist, born in Dublin; originator of the Dublin Journal of Medical Science in 1832, and of the Irish Museum of Industry in 1846; was President of Queen's College, Cork, and President of the Royal Irish Academy in 1876; Published "Elements of Chemistry," and other works (1810-1890).

KANSAS (1,427), the central State of the American Union; lies in the basin of the Kansas and Arkansas Rivers, between Nebraska on the N. and Oklahoma on the S., with Colorado on the W. and Missouri on the E. It is a rolling prairie, with a fine climate subject to occasional extremes, and a rainfall, except in some districts, sufficient; raises crops of grain and sugar, and affords excellent grazing ground. Pork and beef packing, flour-milling, and iron-founding industries are carried on. The State University is at Lawrence, an agricultural college at Manhattan, and good schools in every town. Previous to its admission to the Union in 1859 Kansas was the scene of violent conflicts between pro- and anti-slavery parties for five years. In the Civil War it joined the North. The capital is Topeka (31), and the largest other towns Kansas City (38) and Wichita (23).

KANSAS CITY, two contiguous towns on the S. bank of the Missouri River, 280 m. W. of St. Louis, are so called. The larger and more easterly one (164) is the second city of Missouri; an important railway centre, and distributes the agricultural products of a large region; has pork-packing industries and iron manufactures. The smaller, westerly city (51), is in Kansas, the largest town of that State; has a remarkable elevated railway.

KANT, IMMANUEL, a celebrated German philosopher, born in Königsberg, the son of a saddler, of Scotch descent, and fortunate in both his parents; entered the university in 1740 as a student of theology; gave himself to the study of philosophy, mathematics, and physics; wrote an essay, his first literary effort, on "Motive Force" in 1747; settled at the University as a private lecturer on a variety of academic subjects in 1755; became professor of Logic and Metaphysics in 1770, when he was 46, and continued till his retirement, in 1797, from the frailties of age, spending the last 17 years of his life in a small house with a garden in a quiet quarter of the town; his great work, the "Kritic of Pure Reason," was published in 1781, and it was followed by the "Kritic of Practical Reason" in 1788, and the "Kritic of Judgment" in 1790; his works inaugurate a new era in philosophic speculation, and by the adoption of a critical method dealt a death-blow to speculative dogmatism on the one hand and scepticism on the other; it was, he says, the scepticism of Hume that first broke his dogmatic slumber, so that had Hume not been, he had not been, and the whole course of modern thought different; Kant by his critical method did for philosophy what Copernicus did for astronomy; he centralised the intelligence in the reason or soul, as the latter did the planetary system in the sun; Kant was a lean, little man, of simple habits, and was never wedded (1724-1804).

KAOLIN, a fine white clay, a hydrous silicate of alumina, which does not colour when fired; used in making porcelain; called also China clay.

KAPELLMEISTER, director of an orchestra or choir, more particularly of the band of a German prince.

KAPILA, the founder of the Sankhya system of HINDU PHILOSOPHY (q. v.); was regarded as an incarnation of VISHNU (q. v.).

KARA, a gold-mining district in East Siberia, 300 m. from Chita, of which the mines are the private property of the Czar, and are worked by convicts, who are often disgracefully treated, many of them merely political offenders.

KARA SEA is a portion of the Arctic Sea, on the NE. corner of Russia, between Nova Zembla and the Yalmal; receives the rivers Obi and Yenisei, and is navigable from July to September.

KARAITES, a Jewish sect which originated in the 8th century; adhered to the letter of Scripture and repudiated all tradition; were strict Sabbatarians.

KARAKORUM, a range of the Himalayas, extending from the Hindu-Kush eastward into Thibet, and a pass in the centre of it 18,000 ft. high. Also the name of the old capital of Mongolia.

KARAMSIN, a Russian historian; his first work was "Letters of a Russian Traveller," in 6 vols., published in 1797-1801, which gained him a high reputation, and it was followed by his "History of Russia," in 12 vols., published in 1816-1829, for the materials of which he had access, to the most authentic documents as imperial historiographer, an office to which he was appointed in 1803, and the work is a work in the highest repute (1766-1826).

KARIKAL (93), a French possession in India, on the Coromandel coast, 150 m. S. of Madras; rears and exports rice in large quantities.

KARLI, a famous temple-cave in Bombay Presidency, on the Bombay-Poona road; dates from the 1st century B.C. at latest.

KARMA, the unbroken sequence, according to the Theosophists, of cause and effect, in which every effect is regarded the cause of the next.

KARMAN, the name given in the Brahminical philosophy and in Buddhism to that act of the soul by which, as is conceived, it determines its own destiny, a truly serious conception, and in itself soul affecting.

KARMATHIANS, originally a secret society of the Ismaîlis, developed into a religious and communistic sect, and waged a great peasants' war under successive leaders between A.D. 900 and 950; Mecca was captured 930; the movement of the Karmathians did much to overthrow the power of the Khalifate.

KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE, French novelist, born at Paris; entered journalism, became editor of the Figaro 1839, started Les Guepes the same year, retired to Nice 1855, and there died; his chief novel is "Géneviève," and best known book, "Voyage autour de mon Jardin" (1808-1890).

KARROO, the name of a barren tract of tableland in South Africa with a clay soil, which, however, bursts into grassy verdure and blossom after rain; the Great Karroo, which is 850 m. long and about 80 m. broad, is 3000 ft. above the sea-level, while the Little Karroo is 1000 ft. lower; large flocks of sheep are pastured on them, and the value of the land has immensely increased within late years.

KARS (9), an almost impregnable fortress on the Russo-Turkish frontier in Asia, 100 m. E. of the Caspian Sea; was successfully held by the Turks under General Williams in 1855, of which Laurence Oliphant wrote an account, but captured by Russia in 1877, and ceded to her by the Treaty of Berlin, 1878; it is a strong place, and a prize to any power that possesses it.

KARUN RIVER, rising in the Zarduh Koh Mountains W. of Ispahân; flows W. and S. past Shuster into the Persian Gulf; is the sole navigable waterway of Persia, and was thrown open to trade 1888.

KASCHAU (29), a beautiful town in Northern Hungary, on the Hernad River, 140 m. NW. of Budapest; has a royal tobacco factory, is noted for hams, has an agricultural school and a Jesuit university.

KASHGAR (120), political capital and second largest city of Chinese Turkestan, on the Kizil River; has cotton, silk, carpet, and saddlery industries, and trades with Russia; it is the centre of Mohammedanism in Eastern Turkestan, a pilgrim city; has been in Chinese hands since 1758, but is chiefly under Russian influence.

KASSALA (3), a fortified town in the Soudan, near the Abyssinian boundary, on the Chor-el-Gash, a tributary of the Atbara, is 260 m. S. of Suakim; suffered severely from the Madhist rising of 1883-1885.

KATAKAMA, the square style of writing of the Japanese.

KATER, HENRY, a physicist, born in Bristol; bred to the law, but entered the army, and went out to India, where, to the injury of his constitution, he was for seven years engaged on the trigonometrical survey of the country; devoted the rest of his life to scientific research; he contributed to the Philosophical Transactions, determined the length of the seconds pendulum at the latitude of London, and invented the floating collimator (1777-1835).

KATKOFF, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVITCH, Russian journalist and publicist, born at Moscow, educated at Moscow, Königsberg, and Berlin; became professor of Philosophy in Moscow and in 1801 editor of the Moscow Gazette; though at first an advocate of parliamentary government, he became a violent reactionary, made his paper the most influential in Russia, and had great influence in public affairs; he is said to have determined the reactionary policy of Alexander III. (1818-1887).

KATRINE, LOCH, a long narrow beautiful lake in the Trossachs, Scotland, about 30 m. N. of Glasgow, to which it affords an abundant water supply, is 8 m. long and ¾ broad; the splendid scenery of it is described in Scott's "Lady of the Lake."

KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA, painter, born in the Tyrol; gave early evidence of artistic talent; came to London, and became one of the first members of the Royal Academy; produced pictures on classical and mythological subjects, as well as portraits of the royal family among others; her story forms the basis of a fiction by Miss Thackeray (1741-1807).

KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINO VON, Russian general, of German descent; did much to contribute to the establishment of the Russian power in Central Asia (1818-1882).

KAULBACH, WILHELM VON, German painter, head of the new German school, born in Waldeck; was a pupil of Cornelius, and associated with him in painting the frescoes in the Glyptothek in Münich; among other works, which have made his name famous, he executed the splendid series of compositions that adorn the vestibule of the Berlin Museum; he illustrated Goethe's "Faust" and his "Reinecke Fuchs" (1805-1874).

KAUNITZ, PRINCE VON, Austrian statesman, born at Vienna; under Charles VI. and Maria Theresa distinguished as a diplomatist at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, and sided with France in the Seven Years' War; was for nearly 40 years "the shining star and guide of Austrian politics, and greatest of diplomatists in his day, supreme Jove in that extinct Olympus; regarded with sublime pity, not unalloyed to contempt, all other diplomatic beings"; he shared with Colonne the sobriquet of the "European coach-driver"; he was sold body and soul to the interests of Austria (1711-1794).

KAVANAGH, JULIA, novelist, born in Tipperary, a very dainty little lady; wrote "Madeleine," "Woman in France," "Women of Letters," "Women of Christianity," &c.; spent most of her life in France (1824-1877).

KAWI, the old language of Java found in old documents and inscriptions.

KAY, SIR, a rude and boastful Knight of the Round Table, foster-brother of King Arthur, who from his braggart ways often made himself the butt of the whole court.

KAY, JOHN, a Scottish caricaturist, born near Dalkeith; began business in Edinburgh first as a barber and then as a print-seller; author of sketches of local celebrities, now collected in two volumes, and of much interest and value as a record of the Edinburgh of his time (1742-1826).

KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM, historian of English India, an officer in the Bengal Artillery, retired in 1841; in 1856 entered the East India Company's service in England, and was subsequently a secretary in the Government India Office; he wrote "History of the Sepoy War 1857-58," and "Essays of an Optimist" (1814-1876).

KEAN, CHARLES JOHN, actor, second son of the succeeding, born in Waterford; made his first appearance in Drury Lane in 1827, which proved unsuccessful, but by assiduous study and his marriage with Helen Tree, a popular actress who played along with him, he rose in the profession and became lessee of the Princess's Theatre, London, where he distinguished himself by his revivals of Shakespeare's plays, with auxiliary effects due to scenery and costume; he was at his best in melodramas, such as "Louis XI." (1811-1868).

KEAN, EDMUND, distinguished English tragedian, born in London; trod the stage from his infancy; his first success was Shylock in the "Merchant of Venice" in 1814, and the representation of it was followed by equally famous representations of Richard III., Othello, and Sir Giles Overreach; he led a very dissipated life, and under the effects of it his constitution gave way; he broke down one evening beside his son as Iago, as he was playing the part of Othello, was carried off the stage, and never appeared on the boards again (1787-1833).

KEARY, ANNIE, novelist, born in Yorkshire; began as a writer of children's books, "Castle Daly," an Irish novel, among her best; was a woman of a sympathetic nature, and was devoted to works of benevolence (1825-1882).

KEATS, JOHN, was the son of a livery-stable proprietor, born at Finsbury, London; never went to a university, but was apprenticed to a London surgeon, and subsequently practised medicine himself in London; abandoning his profession in 1817, he devoted himself to literature, made the acquaintance of Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, Lamb, Wordsworth, and other literary men; left London for Carisbrooke, moved next year to Teignmouth, but on a visit to Scotland contracted what proved to be consumption; in 1819 he was betrothed to Miss Fanny Browne, and struggled against ill-health and financial difficulties till his health completely gave way in the autumn of 1820; accompanied by the artist Joseph Severn he went to Naples and then to Rome, where, in the spring following, he died; his works were three volumes of poetry, "Poems" 1817, "Endymion" 1818, "Lamia, Isabella and other Poems," including "Hyperion" and "The Eve of St. Agnes" 1820; he never reached maturity in his art, but the dignity, tenderness, and imaginative power of his work contained the highest promise; he was a man of noble character, sensitive, yet strong, unselfish, and magnanimous, by some regarded as the most original of modern poets (1795-1821).

KEBLAH, the point of the compass to which people turn their faces when they worship, as the Mohammedans do to Mecca when they pray.

KEBLE, JOHN, English clergyman, author of the "Christian Year," born in Fairford, Gloucestershire; studied at Oxford, and became Fellow of Oriel College in 1811; in 1827 appeared the "Christian Year," which he published anonymously; in 1831 was appointed professor of Poetry in Oxford, and that same year issued an "Address to the Electors of the United Kingdom" against the Reform Bill; he was one of four who originated the Tractarian movement at Oxford, and was the author of several of the "Tracts for the Times"; in 1835 he was presented to the vicarage of Hursley, which he held till his death; he was author of "Lyra Innocentium," and along with Newman and others of "Lyra Apostolica"; the secession of Newman rather riveted than loosened his attachment to the English Church (1792-1866).

KEDRON, a wady E. of Jerusalem, traversed by a brook in the rainy season, and which runs in the direction of the Dead Sea.

KEELHAULING, a naval punishment of the 17th and 18th centuries; consisted in dropping the victim into the sea from one yardarm, hauling him under the keel and up to the yardarm on the other side; is now a term for a severe rebuke.

KEELING ISLANDS. See COCOS ISLANDS.

KEEWATIN, a district in Canada under the jurisdiction of the government of Manitoba, and N. of it; the mineral wealth is great, and includes copper and silver.

KEHAMA, a Hindu rajah who obtains and sports with supernatural powers, whose adventures are given in Southey's "Curse of Kehama."

KEIGHLEY (30), a Yorkshire town, on the Aire, 9 m. NW. of Bradford; manufactures woollen and worsted fabrics and spinning-machinery.

KEIGHTLEY, THOMAS, man of letters, born in Dublin; wrote a number of school manuals, and "Fairy Mythology" (1789-1872).

KEIM, THEODOR, a German theologian, born at Stuttgart, professor at Zurich and afterwards at Giessen; his great work, to which others were preliminary, was his "History of Jesu of Nazara," in which he presents the person of Christ Himself as the one miracle in the story and that eclipses every other in it, and makes them of no account comparatively (1823-1878).

KEITH, JAMES, known as Marshal Keith, born near Peterhead, of an old Scotch family, Earls Marischal of Scotland; having had to leave the country for his share in the Jacobite rebellion, fled first to Spain and then to Russia, doing military service in both, but quitted both in 1747 for service in Prussia under Frederick the Great, who soon recognised the worth of him, and under whom he rose to be field-marshal; he distinguished himself in successive engagements, and fell shot through the heart, when in the charge of the right wing at Hochkirch; as he opened his way by his bayonet the enemy gathered round him after being twice repulsed (1696-1758).

KEITH, LORD, English admiral, born near Stirling; served in various parts of the world, and distinguished himself in the American and French wars.

KELAT (14), capital of Beluchistan, in a lofty region 140 m. S. of Kandahar; is the residence of a British agent since 1877, and was annexed as a British possession in 1888. It is a military stronghold, and of great importance in a military point of view.

KELLER, FERDINAND, Swiss archæologist; his reputation rests on his investigations of lake-dwellings in Switzerland in 1853-54 (1800-1881).

KELLER, GOTTFRIED, distinguished poet and novelist, born in Zurich; his greatest remance, and the one by which he is best known, is "Der Grüne Heinrich"; wrote also a collection of excellent tales entitled, "Die Leute von Seldwyla" (1819-1890).

KELLERMANN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE, Duke of Valmy, French general born in Alsace, son of a peasant; entered the army at 17; served in the Seven Years' War; embraced the Revolution; defeated the Duke of Brunswick at Valmy in 1792; served under Napoleon as commander of the reserves on the Rhine, but supported the Bourbons at the Restoration (1735-1820).

KELLS (2), an ancient town in co. Meath, with many antiquities; gives its name to the "Book of Kells," a beautiful 9th-century Keltic illuminated manuscript of the Gospels, now in the library of Trinity College, Dublin.

KELP, an alkaline substance derived from the ashes of certain sea-weeds, yielding iodine, soda, potass, and certain oils; kelp-burning was formerly a valuable industry in Orkney and the Hebrides.

KELPIE, an imaginary water-spirit which, it is said, appears generally in the form of a horse.

KELSO, a market-town in Roxburghshire, beautifully situated on the Tweed, where the Teviot joins it, with the ruins of an abbey of the 12th or the early 13th century.

KELVIN, LORD. See THOMSON, WILLIAM.

KEMBLE, a family of three sons and one daughter, children of Roger Kemble, a provincial theatrical manager, all actors, of whom the greatest was the eldest, Sarah, MRS. SIDDONS (q. v.).

KEMBLE, ADELAIDE, daughter of Charles, was noted as an operatic singer, but retired from the stage on her marriage 1842 (1814-1879).

KEMBLE, CHARLES, son of Roger, born at Brecon; appeared first at Sheffield as Orlando, in 1792, and two years later came to London, where he continued playing till 1840, when he was appointed Examiner of Plays (1775-1854). Two daughters of Charles also won fame on the stage.

KEMBLE, FRANCES ANNE, daughter of Charles, born in London; made her début in 1829, and proved a queen of tragedy; in 1832 went to America, where, in 1834, she married a planter, from whom she was divorced in 1848; resuming her maiden name, Fanny Kemble, she gave Shakespearian readings for 20 years (1809-1893).

KEMBLE, JOHN MITCHELL, Anglo-Saxon scholar, born in London, son of Charles Kemble; edited writings belonging to the Anglo-Saxon period; his chief work "The Saxons in England" (1807-1857).

KEMBLE, JOHN PHILIP, eldest son of Roger, born at Prescot, Lancashire; began to study for the Roman Catholic priesthood, but adopted the stage, and appeared first at Wolverhampton in 1776; after touring in Yorkshire and Ireland he came to London in 1783, playing Hamlet at Drury Lane; became manager of that theatre in 1788; in 1802 transferred himself to Covent Garden, where, on the opening of the new house in 1809, the "Old Price" riots brought him ill-will; he retired in 1817, and lived at Lausanne till his death (1757-1823).

KEMBLE, STEPHEN, son of Roger, was from 1792 till 1800 manager of Edinburgh Theatre (1758-1822).

KEMP, GEORGE MEIKLE, architect, born in Moorfoot, Peeblesshire; bred a millwright, became a draughtsman, studied Gothic architecture, and designed the Scott Monument in Edinburgh; was drowned one evening in the Union Canal before the work was finished (1796-1844).

KEMPEN, a Prussian town, 27 m. NW. of Düsseldorf; manufactures textile fabrics in silk, cotton, linen, &c.; was the birthplace of Thomas à Kempis.

KEMPENFELT, RICHARD, British admiral, born at Westminster; distinguished himself in several actions, was on board of the Royal George as his flagship when she went down at Spithead, carrying him along with her and over a thousand others also on board at the time; he was a brave and skilful officer, and his death was a great loss to the service (1718-1782).

KEMPIS, THOMAS À, born at Kempen, near Düsseldorf, son of a poor but honest and industrious craftsman named Hämerkin; joined, while yet a youth, the "Brotherhood of Common Life" at Deventer, in Holland, and at 20 entered the monastery of St. Agnes, near Zwolle, in Oberyssel, where he chiefly resided for 70 long years, and of which he became sub-prior, where he spent his time in acts of devotion and copying MSS., that of the Bible, among others, in the Vulgate version of it, as well as in the production of works of his own, and in chief the "Imitation of Christ," a work that in the regard of many ranks second to the Bible, and is thought likely to survive in the literature of the world as long as the Bible itself; it has been translated into all languages within, as well as others outside, the pale of Christendom, and as many as six thousand editions, it is reckoned, have issued from the press; it is five centuries and a half since it was first given to the world, and it has ever since continued to be a light in it to thousands in the way of a holy and divine life; it draws its inspiration direct from the fountain-head of Holy Scripture, and is breathing full of the same spirit that inspires the sacred book (1380-1471).

KEN, THOMAS, English prelate, born at Little Berkhampstead; is famous as the author of hymns, especially the morning one, "Awake, my Soul," and the evening one, "Glory to Thee, my God"; was committed to the Tower for refusing to read James II.'s "Declaration of Indulgence," and deprived of his bishopric, that of Bath and Wells, for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to William III. (1637-1711).

KENDAL (14), a Westmorland market-town on the Kent, 38 m. S. of Carlisle; manufactures heavy woollen goods, paper, and snuff; it owes the introduction of its woollen manufacture to the settlement in it of Flemings in the reign of Richard III.

KENIA, MOUNT, a mountain in British East Africa, 10° S. of the Equator, 18,000 ft. above the sea-level, and one of the highest on the continent.

KENILWORTH (4), a Warwickshire market-town, 5 m. N. of Warwick; noted for its castle, where, as described by Scott in his novel of the name, Leicester sumptuously entertained Elizabeth in 1575; has some tanworks, tanning being the chief industry.

KENNAQUHAIR (i. e. know-not-where), an imaginary locality in Scott's "Monastery." See WEISSNICHTWO.

KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL, head-master of Shrewsbury, son of a schoolmaster, born at Birmingham; after a brilliant career at Cambridge became, in 1828, Fellow of St. John's, in 1830 assistant-master at Harrow, and in 1830 was appointed to Shrewsbury, where he proved one of the greatest of schoolmasters (1804-1889).

KENNICOTT, BENJAMIN, English Hebraist, born at Totnes, Devonshire, educated at Oxford; became Fellow of Exeter, Radcliffe librarian, and in 1770 canon of Christ Church; from 1753 he organised and took part in an extensive collation of Hebrew texts, issuing in 1776-80 the "Hebrew Old Testament, with Various Readings" (1718-1783).

KENSAL GREEN, a cemetery in the NW. of London; celebrated as the burial-place of many eminent men, Thackeray in chief.

KENSINGTON (166), a West London parish, in which stand the Palace (Queen Victoria's birthplace), the Albert Memorial and Hall, South Kensington Museum, the Royal College of Music, the Imperial Institute, and many other institutions: contains also Holland House, and has long been the place of residence of notably artistic and literary men.

KENT (1,142), English maritime county in the extreme SE.; lies between the Thames estuary and the Strait of Dover, with Surrey and Sussex on the W.; it is hilly, with marshes in the SE. and on the Thames shore; is watered by the Medway, Stour, and Darent; has beautiful scenery, rich pasturage, and fine agricultural land, largely under hops and market-gardens; a large part of London is in Kent; Maidstone (32) is the county town; Rochester (26) and Canterbury (23) are cathedral cities; Woolwich (99), Gravesend (35), and Dover (33) are seaports, and Margate and Ramsgate watering-places.

KENTIGERN, ST., or ST. MUNGO, the Apostle of Cumbria, born at Culross, the natural son of a princess named Thenew; entered the monastery there, where he had been trained from a boy, and founded a monastery near Glasgow and another in Wales; was distinguished for his missionary labours; was buried at Glasgow Cathedral (518-603).

KENTISH FIRE, vehement and prolonged derisive cheering, so called from indulgence in it in Kent at meetings to oppose the Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1829.

KENTUCKY (1,859), an American State in the S. of the Ohio basin, with the Virginias on its E. and Tennessee on its S. border and the Mississippi River on the W.; is watered by the Licking and Kentucky Rivers that cross the State from the Cumberland Mountains in the SE. to the Ohio, and the Tennessee River traverses the western corner; the climate is mild and healthy; much of the soil is extremely fertile, giving hemp and the largest tobacco crops in the Union; there are dense forests of virgin ash, walnut, and oak over two-thirds of the State, and on its pasturage the finest stock and horses are bred; coal is found in both the E. and the W., and iron is plentiful; the chief industries are whisky distilling, iron smelting and working; admitted to the Union in 1792, Kentucky was a slave-holding State, but did not secede in the Civil War; the capital is Frankfort (8), the largest city Louisville (160); the State University is at Lexington (29).

KEPLER, JOHN, illustrious astronomer, born at Weil der Stadt, Würtemberg, born in poverty; studied at Tübingen chiefly mathematics and astronomy, became lecturer on these subjects at Grätz; joined Tycho Brahé at Prague as assistant, who obtained a pension of £18 for him from the Austrian government, which was never paid; removed to Lintz, where Sir Henry Wotton saw him living in a camera obscura tent doing ingenious things, photographing the heavens, "inventing toys, writing almanacs, and being ill off for cash ... an ingenious person, if there ever was one among Adam's posterity ... busy discovering the system of the world--grandest conquest ever made, or to be made," adds Carlyle, "by the sons of Adam"; he was long occupied in studying the "'motions of the star' Mars, with calculations repeated seventy times, and with the discovery of the planetary laws of the Universe"; these last are called from his discovery of them Kepler's Laws; the first, that the planets move on elliptic orbits, the sun in one of the foci; the second, that, in describing its orbit, the radius vector of a planet traverses equal areas in equal times; and the third, that the square of the time of the revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube of its mean distance from the sun; poverty pursued Kepler all his days, and he died of fever at Ratisbon (1571-1630).

KEPLER'S LAWS. See KEPLER, JOHN.

KEPPEL, AUGUSTUS, VISCOUNT, son of the Earl of Albemarle; entered the navy, and was in several engagements between 1757 and 1778; when encountering the French off Ushant he quarrelled with his second-in-command and let them escape; was court-martialled, but acquitted; he was afterwards First Lord of the Admiralty (1725-1786).

KER, DR. JOHN, minister and professor, was horn in Peeblesshire, brought up in Edinburgh; studied there and in Halle, was chosen to fill the chair of Practical Training in the U.P. Theological College in 1876; published some "Sermons," and "The Psalms in History and Biography" (1819-1886).

KERATIN, a substance forming the chief constituent in the hair, nails, and horn of animals.

KERGUELEN'S LAND, an island with rugged coasts, 85 m. long by 70 wide, of volcanic origin, in the Antarctic Ocean; so called after its discoverer in 1772, changed to Desolation Island in 1776 by Captain Cook; belongs to France.

KERMAN (300), an eastern province of Persia, the N. and the NE. of it a desolate salt waste, and with a chief town (30) of the name in the middle of it, once a great emporium of trade; manufactures carpets.

KERNER, ANDREAS, a lyric poet of the Swabian school, born in Würtemberg; studied and wrote on animal magnetism and spiritualism (1786-1862).

KEROSENE, a refined petroleum used as oil for lamps.

KERRY (179), maritime county in the SW. of Ireland, between the Shannon and Kenmare Rivers, with Limerick and Cork on the E.; has a rugged, indented coast, Dingle Bay running far inland; is mountainous, having Mount Brandon, the Macgillicuddy, and Dunkerron ranges, and contains the picturesque Lakes of Killarney; there is little industry or agriculture, but dairy-farming, slate-quarrying, and fishing are prosecuted; iron, copper, and lead abound, but are not wrought; the population is Roman Catholic; county town, Tralee (9).

KERTCH (30), a seaport of the Crimea, on the eastern shore; had a large export trade, which suffered during the Crimea War, but has revived since.

KESWICK (4), a Cumberland market-town and tourist centre and capital of the Lake District, on the Derwent, 20 m. SW. of Carlisle; manufactures woollens, hardware, and lead-pencils; is the seat of an annual religious convention which gives its name to a phase of Evangelicalism.

KET, ROBERT, a tanner in Norfolk, leader of an insurrection in the country in 1549, was after seizing Norwich driven out by the Earl of Warwick, captured, and hanged.

KETTERING (20), market-town in Northamptonshire; manufactures boots and shoes, stays, brushes, &c.

KEW (2), a village on the Thames, in Surrey, 6 m. W. of Hyde Park, where are the Royal Botanic Gardens, a national institution since 1840, and an observatory.

KEY, FRANCIS SCOTT, author of "The Star-spangled Banner," born in Maryland, U.S.; wrote the words that have immortalised him when he saw the national flag floating over the ramparts of Baltimore in 1814 (1780-1857).

KEY WEST (10), a seaport, health resort, and naval station on a coral island 60 m. SW. of Caple Sable, Florida; it has a good harbour and strong fort; was the basis of operations in the Spanish-American War, 1898; exports salt, turtles, and fruit, and manufactures cigars.

KEYNE, ST., a pious virgin, lived in Cornwall about 490, and left her name to a church and to a well whose waters are said to give the upper hand to whichever of a bridal pair first drinks of them after the wedding.

KEYS, HOUSE OF, the third estate in the Isle of Man, consisting of 24 members chosen by themselves, when a vacancy occurs, by presenting to the Governor "two of the oldest and worthiest men in the isle" for his selection.

KEYS, POWER OF THE, power claimed, according to Matt. xvi. 19, by the authorities of the Church to admit or exclude from church membership, a power the Roman Catholics allege conferred at first on St. Peter and afterwards on his successors in office.

KHAMSIN (fifty), a hot sand wind which blows in Egypt from the desert for fifty days, chiefly before and after the month of May.

KHAN, the title of a Tartar sovereign or prince; also an Eastern inn or caravansary.

KHANDESH, a district of Bombay in the valley of the Tapti; a great cotton-growing centre; Dhulia, the capital.

KHARKOFF (194), important town in Little Russia, 350 m. NE. of Odessa; has immense horse and wool fairs, and manufactures sugar, soap, felt, and iron; it is a Greek bishopric, a university seat, and has various schools of learning.

KHARTOUM (60), a caravan depôt in the Soudan, just above the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, 1100 m. S. of Cairo; was an active slave-trade centre, and commercially important; was captured by the Mahdists in 1885, when General Gordon fell; retaken by Lord Kitchener in 1898; lately has been superseded by Omdurman on the opposite bank of the Nile.

KHATMANDU (50), the capital of Nepal, India, at the confluence of the Baghmati and Vishnumati Rivers, 60 m. N. of the British frontier; is the centre of a considerable trade.

KHEDIVE, the official title of the Viceroy of Egypt since 1867, the first to hold it being Ismail, the son of IBRAHIM PASHA (q. v.), by grant of the Sultan, his suzerain.

KHERSON (62), on the Dnieper, 19 m. from the sea and 60 m. E. of Odessa; capital of the Russian government of Kherson; has been surpassed in importance by Odessa; its trade is in timber, and industries are soap-making, brewing, and wool-cleansing.

KHINGANS, THE, a range of volcanic mountains on the E. of the desert of Gobi.

KHIVA (500), a Turkestan province or khanate in Central Asia, S. of the Sea of Aral; is under Russian protection since 1873; a sandy desert with many oases, and in some parts well irrigated from the Oxus; it produces wheat, rice, cotton, and fruit; climate subject to extremes. KHIVA, the capital (20), on a canal connected with the Amu, some distance from the left bank of the Oxus, and 300 m. NW. of Merv, is a town of earth huts; it was at one time one of the chief slave-markets in Asia till the traffic was put a stop to by Russia.

KHORASSAN, the largest province of Persia; is on the Afghan border, mountainous, and fertile only in the N. among the valleys of the Elburz range; grain, tobacco, and medicinal plants are grown; gold and silver, turquoises, and other gems found. The capital is Meshed (50), a sacred Moslem city, with carpet, jewellery, and silk manufactures.

KHYBER PASS, a narrow defile 33 m. long, in one place only 10 ft. wide, through not lofty but precipitous mountains; lies to the NW. of Peshawur, and is the chief route between the Punjab and Afghanistan; was the scene of a British catastrophe in the war of 1839-42, but has been repeatedly forced since, and since 1879 has been under British control.

KIAKHTA (9), a Russian town in Transbaikalia, Siberia, on the borders of China; an emporium of trade between China and Russia.

KIAO-CHAU, a province of Shantung, China; occupied by Germany in 1897, and ceded to her on a 99 years' lease by China in 1898; extends to about 160 m. along the coast, and about 20 m. inland.

KIDD, WILLIAM, a noted pirate, born of Covenanting parents at Greenock; went to sea early, and served in privateering expeditions with distinction; appointed to the command of a privateer about 1696, and commissioned to suppress the pirates of the Indian Ocean, he went to Madagascar, and there started piracy himself; entering Boston harbour in 1700 he was arrested, sent to London, tried on a charge of piracy and murder, and executed in 1701.

KIDDERMINSTER (26), in the N. of Worcester, 18 m. SW. of Birmingham; has been since 1735 noted for its carpets; manufactures also silk, paper, and leather; was the scene of Richard Baxter's labours as vicar, and the birthplace of Sir Rowland Hill.

KIEFF (184), on the Dnieper, 300 m. N. of Odessa, is a holy city, the capital of the province of Kieff, strongly fortified, and one of the oldest towns in Russia, where Christianity was proclaimed the religion of the country in 988; has St. Vladimir's University, theological schools, and Petchersk monastery; a pilgrim resort; industries unimportant, include tanning and candle-making; trade chiefly in the hands of the Jews.

KIEL (69), on the Baltic, 60 m. N. of Hamburg, is the capital of Schleswig-Holstein, a German naval station and important seaport, with shipments of coal, flour, and dairy produce; has shipbuilding and brewing industries, a university and library, and is the eastern terminus of the Baltic Ship Canal, opened 1895.

KIEPERT, HEINRICH, distinguished German cartographer, born at Berlin; was professor of Geography there; his chief works an "Atlas of Asia Minor," and his "Atlas Antiquus"; b. 1818.

KIERKEGAARD, SÖREN AABY, philosophical and religious thinker, born at Copenhagen; lived a quiet, industrious, literary life, and exerted a chief influence on 19th-century Dano-Norwegian literature; his greatest works are "Either-Or," and "Stadia on Life's Way" (1813-1855).

KIESELGHUR, powder used for polishing and in the manufacture of dynamite, formed from shells of microscopic organisms.

KILDA, ST., a lonely island in the Atlantic, 60 m. W. of Harris, 3 m. long by 2 broad, with a precipitous coast and a few poor inhabitants, who live by fishing and fowling.

KILDARE (70), inland Irish county, in Leinster, in the upper basins of the Liffey and Barrow, W. of Dublin and Wicklow; is level and fertile, with the great Bog of Allen in the N., and in the centre the Curragh, a grassy plain; agriculture is carried on in the river basins; the county town is Naas (4); other towns Maynooth, with the Roman Catholic theological college, and Kildare.

KILIAN, ST., the first apostle of the Franks, an Irish monk; deputed by the Pope in 686.

KILIMA-NJARO, a volcanic mountain group, 19,000 ft. high, on the northern border of German East Africa, 170 m. from the coast, with two peaks, Kibo and Kimawenzi; in 1894 an Austrian communistic settlement was established on the slopes.

KILKENNY (87), inland Irish county in Leinster, surrounded by Waterford, Tipperary, Queen's County, Carlow, and Wexford, watered by the Barrow, Suir, and Nore; extremely fertile in the S. and E., producing fine corn, hay, and green crops; is moorland, and devoted to cattle-rearing in the N., where also anthracite coal is abundant. Kilkenny (11), the county town, is noted for a fine black marble quarried near it.

KILLARNEY (5), market-town and tourist centre, in co. Kerry, Ireland, on the shores of the lake, 15 m. SE. of Tralee; has a Roman Catholic cathedral and some arbutus-carving industry.

KILLARNEY, THE LAKES OF, three beautiful lakes at the northern foot of the Macgillicuddy Reeks, in the basin of the Leane, much resorted to by tourists.

KILLIECRANKIE, PASS OF, 15 m. NW. of Dunkeld, in Perthshire, where General Mackay was defeated by Claverhouse, who fell, in 1689; is traversed by a road and a railway.

KILMAINHAM (5), a suburb of Dublin, with a royal hospital for disabled soldiers and a jail; the treaty of Kilmainham was an agreement said to have been made in 1882 between Gladstone and Parnell, who was then confined in Kilmainham jail, affecting Irish government and policy.

KILMARNOCK (28), on the Irvine, 20 m. SW. of Glasgow, largest town in Ayrshire; is an important railway centre, has extensive engineer works, carpet factories, and breweries; is in the middle of a rich coal and iron district, and has a great annual cheese and dairy produce show.

KIMBERLEY (29), 500 m. NE. of Cape Town; is capital of Griqualand West, and chief inland town in South Africa, in a dry but healthy situation; exists in virtue of diamond mines in the vicinity, the richest in the world. Also the name of a district in the N. of West Australia, a district of rising prosperity.

KIMBERLEY, EARL OF, English Liberal statesman, son of Baron Wodehouse; succeeded to the title 1846; was twice over Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland 1864-66; in 1866 created Earl of Kimberley, he was in succession Lord Privy Seal, Colonial Secretary, Secretary for India, and Foreign Secretary; b. 1826.

KIMCHI, DAVID, a Jewish rabbi, born at Narbonne; wrote a Hebrew grammar and lexicon, which forms the basis of all subsequent ones, also commentaries on most books of the Old Testament (1160-1235).

KINCARDINESHIRE (35), east coast Scottish county, lying between Aberdeen and Forfar, faces the North Sea, with precipitous cliffs; has much fertile soil under corn, green crops, and small fruit, also pasture and grazing land where cattle are reared; the fishing is important, and there are some coarse linen factories; chief towns, Stonehaven (5) and Bervie (1).

KINDERGARTEN, schools conducted according to Froebel's system for the development of the power of observation and the memory of young children.

KINEMATICS, the science of pure motion under the categories of space and time, irrespective of consideration of the forces determining it and the mass of the body moved.

KINEMATOGRAPH, a photographic apparatus by which an impression is taken of closely consecutive stages in the development of a scene.

KINETICS, the science of the action of forces causing motion; both this law and the two preceding are derived from a Greek word signifying "to move."

KING, WILLIAM RUFUS, American statesman and diplomatist, born in North Carolina; was a member of Congress and the Senate, and Vice-President of the Republic, represented the United States both at St. James's and in France (1755-1827).

KING NIBELUNG, king of the NIBELUNGEN (q. v.), who left his two sons an inexhaustible hoard of wealth, so large that 12 waggons in 12 days at the rate of 3 journeys a day could not carry it off.

KING OF THE ROMANS, a title assumed by the Emperor Henry II., and afterwards conferred on the eldest son of the emperor of Germany.

KINGLAKE, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, historian, born near Taunton; bred for the bar, gave up the legal profession, in which he had a lucrative practice, for literature; is the author of two works, "Eothen" and the "History of the War in the Crimea," in 8 vols., the former a brilliantly written book of travels in the East, published in 1844, the latter a minute record of the war, of which the last vol. was published in 1890, pronounced by Prof. Saintsbury, in a literary point of view, to be "an imposing failure" (1809-1891).

KINGMAKER, THE, a title popularly given to Richard Nevil, Earl of Warwick, who was instrumental in raising Edward IV. to the throne of England by dethroning Henry VI., and afterwards in restoring Henry by the defeat of Edward.

KINGS, THE BOOK OF, two books of the Old Testament, originally one, but divided in the Septuagint into two, containing the history of the Jewish kingdom under the kings from its establishment under David to its fall, and covering a period from 1015 B.C. to 560 B.C., during which time the kingdom fell into two, that of Israel and that of Judah, the captivity of the former, occurring 130 years before that of the latter; the author, who is unknown, wrote the history at the time of the captivity, and his object is didactic of the effect on the history of a nation of its apostasy from faith in its God, not, however, without a promise of restoration in the case of repentance.

KING'S COLLEGE, London, a Church of England institution, with faculties of Theology, Arts, Science, and Medicine, Evening Class, Civil Service and Art departments, a preparatory School and a Ladies' department; it grants the title of associate.

KING'S COUNSEL or QUEEN'S COUNSEL are those barristers in England and Ireland who, having been successful in their profession have received the letters-patent conferring that title and right of precedence in all courts; the appointment is honorary and for life, but in acting against the Crown a Q.C. must obtain leave by special license, which is always granted.

KING'S COUNTY (66), an inland Irish county on the left bank of the Shannon, between Tipperary and West Meath; is mostly flat, a quarter of it bogland and a quarter under crops; the chief towns are Tullamore (5), the county town, on the Grand Canal, and Birr or Parsonstown (4), where Lord Rosse's great telescope is.

KINGSLEY, CHARLES, canon of Westminster and chaplain to the Queen, born at Holne Vicarage, near Dartmoor; studied at Cambridge; became rector of Eversley, in Hampshire, in 1844; was the author in 1848 of a drama, entitled "The Saint's Tragedy," with St. Elizabeth of Hungary for heroine, which was followed successively by "Alton Locke" (1849), and "Yeast" (1851), chiefly in a Socialistic interest; "Hypatia," a brilliant book in the interest of early Christianity in Alexandria and "Westward Ho!" a narrative of the rivalry of England with Spain in the days of Elizabeth, and besides other works, including "Two Years Ago," "Water Babies," and "Hereward the Wake," he was the author of the popular ballads of "The Three Fishers," "The Starlings," and "The Sands of Dee"; his writings had a great influence on his contemporaries, particularly on young men; Professor Saintsbury writes an appreciative estimate of Kingsley (1819-1875).

KINGSLEY, HENRY, younger brother of the preceding; after a brief experience of life in Australia he returned home to start on the career of letters in rivalry with his brother, and distinguished himself by exhibitions of similar literary ability, as a novelist especially, as well as kindred sympathies; his principal novels were "Geoffrey Hamlyn," one of the best novels on Australian life; "Ravenshoe," his masterpiece, and "The Hillyars and the Burtons" (1830-1876).

KINGSTON, 1, capital (13) of Frontenac County, Ontario, on the NE. shore of the Lake, 150 m. E. of Toronto, an important commercial town with shipbuilding and engineering works; is the seat of Queen's University, military and medical colleges, and an observatory. 2, Capital (47) of Jamaica, on a great bay on the S. coast, on the edge of a sugar-growing district; exports sugar, tobacco, and dye-woods, and imports cotton, flour, and rice. 3, a town (21) on the Hudson, N.Y., has great blue stone-flag quarries, and cement-works, breweries, and tanneries.

KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES (27), in Surrey, 10 m. SW. of London, has a fine church and other buildings, and malting industry.

KINGSTON, W. H. G., popular boys' story-writer, born in London, spent his youth in Oporto, was interested in philosophic schemes, and helped to arrange the Anglo-Portuguese commercial treaty; he wrote 120 tales, of which the "Three Midshipmen" series is the best, and died at Willesden (1814-1880).

KINGSTOWN, seaport of Dublin, 7 m. SE.; was till 1817 but a fishing village; has a harbour designed by Rennie, which cost £525,000; was originally Dunleary, and changed into Kingstown on George IV.'s visit in 1821.

KINKEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED, German poet and writer on æsthetics, born near Bonn; studied for the Church, but became lecturer on Art in Bonn, 1846; two years later he was imprisoned for revolutionary proceedings; escaped in 1850 to England, and became professor at Zurich in 1866; wrote "Otto der Schütz," an epic, and "Nimrod," a drama (1815-1882).

KINROSS (7), small Scottish county lying between Perth and Fife, round Loch Leven, is agricultural and grazing, with some hills of no great height, and coal mines; the co. town, KINROSS (2), is on the W. shore of Loch Leven; manufactures tartan.

KINSALE (5), a once important seaport in co. Cork, at the mouth of the Bandon, 13 m. S. of Cork; has lost its trade, and is now a summer resort and fishing station; King James II. landed here in 1689, and re-embarked in 1690.

KINTYRE, a long narrow isthmus on the W. coast of Scotland, between the Atlantic and the Firth of Clyde, is chiefly hill and grass country; but at Campbeltown are great distilleries; at Machrihanish Bay, on the W. coast, are fine golfing links.

KIPCHAKS, a nomadic Turkish race who settled on the south-eastern steppes of Russia about the 11th century, and whose descendants still occupy the district.

KIPLING, RUDYARD, story-teller and poet, born in Bombay, and educated in England; went out to India as a journalist; his stories respect Anglo-Indian, and especially military, life in India, and his "Soldiers Three," with the rest that followed, such as "Wee Willie Winkie," gained for him an immediate and wide reputation; as a poet, his most successful effort is his "Barrack-Room Ballads," instinct with a martial spirit, in 1864; he is a writer of conspicuous realistic power; he deems it the mission of civilisation to drill the savage races in humanity; b. 1865.

KIRBY, WILLIAM, entomologist, born in Suffolk; distinguished as the author of "Monographia Apium Angliæ," and "Introduction to Entomology"; was rector of Barham, Suffolk, for 68 years (1759-1850).

KIRGHIZ, a nomadic Turkish people occupying the Kirghiz steppes, an immense tract E. of the Ural River and the Caspian Sea, numbering 2½ millions, adventurous, witty, and free-spirited; refuse to settle; retain ancient customs and characteristics, and are Moslems only in name.

KIRK SESSION, an ecclesiastical court in Scotland, composed of the minister and elders of a parish, subject to the Presbytery of the district.

KIRKCALDY (27), a manufacturing and seaport town in Fifeshire, extending 4 m. along the north shore of the Forth, known as the "lang toon." It was the birthplace of Adam Smith, and one of the scenes of the schoolmastership period of Thomas Carlyle's life; manufactures textile fabrics and floorcloth; is a busy town.

KIRKCUDBRIGHT (40), a Scottish county on the Solway shore between Wigtown and Dumfries, watered by the rivers Nith, Dee, and Cree; has Mount Merrick on the NW. border, and Loch Dee in the middle; one-third of its area cultivated, the rest chiefly hill pasturage. County town KIRKCUDBRIGHT (3), on the Dee, 6 m. from the Solway; held St. Cuthbert's church.

KIRKDALE CAVE, a cave in the vale of Pickering, Yorkshire, discovered by Buckland to contain the remains of a number of extinct species of mammals.

KIRKE'S LAMBS, the soldiers of Colonel Kirke, an officer of the English army in James the Second's time, distinguished for their acts of cruelty inflicted on the Monmouth party.

KIRKINTILLOCH (10), a town on the Forth and Clyde Canal, 7 m. N. of Glasgow, manufactures chemicals, has calico works, and mines of coal and iron.

KIRKWALL (4), capital of Orkney, in the E. of Mainland, 35 m. NE. of Thurso; has a fine cathedral named St. Magnus, and some shipping trade; it was in mediæval times subject to Norway, and was the residence of the jarls.

KIRRIEMUIR (4), a small Forfarshire town, 5 m. NW. of Forfar, native place of J. M. Barrie, and the "Thrums" of his books; manufactures brown linens.

KIRSCHWASSER (cherry water), a liqueur formed from ripe cherries with the stones pounded in it after fermentation and then distilled.

KISFALUDY, KAROLY, Hungarian dramatist, brother of the following, was founder of the national drama, and with his brother ranks high in the literature of the country (1788-1830).

KISFALUDY, SANDOR, a Hungarian lyric poet, "Himfy's Loves" his chief work, was less distinguished as a dramatist (1772-1844).

KISSINGEN (4), Bavarian watering-place on the Saale, 65 m. E. of Frankfort-on-the-Main, visited for its saline springs by 14,000 people annually; its waters are used both internally and externally, and are good for dyspepsia, gout, and skin-diseases.

KITCAT CLUB, founded in 1688 ostensibly to encourage literature and art, and named after Christopher Catt, in whose premises it met; became ultimately a Whig society to promote the Hanoverian succession; Marlborough, Walpole, Congreve, Addison, and Steele were among the thirty-nine members.

KITCHENER OF KHARTOUM, HORATIO HERBERT, LORD, son of Col. Kitchener; joined the Royal Engineers, and was first engaged in survey work in Palestine and Cyprus; became a major of cavalry in the Egyptian army 1882, served in the 1884 expedition, was governor of Suakim 1886, and after leading the Egyptian troops at Handub 1888 was made aide-de-camp to the Queen, C.B., and adjutant-general in the Egyptian army; he was appointed Sirdar, commander-in-chief of that army, in 1892, organised and led the expedition of 1898 which overthrew the Khalifa at Omdurman, and for which he was awarded a peerage and received many honours, the freedom of the cities of London and Edinburgh, &c.; a gift of £30,000 was voted by the Government in 1899; b. 1850.

KIZIL (red river), the ancient Halys, the largest river in Asia Minor, which flows into the Black Sea 40 m. E. of Sinope after a course of 450 m.

KLAPKA, a Hungarian patriot, distinguished in arms against the Austrians during the revolution, and for his heroic defence of Komorn in the end (1820-1892).

KLAPROTH, JULIUS VON, Orientalist and philologist; was an accomplished Chinese scholar; explored Siberia and Caucasia (1783-1835).

KLAUS, PETER, the German prototype of Rip Van Winkle, a goat-herd who slept for the same number of years and at the end had similar experiences.

KLAUSTHAL (9), in Hanover, 25 m. NE. of Göttingen, is the chief mining town of the northern Hartz Mountains, and the seat of the German mining administration, surrounded by silver, copper, lead, and zinc mines.

KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE, French general, born at Strasburg; originally an architect, served with distinction in the Revolutionary army, accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and was left by him in command, where, after a bold attempt to regain lost ground and while in the act of concluding a treaty with the Turks, he was assassinated by an Arab fanatic (1753-1800).

KLEIST, HEINRICH VON, German dramatist and poet, born at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; entered the army, but afterwards devoted himself to literature; slow recognition and other trials preyed on his mind, and he shot himself near Potsdam (1777-1811).

KLONDIKE, a small section of Yukon, a territory in the extreme NW. of N. America, and a present-day centre of pilgrimage by gold-seekers since the recent discovery of the gold-fields there.

KLOPSTOCK, FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB, German poet, born at Quedlinburg; distinguished as the author of an epic poem entitled the "Messiah," which is his chief work, his treatment of which invested him with a certain sense of sanctity, and the publication of which did much to quicken and elevate the literary life of Germany (1724-1803).

KNARESBOROUGH (5), Yorkshire market-town, 14 m. W. of York; manufactures woollen rugs, grinds flour, and trades in corn.

KNELLER, SIR GODFREY, portrait-painter, born at Lübeck; studied under Rembrandt and at Italy, came to England in 1674, and was appointed court painter to Charles II., James II., William III., and George I.; practised his art till he was seventy, and made a large fortune (1646-1723).

KNICKERBOCKER, the imaginary author of the fictitious "History of New York," by Washington Irving.

KNIGHT, CHARLES, London publisher and editor, publisher for the Useful Knowledge Society, of "Library of Entertaining Knowledge," of the "Penny Magazine," and the "Penny Cyclopædia," &c., as well as a "Pictorial Shakespeare," edited by himself (1791-1873).

KNIGHTHOOD, a distinction granted to commoners, ranking next to baronet, now bestowed by the crown; formerly knighthood was a military order, any member of which might create new knights; it was originally the highest rank of CHIVALRY (q. v.); it was an order of many subdivisions developed during the crusades, and in full flower before the Norman conquest of England.

KNIGHTS OF LABOUR, an American labour organisation, founded in 1869, resembling a union of all trades, male and female; in 1886 had 730,000 members, which have since disagreed and fallen off.

KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND TABLE, King Arthur's knights, so called from the round table at which they sat, so that when seated there might seem no precedency, numbered popularly at twelve, though reckoned by some at forty.

KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE, English gentry representing a middle class between the barons and the peasants, acting as members of Parliament for the county they belonged to.

KNOWLES, SHERIDAN, dramatist, born at Cork; was connected with the stage first as actor and then as an author of plays, which include "Virginius," "The Hunchback," and "The Wife"; latterly he gave up the stage, and took to preaching in connection with the Baptist body (1784-1862).

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a party in the United States that sprung up in 1853 and restricted the right of American citizenship to those who were born in America or of an American parentage, so called because to those inquisitive about their secret organisation they uniformly answered "I know nothing."

KNOX, JOHN, the great Scottish Reformer, born at Giffordgate, Haddington, in 1505; studied at Glasgow University; took priest's orders; officiated as a priest, and did tutoring from 1530 to 1540; came under the influence of George Wishart, and avowed the Reformed faith; took refuge from persecution in St. Andrews Castle in 1547; was there summoned to lead on the movement; on the surrender of the castle was taken prisoner, and made a slave in a French galley for 19 months; liberated in 1549 at the intercession of Edward VI., came and assisted the Protestant cause in England; was offered preferments in the Church, but declined them; fled in 1553 to France, from the persecution of Bloody Mary; ministered at Frankfort and Geneva to the English refugees; returned to Scotland in 1555, but having married, went back next year to Geneva; was in absence, in 1557, condemned to be burned; published in 1558 his "First Blast against the Monstrous Regiment of Women"; returned to Scotland for good in 1559, and became minister in Edinburgh; saw in 1560 the jurisdiction of the Pope abolished in Scotland; had successive interviews with Queen Mary after her arrival at Leith in 1561; was tried for high-treason before the Privy Council, but acquitted in 1563; began his "History of the Reformation in Scotland" in 1566; preached in 1567 at James VI.'s coronation in Stirling; was in 1571 struck by apoplexy; died in Edinburgh on the 24th November 1572, aged 67, the Regent Morton pronouncing an éloge at his grave, "There lies one who never feared the face of man." Knox is pronounced by Carlyle to have been the one Scotchman to whom, "of all others, his country and the world owe a debt"; "In the history of Scotland," he says, "I can find properly but one epoch; we may say it contains nothing of world interest at all but this Reformation by Knox.... It is as yet a country without a soul ... the people now begin to live ... Scottish literature and thought, Scottish industry, James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott (little as he dreamt of debt in that quarter), and Robert Burns, I find Knox and the Reformation acting on the heart's core of every one of these persons and phenomena; I find that without the Reformation they would not have been; or," he adds, "the Puritanism of England and of New England either"; and he sums up his message thus: "Let men know that they are men, created by God, responsible to God; who work in any meanest moment of time what will last through eternity. This great message," he adds, "Knox delivered with a man's voice and strength, and found a people to believe him."

KOBDO, a town in Mongolia, the entrepôt of Russian dealers in connection with the Altai mines.

KOCH, ROBERT, an eminent bacteriologist, born at Klansthal, in Hanover; famous for his researches in bacteriology; discovered sundry bacilli, among others the cholera bacillus and the phthisis bacillus, and a specific against it; b. 1843.

KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE, popular French novelist and dramatist, born near Paris, and educated for a mercantile career, but turned to writing and produced a series of works, not of first merit, but illustrating contemporary French middle-class life (1794-1871).

KOHELETH (the preacher, originally gatherer), the Hebrew name for the book of Ecclesiastes, and a personification of wisdom.

KOLA, a small town, the most northerly in Russia, on a peninsula of the same name, with a capacious harbour.

KOLIN, a Bohemian town on the Elbe, 40 m. SE. of Prague, where Frederick the Great was defeated by Marshal Daun in 1757.

KÖLLIKER, an eminent embryologist, born at Zurich; professor of Anatomy at Würzburg; b. 1817.

KÖLN, the German name for COLOGNE (q. v.).

KÖNIG, FRIEDRICH, German mechanician, born in Eisleben; bred a printer, and invented the steam-press, or printing by machinery (1774-1833).

KÖNIGGRÄTZ (16), a Bohemian town 60 m. E. of Prague; was the scene of a terrible battle called Sa'dowa, in Austria, where the Germans defeated the Austrians in 1866.

KÖNIGSBERG (161), the capital of E. Prussia, on the Pregel, with several manufactures and an extensive trade; has a famous university, and is the birthplace of Kant, where also he lived and died.

KORÂN (i. e. book to be read), the Bible of the Mohammedans, accepted among them as "the standard of all law and all practice; thing to be gone upon in speculation and life; it is read through in the mosques daily, and some of their doctors have read it 70,000 times, and hard reading it is"; it contains the teaching of Mahomet, collected by his disciples after his death, and arranged the longest chapters first and the shortest, which were the earliest, last; a confused book.

KORDOFAN (280), an Egyptian Soudanese province on the W. bank of the Nile; an undulating dry country, furnishing crops of millet, and exporting gums, hides, and ivory; was lost in the Mahdist revolt of 1883, but recovered by Lord Kitchener's expedition in 1898; El Obeid (30), the capital is 230 m. SW. of Khartoum.

KOREISH, the chief tribe among the Arabs in Mahomet's time, and to which his family belonged.

KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR, a German soldier poet, often called the German Tyrtæus, born in Dresden; famous for his patriotic songs and their influence on German patriots; fell in a skirmish with the French at Mecklenburg (1791-1813).

KOSCIUSKO, THADDEUS, Polish general and patriot, born in Lithuania, of noble parentage, bred to arms; first saw service in the American War on the side of the colonists, and returning to Poland, twice over did valiant service against Russia, but at length he was taken prisoner at the battle of Maciejowice in 1794; he was subsequently set at liberty by the Emperor Paul, when he removed to America, but soon returned to settle in Switzerland, where he died by a fall of his horse over a precipice; he was buried at Cracow beside John Sobieski (1746-1817).

KOSSUTH, LOUIS, Hungarian patriot, born near Zemplen; studied for his father's profession, the law, but giving that up for politics, became editor of several Liberal papers in succession; elected member of the Diet at Pesth in 1847, he next year demanded autonomy for Hungary, and set himself to drive out the Hapsburgs and establish a republic; he raised a large army and large funds, but Russia aided Austria, and the struggle, though hopeful at first, proved in vain, defeated at Temesvar and escaping to Turkey, he came to England in 1851, was enthusiastically received, and lived there for many years; ultimately he resided in Turin, studied science, and died there (1802 or 1806-1894).

KOTZEBUE, German dramatist, born at Weimar; went to St. Petersburg, obtained favour at court and a government appointment; was banished to Siberia, but regained the favour of Paul, and was recalled; on Paul's death he returned to Germany, but went back to Russia from fear of Napoleon, whom he had violently attacked; he had a facile pen, and wrote no fewer than 200 dramatic pieces; his strictures on the German university students greatly exasperated them, and one of them attacked him in his house at Mannheim and stabbed him to death (1761-1819).

KOUMISS, an intoxicating beverage among the Kalmucks, made by fermentation from mare's milk.

KOVALEVSKY, ALEXANDER, Russian embryologist, professor at St. Petersburg; studied and wrote on the Ascidians; b. 1840.

KRAKATAO, a volcanic island in the narrow Strait of Sunda, between Java and Sumatra; was the scene of a terrific eruption in 1883, causing a tidal wave that swept round the globe, and raising quantities of dust that made the sunsets in Britain even more than usually red for three years.

KRAKEN, a huge fabulous sea-monster, reported as at one time seen in the Norwegian seas; it would rise to the surface, and as it plunged down drag ships and every floating or swimming thing along with it.

KRAPOTKIN, PRINCE PETER, a Russian Nihilist, born in Moscow; became a member of the INTERNATIONAL (q. v.); was arrested in Russia and imprisoned, but escaped, as also in France, but released, and settled in England; has written extensively on Socialistic subjects; b. 1842.

KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, born at Eisenberg; studied under Fichte and Schelling, and was himself lecturer successively in Jena, Dresden, Berlin, Göttingen, and Münich, where he died; of the school of Kant, his work has suffered through the pedantry of his style; he wrote "The Ideal of Humanity," and many philosophical treatises (1781-1832).

KREFELD (105), in Rhenish Prussia, 12 m. NW. of Düsseldorf; important manufacturing town; noted for its silk and velvet factories founded by Protestant refugees; has also machinery and chemical works.

KREMLIN, gigantic pile of buildings in Moscow of all styles of architecture;, including palaces, cathedrals, museums, government offices; founded by Ivan III. in 1485.

KREUZER, a German coin, worth one-third or one-fifth of an English penny.

KRIEGSSPIEL, a military game played on large-scale maps with metal blocks for troops, and designed to represent as fully as possible the conditions of warfare; was invented by a Prussian lieutenant in 1824.

KRILOF, IVAN ANDREEVICH, the great Russian fabulist, born at Moscow, son of a soldier; began his literary career writing dramas and editing magazines; was some time secretary to the governor of Livonia, and for years lived an idle roving life; at 40 his fables in the Moscow Spectator brought him fame in 1805; next year he was appointed to a Government post at St. Petersburg, and in 1821 to a post in the Imperial Public Library; he was an eccentric, much-loved man, and the humour and sympathy of his writings have won for him the title of the La Fontaine of Russia (1768-1844).

KRISHNA (i. e. the swarthy one), the man-god, or god-man, viewed as the 8th and final incarnation or avatar of VISHNU (q. v.), in whose manifestation the latter first reveals himself as supreme divinity, being, as the Theosophist might say, his Mahatma. See THEOSOPHY.

KRÜDENER, MADAME DE, novelist, born at Riga; authoress of an autobiographical novel entitled "Valérie"; lived partly at St. Petersburg and partly at Paris; was a mystic religious enthusiast and political prophetess (1764-1824).

KRÜGER, S. J. PAUL, President of the Transvaal Republic, born at Rastenburg; became member of the Executive Council in 1872; in 1882 was chosen President, and has been three times elected to the same office since; a man of sturdy, stubborn principles, a champion of the rights of the Boers, and a cunning diplomatist; b. 1825.

KRUMMACHER, FREDERICK, German theologian, author of "Elijah the Tisbite," a popular work; was an opponent of the Rationalists (1796-1868).

KRUPP, ALFRED, metal and steel founder, born at Essen, where through his father he became the proprietor of a small foundry which grew in his hands into such dimensions as to surpass every other establishment of the kind in the world; the BESSEMER (q. v.) process was early introduced here in the manufacture of steel, which Krupp was the first to employ in the manufacture of guns; the works cover an immense area, and employ 20,000 people, and supply artillery to every Government of Europe (1810-1887).

KUBERA or KUVERA, the Hindu Plutus, or god of riches, represented as deformed and mounted on a car drawn by hobgoblins.

KUBLAI KHAN was a great Mongol emperor of the 13th century; built up an empire which included all the continent of Asia (except India, Arabia, and Asia Minor) and Russia, the most extensive that ever existed; he was an enlightened prince, adopted Chinese civilisation, promoted learning, and established Buddhism throughout his domains.

KUENEN, ABRAHAM, a Dutch Biblical critic, born at Haarlem; studied at Leyden, and became professor there; distinguished for his researches on the lines of the so-called higher criticism bearing upon the literary history of the books of the Old Testament, beginning with that of the Pentateuch (1828-1891).

KUEN-LUN, N. of Thibet, a great snow-clad mountain range, 18,000 to 25,000 ft. high; stretches for 700 m., with a breadth of 100 m. It was explored by General Prjevalski, a Russian, 1876-88.

KULM, a Bohemian village on the left bank of the Elbe, 50 m. NW. of Prague, where the French under Vandamme surrendered to the Russians and Prussians in 1813.

KUNERSDORF, a village near Frankfort-on-Oder, where Frederick the Great was defeated by Russians and Austrians in 1759.

KURDISTAN (2,250), a stretch of plateau and mountain land in Turkish, Persian, and Russian Trans-Caucasian territory, consisting of grassy plains and lofty ranges through which rivers like the Zabs, Batman-su, and Euphrates force their way; is inhabited by a partly nomad, partly agricultural people of ancient stock, who export wool, gum, and hides; the Kurds retain their old customs and organisation, are subject to their own chiefs, impatient of the rule of the Porte and the Shah; predatory by instinct, but brave and chivalrous; they are Moslems and Nestorians.

KURILE ISLANDS, a chain of 26 islands, being a continuation of the peninsula of Kamchatka, enclosing the sea of Okhotsk; very sparsely inhabited.

KURRACHEE (105), the chief port of the Punjab; situated on the delta of the Indus, with an extensive harbour and trade.

KURTZ, HEINRICH, German theologian, professor at Dorpat; author, among other works, of a "Handbook of Church History"; b. 1809.

KURUMAN, in Bechuanaland, 140 m. NW. of Kimberley; is the place where Livingstone and Moffat laboured.

KYD, THOMAS, Elizabethan dramatist, born in London, and trained a scrivener, but won fame as a writer of tragedies, of which the best was "The Spanish Tragedy" (1557-1595).

KYOTO (298), from 784 to 1868 the capital of Japan, on the Kamo River, inland, 190 m. W. of Yedo; is still the centre of Japanese Buddhism, and is noted for its pottery, bronze-work, crapes, and velvets.

KYRIE ELEISON, means "Lord have mercy upon us," and with CHRISTE ELEISON, "Christ have mercy upon us," occurs in all Greek liturgies, in the Roman Mass, and in the English Prayer Book, where it forms the "lesser litany."

KYRLE, JOHN, philanthropist, born in Gloucestershire; celebrated by Pope as the "Man of Ross," from the name of the place in Herefordshire where he lived; was distinguished for his benefactions; has given name to a society founded, among other things, for the betterment of the homes of the people (1637-1724).

L

LAB`ARUM, the standard, surmounted by the monogram of Christ, which was borne before the Emperor Constantine after his conversion to Christianity, and in symbol of the vision of the cross in the sky which led to it. It was a lance with a cross-bar at its extremity and a crown on top, and the monogram consisted of the Greek letter for Ch and R.

LABÉ, LOUISE, poetess, surnamed "La belle Cordière" as the wife of a rope-maker, born in Lyons; wrote in prose "Dialogue d'Amour et de Folie," and elegies and sonnets, with "a singular approach to the ring of Shakespeare's" (1526-1566).

LABICHE, EUGENE, a French dramatist, born at Paris; his dramas give evidence of a genius of inexhaustible fertility of invention, wit, and humour; his best-known play "Le Voyage de M. Perrichon," 1860 (1815-1888).

LABLACHE, a celebrated operatic deep bass singer, born in Naples, of French origin; he created quite a furore wherever he went; was teacher of singing to Queen Victoria (1794-1858).

LABOULAYE, RENÉ DE, a French jurist, born in Paris; was a Moderate in politics; wrote on French law, and was the author of some tales of a humorous turn, such as "Paris in America" (1811-1883).

LABOURDONNAIS, MARÉ DE, French naval officer, born at St. Malo, Governor of the Isle of France; distinguished himself against the English in India; was accused of dishonourable conduct, and committed to the Bastille, but after a time found guiltless and liberated (1699-1753).

LABRADOR (6), the great peninsula in the E. of Canada, washed by Hudson's Bay, the Greenland Sea, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence; is a high tableland, with many lakes and rivers, and forests of birch and fir. The climate is much too severe for agriculture. Summer is very short, and plagued with mosquitoes. The rivers abound in salmon; the fox, marten, otter, and other animals are trapped for their fur; iron and labradorite are plentiful. The population is largely Eskimo, christianised by the Moravians. The name Labrador specially belongs to the region along the eastern coast, between Capes St. Louis and Chudleigh, presenting a barren front to the sea, precipitous, much indented, and fringed with rocky islands. This region is governed by Newfoundland; its chief industry is cod and herring fishing.

LA BRUYÈRE, JEAN DE, a celebrated French moralist, born at Paris; was tutor to the Duke of Bourbon, the grandson of the great Condé, and spent a great part of his life in Paris in connection with the Condé family; his most celebrated work is "Les Caractères de Théophrastus" (1687), which abounds in wise maxims and reflections on life, but gave offence to contemporaries by the personal satires in it under disguised names; he ranks high as a writer no less than as a moralist; his style is "a model of ease, grace, and fluency, without weakness in his characters; a book," adds Professor Saintsbury, "most interesting to read, and especially to Englishmen" (1645-1696).

LABUAN (6), a small island, distant 6 m. from the W. coast of North Borneo, ceded to Britain in 1846, and administered by the British North Borneo Company; has rich coal-beds; its town, Victoria, is a market for Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago, and exports sago, camphor, and pearls; the population is chiefly Malay and Chinese.

LABYRINTH, a name given to sundry structures composed of winding passages so intricate as to render it difficult to find the way out, and sometimes in. Of these structures the most remarkable were those of Egypt and of Crete. The Egyptian to the E. of Lake Moeris, consisted of an endless number of dark chambers, connected by a maze of passages into which it was difficult to find entrance; and the Cretan, built by Dædalus, at the instance of Minos, to imprison the Minotaur, out of which one who entered could not find his way out again unless by means of a skein of thread. It was by means of this, provided him by ARIADNE, PERSEUS (q. v.) found his way out after slaying the MINOTAUR (q. v.).

LAC, a term employed in India for a hundred thousand, a crore amounting to 100 lacs, usually of money.

LACCADIVES, THE, or THE HUNDRED THOUSAND ISLES (14), a group of low-lying coral islands 200 m. W. of the Malabar coast of India, mostly barren, and yielding chiefly cocoa-nuts; the population being Hindus professing Mohammedanism and poorly off.

LACÉPÈDE, COMTE DE, French naturalist, born at Agen; was entrusted by Buffon to complete his Natural History on his death; wrote on his own account also the natural histories of reptiles, of fishes, and of man (1756-1825).

LACHAISE, FRANÇOIS DE, a French Jesuit, an extremely politic member of the fraternity in the reign of Louis XIV.; had a country house E. of Paris, the garden of which is now the cemetery Père la Chaise (1624-1709).

LACHESIS, the one of the three Fates that spun the thread of life and apportioned the destinies of man. See PARCÆ.

LACHMANN, KARL, a German philologist and classical scholar, born at Brunswick, professor at Berlin; besides sundry of the Latin classics, in particular Lucretius, he edited the Nibelungen Lied, and the Greek New Testament, as well as contributed important critical essays on the composition of the "Iliad," which he regarded as a collection of lays from various independent sources (1783-1851). See ILIAD.

LACHRYMA CHRISTI, a sweet wine of a red or amber colour, produced from grapes grown on Mount Vesuvius.

LACONIA, ancient name for Sparta, the inhabitants of which were noted for the brevity of their speech.

LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRY, a celebrated French preacher, and one of the most brilliant orators of the century; bred for the bar; held sceptical opinions at first, but came under the influence of religion; took orders as a priest and became associated with Montalembert and Lamennais as joint-editor of the Avenir, a journal which advocated views at once Ultramontane and radical, but which, being condemned by the Pope, was discontinued; after this he took to preaching, and immense crowds gathered to hear his conferences, as they were called, in the church of Notre Dame, where, to the astonishment of all, he appeared in the pulpit in guise of a Dominican monk with the tonsure; he was afterwards elected member of the Constitutent Assembly, where he sat in his monk's attire, but he soon retired; he ended his days as head of the Military College of Sorrèze (1802-1861).

LACRATELLE, French historian, born at Metz; began life as a journalist; became professor of History in Paris University; wrote a history of the 18th century and of the French Revolution, showing very great accuracy of detail, if little historical insight (1766-1855).

LA CROSSE, the national game of Canada, of Indian derivation; is played twelve a side, each armed with a long-handled racquet or crosse, the object of the game being to drive an india-rubber ball through the opponents' goal.

LACTANTIUS, a Christian apologist of the early part of the 14th century, who, from his eloquent advocacy of the Christian faith, was styled the Christian Cicero; he was a pagan born, and by profession a rhetorician.

LADISLAUS, the name of seven kings of Hungary, of which the first (1077-1095) received canonisation for his zeal on behalf of Christianity.

LADOGA, a lake as large as Wales and the largest in Europe, in the NW. of Russia, not far from St. Petersburg; it is the centre of an extensive lake and river system, receiving the Volkhov, Syas, and Svir, and drained into the Gulf of Finland by the Neva; but so dangerous is navigation, owing to sunken rocks and shoals and to the storms that prevail during the open months, that the extensive shipping is carried round the S. shores by the Ladoga and the canals.

LADRONES or MARIANA ISLANDS (10), a well-watered, thickly-wooded group in the North Pacific, 1400 m. E. of the Philippines and belonging to Spain; produce cotton, indigo, and sugar, but the trade is of little worth; the only town is San Ignazio de Agaña, on the largest island, Guam.

LADY CHAPEL, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary attached to a church.

LADY DAY, the festival of the annunciation of the Virgin Mary, March 25; a quarter-day in England and Ireland.

LADY OF ENGLAND, title of Matilda, daughter of Henry I. and wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, conferred on her by a council held at Westminster, 1141.

LADY OF SHALOTT, a maiden of great beauty, the subject of a poem by Tennyson, in love with Lancelot, who died because her love was not returned.

LADY OF THE LAKE, the name given to Vivien, the mistress of Merlin, who dwelt in an imaginary lake, surrounded by a court of knights and damsels; also to Helen Douglas, a heroine of Scott's, who lived with her father near Loch Katrine.

LA FAYETTE, MADAME DE, novelist, born in Paris; is credited with being the originator of the class of fiction in which character and its analysis are held of chief account; she was the daughter of the governor of Havre, and contracted a Platonic affection for La Rochefoucauld in his old age, and was besides on intimate terms with Madame Sévigné and the most eminent literary men of the time; her "Princess de Clèves" is a classic work, and the merit of it is enhanced by the reflection that it preceded by nearly half a century the works both of Le Sage and Defoe (1634-1693).

LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE, born in the castle of Chavagnac; went to America in 1777, took an active and self-sacrificing part in the War of Independence; was honourably distinguished at the battle of Brandywine; sailed for France, brought over auxiliaries; he commanded Washington's vanguard in 1782; returned to Paris, and was made commander-in-chief of the National Guard in 1789; would have achieved the Revolution with the minimum of violence and set up a republic on the model of the Washington one; was obliged to escape from France during the Reign of Terror; was imprisoned five years at Olmütz, but was liberated when Napoleon appeared on the scene; as a consistent republican showed no favour to Napoleon; took part in the Revolution of 1830, became again commander-in-chief of the National Guard and a supporter of Louis Philippe, the citizen king; characterised by Carlyle as "a constitutional pedant; clear, thin, inflexible, as water turned to thin ice" (1757-1834).

LAFITTE, JACQUES, French banker and financier; played a conspicuous part in the Revolution of 1830, and by his influence as a liberal politician with the French people secured the elevation of Louis Philippe to the throne; in the calamities attendant on this Revolution his house became insolvent, but he was found, after paying all demands, to be worth in francs nearly seven millions (1767-1844).

LAFONTAINE, JEAN DE, celebrated French author, born at Château-Thierry, in Champagne; a man of indolent, gay, and dissipated habits, but of resplendent genius, known to all the world for his inimitable "Tales" and "Fables," and who was the peer of all the distinguished literary notabilities of his time; the former, published in 1665, too often transgress the bounds of morality, but are distinguished by exquisite grace of expression and sparkling wit; the latter, published in 1668, have an irresistible charm which no reader can withstand; he was the author also of the "Amours of Cupid and Psyche"; he was the friend of Boileau, Molière, and Racine, and in his later years a confirmed Parisian (1621-1695).

LA FORCE, DUC DE, maréchal of France under Henry IV., and one of the most distinguished; escaped when an infant the massacre of St. Bartholomew (1558-1652).

LAGOS (40), a large and thriving commercial town in a colony (100) of the name subject to Britain, on the Guinea Coast of Africa.

LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS, COMTE, famous mathematician, born at Turin of French parentage; had gained at the age of twenty a European reputation by his abstruse algebraical investigations; appointed director of Berlin Academy in 1766, he pursued his researches there for twenty-one years; in 1787 he removed to Paris, where be received a pension from the Court of 6000 francs, and remained till his death; universally respected, he was unscathed by the Revolution; appointed to several offices, he received the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour from Napoleon, who made him a count (1736-1813).

LA HARPE, JEAN FRANÇOIS DE, French littérateur and critic, born in Paris; wrote dramas and éloges, but his best-known work is his "Cours de Littérature" in 12 vols., of little account except for its criticism of French literature, in which he showed not a little pedantry and ill-temper as well as acuteness; he was zealous for the Revolution at first, but drew back when extreme measures were adopted and became a warm royalist, for which he was sentenced to deportation, but left at liberty (1739-1803).

LA HOGUE, a cape with a roadstead on NE. of France, where a French fleet sent by Louis XIV. to invade England on behalf of James II. was destroyed in 1692.

LAHORE (177), an ancient walled city on the Ravi, a tributary of the Indus, 1000 m. NW. of Calcutta, is the capital of the Punjab, and an important railway centre; it has many fine buildings, both English and native, including a university and a medical school, but the situation is unhealthy; half the population are Mussulmans; the trade is inconsiderable; the district of Lahore (1,075) one of the most important in the province, is well irrigated by the Bári Doab Canal, and produces fine crops of cereals, pulse, and cotton.

LAIDLAW, WILLIAM, Sir Walter Scott's factor at Abbotsford, born in Selkirkshire; having failed in farming, entered Scott's service in 1817 and remained his trusted and faithful friend, advising him in his schemes of improvement and acting latterly as his amanuensis till his death in 1832; thereafter he was factor in Ross-shire, where he died; he had some poetic gift of his own, and contributed to the third volume of the "Minstrelsy" (1780-1845).

LAING, DAVID, a learned antiquary, profound in his knowledge of Scottish ecclesiastical and literary history, born, the son of bookseller, at Edinburgh, followed for thirty years his father's trade; was appointed to the charge of the Signet Library in 1837; was secretary to the Bannatyne Club, and in 1864 received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh University; he contributed many valuable papers to the Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, collected and edited much of the ancient poetry of Scotland, and acquired a private library of manuscripts and volumes of great value (1799-1878).

LAING, MALCOLM, Scottish historian, born in Orkney; passed through Edinburgh University to the Scottish bar, to which he was called in 1785, but proved an unsuccessful advocate; turning to literature, he edited "Ossian," and wrote a "History of Scotland from James VI. to Anne" (1800), in a subsequent edition of which he inserted the well-known attack on Mary Stuart (1762-1818).

LAÏS, the name of two Greek courtesans celebrated for their beauty, the one a native of Corinth, who lived at the time of the Peloponnesian War, and the other belonging to Sicily, and who, having visited Thessaly, was stoned to death by the women of the country out of jealousy.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE (lit. let things alone and take their course), the name given to the let-alone system of political economy, in opposition to State interference, or State regulation, in private industrial enterprise.

LAKE DISTRICT, a district in Cumberland and Westmorland, 20 m. long by 25 m. broad, abounding in lakes, environed with scenery of rare beauty, and much frequented by tourists.

LAKE DWELLINGS, primitive settlements, the remains of which have been found in many parts of Europe, but chiefly in Switzerland, the N. of Italy, and in Scotland and Ireland. They were constructed in various ways. In the Swiss lakes piles, consisting of unbarked tree trunks, were driven in a short distance from the shore, and strengthened more or less by cross beams; extensive platforms laid on these held small villages of rectangular wooden huts, thatched with straw and reeds. These were sometimes approachable only in canoes, more often connected with the shore by a narrow bridge, in which case cattle were kept in sheds on the platforms. In Scotland and Ireland the erection was rather an artificial island laid down in 10 or 12 ft. of water with brushwood, logs, and stones, much smaller in size, and holding but one hut. The Swiss dwellings, the chief of which are at Meilen, on Lake Zurich, date from very early times, some say 2000 years before Christ, and contain remains of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages, weapons, instruments, pottery, linen cloth, and the like. The relic of latest date is a Roman coin of A.D. 54. The British remains are much more recent, belonging entirely to the Iron period and to historic times. The object sought in these structures is somewhat obscure--most probably it was the security their insular nature afforded.

LAKE POETS, a school of English poets, the chief representatives of which were Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge, who adorned the beginning of the 19th century, and were so designated by the Edinburgh Review because their favourite haunt was the LAKE DISTRICT (q. v.) in the N. of England, and the characteristic of whose poetry may be summed as a feeling of and a sympathy with the pure spirit of nature.

LAKSHMI, in the Hindu mythology the wife of Vishnu and the goddess of beauty, pleasure, and victory; she is a favourite subject of Hindu painting and poetry.

LALANDE, a French astronomer; was professor of Astronomy in the College of France, and produced an excellent treatise on the subject in two vols. (1732-1807).

LALLA-ROOKH, the title of a poem by Moore, from the name of the heroine, the daughter of the Mogul Emperor, Aurungzebe; betrothed to the young king of Bacharia, she goes forth to meet him, but her heart having been smitten by a poet she meets on the way, as she enters the palace of her bridegroom she swoons away, but reviving at the sound of a familiar voice she wakes up with rapture to find that the poet of her affection was none other than the prince to whom she was betrothed.

LALLY-TOLLENDAL, or BARON DE TOLLENDAL, a French general, born at Romans, in Dauphiné, of Irish descent; saw service in Flanders; accompanied Prince Charles to Scotland in 1745, and was in 1756 appointed Governor-General of the French settlements in India, but being defeated by the English he was accused of having betrayed the French interests, and executed after two years' imprisonment in the Bastille (1702-1766).

LALLY-TOLLENDAL, MARQUIS DE, son of the preceding; successfully vindicated the conduct of his father, and received back his paternal estates that had unjustly been forfeited; supported LA FAYETTE (q. v.) at the time of the Revolution, and followed his example; was arrested in 1792, but escaped to England; returning to France, he supported the Bourbon dynasty at the Restoration; wrote a "Defence of the French Emigrants," and a Life of the Earl of Strafford, Charles I.'s minister (1751-1830).

LAMAISM, Buddhism as professed in Thibet and Mongolia, or the worship of Buddha and his DHARMA (q. v.); conceived of as incarnated in the SANGHA (q. v.) or priesthood, and especially in the Grand Lama or Dalai Lama, the chief priest; a kind of hero-worship, or at all events saint-worship; long since sunk into mere IDOLATRY (q. v.).

LAMARCK, a French naturalist, born at Bazentin, Picardy; entered the army at the age of 17, and after serving in it a short time retired and devoted himself to botany; in his "Flora Française" published (1773) adopted a new method of classification of plants; in 1774 became keeper of what ultimately became the Jardin des Plantes, and was professor of Zoology, devoting himself to the study of particularly invertebrate animals, the fruits of which study appeared in his "Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertèbres"; he held very advanced views on the matter of biology, and it was not till the advent of Darwin they were appreciated (1744-1820).

LA MARMORA, MARQUIS DE, an eminent Italian general and statesman, born at Turin; fell under the rebuke of Bismarck for an indiscretion as a diplomatist (1801-1878).

LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE DE, a French author, politician, and poet, born in Mâcon; his poetic effusions procured for him admission into the French Academy, and in 1834 he entered the Chamber of Deputies; his ability as a poet, and the independent attitude he maintained in the Chamber, gained for him a popularity which his action in 1848 contributed to increase, but it suffered eclipse from the moment he allied himself with Ledru-Rollin; after serving in the Provisional Government of 1848 he stood candidate for the Presidency, but was defeated, and on the occasion of the coup d'état, he retired into private life; he published in 1819 "Méditations Poétiques," in 1847 the "Histoire de Girondins," besides other works, including "Voyage en Orient"; he was "of the second order of poets," says Professor Saintsbury, "sweet but not strong, elegant but not full;... a sentimentalist and a landscape painter" (1790-1869).

LAMB, CHARLES, essayist and critic, born in London, and educated at Christ's Hospital, where he had Coleridge for school-fellow; was for 35 years a clerk in the East India Company's office, on his retirement from which he was allowed a pension of £450; it was as a poet he made his first appearance in literature, but it was as an essayist he attained distinction, and chiefly by his "Essays of Elia" he is best known and will be longest remembered; he was the friend of Wordsworth, Southey, and others of his illustrious contemporaries, and is famous for his witty remarks, to which his stammering tongue imparted a special zest; he was never married; his affection for his sister Mary, for whom he composed his "Tales from Shakespeare," is well known, and how in her weakness from insanity he tenderly nursed her (1775-1834).

LAMBALLE, PRINCESSE DE, a young widow, the devoted friend of Marie Antoinette, born at Turin; was for her devotion to the queen one of the victims of the September massacres and brutally outraged; "she was beautiful, she was good, she had known no happiness" (1748-1792).

LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH, German philosopher and mathematician; was the successor and rival of Leibnitz in both regards, and was patronised by Frederick the Great (1619-1728).

LAMBERT, JOHN, one of Cromwell's officers in the civil war, born in Yorkshire; served in the successive engagements during the war from that of Marston Moor onwards, and assisted at the installation of Cromwell as Protector, but declined to take the oath of allegiance afterwards; on the death of the Protector essayed with other officers to govern the country, an attempt which was defeated by Monk, and for which he was imprisoned, tried, and banished (1619-1683).

LAMBETH (275), part of the SW. quarter of London, and a parliamentary borough in Surrey returning four members; abounds in manufactories, contains St. Thomas's Hospital and Lambeth Palace, the official residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, with a magnificent library and important historic portrait-gallery.

LAMENNAIS, FÉLICITÉ, ROBERT DE, a French theologian and journalist, born at St. Malo; began life as a free-thinker, but by-and-by became a Roman Catholic of the extreme ultramontane type; in 1820 went to Rome and was offered a cardinalate, but in 1830 his views changed, and he joined Montalembert and Lacordaire in the conduct of L'Avenir, a journal which advocated religious and political freedom, on the condemnation of which by the Pope he became again a free-thinker and revolutionary; his influence on French literature was great, and affected both Michelet and Victor Hugo (1782-1854).

LAMENTATIONS, BOOK OF, one of the poetical books of the Old Testament, ascribed to Jeremiah and historically connected with his prophecies, written apparently after the fall of Jerusalem and in sight of its ruins, as lamentation over the general desolation in the land connected therewith.

LAMMAS DAY, the first of August, literally "the loaf-mass" day or festival day at the beginning of harvest, one of the cross quarter days, Whitsuntide, Martinmas, and Candlemas being the other three.

LAMMERMOORS, a range of hills separating the counties of Haddington and Berwick, extending from Gala Water to St. Abb's Head, the Lammer Law being 1733 ft.

LA METTRIE, a French physician and materialist, born at St. Malo; bred to medicine, served as an army surgeon at Dettingen and Fontenoy; his materialistic views were given first in a publication entitled "D'Histoire Naturelle de l'Âme," and at length in his "L'Homme Machine," both in profession of a materialism so gross and offensive, being absolutely atheistic, that he was glad to escape for shelter to Berlin under the wing of Frederick the Great (1709-1754).

LAMOTTE, COUNTESS DE, born at Fontelle, in Aube, who came up to Paris a shifty adventuress and played a chief part in the notorious affair of the DIAMOND NECKLACE (q. v.), which involved so many high people in France in deep disgrace (1756-1791). See CARLYLE'S "MISCELLANIES."

LANARK (5), county town of Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 31 m. SE. of Glasgow; has a cattle-market and some weaving industry, and is for parliamentary purposes in the Falkirk group of burghs.

LANARKSHIRE (1,106), inland Scottish county occupying the Clyde valley, in size the twelfth, but first in wealth and population. The middle and south are hilly, with such outstanding peaks as Tinto, and are adapted for cattle and sheep grazing and for dairy-farming. The lower north-western portion is very rich in coal and iron, the extensive mining and manufacture of which has given rise to many busy towns such as Glasgow, Motherwell, Hamilton, Coatbridge, and Airdrie; fireclay, shale, and lead are also found; the soil is various; comparatively little grain is grown; there are large woods. The orchards of the river side have given place mostly to market gardens, which the proximity of great towns renders profitable. The industries, besides iron and coal, are very extensive and varied, and include great textile works.

LANCASHIRE (3,927), English county stretching from the Cumberland Mountains in the N. to the Mersey in the S. along the shores of the Irish Sea; is the wealthiest and most populous county, and the indentations of the coast-line adapt it to be the chief outlet westward for English trade, more than a third of England's foreign commerce passing through its ports. The country is mostly low, with spurs of the Yorkshire hills; it is rich in minerals, chiefly coal and iron; its industrial enterprise is enormous; nearly half of the cotton manufacture of the world is carried on in its towns, besides woollen and silk manufacture, the making of engineer's tools, boots and shoes. The soil is a fertile loam, under corn and green crops and old pasture. Lancaster is the county town, but the largest towns are Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, and Blackburn. The northern portion, detached by Morecambe Bay, is known as Furness, belongs really to the Lake District, and has Barrow-in-Furness, with its large shipbuilding concerns, for its chief town. Lancashire has long been an influential political centre.

LANCASTER (31), picturesque town near the mouth of the Lune, 50 m. NW. of Manchester, is the county town of Lancashire, and manufactures furniture, cotton, machinery, and railway plant; it was disfranchised in 1867 for corrupt practices.

LANCASTER, JOSEPH, educationist, born in Southwark, and founder of the Monitorial System; had a chequered career, died in poverty (1778-1838).

LANCELOT OF THE LAKE, one of the Knights of the Round Table, famous for his gallantry and his amours with Queen Guinevere; was called of the Lake because educated at the court of the LADY OF THE LAKE (q. v.); he turned hermit in the end, and died a holy man.

LAND LEAGUE, an organisation founded by DAVITT (q. v.) in Ireland in 1879 to deal with the land question, and suppressed in 1881 as illegal.

LANDAMAN, name given to the chief magistrate in certain Swiss cantons, also to the President of the Swiss Diet.

LANDER, RICHARD, African explorer, born in Truro, Cornwall; accompanied Clapperton as his servant; along with his brother John discovered the lower course of the Niger; on the third expedition was wounded in a conflict with the natives, and died at Fernando Po (1804-1834).

LANDES, sandy plains along the French coast between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, covered with heath and broom.

LANDGRABBER, name given in Ireland to one in the possession or occupancy of land from which another has been evicted.

LANDGRAVE, title given to certain counts of the old German empire who had the rank of princes.

LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH, known as L. E. L., authoress, born in Chelsea; a charming woman, who wrote well both in verse and prose; was Mrs. Hemans's successor; having taken prussic acid by mistake had a tragic end (1802-1838).

LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE, eminent literary man, born in Warwick, a man of excitable temperament, which involved him in endless quarrels leading to alienations, but did not affect his literary work; figured first as a poet in "Gebir" and "Count Julian," to the admiration of Southey, his friend, and De Quincey, and ere long as a writer of prose in his "Imaginary Conversations," embracing six volumes, on which recent critics have bestowed unbounded praise, Swinburne in particular; he died in Florence separated from his family, and dependent on it there for six years; Carlyle visited him at Bath in 1850, and found him "stirring company; a proud, irascible, trenchant, yet generous, veracious, and very dignified old man; quite a ducal or royal man in the temper of him" (1775-1864).

LAND'S END, a bold promontory of granite rock on the SW. coast of Cornwall.

LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY, greatest English animal-painter, born in London, the son of an engraver and writer on art, trained by his father, sketched animals before he was six years old, and exhibited in the Royal Academy before thirteen; in his early years he portrayed simply the form and colour and movement of animal life, but after his twenty-first year he added usually some sentiment or idea; elected A.R.A. in 1826, and R.A. in 1830; he was knighted in 1853; five years later he won a gold medal in Paris; in 1859 he modelled the Trafalgar Square lions; after 1861 he suffered from mental depression, and declined the Presidency of the Royal Academy in 1866 (1802-1873).

LANDSTURM, the name given to the last reserve in the German army, which is never called out except in time of war.

LANDTHING, the name of the Upper House in the Danish Parliament.

LANDWEHR, a military force in Germany and Austria held in reserve against a time of war, when it is called out to do ordinary military duty. In Germany those capable of bearing arms have to serve in it five years after completing their seven years' term of regular service.

LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM, eminent Arabic scholar, born at Hereford; set out for Egypt in 1825; studied the language and manners, and returned in 1828; published in 1836 an "Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians"; translated in 1840 "The Arabian Nights," and spent seven years in Egypt preparing an Arabic Lexicon which he had all but finished when he died; it was completed and edited by S. Lane-Poole (1801-1876).

LANFRANC, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Pavia; went to France, entered the monastery of Bec, and became prior in 1046, and was afterwards, in 1062, elected prior of the abbey of St. Stephen at Caen; and came over to England with William the Conqueror, who appointed him to the archbishopric rendered vacant by the deposition of Stigand; he was William's trusted adviser, but his influence declined under Rufus; d. 1089.

LANFREY, PIERRE, historian, born at Chambéry; wrote an elaborate History of Napoleon to, it is reckoned, the irreparable damage of its hero (1828-1877).

LANG, ANDREW, a versatile writer, born in Selkirk; has distinguished himself in various departments of literary work, as a poet, a folk-lorist, a writer of fancy tales, a biographer, and a critic; has composed "Ballads and Lyrics of Old France," "Ballads in Blue China"; has translated Homer into musical prose, and written the Lives of Sir Stafford Northcote and John Gibson Lockhart; he began his literary career as a journalist, and his assiduity as a writer has never relaxed; b. 1844.

LANGE, FRIEDRICH, German philosopher, born near Solingen, son of the following; became professor at Marburg; wrote a "History of Materialism" of great value (1828-1875).

LANGE, JOHANN PETER, a German theologian, born near Elberfeld; became professor at Bonn; his works are numerous, but is best known by his "Life of Christ" and his "Christian Dogmatic" (1802-1884).

LANGHORNE, JOHN, an English divine and poet, horn at Kirkby Stephen; was a prebend of Wells Cathedral; wrote a poem entitled "Genius and Virtue," and executed with a brother a translation of Plutarch's Lives (1735-1779).

LANGLAND, or LANGLEY, WILLIAM, the presumed author of the "Vision of Piers Plowman," and who lived in the 14th century.

LANGRES (10), a French town, strongly fortified, near the sources of the Marne, rich in antiquities, and one of the oldest towns in France; has manufactures and a considerable trade.

LANGTON, STEPHEN, archbishop of Canterbury, born in England but educated in France; a man of ability and scholarly attainments; in 1206 visited Rome, was made Cardinal by Innocent III., presented to the Archbishopric, and consecrated at Viterbo in 1207; King John refused to acknowledge him, and the kingdom was put under an interdict, a quarrel which it took five years to settle; established in the primacy, the prelate took up a constitutional position, and mediated between the king and the barons to the advancement of political liberty; d. 1228.

LANGUEDOC, a province in the S. of France, annexed to the French crown in 1361, and now divided into nine departments, borders on the Rhône.

LANKA, name given to Ceylon in the Hindu mythology.

LANNES, JEAN, DUC DE MONTEBELLO, marshal of France, born at Lectoure; was much esteemed by Napoleon, whom he zealously supported; went with him to Egypt, was with him at Marengo, distinguished himself at Austerlitz and in Spain, and fell mortally wounded at Essling (1769-1809).

LANSDOWNE, HENRY, THIRD MARQUIS OF, liberal politician, born in London; educated at Edinburgh and Cambridge; sat in the Commons as member for Calne from 1801 and for Cambridge from 1806, and succeeded to the peerage in 1809; on the accession of the Liberals to power he joined the Cabinet of Canning, presided at the Foreign Office in Goderich's administration, became President of the Council under Lord Grey in 1830, and, twice refusing the Premiership, was a member of every Liberal Government till 1858, when he retired from public life; he was the trusted adviser of his party, and friend of the Queen till his death (1780-1863).

LANSDOWNE, HENRY, FIFTH MARQUIS OF, Liberal statesman, grandson of the above, educated at Oxford; succeeded to the peerage in 1866, and held office in Liberal Governments, Lord of the Treasury 1868-72, Under-Secretary for War 1872-74, and Under-Secretary for India 1880; he was Governor-General of Canada 1883-88, and Viceroy of India 1888-94; in 1895 he joined Lord Salisbury's ministry as a Liberal-Unionist, becoming Secretary for War; b. 1845.

LANTERNE, LA, a stout lamp-iron at the corner of a street in Paris, used by the mob for extemporised executions during the Revolution by Lynch law.

LAOCÖON, a priest of Apollo, in Troy, who having offended the god by, for one thing, advising the Trojans not to admit the wooden horse of the Greeks within the walls, was, with his two sons, while engaged in sacrificing to Poseidon, strangled to death in the coils of two enormous serpents sent to kill him, a subject which is the theme of one of the grandest relics of ancient sculpture now in existence and preserved in the Vatican.

LAODAMIA, a Grecian lady, who accompanied her husband to the Trojan War, and who, on his death on the field, begged the gods to restore him to her for three hours, a prayer which was granted, but with the result that at the end of the time she died along with him and accompanied him on his return to Hades.

LAODICEA. Eight ancient cities bore this name; the chief, situated on the Lycus, in Phrygia, lay on the way between Ionia and the Euphrates; was a city of great commerce and wealth, the seat of schools of art, science, medicine, and philosophy, and of an early Christian bishopric; though the Church was stigmatised in the Revelation, two councils assembled here in A.D. 363 and 476, the former of which influenced the determination of the canon of both Testaments; the city, destroyed by the Mohammedan invasions, is now in ruins.

LAOMEDON, the founder of Troy, who persuaded Apollo and Neptune to assist him in building the walls, but refused the recompense when the work was finished, in consequence of which the latter sent a monster to ravage the country, which could be propitiated only by the annual sacrifice to it of a young maid, till one year the lot fell on Hermione, the king's daughter, when Hercules, persuaded by the king, slew the monster and delivered the maiden.

LAOTZE (i. e. the old Philosopher), a Chinese sage, born in the province of Ho-nan about 565 B.C., a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote the celebrated "Tao-te-King," canon, that is, of the Tao, or divine reason, and of virtue, one--and deservedly so on account of its high ethics--of the sacred books of China; he was the founder of one of the three principal religions of China, Confucianism and Buddhism being the other two, although his followers, the Tao-sze as they are called, are now degenerated into a set of jugglers.

LA PÉROUSE, a celebrated French navigator, born near Albi, in Languedoc; after distinguished services in the navy was in 1785 sent with two frigates on a voyage of discovery by Louis XVI.; "the brave navigator" went forth, sailing along the Pacific shores of America and Asia as far as Botany Bay, but never returned; "the seekers search far seas for him in vain; he has vanished trackless into blue immensity, and only some mournful mysterious shadow of him hovers long in all heads and hearts" (1741-1788).

LAPITHÆ, a race inhabiting the mountains of Thessaly; subject to Perithous, who, on the occasion of his marriage with Hippodamia, invited his kinsfolk the Centaurs to the feast, but these, under intoxication from the wine, attempting to carry off the bride and other women, were set on by the Lapithæ and, after a bloody struggle, overpowered.

LAPLACE, a celebrated French mathematician, born at Beaumont-en-Auge, Normandy; the son of a farmer; after teaching in his native place went to Paris (1767), where he became professor in the Royal Military School; becoming member of the Académie des Sciences in 1785, he attained a position among mathematicians and astronomers almost equal to Newton's; his "Three Laws" demonstrated the stability of the solar system; he published many treatises on lunar and planetary problems, electricity, magnetism, and a Nebula-hypothesis; his "Mécanique Céleste" is unrivalled in that class of work; surviving the Revolution he became implicated in politics without success or credit; he received his marquisate from Louis XVIII. in 1817, when he became President of the French Academy; "LAGRANGE (q. v.) has proved that on Newton's theory of gravitation the planetary system would endure for ever; Laplace, still more cunningly, even guessed that it could not have been made on any other scheme" (1749-1827).

LAPLAND (28), a stretch of country in the N. of Europe, between the Atlantic and the White Sea; is divided between Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Its climate is very severe; mountainous in the W., it becomes more level in the E., where are many marshes, lakes, and rivers; the summer is never dark, and there are six to eight weeks of winter never light. The Lapps, of whom 18,000 are in Norwegian Lapland, are closely allied to the Finns, small of stature, thick lipped, and with small piercing eyes; proverbially uncleanly, not very intelligent, are good-natured, but untruthful and parsimonious; nominally Christian, but very superstitious; they are kindly treated by both Norway and Sweden. The mountain Lapps are nomads, whose wealth consists of herds of reindeer, which supply nearly all their wants. The sea Lapps live by fishing. The forest and river Lapps, originally nomads, have adopted a settled life, domesticated their reindeer, and taken to hunting and fishing.

LA PLATA (65), a new city, founded in 1884 as capital of the prov. of Buenos Ayres, 30 m. SE. of Buenos Ayres city; rapidly built, it has continued to grow, and has now some handsome buildings, a college, and cotton and woollen manufactures; a canal connects it with the La Plata River.

LA PLATA RIVER, a broad estuary in South America, from 28 to 140 m. broad and 200 m. long, with Uruguay on the N. and the Argentine Republic on the S., through which the Uruguay and Paraná rivers pour into the Atlantic; it is much exposed to storms; its best harbour is at Monte Video.

LAPSI, name given to apostates in the early Christian Church.

LAPUTA, a flying island inhabited by speculative philosophers, visited by Gulliver in his "Travels," who, when their minds began to be too much absorbed in their studies, were wakened up by a set of attendants called "Flappers" armed with dried bladders full of small pebbles or "dried peas" attached to the end of a stick, with which they struck them gently about the mouth and ears.

LARDNER, DIONYSIUS, a popular scientist, born in Dublin; wrote a number of scientific works; edited a Cyclopedia, being a series of volumes on scientific subjects; was professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London, but from a misdemeanour had to vacate his chair and emigrate to America (1793-1859).

LARDNER, NATHANIEL, an English divine, ecclesiastically a Presbyterian but theologically a Unitarian, author of "Credibility of the Gospel History" and "Jewish and Heathen Testimonies" in favour of Christianity (1684-1768).

LARES, household deities of the Romans; originally deified ancestors of the families whose family life they protected, and images of whom were kept in some shrine in the house near the hearth. Besides these domestic lares, there were public lares, who were protectors of the whole community. Both classes were objects of worship.

LARISSA (13), the capital of Thessaly, in Greece; stands in a sandy plain; is the seat of a Greek archbishop; has mosques as well as churches.

LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, FRANÇOIS, DUC DE, a great maxim writer, member of a French family of Angoumois, born at Paris; played a conspicuous part in the war of the Fronde; was present at several engagements, and was wounded twice over, and retired at length in shattered health; he passed the rest of his days at court, where he enjoyed the society of the most distinguished ladies of the time; his "Maxims" appeared in 1665, and were immediately appreciated; they bear one and all on ethical subjects, and are the fruit of a life of large and varied commerce with the race (1613-1680).

LA ROCHEJAQUELEIN, HENRI, COMTE DE, a celebrated Vendéan royalist; the peasants of La Vendée having in 1792 risen in the royal cause, he placed himself at the head of them, and after gaining six victories was killed fighting in single combat while defending Nouaillé (1772-1794).

LAROUSSE, PIERRE, a celebrated French grammarian and lexicographer; best known by his "Grand Dictionnaire Universel du xix^{me} Siècle" (1817-1875).

LARRY, DOMINIQUE JEAN, BARON, a celebrated military surgeon; distinguished for the organisation he instituted of the "flying ambulance" for the care of the wounded in battle; accompanied Napoleon to Egypt; served in the Russian campaign; was wounded and taken prisoner at Waterloo; wrote treatises on army surgery (1766-1842).

LA SALLE, ROBERT CAVELIER SIEUR DE, a French explorer, born at Rouen; set out from Canada and explored the North American continent along the course of the Mississippi as far as the Gulf of Mexico, planting the French flag at what he thought was, but was not, the mouth of the river; was assassinated by one of his retinue in the end (1640-1687).

LASCARS, East Indians serving as seamen on board of British vessels, who have proved very tractable, and make excellent sailors; they are mostly Mohammedans.

LASCARSIS, CONSTANTINO, an eminent Greek scholar, born in Phrygia; on the fall of Constantinople in 1453 came with his brother John to Italy, published a Greek grammar, opened a school at Rome and Naples for Greek and Rhetoric, and did much to propagate in Italy a taste for Hellenic literature (1445-1535).

LAS CASAS, BARTHOLOMÉ DE, a celebrated Spanish priest, surnamed the Apostle of the Indians, born at Seville; visited the West Indies early under Columbus; took a deep interest in the natives; was grieved to see the usage they were subjected to there, as well as elsewhere, under the rule of Spain, and spent his life in persuading his countrymen to adopt a more lenient and humane treatment; crossed the ocean twelve times on their behalf; was made Bishop of Chiapa, in Mexico, in 1554; died in Madrid (1474-1566).

LAS CASES, French historiographer; became attached to Napoleon and accompanied him to St. Helena, and after his death published his Memorial of St. Helena, with an account of Napoleon's life and the treatment he was subjected to there (1766-1842).

LASCO, JOHANNES, a Protestant Reformer, born in Poland; studied at Rome and Bologna, and entered holy orders; became acquainted with Erasmus at Basel, and joined the Reformation movement; settled at Emden; accepted an invitation from Cranmer to London, and ministered to a Protestant congregation there, but left it on the accession of Mary, and in 1556 returned to Poland and contributed largely to the movement already begun there (1490-1560).

LAS PALMAS (17), the capital of the Canary Islands, on the NE. of the Grand Canary, the second largest of the group; is the seat of the Government, and a health resort.

LASSALLE, FERDINAND, founder of Socialism in Germany, born at Breslau, of Jewish parents; attended the universities of Breslau and Berlin; became a disciple of Hegel; took part in the Revolution of 1848, and was sent to prison for six months; in 1861 his "System of Acquired Rights" started an agitation of labour against capital, and he was again thrown into prison; on his release founded an association to secure universal suffrage and other reforms; returning to Switzerland he conceived a passionate affection for a lady betrothed to a noble whom she was compelled to marry, and whom he challenged, but by whom he was mortally wounded in a duel (1825-1864).

LASSELL, WILLIAM, astronomer, born at Bolton, discovered the satellite of Neptune, and the eighth satellite of Saturn, in an observatory of his own, with instruments of his own construction (1799-1880).

LASSEN, CHRISTIAN, eminent Orientalist, born at Bergen; studied Pâli with Burnouf in Paris; became professor of Indian Languages and Literature in Bonn; contributed largely to our knowledge of cuneiform inscriptions, and wrote, among other works, an epoch-making work entitled "Indische Alterthumskunde."

LASSO, a well-plaited strip of hide, with a noose, to catch wild horses or cattle with.

LATAKIA (10), a seaport on the coast of Syria; exports a tobacco of a fine quality, to which it gives name.

LATEEN SAIL, a triangular sail common on the Mediterranean.

LATERAN, the palace, originally a basilica, built by Constantine in Rome about 333, the residence of the Pope till 1308, and from which no fewer than five Ecumenical Councils receive their names as held in it, namely, those of 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1518; the church, called the Church of St. John Lateran, is the cathedral church of Rome.

LATHAM, ROBERT GORDON, ethnologist and philologist, born at Billingborough Vicarage, Lincolnshire, graduated at Cambridge 1832. and became Fellow of King's College; qualifying in medicine he held appointments in the London hospitals, but meanwhile was attracted to philology and ethnology, appointed professor of English Language and Literature in University College, London, 1839, and director of the ethnological department of the Crystal Palace, 1852; in 1862 he affirmed, against the most weighty authorities, that the Aryan stock is originally European, not Asian, a view which has since found favour; he published his "English Language" in 1841, and "The Natural History of the Varieties of Mankind" in 1850, and was pensioned in 1863 (1812-1888).

LATIMER, HUGH, Bishop of Worcester, born near Leicester; studied at Cambridge, and entered the Church, but soon adopted the Reformed doctrines, gained the favour of Henry VIII. by approving of his divorce, and was appointed bishop; by his labours in Worcester as a preacher of the Reformed faith he lost the royal favour, and was twice committed to the Tower for his obstinacy, he the while resigning his appointment; under Edward VI. his zeal as a preacher had full scope, but under Mary his mouth was gagged, and he was burnt at the stake along with Ridley, opposite Balliol College, Oxford (1490-1545).

LATIN UNION, a convention in 1865, between France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, and Greece, to establish an international monetary standard.

LATITUDINARIANS, the name given to a body of theologians belonging to the Church of England who, at the end of the 17th century, sought, in the interest of religion, to affiliate the dogmas of the Church, with the principles of philosophy as grounded on reason; they were mostly of the school of Plato, and among their leaders were Cudworth and Henry More.

LATONA, the Latin name for Greek LETO (q. v.).

LATOUR D'AUVERGNE, CORRET DE, a French grenadier, born in Brittany; celebrated for his intrepidity and his self-sacrificing patriotism; distinguished himself in the wars of the Revolution; would accept no promotion, and declined even the title of "First Grenadier of the Republic" which Bonaparte wished to confer on him, but by which he is known to posterity (1743-1800).

LATRIELLE, PIERRE ANDRÉ, French naturalist, born at Brives, in Corrèze; one of the founders of the science of Entomology; succeeded Lamarck as professor in Natural History in the Jardin des Plantes; wrote several works on entomology (1762-1833).

LATRIA, the name given in Catholic theology to the worship of God, as distinguished from DULIA (q. v.), their name for the worship of saints.

LATTER-DAY PAMPHLETS, a series of pamphlets published by Carlyle in 1850, in vehement denunciation of the political, social, and religious imbecilities and injustices of the period.

LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See MORMONS.

LAUD, WILLIAM, archbishop of Canterbury, born at Reading, son of a clothier; studied at and became a Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford, was ordained in 1601; early gave evidence of his High-Church proclivities and his hostility to the Puritans, whom for their disdain of forms he regarded as the subverters of the Church; he rose by a succession of preferments, archdeaconship of Huntingdon one of them, to the Primacy, but declined the offer of a cardinal's hat at the hands of the Pope, and became along with Strafford a chief adviser of the unfortunate Charles I.; his advice did not help the king out of his troubles, and his obstinate, narrow-minded pedantry brought his own head to the block; he was beheaded for treason on Tower Hill, Jan. 10, 1645; he "could see no religion" in Scotland once on a visit there, "because he saw no ritual, and his soul was grieved" (1573-1645).

LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF, Scottish Secretary under Charles II., professed Covenanting sympathies in his youth, and attended the Westminster Assembly of Divines as a Commissioner for Scotland 1643; succeeding to the earldom in 1645 he joined the Royalists in the Civil War, was made prisoner at Worcester 1651, and confined for nine years; receiving his Scottish office at the Restoration he devoted himself to establishing by every means the absolute power of the king in Church and State; his measures were responsible for the rising of 1666 and in part for that of 1677; but he made the Episcopal Church quite subservient; appointed to the Privy Council, he sat in the "Cabal" ministry, was made duke in 1672, and in spite of intrigues and an attempt to censure him in the Commons, remained in power till 1680; he was shrewd, clever, witty, sensual, and unscrupulous; then and still hated in Scotland (1616-1682).

LAUENBURG (49), a duchy of N. Germany, between Holstein and Mecklenburg, was annexed to Prussia in 1876.

LAUGHING PHILOSOPHER, a name given to Democrates of Abdera for a certain flippancy he showed.

LAUNCESTON (17), on the Tamar, the second city in Tasmania, is the chief port and market in the N., a fine city, carrying on a good trade with Australian ports, and serving as a summer resort to Melbourne.

LAURA, a young Avignonese married lady, for whom Petrarch conceived a Platonic affection, and who exercised a lifelong influence over him.

LAUREATE, POET, originally an officer of the royal household whose business it was to celebrate in an ode any joyous occasion connected with royalty, originally the sovereign's birthday; it is now a mere honour bestowed by royalty on an eminent poet.

LAURIER, SIR WILFRED, Premier of Canada since 1896, and the first French-Canadian to attain that honour, born in St. Lin; bred for the bar, soon rose to the top of his profession; elected in 1871 as a Liberal to the Quebec Provincial Assembly, where he came at once to the front, and elected in 1874 to the Federal Assembly, he became distinguished as "the silver-tongued Laurier," and as the Liberal leader; his personality is as winning as his eloquence, and he stood first among all the Colonial representatives at Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee in 1897; b. 1841.

LAUSANNE (33), a picturesque town on the slopes of the Jura, 1 m. from the N. shore of Lake Geneva, is the capital of the Swiss canton of Vaud; noted for its educational institutions and museums, and for its magnificent Protestant cathedral; it has little industry, but considerable trade, and is a favourite tourist resort; here took place the disputation between Calvin, Farel, and Viret, and here Gibbon wrote the "Decline and Fall."

LAVA, a general term for all rocks originating in molten streams from volcanoes, includes traps, basalts, pumice, and others; the surface of a lava stream cools and hardens quickly, presenting a cellulose structure, while below the heat is retained much longer and the rock when cooled is compact and columnar or crystalline; the largest recorded lava flow was from Skaptar Jökull, Iceland, in 1783.

LAVALETTE, COUNT DE, French general, born at Paris; condemned to death after the Restoration as an accomplice of Napoleon, he was saved from death by the devotion of his wife, who was found in the prison instead of him on the morning appointed for his execution (1769-1830).

LA VALLIÈRE, DUCHESSE DE, a fascinating woman, born at Tours, who became the mistress of Louis XIV.; supplanted by another, she became a Carmelite nun in 1674 in the Carmelite nunnery in Paris, and continued doing penance there as would seem till her death (1644-1710).

LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR, German clergyman, a mystic thinker and writer on physiognomy, born at Zurich; wrote "Outlooks to Eternity," and a work on physiognomy, or the art of judging of character from the features of the face (1741-1804).

LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT, one of the founders of modern chemistry, born in Paris; to prosecute his researches accepted the post of farmer-general in 1769, introduced in 1776 improvements in manufacturing gunpowder, discovered the composition of the air and the nature of oxygen, applied the principles of chemistry to agriculture, and indicated the presence and action of these principles in various other domains of scientific inquiry; called to account for his actions as farmer-general, one in particular "putting water in the tobacco," and condemned to the guillotine; he in vain begged for a fortnight's respite to finish some experiments, "the axe must do its work" (1742-1794).

LAW, JOHN, financier and speculator, son of a goldsmith and banker, born at Edinburgh; was early noted for his calculating power; visiting London in 1691 he got into debt, sold his estate, killed a man in a duel, and escaped to Amsterdam, where he studied finance; came to Scotland with financial proposals for the Government in 1700, but they were refused, and he spent some years on the Continent as a gambling adventurer; in 1716 he and his brother William started a private bank in Paris, the success of which induced the Regent Orleans in 1718 to institute the "Royal Bank of France," with Law as director; next year he floated the "Mississippi Scheme" for the settlement of Louisiana, but after a show of success the scheme proved a bubble; he had to fly to Brussels, his property being confiscated; he died at Venice, poor, but scheming to the end (1671-1729).

LAW, WILLIAM, author of "A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life," born at Kingscliffe, Northamptonshire, son of a grocer; entered Cambridge in 1705; became a Fellow, and took orders in 1711; became associated with the family of the elder Gibbon, father of the historian, in 1727, and spent ten years with them as tutor, friend, and spiritual director; in 1740 he retired to Kingscliffe, where he spent the remainder of his life in seclusion, shared by Miss Hester Gibbon, the historian's aunt, and Mrs. Hutcheson, a widow of means, occupying themselves much with charitable schemes; Law was an able theologian and dialectician, and an exponent of German mysticism; his writings contributed greatly to the evangelical revival (1686-1761).

LAWRENCE, JOHN, LORD, the "Saviour of India," born of Irish parentage at Richmond, Yorkshire; entered the Bengal Civil Service in 1829, and on the annexation of the Punjab was appointed Commissioner and afterwards Lieutenant-Governor; by his justice and the reforms he carried through he so won the esteem of the Sikhs that at the Mutiny he was able to disarm the Punjab mutineers, raise 50,000 men, and capture Delhi; returning to England he received a pension of £1000 a year, was made successively baronet and Privy Councillor, and sent out again as Governor-General of India in 1863; his rule was characterised by wise policy and sound finance; he disapproved of English interference in Afghan affairs; he was raised to the peerage in 1869 (1811-1879).

LAWRENCE, ST., a deacon of the Church at Rome, who suffered martyrdom in the time of Valerian, 258, by being broiled on a gridiron, which he is represented in Christian art as holding in his hand.

LAY BROTHER, a member of a monastery under the three monastic vows, but not in holy orders.

LAYAMON, early English poet who flourished in the 12th century, and was by his own account priest near Bewdley, on the Severn; was author of a long poem or chronicle of 32,250 lines called "Brut d'Angleterre," and which is of interest as showing how Anglo-Saxon passed into the English of Chaucer.

LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY, English traveller and diplomatist, born at Paris; spent his boyhood in Italy, and studied law in London; between 1845 and 1847 he conducted excavations at the ruins of Nineveh, securing for the British Museum its famous specimens of Assyrian art, and on his return published works on "Nineveh and its Remains" and "Monuments of Nineveh"; he received the freedom of London, Oxford gave him D.C.L., and Aberdeen University chose him for Lord Rector; entering Parliament in 1852, he sat for Aylesbury and for Southwark, and was Under-secretary for Foreign Affairs 1861-06; in 1809 he was sent as ambassador to Madrid, and from 1877 till 1880 represented England at Constantinople, where his philo-Turkish sympathies provoked much comment; he was a noted linguist (1817-1894).

LAZZARONI, an indolent class of waifs under a chief who used to lounge about Naples, and proved formidable in periods of revolution; they subsisted partly by service as messengers, porters, &c., and partly as beggars.

LEAGUE AND COVENANT, SOLEMN. See COVENANT.

LEAGUE, THE, specially a coalition organised in 1576 by the Duke of Guise to suppress the Reformed religion in France by denying civil and religious liberty to the Huguenots, and specially to prevent the accession of Henry IV. as a Protestant to the throne.

LEAMINGTON (27), a fashionable Warwickshire watering-place of modern date on the Learn, 15 m. SE. of Birmingham. It has chalybeate, saline, and sulphurous springs, to which visitors have gathered since the end of 18th century; brewing and kitchen-range making are carried on; Leamington and Warwick return one member of Parliament.

LEANDER. See HERO.

LEANING TOWER, specially a campanile of white marble at Pisa, in Italy, 178 ft. in height, and which leans 14 ft. off the perpendicular.

LEAR, a legendary British king, the hero of one of Shakespeare's tragedies, the victim of the unnatural conduct of two of his daughters.

LEAR, EDWARD, English painter, and author of "Book of Nonsense," composed for the grandchildren of the Earl of Derby in 1848, and after of "More Nonsense Rhymes," which were widely popular with young people; painted landscapes in Greece and Asia Minor (1812-1888).

LEATHER STOCKING, NATTY, a character in Cooper's novel the "Pioneers," "a melodious synopsis of man and nature in the West."

LEATHES, STANLEY, prebendary of St Paul's, born in Bucks; has held several clerical appointments; is professor of Hebrew in King's College, London, and is author of a number of works bearing on Christianity; b. 1830.

LEBANON (i. e. "the White Mountain"), a range on the northern border of Palestine, which rises to a height of 10,000 ft., and is divided into two by a valley, the ancient Coele-Syria, which the Leontes and Orontes water, the eastern range being called Anti-Lebanon.

LE BRUN, CHARLES, a celebrated French painter, born in Paris; studied in Rome, settled in Paris, and patronised by Colbert; he exercised for about 40 years a great influence on the art of the period; he decorated Versailles and the Louvre, but with the death of his patron he sunk into obscurity and pined and died (1619-1690).

LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR, theologian, born in Würtemberg; was professor at Leipzig; wrote "History of Deism," "Life of Wiclif," and "Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times" (1811-1888).

LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE, historian and suggestive writer, born near Dublin; represents Dublin University in Parliament; is the author of "Leaders of Public Opinion," 1861; "The Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe," 1865; the "History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne," 1869; and the "History of the Eighteenth Century," 1878-90; b. 1838.

LECLAIRE, EDME-JEAN, French economist, and experimentalist in the matter of the union of capital and labour; adopted the system of profit-sharing in 1842, with important results (1801-1872).

LE CLERC, JOHN, otherwise Johannes Clericus, liberal Swiss theologian and controversialist, born at Geneva; studied philosophy and theology there, and at Paris and London; became professor in the Remonstrant Seminary in Amsterdam in 1684, but lost his speech in 1728; his voluminous writings include commentaries on the whole Bible, which contained opinions on the authorship and composition of the Pentateuch, and the inspiration of the wisdom books, then startling but since much in favour (1657-1736).

LECONTE DE LISLE, a French poet, a Creole, born in the Isle of Bourbon, author of "Poésies Barbares" and "Poésies Antiques," and translator of Homer, Sophocles, Theocrates, and other classics; his translations are wonderfully faithful to the originals (1820-1894).

LECTERN, a stand with a desk for a book from which the service is read in a church.

LEDA, in the Greek mythology the wife of the Spartan king Tyndareus, who was visited by Zeus in the form of a swan and became the mother of Castor and Pollux; was frequently the subject of ancient art.

LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRA AUGUSTE, a French democrat, born near Paris; called to the bar in 1830; became a leader of the democratic movement in the reign of Louis Philippe, and gained the title of the "Tribune of the Revolution"; in 1848 he became a member of the Provisional Government; was Minister of the Interior; secured for France the privilege of universal suffrage; his opposition to Louis Napoleon obliged him to seek refuge in England, where he took part in a general democratic movement, and an amnesty being granted, he returned to France in 1870; was elected to the Assembly, but his power was gone; died suddenly (1807-1874).

LEE, ROBERT EDWARD, Confederate general in the American Civil War, born at Stratford, Virginia, son of a soldier of old and distinguished family, and educated at West Point; became captain of Engineers in 1838; he distinguished himself in the Mexican War of 1846; was from 1852 till 1855 head of the U.S. Military Academy; was in active service again in Texas 1855-59 as an officer of Cavalry; on the secession of the Southern States, though disapproving of the war, deeming Virginia to have a claim before the Union to his loyalty, resigned his commission, and was appointed general, third in rank, by the Confederate Congress of Virginia, 1861; after various services he succeeded General Johnston in command of the army at Richmond; won the seven days' battle against M'Clellan; invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, but was forced to surrender with 28,000 men to Grant at Appomatox, in Virginia, April 9, 1865; forfeiting his estates he became President of the Washington University (since called Washington and Lee), Lexington, Virginia, which post he held till his death; he was a man of devout religious faith, a high sense of duty, great courage and ability as a soldier (1807-1870).

LEE, ROBERT, a Scottish theologian, born at Tweedmouth; was minister of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and professor of Biblical Criticism in the University; reformed the Presbyterian worship to some extent on the Anglican model, and suffered no small persecution at the hands of the conservative party in the Church for these innovations; his proclivities otherwise were rationalistic (1804-1868).

LEE, SAMUEL, English Orientalist, born in Shropshire; professor in Cambridge first of Arabic and then of Hebrew; was the author of a Hebrew grammar and lexicon, and a translation of the Book of Job (1783-1852).

LEECH, JOHN, English artist, born in London; was educated at the Charterhouse, and a fellow pupil there of Thackeray's; displayed early a turn for caricature; produced a set of illustrations for the "Ingoldsby Legends"; joined the staff of Punch in 1844, and remained a member of it till his death; here he distinguished himself by his cartoons and his humorous illustrations of scenes and characters of English life and society, and showed himself an artist more than a caricaturist; his work was not limited to Punch; he contributed illustrations also to Once a Week, the Illustrated London News, and other publications of the time (1817-1864).

LEEDS (368), fifth city in England, largest in Yorkshire, on the Aire, 25 m. SW. of York, in the West Riding; has been noted for its textile industry since the 16th century, now its woollen manufactures of all kinds are the largest in England, and besides other industries, there are very large manufactures of ready-made clothing, leather, boots and shoes, and iron. There are many fine buildings: St. Peter's Church is the largest; St. John's, consecrated in 1634, still retains the fittings of a "Laudean" church. There is a magnificent infirmary, a grammar-school, and art-gallery. The Yorkshire College is affiliated with Victoria University. Dr. Priestley was a native. A Parliamentary borough only since 1832, it now returns five members.

LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE, DUKE OF, English statesman, son of a Yorkshire baronet, after the Restoration entered Parliament as member for York and supporter of King and Church; his advance was rapid till he was Lord High Treasurer and Earl of Danby in 1674; constantly intriguing, he was impeached by the Commons in 1678, and kept for five years in the Tower without trial; returning to public life he opposed James II.'s policy regarding the Church, and joined in the movement which set William of Orange on the English throne; appointed President of the Council, he was again guilty of corrupt practices; he became Duke of Leeds in 1694, but in 1695 was impeached a second time, and though he again escaped condemnation he never regained power (1631-1712).

LEEUWENHOEK, ANTON VAN, an early microscopist, born at Delft; the instrument he used was of his own construction, but it was the means of his arriving at important discoveries, one of the most so that of capillary circulation; stoutly opposed the theory of spontaneous generation (1632-1673).

LEFORT, FRANÇOIS JACOB, Russian officer, born in Geneva, son of a merchant; after serving in France and Holland, in 1675 entered the service and gained the favour of Peter the Great, organised the army on the French model, laid the foundation of a navy, and died commander-in-chief both of the land forces and the navy (1656-1699).

LEFT, THE, the opposition in a Continental Legislative Assembly, as sitting on the left of the chair; also the liberal section of a philosophical school.

LEGALISM, adherence to the strict letter of the law often in disregard of the spirit and even in defiance of it.

LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD, poet, journalist, and critic, born in Liverpool, of a Guernsey family; has been connected with and contributed to several London journals; is author of "My Lady's Sonnets," "George Meredith: some Characteristics," "The Religion of a Literary Man," &c.; is successful as a lecturer as well as a littérateur; b. 1866.

LEGATE, the title of the Pope's representative or ambassador; in medieval times this office was attached to certain bishoprics, and the bishops were styled legati nati; besides these there were legati a latere, generally cardinals, and legati missi, or nuncios specially appointed; legates used to claim full papal jurisdiction within their provinces, which caused many disputes; now they are ambassadors for spiritual purposes at Roman Catholic Courts--Vienna, Münich, Madrid, Lisbon, and Paris--and do not interfere with the authority of the bishops.

LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE, brilliant French mathematician, contemporary of Lagrange and Laplace, born at Toulouse; obtained the professorship of Mathematics in the Military School at Paris, and was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1783; he was one of the commissioners to determine the length of the metre, and held many posts under the Republic and the Empire; among many works his best known is the "Elements of Geometry" (1794), translated into English by Carlyle (1752-1833).

LEGGE, JAMES, a Chinese scholar, born in Huntly, Aberdeenshire; studied at King's College, Aberdeen; was sent out as missionary to the Chinese by the London Missionary Society in 1839, laboured for 30 years at Hong-Kong, and became professor of the Chinese Language and Literature at Oxford in 1876; edited with a translation and notes the Chinese classics, the "four Shu," and the "five King," and gave lectures on the religions of China as compared with Christianity; b. 1815.

LEGHORN (106), a flourishing Italian seaport, on the W. coast, 60 m. from Florence; is a fine city, with broad streets and many canals; its exports include wine, silk, oil, marble, and straw hats; it imports spirits, sugar, and machinery; it does a large and increasing coasting trade, and manufactures coral ornaments; its prosperity dates from the 15th century; it was a free port till 1868.

LEGION, among the ancient Romans a body of soldiers consisting of three lines, the hastati, the principes, and the triarii, ranged in order of battle one behind the other, each divided into ten maniples, and the whole numbering from 4000 to 6000 men; to each legion was attached six military tribunes, who commanded in rotation, each for two months; under Marius the three lines were amalgamated, and the whole divided into ten cohorts of three maniples each; under the original arrangement the hastati were young or untrained men, the principes men in their full manhood, and the triarii veterans.

LEGION OF HONOUR, an order of merit instituted on republican principles on May 10, 1802, by Bonaparte when First Consul in recompense of civil and military services to the country; it originally consisted of four classes, but now comprehends five: grand crosses, grand officers, commanders, officers, and chevaliers, each, of military or naval men, with pensions on a descending scale and all for life; their badge, a white star of five rays, bearing on the obverse an image of the republic and on the reverse two tricolor flags.

LEGITIMISTS, a name given to supporters of the Bourbon dynasty in France as opposed to the Orleanists, who supported the claims of Louis Philippe.

LEIBNITZ, German philosopher, mathematician, and man of affairs, born in Leipzig; studied law and took the degree of Doctor of Laws at Altorf; spent a good part of his life at courts, visited Paris and London and formed a friendship with the savans in both cities, and finally settled in Hanover, where he moved much in the circle of the Electress Sophia and her daughter Sophia Charlotte, the Prussian Queen, whom he entertained with his philosophy of the "infinitely little," as it has been called; he discovered with Newton the basis of the differential calculus, and concocted the system of monods (his "Monodology"), between which and the soul, he taught, there existed a "pre-established harmony," issuing in the cosmos; he was an optimist, and had for his motto the oft-quoted phrase, "Everything is for the best in the best of possible worlds"; his principal works in philosophy are his "Théodicée," written at the instance of Sophia Charlotte and in refutation of Bayle, and his "Monodologie," written on the suggestion of Prince Eugene (1646-1716).

LEICESTER (209), county town of Leicestershire, on the Soar, 40 m. E. of Birmingham; is an ancient town, with several historic buildings; has grown rapidly of late owing to its hosiery, boot and shoe, and iron-founding industries; it sends two members to Parliament.

LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF, Queen Elizabeth's favourite, fifth son of the Duke of Northumberland; won the queen's favour by his handsome appearance and courtly address; received many offices and honours, and on the death, under suspicious circumstances, of his Countess, Amy Robsart, aspired to her hand; still favoured, in spite of his unpopularity in the country, he was proposed as husband to Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563; he married the dowager Lady Sheffield in 1573, and afterwards bigamously the Countess of Essex; after a short term of disfavour he was appointed commander in the Netherlands, and subsequently at Tilbury Fort, but proved an incapable soldier (1532-1588).

LEICESTERSHIRE (374), English midland county, bounded by Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, Northampton, Warwick, and Derby shires; is an undulating upland watered by the Soar, and mostly under pasture. Leicester cattle and sheep are noted, and its Stilton cheeses. There are coal deposits and granite and slate quarries in the N. The chief towns are Leicester, the county town, Loughborough, and Hinckley.

LEIGH, AURORA, the heroine of Mrs. Browning's poem of the same name. She styled it "a novel in verse," and wrote of it, it is "the most mature of my works, and the one into which my highest convictions upon Life and Art have entered."

LEIGHTON, FREDERICK, LORD, eminent English artist, born at Scarborough; studied in the chief art-centres of the Continent; his first exhibit at the Royal Academy being "Cimabue's Madonna carried in Procession through Florence," which was followed by a numerous array of others of classic merit, and showing the scholar as well as the artist; he distinguished himself in sculpture as well as painting, and died President of the Royal Academy after being ennobled (1830-1897).

LEIGHTON, ROBERT, a Scottish theologian, the son of a Puritan clergyman in London, who wrote a book against prelacy, and suffered cruelly at the hands of Laud in consequence; studied at Edinburgh; entered the Church, and became Presbyterian minister at Newbattle in 1641, but resigned in 1653; was made Principal of Edinburgh University; reluctantly consented to accept a bishopric, and chose the diocese of Dunblane, but declined all lordship connected with the office; was for a time archbishop of Glasgow; retired to England in 1674, and lived ten years afterwards with a widowed sister in Sussex; he was a most saintly man, and long revered as such by the Scottish people; his writings, which are highly imaginative, were much admired by Coleridge (1611-1684).

LEIOTRICHI, a primitive race of people distinguished by their smooth hair.

LEIPZIG (357), in the W. of Saxony, and largest city of that kingdom; is the third city in Germany. The old portion is narrow and quaint, with historic buildings; the new is well built, with splendid edifices. It is the seat of the supreme court of the Empire, of an old university which has a magnificent library and well-equipped medical school, and of one of the finest conservatories of music in Europe. Its chief trade is in books, furs, leather, and cloth, and its chief industries type-founding and pianoforte-making. It was the birthplace of Leibnitz and Wagner, and is associated also with Bach and Mendelssohn.

LEITH (68), chief seaport in E. of Scotland, on the Forth, contiguous to Edinburgh and the port of it; is an old, unattractive, but busy town. The harbour comprises five docks. The imports are corn, flour, wines, sugar, and fruit; the exports, coal, iron, paraffin, and whisky. There are shipbuilding and engineering works, breweries, distilleries, and other industries. Leith Fort, between the town and Newhaven, is the head-quarters of the artillery for Scotland.

LEITHA, an Austrian stream which flows NE. and falls into the Danube E. of Vienna; divides Cis-Leithan from Trans-Leithan.

LELAND, CHARLES, an American writer, born at Philadelphia; bred to the bar, but left law for literature, and contributed to the journals; has taken interest in and written on the industrial arts, social science, folk-lore, the gypsies, &c.; his works are numerous, and of a humorous or burlesque character, and include "The Poetry and Mystery of Dreams," "The Legends of Birds," "Hans Breitmann's Ballads," &c.; b. 1824.

LELAND, JOHN, English antiquary, born in London; travelled much on the Continent and amassed vast learning; held a commission from Henry VIII. to examine the antiquities and libraries of England, in fulfilment of which charge he spent six years in collecting a world of things that would otherwise have been lost, and the rest of his life, till he went insane, in arranging them (1506-1552).

LELAND, JOHN, a Nonconformist minister, born in Wigan; wrote chiefly in defence of Christianity against the attacks of the Deists (1691-1766).

LELY, SIR PETER, a painter, born in Westphalia; settled in London; took to portrait-painting, and was patronised by Charles I. and II., as well as by Cromwell; he painted the portraits of his patrons, and the beauties of Charles II.'s court; was Vandyck's successor (1618-1680).

LEMAN LAKE, the LAKE OF GENEVA (q. v.).

LEMBERG (128), the capital of Austrian Galicia, from its central position and ready communication with rivers and railways, enjoys an extensive trade; Polish is the prevailing language; there is a flourishing university, and of the population 40,000 are Jews.

LEMMING RAT, a rodent, which "travelling in myriads seawards from the hills," as seen in Norway, "turns not to the right or the left, eats its way through whatever will eat, and climbs over whatever will not eat, and perishes before reaching the sea, its consistent rigidly straight journey, a journey nowhither." See the Application in the "Latter Pamphlet," No. 6.

LEMNOS (30), an island plateau in the Ægean Sea, 30 m. SW. of the Dardanelles, Turkish since 1657; produces corn, wine, and tobacco, and is a place of exile for Turkish prisoners; the population is mostly Greek; chief town Kastro (3), on the W. coast.

LEMON, MARK, editor of Punch from 1843 to his death, born in London; began his career as a dramatist, story-teller, and song-writer, writing 60 pieces for the stage and 100 songs (1809-1870).

LEM`URES, a name given by the Romans to the spirits of the dead, and who, such of them as are ghosts of the wicked, wander about at night as spectres, and tormented themselves, torment and frighten the living.

LENCLOS, NINON DE, a woman celebrated for wit and beauty, born in Paris, whose salon in the city was frequented by all the notable personages of the period; she was a woman of superior mental endowments as well as polished manners, but of loose morality and want of heart (1616-1705).

LENNEP, JACOB VAN, a Dutch dramatist and novelist, born at Amsterdam; bred to the bar and practised as a lawyer; was a devoted student of English literature, and executed translations from English poets; was called by his countrymen the Walter Scott of Holland (1802-1868).

LENNOX, an ancient district of Scotland that included Dumbartonshire and part of Stirlingshire.

LENORE, the heroine of a celebrated ballad by Bürger, the German lyric poet, a maiden whose lover dies and whose spectre appears to her on horseback and carries her off mounted behind him.

LENORMANT, FRANÇOIS, a distinguished archæologist, born at Paris, a man of genius and of vast learning; his chief works "Manuel d'Histoire Ancienne de l'Orient," "Lettres Assyriologues," "Les Premières Civilisations," and "Les Sciences Occultes en Asie" (1837-1883).

LENS, a piece of glass adapted as convex or concave so as to change the direction of the rays of light passing through it and magnify or diminish the apparent size of an object.

LENT, a period of fasting previous to Easter, at first lasting only 40 hours, was gradually extended to three, four, or six days, then different Churches extended it to three and six: weeks; in the 6th century Gregory the Great fixed it for the West at 40 days from Ash Wednesday to Easter, excluding Sundays; in the Eastern Church it begins on the Monday after quinquagesima and excludes both Saturdays and Sundays; in the Anglican Church the season is marked by special services, but the fast is not rigidly kept.

LENTHALL, WILLIAM, Speaker of the Long Parliament; is famous for his answer to the demand of Charles to point out to him five members he had come to arrest, "May it please your Majesty," said he, failing on his knees, "I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak but as the House directs me" (1591-1662).

LEO, the fifth sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters on July 22.

LEO, the name of six emperors of the East, of which the chief was Leo III., surnamed the Isaurian, born in Isauria; raised to the imperial throne by the army, defeated by sea and land the Saracens who threatened Constantinople; ruled peacefully for nine years, when he headed the ICONOCLAST MOVEMENT (Q. V.), which provoked hostility and led to the revolt of Italy from the Greek empire; d. 741.

LEO, the names of 13 popes: L. I., ST., Pope from 410 to 461; L. II., ST., pope from 682 to 683; L. III., Pope from 795 to 816; L. IV., pope from 847 to 855; L. V., Pope in 903; L. VI., Pope from 928 to 929; L. VII., Pope from 936 to 939; L. VIII., Pope from 963 to 965; L. IX., ST., Pope from 1049 to 1054; L. X., pope from 1513 to 1521; L. XI., Pope in 1605; L. XII., Pope from 1823 to 1829; L. XIII., Pope since 1878. Of these only the following deserve mention:--

LEO I., saint, surnamed the GREAT; was distinguished for his zeal against heretics, presided at two councils, and persuaded Attila to retire from Rome on his invasion of Italy, as he persuaded Genseric four years later to moderate the outrages of his troops in the city; his letters are in evidence of the jurisdiction of the Roman over the universal Church. Festival, Nov. 10.

LEO III., proclaimed Charlemagne emperor of the West in 800; driven in 799 from the papal chair by a conspiracy, he was reinstated by Charlemagne, who next year visited the city and was crowned by him emperor.

LEO IX., saint; was elected at the Diet of Worms in 1048, welcomed at Rome, and applied himself zealously to the reform of Church discipline; being defeated in the field by Guiscard, suffered a 10 years' imprisonment, fell ill and died.

LEO X., Giovanni de' Medici, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, sovereign of Florence; was distinguished as a patron of art, science, and letters, and as occupant of the chair of St. Peter at the outbreak of the Reformation, and as by his issue of indulgences for the replenishment of his treasure provoking the movement and rousing the ire of Luther, which set the rest of Europe on fire.

LEO XIII., 257th Pope of Rome, born at Carpineto; distinguished at college in mathematics, physics, and philosophy; took holy orders in 1837, was nuncio to Belgium in 1843, became bishop of Perugia in 1846, cardinal 1853, and Pope in 1878; holds to his rights as Pope both secular and spiritual; believes in the Catholic Church as the only regenerator of society, and hails every show of encroach it makes on the domain of Protestantism as promise of its universal restoration; b. 1810.

LEON, an ancient kingdom in the NE. of Spain, united with Castile in 1230, with a capital of the same name 256 m. NW. of Madrid. Also the name of a city in Nicaragua and another in Mexico.

LEONARDO DA VINCI, celebrated painter and sculptor of the Florentine school, born at Vinci in the Val d'Arno; showed early a wonderful aptitude for art; studied under Andrea del Verrocchio, but so surpassed him in his work as to drive him to renounce the painter's art; his great work, executed by him at Milan, was the famous picture of the "Last Supper," which he painted in oil about 1497 on the wall of the refectory of the Dominican convent of the Madonna delle Grazie; it perished from the dampness of the wall almost as soon as it was finished, but happily copies were taken of it before decay had ruined it; besides, Leonardo did in 1503 at Florence the famous cartoon of the Battle of the Standard; he was a man of imposing personal appearance, of very wide range of ability, and distinguished himself in engineering as well as art; he wrote a "Treatise on Painting," which has been widely translated (1452-1519).

LEONIDAS, king of Sparta from 491 to 480 B.C.; opposed Xerxes, the Persian, who threatened Greece with a large army, and kept him at bay at the Pass of Thermopylæ with 300 Spartans and 5000 auxiliaries till he was betrayed by EPHIALTES (q. v.), when he and his 300 threw themselves valiantly on the large host, and perished fighting to the last man.

LEONIDS, meteors which descend in showers during November in certain years, their chief centre being the constellation Leo.

LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, modern Italian poet, born near Ancona; a precocious genius; an omnivorous reader as a boy, and devoted to literature; of a weakly constitution, he became a confirmed invalid, and died suddenly; had sceptical leanings; wrote lyrics inspired by a certain sombre melancholy (1788-1837).

LEOPOLD I., king of the Belgians, son of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg; in his youth served in the Russian army; visited England in 1815, and married Princess Charlotte, who died two years later; he declined the throne of Greece in 1830, but accepted that of the Belgians in 1831, and proved a wise, firm, constitutional sovereign; in 1832 he married the French princess Louise; he was succeeded by his son Leopold II. (1790-1865).

LEOPOLD II., king of the Belgians, born at Brussels, son and successor of Leopold I.; has travelled much in Europe and Asia Minor; founded, and is now ruler of, the Congo Free State; married in 1853 the Archduchess Maria of Austria, by whom he has had three daughters; b. 1835.

LEPSIUS, KARL RICHARD, a celebrated Egyptologist, born in Prussian Saxony; took at first to the study of philology under Bopp, but early devoted himself to the study of the antiquities of Egypt; headed in 1842 an expedition of research among the monuments under the king of Prussia, which occupied five years, and was fertile in important results, among others the production of a work in 12 vols. on the subject entitled "Denkmäleraus Egypten und Ethiopien," issued between 1849 and 1860; he was the author also of works on philology (1810-1884).

LERNÆAN HYDRA, a monster with nine heads, one of them immortal, that infested a swamp near Lernæ, and which Hercules was required to slay as one of his twelve labours, only as often as he cut off one head two grew on, but with the assistance of Iolcus his servant he singed off the eight mortal ones, cut down the ninth, and buried it under a huge rock.

LERWICK (31), the capital of Shetland, on the E. of Mainland; fishing and knitting the chief industries.

LE SAGE, ALAIN RENÉ, French dramatist and novelist, born at Sarzeau, in Brittany; educated at a Jesuit school at Vannes; went to Paris in 1692; studied the Spanish language and literature, and produced translations of Spanish works and imitations; some of his dramas attained great popularity, and one in particular, the "Turcaret," a satire on the time generally, and not merely, as represented, on financiers of the period, gave offence; but the works by which he is best known are his novels "Le Diable Boiteux" and "Gil Blas," his masterpiece (1668-1747).

LESBOS (36), modern name Mytilene, a mountainous island, the largest on the Asia Minor coast, 10 m. off shore and 20 m. N. of the Gulf of Symrna; has a delightful climate, disturbed by earthquakes, fertile soil, and produces fine olive-oil. In ancient Greek days it was a cradle of literature, the home of Sappho, and famous for its wine; Turkish since 1462, its population is mostly Greek; chief town Castro (12), on the E. coast.

LESE-MAJESTY, name given to a crime against the sovereign.

LESLIE, name of a Scottish family distinguished in Scottish history as well as for military service in foreign parts.

LESLIE, CHARLES, non-juring controversial divine, born in Dublin, wrote "A Short and Easy Method with the Jews," and another with the Deists (1650-1722).

LESLIE, SIR JOHN, natural philosopher and professor, born at Largo, Fifeshire; educated at St. Andrews and Edinburgh University; visited America in 1788, and returned to London 1790; for fifteen years he was engaged in scientific investigation, invented several instruments, and published his "Inquiry into the Nature of Heat," for which he received the Rumford Medal from the Royal Society; appointed to the chair of Mathematics in Edinburgh in 1805, he was transferred to that of Natural Philosophy in 1819; continued his researches and inventions, and shortly before his death was knighted (1766-1832).

LESPINASSE, a French lady, born in Lyons, famous for her wit, to whom D'Alembert was much attached, and the centre of a learned circle in Paris in her time (1731-1776).

LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE, French diplomatist, born at Versailles; conceived the scheme of connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean in 1854, and saw it finished as the Suez Canal in 1869; projected a similar scheme for a canal at Panama, but it ended in failure, disgrace, and ruin to the projectors as well as others (1805-1894).

LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM, a German author, and founder of modern German literature, born at Kamenz, Saxony, son of the pastor there; sent to study theology at Leipzig, studied hard; conceived a passion for the stage; wrote plays and did criticisms; wrote an essay on Pope; took English authors as his models, revolted against those of France; made it his aim to inaugurate or rather revive a purely German literature, and produced examples regarded as classics to this day; his principal dramas, all conceived on the soil, are "Miss Sara Sampson," "Mina von Barnhelm," "Emilia Galotti," and "Nathan der Weise," and his principal prose works are his "Fables" and "Laocoon," a critical work on art still in high repute (1729-1781).

L'ESTRANGE, SIR ROGER, a zealous Royalist, born in Norfolk; was for his zeal in the royal cause committed to prison; having escaped, he was allowed to live in retirement under Cromwell, but woke up a vigorous pamphleteer and journalist in the old interest at the Restoration, "wounding his Whig foes very sorely, and making them wince"; he translated Josephus, Cicero's "Offices," Seneca's "Morals," the "Colloquies" of Erasmus, and Quevedo's "Visions," his most popular work (1616-1704).

LETHE (i. e. oblivion), in the Greek mythology a stream in the nether world, a draught of the waters of which, generally extended to the ghosts of the dead on their entrance into Pluto's kingdom, obliterated all recollection of the past and its sorrows.

LETO (i. e. the hidden one), one of the Titan brood, who became by Zeus the mother of Apollo and Artemis, and for whose confinement, in her persecution by Hera, Poseidon by a stroke of his trident fixed the till then floating island of Delos to the sea-bottom.

LETTER OF MARQUE, a commission to the captain of a merchant ship or a privateer to make reprisals on an enemy's ships or property.

LETTERS PATENT, a document under seal of the government granting some special privilege to a person.

LETTRES DE CACHET (i. e. sealed letters), warrants of imprisonment, issued prior to the Revolution, sealed with the private seal of the king, in contradistinction from lettres patentées, which were sealed by the Great Seal of the kingdom. See CACHET, LETTRE DE.

LEUCIPPUS, a Greek philosopher of the 6th century B.C., the founder of the Atomic theory of things, of which DEMOCRITUS (q. v.) was the chief expounder.

LEUCTRA, a village in Boeotia, to the S. of Thebes, where in 371 B.C. Epaminondas and his Thebans overthrew the ascendency of Sparta.

LEUTHEN, a village in the W. of Breslau, in Silesia, where Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians with great loss in 1757.

LEVANA, the title of a book by Jean Paul on the education of children; title from the name of a Roman goddess, the protectress of foundlings.

LEVANT (i. e. the Rising), a name given to the E. of the Mediterranean and the regions adjoining by the western peoples of the Mediterranean.

LEVEE, a morning reception held by the sovereign or some one of high rank.

LEVELLERS, a party of violent red-hot Republicans, led on by John Lilburne, who appeared in the time of the Commonwealth, but were suppressed by Cromwell.

LEVER, CHARLES JAMES, a novelist, born at Dublin, was by profession a physician; author of a numerous series of Irish stories written in a rollicking humour, "Harry Lorrequer" and "Charles O'Malley" among the chief; was a contributor to and for some time editor of Dublin University Magazine; held ultimately various consular appointments abroad, and after that wrote with success in a more sober style (1806-1872).

LEVERRIER, URBAN JEAN JOSEPH, French astronomer, born at St. Lô; distinguished in chemistry before he devoted himself to astronomy; rose to eminence in the latter science by a paper on the variations in the orbits of the planets, and was led to the discovery of the planet Neptune from perturbations in the orbit of the planet Uranus; he indicated the spot where the planet would be found, and it was actually discovered a few days after by Galle at Berlin (1811-1877).

LEVI, LEON, commercial economist, born at Ancona; settled in England and was naturalised; drew attention to the want of commercial organisation, and to whose pleading the first chamber of commerce, that of Liverpool, owes its existence; became professor of Commercial Law in King's College, London (1821-1888).

LEVIRITE LAW, a law among the Jews which ordained if a husband died without issue that his brother should take his widow to wife and raise up seed to him (Deut. xxv. 5-10).

LEVITES, a body of men divided into courses, the servants of the priests in the worship of the Temple of Jerusalem; they were not permitted to enter the sanctuary or serve at the altar, their duties being limited to keeping watch over the Temple, slaying the victims, and making other preparations for the sacred services.

LEVITICAL DEGREES, relationships that preclude marriage, so called as presumably fixed by the Levitical priesthood of the Jews.

LEVITICUS, the third book of the Pentateuch, so called as containing the laws and ordinances appointed to regulate the services of the sanctuary as conducted by a priesthood of the tribe of Levi, the narrative portion of it recording the consecration of Aaron and his sons, the death of Nadab and Abihu, and the stoning of the blasphemer, embracing a period of only one year, and the legislation of it no longer issuing from Mount Sinai, but from the door of the Tabernacle.

LEWALD, FANNY, an eminent German novelist, born at Königsberg, of Jewish parents; professed Christianity and was married to Adolf Stahr; was a realist in art and a zealous woman's rights advocate (1811-1889).

LEWES (11), the county town of Sussex, finely situated on a slope of the South Downs, 10 m. NE. of Brighton; was the scene of a victory of Simon de Montfort in 1264 over the forces of Henry III.; has a trade in corn and malt, and tanneries.

LEWES, GEORGE HENRY, a versatile man of letters, born in London, the son of an actor; wrote a "Biographical History of Philosophy" from the Positivist standpoint, published originally in 1845, and a "Life of Goethe" in 1855, "Seaside Studies," "Problems of Life and Mind," &c., and edited the Fortnightly Review; he did much to popularise both science and philosophy; though a married man with children, formed a connection with George Eliot, and died in her house (1817-1878).

LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNWALL, English statesman and political philosopher, born in London; held several important posts under and in the governments of the day; wrote on "Early Roman History," "The Influence of Authority on Matters of Opinion," "The Best Form of Government," "Ancient Astronomy," &c. (1806-1863).

LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY, romancer, familiarly known as Monk Lewis from the name of his principal novel, the "Monk," which was written, along with others, in Mrs. Radcliffe's vein and immensely popular, and literally swarmed with ghosts and demons (1773-1818).

LEYDEN, one of the chief towns of Holland and characteristically Dutch, 15 m. NW. of The Hague, with a famous university founded by the Prince of Orange in 1576, containing the richest natural history museum in the world; it is noted for the bravery and power of endurance of its inhabitants, manifest for a whole year (1573-74) during the War of Independence.

LEYDEN, JOHN, poet and Orientalist, born in Denholm, son of a shepherd; bred for the Church, his genius and abilities attracted the notice of influential people; was introduced to Scott, and assisted him in his "Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border"; went to India as a military surgeon; studied and prelected on the native dialects; became a judge in Calcutta; died of fever (1775-1811).

LEYDEN, JOHN OF, leader of the Anabaptists in Münster, born in The Hague; beset with his followers, who regarded him as a prophet, in Münster, he was taken alive after a siege of six months and tortured to death in 1536.

LEYDEN, LUCAS VAN, an eminent early Dutch painter and engraver, born in Leyden; succeeded in every branch of painting, and, like Dürer, engraved his own pictures; his works are highly valued, and some of them very rare; he spent his means in high living and died young, only 39 (1494-1533).

LEYDEN JAR, an electric condenser, a cylindrical glass bottle lined inside and outside with metal to within a short distance from the top, while a brass rod connected with the inside coating extends upward through a wooden stopper terminating in a knob.

LEYS SCHOOL, the Cambridge school founded in 1875 to supply under unsectarian religious influences a high-class education, the founders of it having been chiefly members of the Methodist body.

LHASSA (seat of the gods) (50), the capital of Thibet, and the metropolis of the Buddhist world in the Chinese Empire, stands in the middle of a plain 11,900 ft. above the sea-level; on a hill in the NW. of the centre of the city, a conical hill called Potala, amid temples and palaces, is the residence of the Grand Lama; the monasteries are 15 in number, and the priests 20,000, and it is the centre of the caravan trade.

L'HÔPITAL. See HÔPITAL, MICHEL DE L'.

LI, a Chinese mile, equal to one-third of an English mile.

LIA-FAIL, the stone of destiny on which the Irish kings used to be crowned, which was at length removed to Scone, in Perthshire, and is now in Westminster under the coronation chair, having been removed thither by Edward I.

LIBERALISM, MODERN, "practically summed up" by Ruskin, in "the denial or neglect of the quality and intrinsic worth in things, the incapacity of discerning or refusal to discern worth and unworth in anything, and least of all in man."

LIBERAL-UNIONIST, one of the Liberal party in English politics, which in 1886 quitted the Liberal ranks and joined the Conservative party in opposition to the Home Rule policy of Mr. Gladstone.

LIBERATIONIST, one who advocates the emancipation of the Church from State control.

LIBERIA (1,500), a negro republic on the Grain Coast of Africa, founded in 1822 by American philanthropists as a settlement for freedmen, with a constitution after the model of the United States.

LIBERTY, FRATERNITY, AND EQUALITY, the trinity of modern democracy, and which first found expression as a political creed in the French Revolution, of which the first term is now held to require definition, the second to have only a sentimental basis, and the third to be in violation of the fact of things; universal suffrage is the expression of it politically.

LIBRATION, the name given to certain apparent movements in the moon as if it swayed like a balance both in latitude and longitude in its revolution round the earth.

LIBRI-CARRUCCI, COUNT, Italian mathematician; professor at Pisa, but obliged to resign for his liberal opinions and take refuge in France, where he was made professor at the Sorbonne, was a kleptomaniac in the matter of books (1803-1869).

LIBYA, a name by the early geographers to the territory in Africa which lay between Egypt, Ethiopia, and the shores of the Atlantic.

LICHFIELD (8), ancient ecclesiastical town in Staffordshire, 15 m. SE. of Stafford, an episcopal see since 656, with a cathedral in Early English style, recently completely restored; has an ancient grammar school, a museum, and school of art; the birthplace of Samuel Johnson; its industries are brewing, coachbuilding, and implement making.

LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH, German physicist and satirist, born near Darmstadt; was educated at Göttingen, and appointed professor there in 1770; he wrote a commentary on Hogarth's copperplates; his reputation in Germany as a satirist is high (1742-1799).

LICINIUS, CAIUS, a Roman tribune and consul, of plebeian birth, author of several laws intended to minimise the distinction politically between patrician and plebeian, in office between 376 and 361 B.C.

LICK OBSERVATORY, an observatory built at the expense of James Lick, an American millionaire, on one of the peaks of Mount Hamilton, California, with a telescope that has the largest object-glass of any in the world.

LICTOR, an officer in Rome who bore the FASCES (q. v.) before a magistrate when on duty.

LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE, Greek lexicographer, graduated at Oxford in 1833; was tutor of Christ Church, and in 1845 appointed professor of Moral Philosophy; he was successively Head-master of Winchester, Dean of Christ Church, and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford from 1870 to 1874; his great work is a Greek lexicon (first edition 1843, last 1883), of which he was joint-author with Dr. Robert Scott, and which is the standard work of its kind in English; b. 1811.

LIDDON, HENRY PARRY, canon of St. Paul's, London, born in Hants; educated at Christ Church, Oxford; eminent both as a scholar and a preacher; author of an eloquent course of lectures, the Bampton, "On the Divinity of Jesus Christ"; belonged to the Liberal section of the High-Church party (1829-1890).

LIEBIG, BARON VON, eminent German chemist, born at Darmstadt; in 1824 attracted the attention of Alexander von Humboldt by a paper before the Institute of France on fulminates, and was appointed to the chair of Chemistry in Giessen, where he laboured 28 years, attracting students from all quarters, and where his laboratory became a model of many others elsewhere; wrote a number of works on chemistry, inorganic and organic, animal and agricultural, and their applications, as well as papers and letters; accepted a professorship in Münich in 1852, and in 1860 was appointed President of the Münich Academy of Sciences (1803-1873).

LIÈGE (160), a town in Belgium and capital of the Walloons, in a very picturesque region at the confluence of the Ourthe with the Meuse, the busiest town in Belgium and a chief seat of the woollen manufacture; it is divided in two by the Meuse, which is spanned by 17 bridges; it is the centre of a great mining district, and besides woollens has manufactures of machinery, and steel and iron goods.

LIEGNITZ (46), a town in Silesia, 40 m. NW. of Breslau, where Frederick the Great gained a victory over the Austrians in 1760.

LIFEGUARDS, the British royal household troops, consisting of cavalry and infantry regiments.

LIGHTFOOT, JOHN, Orientalist and divine, born at Stoke-upon-Trent, son of a clergyman, educated at Cambridge; took orders and was rector of Ashley, Staffordshire, till 1642; next year he was one of the most influential members of the Westminster Assembly; in 1652 he was made D.D., was Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge in 1653, and subsequently prebendary of Ely; one of England's earlier Hebrew scholars, the great work of his life was the "Horæ Hebraicæ et Talmudicæ," published in large part posthumously (1602-1675).

LIGHTFOOT, JOSEPH BARBER, bishop of Durham, born at Liverpool; was a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was eminent among English scholars as a New Testament exegete, became bishop of Durham in 1879; died at Bournemouth (1828-1889).

LIGNY, a village 13 m. from Charleroi, where Napoleon defeated Blücher two days before the battle of Waterloo while Wellington and Marshal Ney were engaged at Quatre Bras.

LIGUORI, ST. ALPHONSE MARIA DI, founder of the Redemptorists, born at Naples of a noble family; bred to the law, but devoted himself to a religious life, received holy orders, lived a life of austerity, and gave himself up to reclaim the lost and instruct the poor and ignorant; was a man of extensive learning, and found time from his pastoral labours to contribute extensively to theological literature and chiefly casuistry, to the extent of 70 volumes; was canonised in 1839; the order he founded is called by his own name as well (1696-1787).

LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, a name given by Bonaparte to the republic of Genoa, founded in 1797.

LI HUNG CHANG, an eminent and enlightened Chinese statesman; is favourable to European culture and intercourse with Europe; was sent as a special envoy to the Czar's coronation in 1896, and afterwards visited other countries in Europe, including our own, and the States and Canada; b. 1823.

LILBURNE, JOHN, a victim of the Star-Chamber in the time of Charles I., and exposed on the pillory as well as fined and imprisoned; joined the Parliamentary ranks and fought for the Commonwealth, but as an Independent indulged in violent harangues against Cromwell, and was committed to the Tower, but on his release turned Quaker (1618-1657).

LILITH or LILIS, the name of Adam's first wife, whom, according to Jewish tradition, he had before Eve, and who bore him in that wedlock the whole progeny of aërial, aquatic, and terrestrial devils, and who, it seems, still wanders about the world bewitching men to like issue and slaying little children not protected by amulets against her.

LILLE (161), chief town in the department of Nord, in the extreme N. of France, 60 m. inland from Calais, an ancient and at present very strong fortress, is in a fertile district; the town, rebuilt in modern times, has a Catholic university, a medical school, library, and art gallery, and thriving industries, linen, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and many others.

LILLIPUT, a country inhabited by a very diminutive race of men not larger in size than a man's finger, visited by Gulliver in his travels.

LILLO, GEORGE, English dramatist, born in London, by trade a jeweller; wrote seven comedies, of which "The Fatal Curiosity" and "George Barnwell" are the best and the best appreciated (1693-1739).

LILLY, WILLIAM, an English astrologer, born in Leicestershire, who made gain by his fortune-telling during the Commonwealth period especially, but got into trouble afterwards as a presumed mischief-maker (1602-1681).

LIMA (200), capital of Peru, 6 m. inland from Callao, its port, a picturesque but somewhat shabby city, 700 ft. above the sea-level, regularly built, with many plazas; has a cathedral and 70 churches; trade is in the hands of foreigners, mostly Germans, and industries are unimportant; it was founded by Pizarro, and his bones lie buried in the cathedral.

LIMBURG, in the basin of the Meuse, formerly a duchy, was after various fortunes divided in 1839 into Belgian Limburg (225), on the W. of the river, capital Hasselt (13), and Dutch Limburg (262), on the E., capital Maestricht (33); partly moorland and partly arable, it has coal, iron, sugar, and tobacco industries.

LIMBUS or LIMBO, according to Catholic theologians a region on the confines of Hades tenanted, the limbus patrum, by the souls of good men who died before Christ's advent, and the limbus infantium, by the souls of unbaptized infants, both of whom await there the resurrection morn to join the ransomed in heaven.

LIMELIGHT, a bright light caused by making a stream of two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, play in a state of ignition on a piece of compact quicklime.

LIMERICK (159), Irish county on the S. of the Shannon estuary, between Tipperary and Kerry, watered by the Mulcai, Maigue, and Deel; hilly in the S., is mostly fertile, and under corn and green crops; cattle are reared and dairy products exported; some woollens and paper manufactured. There are many antiquities. Limerick (37), the county town, on the Shannon, is the fourth Irish seaport, and manufactures a little lace.

LIMITED LIABILITY, liability on the part of the shareholders of a joint-stock company limited by the amount of their shares.

LIMOGES (68), chief town in the dep. of Haute-Vienne, on the Vienne River, 250 m. S. of Paris; has a Gothic cathedral; is one of the chief manufacturing towns of France. Its porcelain and woollen cloths are widely famed; it has a large transit trade; it gives name to a fine kind of surface enamel, which was brought to perfection there.

LINCOLN (44), capital of Lincolnshire, on the Witham, 130 m. N. of London; is a very old and quaint city, with one of the finest cathedrals in England, and many historic buildings. Its annual spring horse-fair is among the largest in the world. It manufactures agricultural instruments, and trades in flour. Its stands on the Oolitic Ridge, and commands a wide view of the Trent Valley.

LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, sixteenth President of the United States, born near Hodgensville, Kentucky; spent his boyhood there and in the Indiana forests, and picked up some education in the backwoods schools; passed some years in rough work; he was clerk in a store at New Salem, Illinois; became village postmaster and deputy county surveyor, and began to study law; from 1834 to 1842 he led the Whigs in the State legislature, and in 1846 entered Congress; he prospered as a lawyer, and almost left politics; but the opening of the slavery question in 1854 recalled him, and in a series of public debates with Stephen Douglas established his reputation as debater and abolitionist; unsuccessful in his candidature for the Senate, he was nominated by the Republicans for the Presidency, and elected 1860; his election was the signal for the secession of the Southern States; Lincoln refused to recognise the secession, accepted the war, and prosecuted it with energy; on New Year's day, 1863, he proclaimed the emancipation of the negroes, and was re-elected President in 1864, but shortly after his second inauguration was assassinated; he was a man of high character, straightforward, steadfast, and sympathetic (1809-1865).

LINCOLN'S INN. See INNS OF COURT.

LINCOLNSHIRE (473), maritime county in the E. of England, between the Humber and the Wash, next to Yorkshire in size, consists of upland country in the W., chalk downs in the E., and fens in the S., but these well reclaimed and cultivated. It is watered by the Trent, Witham, and Welland, and crossed by numerous canals. Iron abounds in the W.; sheep, cattle, and horses are raised. Grimsby is a shipping and fishing centre. Sir Isaac Newton and Lord Tennyson were born in the county, which has many historic associations.

LINCRUSTA WALTON, a plastic material invented by Walton, capable of being moulded into raised patterns for decorating walls, &c.

LIND, JENNY (Madame Otto Goldschmidt), the Swedish nightingale, born at Stockholm; giving evidence of her power of song in childhood, she was put under a master at nine; too soon put to practise in public, her voice at twelve showed signs of contracting, but after four years recovered its full power, when, appearing as Alice in "Robert le Diable," the effect was electric; henceforth her fame was established, and followed her over the world; in 1844 she made a round of the chief cities of Germany; made her first appearance in London in 1847, and visited New York in 1851, where she married, and then left the stage for good, to appear only now and again at intervals for some charitable object; she was plain looking, and a woman of great simplicity both in manners and ways of thinking (1821-1882).

LINDLEY, JOHN, distinguished botanist, born near Norwich; wrote extensively on botany according to the natural system of classification, and did much to popularise the study; was professor of the science in London University (1799-1865).

LINDSAY, name of a Scottish family of Norman extraction, and that first figures in Scottish history in the reign of David I.

LINDSAY or LYNDSAY, SIR DAVID, OF THE MOUNT, Scottish poet, born at the Mount, near Cupar, Fife, at the grammar-school of which he was educated, as afterwards at St. Andrews University; was usher to James V. from his childhood, and knighted by him after he came of age; did diplomatic work in England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark; is famous as the author of, among others, three poems, the "Satire of the Three Estates," "Dialogues between Experience and a Courtier," and the "History of Squire Meldrum," of which the first is the most worthy of note, and is divided into five parts, the main body of it a play of an allegorical kind instinct with conventional satire; without being a partisan of the Reformation, his works, from the satire in them being directed against the Church, contributed very materially to its reception in Scotland approximately (1490-1555).

LINGA, a symbol in the phallus worship of the East of the male or generative power in nature. This worship prevails among the Hindu sect of the Givas or Sivas, and the symbol takes the form of the pistil of a flower, or an erect cylindrical stone.

LINGARD, JOHN, historian, born at Winchester, the son of a carpenter; besides a work on the "Antiquity of the Anglo-Saxon Church," wrote a "History of England from the Roman Invasion to the Reign of William III.," the first written that shows anything like scholarly accuracy, and fairly impartial, though the author's religious views as a Roman Catholic, it is alleged, distort the facts a little (1771-1851).

LINGUA FRANCA, a jargon composed of a mixture of languages used in trade intercourse.

LINLITHGOW (4), the county town of Linlithgowshire, 16 m. W. of Edinburgh, on the S. shore of a loch of the name, with a palace, the birthplace of James V.; the county (52) lying on the S. shore of the Forth, and rich in minerals.

LINNÆUS, or more properly LINNÉ, KARL VON, great Swedish naturalist, specially in the department of botany, a branch to the study of which he was devoted from his earliest years; he was the founder of the system of the classification of plants which bears his name, and which is determined by the number and disposition of the reproductive organs, but which is now superseded by the natural system of Jussieu; he was professor at Upsala, and his works on his favourite subject were numerous, and extended far and wide his reputation as a naturalist (1707-1778).

LINNELL, JOHN, English painter, painted portraits at first, but in the end landscapes, of which last "The Windmill" and a wood scene are in the National Gallery; he was a friend and an admirer of William Blake (1807-1882).

LINOLEUM, a floorcloth, being a composition of cork and linseed oil with chloride of silver.

LINOTYPE, a contrivance for setting and casting words or lines for printing.

LINZ (47), the capital of the crownland of Upper Austria, on the right bank of the Danube; a busy commercial place, a great railway centre, and the seat of the manufacture of woollen goods, linen, tobacco, &c.; is also of great strategical importance in time of war.

LION, THE, the king of animals, was the symbol of power, courage, and virtue, and in Christian art of the resurrection; is in general, as Mr. Fairholt remarks, "a royal symbol, and in emblem of dominion, command, magnanimity, vigilance, and strength; representing when couchant sovereignty, when rampant magnanimity, when passant resolution, when guardant prudence, when saliant valour, when sciant counsel, and when regardant circumspection."

LIP`ARI ISLANDS (22), a group of islands of volcanic origin, 12 in number, off the N. coast of Sicily, in two of which, Vulcano and Stromboli, the volcanic force is still active, the latter emitting clouds of steam at intervals of five minutes.

LIPPE (128), an old N. German principality, the principal towns of which are Detmold, Lemgo, and Horn.

LIPPI, FILIPPINO, Italian painter, son of the succeeding; is presumed to have been a pupil of BOTTICELLI'S (q. v.); his earliest known work is the "Vision of St. Bernard" in Florence, and he executed various works in Bologna, Genoa, and Rome; painted frescoes and altar-pieces, and scenes in the lives of St. Peter and St. Paul (1460-1504).

LIPPI, FRA FILIPPO, Italian painter, born at Florence; left an orphan, was brought up in a monastery, where his talent for art was developed and encouraged; went to Ancona, was carried off by pirates, but procured his release by his skill in drawing, and returning to Italy practised his art in Florence and elsewhere, till one day he eloped with a novice in a nunnery who sat to him for a Madonna, by whom he became the father of a son no less famous than himself; he prosecuted his art amid poverty with zeal and success to the last; distinguished by Ruskin (Fors xxiv. 4) as the only monk who ever did good painter's work; he had Botticelli for a pupil (1412-1469).

LIPSIUS, JUSTUS, an erudite Belgian scholar, with fast and loose religious principles; was the author of numerous learned works (1547-1579).

LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT, distinguished German theologian, born in Gera; professor in succession at Vienna, Kiel, and Jena; wrote on dogmatics, the philosophy of religion, and New Testament criticism (1830-1892).

LISBON (301), the capital of Portugal, a magnificent town, built on the N. bank of the Tagus, 9 m. from its mouth, extends along the banks of the river 9 m. and inland 5 m.; it boasts of an array of fine buildings and squares, a number of literary and scientific institutions, and a spacious harbour; is remarkable for a marble aqueduct which brings water more than 10 m. across the valley of Alcantara; the manufactures include tobacco, soap, wool, and chemicals, and the exports wine, oil, and fruits; it suffered from an earthquake of great violence in 1755, by which the greater part of the city was destroyed, and from 30,000 to 40,000 of the inhabitants were killed.

LISTER, JOSEPH, LORD, eminent surgeon, born at Upton, Essex; the founder of modern antiseptic surgery, and is as such reckoned among the world's greatest benefactors; was President of the British Association in 1896, and is surgeon-extraordinary to the Queen; b. 1827.

LISTON, JOHN, an English actor of low comedy, and long famous on the London stage, to which he was introduced by Charles Kemble; d. 1846.

LISTON, ROBERT, a celebrated surgeon, born in Linlithgowshire; studied in Edinburgh and London; was distinguished as an operator; was professor of Clinical Surgery in University College, London, and author of "Elements of Surgery" and "Practical Surgery" (1794-1847).

LISZT, ABBÉ FRANZ, famous pianist, a Hungarian by birth; born with a genius for music, his first efforts at composition were not successful, and it was not till he heard what Paganini made of the violin that he thought what might be made of the piano, and that he devoted himself to the culture of piano music, with the result that he not only became the first pianist himself, but produced a set of compositions that had the effect of raising the art to the highest pitch of perfection; he was a zealous Catholic, and took holy orders, but this did not damp his ardour or weaken his power as a musician; he spent the greater part of his life at Weimar, but he practised his art far and wide, and his last visit to England in 1886, the year on which he died, created quite a flutter in musical circles (1811-1886).

LITANY, a form of supplication in connection with some impending calamity in which the prayer of the priest or officiating clergyman is responded to by the congregation.

LITERATURE, defined by Carlyle "as an 'apocalypse of nature,' a revealing of the 'open secret,' a 'continuous revelation' of the God-like in the terrestrial and common, which ever endures there, and is brought out now in this dialect, now in that, with various degrees of clearness ... there being touches of it (i. e. the God-like) in the dark stormful indignation of a Byron, nay, in the withered mockery of a French sceptic, his mockery of the false, a love and worship of the true ... how much more in the sphere harmony of a Shakespeare, the cathedral music of a Milton; something of it too in those humble, genuine, lark-notes of a Burns, skylark starting from the humble furrow far overhead into the blue depths, and singing to us so genuinely there."

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy occupying portions of the valleys of the Dwina, Niemen, Dnieper, and Bug; for centuries connected with Poland; passed to Russia in 1814. The Lithuanians are a distinct race of the Indo-European stock, fair and handsome, with a language of their own, and a literature rich in folk-lore and songs. Of a strong religious temperament, they embraced Christianity late (13th century), and still retain many pagan superstitions; formerly serfs, they are now a humble peasantry engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, and bee-keeping.

LITMUS, a colouring matter obtained from certain lichens; extensively used in chemical experiments to detect acids, for instance.

LITTLE CORPORAL, a name given to Bonaparte after the battle of Lodi from his small stature, he being only 5 ft. 2 in.

LITTLE ENGLANDERS, those politicians who hold that English statesmen should concern themselves with England only and its internal affairs.

LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS, English jurist of the 15th century; was recorder of Coventry in 1450, judge of Common Pleas 1466, and knighted in 1475; his work on "Tenures" was the first attempt to classify the law of land rights, and was the basis of the famous "Coke upon Littleton"; d. 1481.

LITTRÉ, a celebrated French scholar, physician, philologist, and philosopher, born in Paris; wrote on medical subjects, and translated Hippocrates; was of the Positivist school in philosophy, and owes his fame chiefly to his "Dictionnaire de la Langue Française," published in 1863-72, and on which he spent forty years' labour (1801-1881).

LITURGY is sometimes used as including any form of public worship, but more strictly it denotes the form for the observance of the Eucharist. As development from the simple form of their institution in the primitive Church liturgies assumed various forms, and only by degrees certain marked types began to prevail: viz., the Roman, ascribed to St. Peter, in Latin, and prevailing in the Roman Catholic Church all over the world; the Ephesian, ascribed to St. John, in corrupt Latin, included the old Scottish and Irish forms, heard now only in a few places in Spain; the Jerusalem, ascribed to St. James, in Greek, the form of the Greek Church and in translation of the Armenians; the Babylonian, ascribed to St. Thomas, in Syriac, used still by the Nestorians and Christians of St. Thomas; and the Alexandrian, ascribed to St. Mark, in a Græco-Coptic jargon, in use among the Copts; these all contain certain common elements, but differ in order and in subsidiary parts; the Anglican liturgy is adapted from the Roman; other Protestant liturgies or forms of service are mostly of modern date and compiled from Scripture sources.

LIVA, an Italian coin worth 9½ d., and the monetary unit in the country.

LIVERPOOL (585), the third city and first seaport of Great Britain, in Lancashire, on the Mersey, 3 m. from the sea, formerly the chief seat of the slave interest in Britain; owed its present prosperity to the impulse of the cotton trade at the end of the 18th century; progressing rapidly it has now docks stretching six miles along the Mersey, which receive a sixth of the tonnage that visits British ports; through it passes a third of our foreign trade, including enormous imports of wheat and cotton and exports of cotton goods; it possesses shipbuilding and engineering works, iron-foundries, flour, tobacco, and chemical factories; the public buildings, town hall, exchange, colleges, and observatory are fine edifices; it was the native place of W. E. Gladstone.

LIVERPOOL, EARL OF, ROBERT JENKINSON, English statesman, educated at Oxford; entered Parliament 1791, and as Foreign Secretary negotiated the peace of Amiens in 1802; becoming Lord Hawkesbury in 1803, he became Home Secretary under Pitt, and succeeding to the earldom in 1808; was War Secretary under Perceval in 1800, Premier from 1812 to 1827; he liberalised the tariff and maintained a sound finance, uniting and holding together the Tory party at a critical period (1770-1828).

LIVERYMEN, name given to members of the several guilds or corporations of London and freemen of the city, so called as entitled to wear the livery belonging to their respective companies; they possess certain privileges of a civic character.

LIVINGSTONE, DAVID, African traveller and missionary, born in Blantyre, Lanarkshire; began life as a mill-worker, studied medicine and theology at Glasgow, and was sent out to Africa by the London Missionary Society in 1840, landed at Port Natal, and addressed himself to missionary work; moving north, he arrived at Lake Ngami in 1849, and ascending the Zambesi in 1853 arrived at Loanda next year; later on he explored the course of the Zambesi and its tributaries, discovered Lake Nyassa, and set himself to discover the sources of the Nile, but this expedition proved too much for him, and he died exhausted; his body was embalmed, brought home to England, and buried in Westminster Abbey (1815-1873).

LIVIUS, TITUS (LIVY), illustrious Roman historian, born at Patavium (Padua); appears to have settled early in Rome and spent the most of his life there; his reputation rests on his "History of Rome from the Foundation of the City to the Death of Drusus," it consisted of 142 chapters, but of these only 30 remain entire and 5 in fragments, bequeathing to posterity his account of the early history of the city and of the wars with Hannibal (59-17 B.C.).

LIVONIA (1,260), Russian Baltic province on the Gulf of Riga; is flat and marshy, and only moderately fertile; produces rye, barley, and potatoes; its chief industries are distilling, brewing, and iron-founding, and fishing; four-fifths of the population are Letts and Esthonians, only 5 per cent. are Russian; the original Finnic Livonians are almost extinct; capital Riga (180).

LIVRAISON, part of a serial issued from time to time.

LLANDUDNO (6), a fashionable watering-place at the foot of Great Ormes Head, Carnarvon, frequented by people from Yorkshire and Lancashire.

LLANELLY (32), a manufacturing seaport in Carmarthenshire for shipping coal, iron, and copper.

LLANOS, vast level plains twice the size of Great Britain in the N. of South America, in the basin of the Orinoco, covered in great part with tall grass and stocked in the rainy season with herds of cattle; during the dry season they are a desert.

LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO, Spanish historian, is the author of several works, but his celebrity is mainly due to his "History of the Spanish Inquisition," of which in 1789 he became the secretary (1760-1823).

LLOYD'S, a part of the Royal Exchange, London, appropriated to the use of underwriters and for marine intelligence, frequented by those interested in merchant shipping; so called from Lloyd's Coffee-house, formerly the head-quarters of the class.

LOAD-LINE, line painted on the outside of a vessel to mark the extreme of immersion in loading her with a cargo.

LOADSTONE or LODESTONE, an iron ore remarkable for its magnetic quality or power of attracting iron; it derived its name from its use as a leading stone in the compass to mariners.

LOBBY, THE, hall connected with a legislative assembly to which the public have access.

LOCAL OPTION, licence granted to the inhabitants of a district to extinguish or reduce the sale of intoxicants in their midst.

LOCHABER, a Highland district in the S. of Inverness-shire.

LOCHABER AXE, an axe with a broad blade and a long handle formerly in use among the Highlanders as a weapon.

LOCHIEL, a Highland chief, Sir Evan Cameron his name, head of the Cameron clan, who held out against William III.'s rule in the Highlands, but ultimately took the oath of allegiance; d. 1719.

LOCHINVAR, hero of a ballad in Scott's "Marmion," who carries off his sweetheart just as she is about to be sacrificed in marriage to another whom she loathes.

LOCHLEVEN, Scottish lake in Kinross-shire overshadowed by Benarty and the West Lomond, is 23 m. NW. of Edinburgh; in a castle on one of its islands Mary Stuart was imprisoned 1567-68; it is now famous for its trout.

LOCKE, JOHN, English philosopher, the father of modern materialism and empiricism, born in Wrington, Somerset; studied medicine, but did not practise it, and gave himself up to a literary life, much of it spent in the family of the celebrated Earl of Shaftesbury, both at home with it and abroad; his great work is his "Essay on the Human Understanding" in 1690, which was preceded by "Letters on Toleration," published before the expulsion of James II., and followed by the "Treatise on Government" the same year, and "Thoughts on Education" in 1693; his "Essay" was written to show that all our ideas were derived from experience, that is, through the senses and reflection on what they reveal, and that there are no innate ideas; "Locke," says Prof. Saintsbury, "is eminently" (that is, before all his contemporaries) "of such stuff as dreams are not made of"--is wholly a prosaic practical man and Englishman (1632-1704).

LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON, man of letters, born in Cambusnethan; bred for the Scottish bar and practised at it; contributed to Blackwood, wrote in collaboration with John Wilson "Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk"; married Sophia Scott, Sir Walter's daughter, in 1820, lived a good deal near Abbotsford, wrote some four novels and "Spanish Ballads," became editor of the Quarterly in 1825, and began in 1837 his "Life of Scott," a great work, and his greatest; died at Abbotsford, health broken and in much sorrow; his "Life" has been interestingly written by Andrew Lang (1794-1854).

LOCKOUT, the exclusion of workmen from a factory by the employer to bring them to terms which they decline to accept.

LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN, astronomer, born at Rugby; became clerk in the War Office in 1857, was secretary to the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction in 1870, and was transferred to the Science and Art Department in 1875; he directed Government eclipse expeditions to Sicily, India, Egypt, and the West Indies; in 1860 he became F.R.S., received the Society's Rumford medal in 1874, next year was appointed corresponding Member of the Institute of France and received the Janssen medal in 1891; he was knighted in 1897; he made important discoveries in spectrum analysis, and has written several astronomical works; b. 1836.

LOCO-FOCOS, the name, which denotes lucifer-matches, given to an ultra-democratic or radical party in the United States because at a meeting when on one occasion the lights were extinguished the matches which they carried were drawn and the lamps lit again.

LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece of two distinct tribes occupying different districts of the country.

LODI (18), a town in Lombardy, 18 m. SE. of Milan, on the Adda, famous for a signal victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians in 1796 in the face of a tremendous fire.

LOEWE, GOTTFRIED, German composer; composed oratorios, operas, and pianoforte pieces; sang and played in London in 1847 (1796-1869).

LOFODEN ISLANDS (20), a rugged mountainous chain on the NW. Norwegian coast within the Arctic circle, with winters rendered mild by the Gulf Stream, afford pasturage for sheep; the waters between them and the mainland are a rich cod-fishing ground, visited by thousands of boats between January and March.

LOGAN, JOHN, a Scotch poet, born at Soutra; was for a time minister in South Leith church, but was obliged to resign; was the author of a lyric, "The Braes of Yarrow" and certain of the Scotch paraphrases (1748-1788). See BRUCE, MICHAEL.

LOGARITHM, the exponent of the power to which a fixed number, called the base, must be raised to produce a certain given number.

LOGIC, the science of correct thinking or of the laws which regulate thought, called also dialectics; or in the Hegelian system "the scientific exposition and development of those notions or categories which underlie all things and all being."

LOGIC SPECTACLES, Carlyle's name for eyes that can only discern the external relations of things, but not the inner nature of them.

LOGOS, an expression in St. John's gospel translated the Word (in chap. i.) to denote the manifestation of God, or God as manifested, defined in theology as the second person of the Deity, and viewed as intermediary between God as Father and God as Spirit.

LOG-ROLLING, mutual praise by authors of each other's work.

LOHENGRIN, hero of a German 13th-century poem; son of Parzival, and a Knight of the Grail; carried by a swan to Brabant he delivered and married the Princess Elsa; subsequently returning from war against the Saracens, she asked him of his origin; he told her, and was at once carried back again by the swan. Wagner adapted the story in his opera "Lohengrin."

LOIRE, the largest river in France, 630 m., rises in the Cévennes, flows northwards to Orleans and westward to the Bay of Biscay, through a very fertile valley which it often inundates. It is navigable for 550 m., but its lower waters are obstructed by islands and shoals; it is connected by canals with the Seine, Saône, and Brest Harbour.

LOKI, in the Norse mythology, a primitive spirit of evil who mingles with the Norse gods, distinguished for his cunning and ensnaring ways, whose devices are only evil in appearance, and are overruled for good.

LOLLARDS, originally a religious community established at Antwerp in 1300, devoted to the care of the sick and burial of the dead, and as persecuted by the Church, regarded as heretics. Their name became a synonym for heretic, and was hence applied to the followers of Wycliffe in England and certain sectaries in Ayrshire.

LOMBARD, PETER, a famous schoolman, born in Lombardy in the 12th century, of poor parents; was a disciple of Abelard; taught theology at, and became Bishop of, Paris; was styled the Master of Sentences, as author of a compilation of sentences from Augustine and other Church Fathers on points of Christian doctrine, and long used as a manual in scholastic disputations.

LOMBARDS, a German people, settled at the beginning of our era about the lower Elbe. In the 5th century we find them in Moravia, and a century later established, a powerful people, between the Adriatic and the Danube. They invaded Italy in 568, and in three years had mastered the North, but abandoning their Arian faith they gradually became Italianised, and after the overthrow of their dynasty by Charlemagne in 774 they became merged in the Italians. From the 13th century Italian merchants, known as Lombards, from Lucca, Florence, Venice, and Genoa, traded under much odium, largely in England as wool-dealers and bankers, whence the name Lombard Street.

LOMBARDY (3,982), an inland territory of Northern Italy between the Alps and the Po, Piedmont, and Venetia. In the N. are Alpine mountains and valleys rich in pasturage; in the S. a very fertile, well irrigated plain, which produces cereals, rice, and sub-tropical plants. The culture of the silkworm is extensive; there are textile and hardware manufactures. The chief towns are Milan, Pavia, and Corno. Austrian in 1713, Napoleon made it part of the kingdom of Italy in 1805; it was restored to Austria in 1815, and finally again to Italy in 1859.

LOMOND, LOCH, an irregularly-shaped lake in Dumbarton and Stirling shires, 22 m. long and of varying breadth; contains a number of small wooded islands; on the eastern shore rises Ben Lomond to the height of 3192 ft.

LONDON (5,633), on the Thames, 50 m. from the sea, the capital of the British Empire, is the most populous and wealthiest city in the world. An important place in Roman times, it was the cap. of the East Saxons, and has been the metropolis of England since the Norman Conquest; it possesses, therefore, innumerable historic buildings and associations. Often devastated by plague and fire, its progress has never been stayed; its population has more than quadrupled itself this century, and more than doubled since 1850. The City of London proper occupies one square mile in the centre, is wholly a commercial part, and is governed by an annually elected mayor and aldermen; is the seat of a bishopric, with St. Paul's for cathedral. The City of Westminster is also a bishopric under a high steward and high bailiff, chosen by the dean and chapter. These two cities, with twenty-five boroughs under local officers, constitute the metropolis, and since 1888 the county of the city of London, and send 59 members to Parliament. Streets in the older parts are narrow, but newer districts are well built; the level ground and density of building detracts from the effect of innumerable magnificent edifices. Buckingham, Kensington, and St. James's are royal residences; the Houses of Parliament are the biggest Gothic building in the world; St. Paul's, built by Sir Christopher Wren, contains the remains of Nelson and Wellington, Reynolds, Turner, and Wren himself. Westminster, consecrated 1269, is the burial-place of England's greatest poets and statesmen, and of many kings; the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand were opened in 1882. London has a University (an examining body), 700 colleges and endowed schools, among which Westminster, Christ's Hospital, and the Charterhouse are famous, many medical hospitals, and schools and charitable institutions of all kinds. London is the centre of the English literary and artistic world, and of scientific interest and research; here are the largest publishing houses, the chief libraries and art-galleries, and museums; the British Museum and Library, the National Galleries, &c., and magnificent botanical and zoological gardens. London is also a grand emporium of commerce, and the banking centre of the world. It has nine principal docks; its shipping trade is unrivalled, 55,000 vessels enter and clear annually; it pays more than half the custom duties of the kingdom, and handles more than a quarter of the total exports; its warehouse trade is second only to that of Manchester; it manufactures everything, chiefly watches, jewellery, leather goods, cycles, pianos, and glass. The control of traffic, the lighting, and water-supply of so large a city are causing yearly more serious problems.

LONDON (30), the cap. of Middlesex county, Ontario, near the S. end of the peninsula, in the middle of a fertile district, and a rising place.

LONDONDERRY (152), maritime county in Ulster, washed by Lough Foyle and the Atlantic, surrounded by Donegal in the W., Tyrone in the S., and Antrim in the W., and watered by the Foyle, Roe, and Bann Rivers, somewhat hilly towards the S., is largely under pasture; the cultivated parts grow oats, potatoes, and flax; granted to the Corporation and Guilds of London in 1609, a large part of the land is still owned by them. The county town, LONDONDERRY (33), manufactures linen shirts, whisky, and iron goods, and does a considerable shipping trade. Its siege by the troops of James II. in 1689 is memorable.

LONG, GEORGE, a distinguished classical scholar, born in Lancashire; became professor of Greek in London University; edited several useful works, among others the "Penny Cyclopædia," on which he spent 11 years of his life (1800-1870).

LONG ISLAND (774), a long narrow island, 115 m. long by from 12 to 24 broad, belonging to New York State, off the shores of New York and Connecticut, from which it is separated by the East River and Long Island Sound. It is low, much of it forest and sandy waste land, with great lagoons in the S. The chief industry is market-gardening; fisheries and oyster-beds are valuable. Principal towns, Brooklyn, Long Island City, and Flushing.

LONG PARLIAMENT, the celebrated English Parliament which assembled 3rd November 1640, and was dissolved by Cromwell 20th April 1653, and which was afterwards restored, and did not finally decease till 16th March 1660.

LONG TOM COFFIN, a character in Cooper's novel "The Pilot," and of wider celebrity than any of the sailor class.

LONGCHAMP, a racecourse on the W. side of the Bois du Boulogne, Paris.

LONGCHAMP, WILLIAM DE, a low-born Norman favourite of Richard I., made by him bishop of Ely; became Justiciar of England 1190, and Papal Legate 1191; clever, energetic, just, and faithful, he yet incurred dislike by his ambition and arrogance, and was banished to Normandy; his energy in gathering the money for Richard's ransom restored him to favour, and he became Chancellor; d. 1197.

LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH, American poet, born at Portland, Maine; after studying on the Continent, became professor of Modern Languages in Harvard University; wrote "Hyperion," a romance in prose, and a succession of poems as well as lyrics, among the former "Evangeline," "The Golden Legend," "Hiawatha," and "Miles Standish" (1807-1882).

LONGINUS, DIONYSIUS CASSIUS, a learned Greek philosopher, rhetorician, and critic, and eminent in all three departments, being in philosophy a Platonist of pure blood; his fame as a teacher reached the ears of Zenobia, the queen of Palmyra, and being invited to her court he became her political adviser as well as the educator of her children, but on the surrender of the place he was beheaded by order of the Emperor Aurelian as a traitor; he wrote several works, but the only one that survives to some extent is his "Treatise on the Sublime," translated by Boileau (210-273).

LONGMANS, famous and oldest publishing house in London; founded by Thomas Longman of Bristol in 1726, and now in the hands of the fifth generation; has been associated with the production of Johnson's "Dictionary," Lindley Murray's "Grammar," the works of Wordsworth, Southey, Coleridge, and Scott, and Macaulay's "Lays," "Essays," and "History"; it absorbed the firm of Parker in 1863, and of Rivington in 1890.

LÖNNROT, ELIAS, a great Finnish scholar, born in Nyland; was professor at Helsingfors; was editor of ancient Finnish compositions, and author of a Finnish-Swedish Dictionary (1802-1884).

LOPE DE VEGA. See VEGA.

LORD OF THE ISLES, assumed title of Donald, a chief of Islay, who in 1346 reduced the whole of the Western Isles under his authority, and borne by his successors, and, as some allege, his ancestors as well.

LORELEI or LURLEI, a famous steep rock, 430 ft. high, on the Rhine, near St. Goar; dangerous to boatmen, on which it was fabled a siren sat combing her hair and singing to lure them to ruin; the subject of an exquisite Volkslied by Heine.

LORETTO, a city in Italy, 14 m. SE. of Ancona; celebrated as the site of the SANTA CASA (q. v.), and for the numerous pilgrims that annually resort to the holy shrine.

L'ORIENT (41), a seaport in Morbihan; contains the principal shipbuilding yard in France; was founded by the French East India Company in 1664 in connection with their trade in the East.

LORNE, MARQUIS OF, eldest son of the Duke of Argyll; entered Parliament in 1868; married Princess Louise, fourth daughter of Queen Victoria, in 1871; became Governor-General of Canada in 1878, member of Parliament for South Manchester in 1895, and is Governor of Windsor Castle; b. 1845.

LORRAINE, a district in France, between Metz and the Vosges; belonged originally to Germany, became French in 1766, and was restored to Germany in 1871.

LORRAINE, CLAUDE. See CLAUDE LORRAINE.

LOS ANGELES (11), a city in South California, 345 m. SE. of San Francisco, and founded in 1781; is the centre of a great orange-growing district, and a health resort.

LOST TRIBES, the ten tribes of the race of Israel whom the Assyrians carried off into captivity (see 2 Kings xvii. 6), and of whom all trace has been lost, and only in recent years guessed at.

LOTOPHAGI. See LOTUS EATERS.

LOTUS EATERS or LOTOPHAGI, an ancient people inhabiting a district of Cyrenaica, on the NE. coast of Africa, who lived on the fruit of the lotus-tree, from which they made wine. Ulysses and his companions in their wanderings landed on their shores, but the soothing influence of the lotus fruit so overpowered them with languor, that they felt no inclination to leave, or any more a desire to pursue the journey homewards. See Tennyson's poem "The Lotus-eaters."

LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN, German philosopher, born at Bautzen, in Saxony; professor successively at Göttingen and Berlin; believed in metaphysics as well as physics, and was versant in both; "Microcosmus" is his principal work, published in 1864; he founded the system of "teleological idealism," based on ethical considerations; he repudiated agnosticism, and had as little patience with a mere mechanical view of the universe as Carlyle (1817-1881).

LOUDON, JOHN CLAUDIUS, botanist and horticulturist, born at Cambuslang, Lanarkshire; wrote largely on plants and their cultivation, and an "Arboretum" on trees and shrubs (1783-1843).

LOUIS I., LE DÉBONNAIRE (i. e. the Gentle), was king of France from 814 to 840 in succession to his father Charlemagne, but was too meek and lowly to rule, and fitter for a monk than a king; suffered himself to be taken advantage of by his nobles and the clergy; was dethroned by his sons, and compelled to retire into a cloister, from which he was twice over brought forth to stay the ravages of their enemies; he divided his kingdom among them during his lifetime, and bequeathed it to them to guard over it when he was gone, to its dismemberment.

LOUIS VI., LE GROS (i. e. the Fat), was son of Philip I.; was associated in the royal power with his father from 1098 to 1108, and sole king from 1108 till 1137; in his struggle against the great vassals he, by the help of the clergy and the bourgeois, centralised the government in the crown; had trouble with Henry I. of England as Lord Superior of Normandy, and was defeated by him in battle in 1119; under his reign the burgesses achieved their independence, and though he did nothing to initiate the movement he knew how to profit from the achievement in the interest of the monarchy.

LOUIS VII., THE YOUNG, son of the preceding, married Eleanor of Aquitaine; took part in the second crusade; on his return divorced his queen for her profligacy in his absence, who married Henry II. of England, and brought with her as dowry to Henry the richest provinces of France, which gave rise to the Hundred Years' War (1120-1180).

LOUIS VIII., THE LION, son of Philip Augustus; offered by the barons of England the crown of England, he was crowned at London in 1216, but defeated at Lincoln next year, he was obliged to recross the Channel; became king of France in 1223; he took several towns from the English, and conducted a crusade against the Albigenses (1187-1226).

LOUIS IX., SAINT LOUIS, son of the preceding; was a minor at the death of his father, and the country was governed by his mother, Blanche of Castile, with a strong hand; on attaining his majority he found himself engaged with the English under Henry, who had been called on to assist certain of the great barons in revolt, but in 1242 he defeated them in three engagements; under a vow he made during a dangerous illness he became a crusader, and in 1249 landed in Egypt with 40,000 men, but in an engagement was taken prisoner by the Saracens; released in 1250 on payment of a large ransom, though he did not return home for two years after, till on hearing of the death of his mother, who had been regent during his absence; on his return he applied himself to the affairs of his kingdom and the establishment of the royal power, but undertaking a second crusade in 1270, he got as far as Tunis, where a plague broke out in the camp, and he became one of the victims, and one of his sons before him; he was an eminently good and pious man, and was canonised by Boniface VIII. in 1297 (1215-1270).

LOUIS XI., son of Charles VII., born at Bourges, of a cruel and treacherous nature, took part in two insurrections against his father, by whom he had been pardoned after the first and from whom he had to flee after the second for refuge to Burgundy, where he remained till his father's death in 1461; he signalised the commencement of his reign by severe measures against the great vassals, which provoked a revolt, headed by the Dukes of Burgundy and Bretagne, which he succeeded in subduing more by his crafty policy than force of arms; involved afterwards in a war with Charles the Bold of Burgundy and soliciting an interview, he was discovered by Charles to have been sowing treason among his subjects, taken prisoner, and only released on a solemn protestation of innocence; notwithstanding the sinister and often cruel character of his policy, he did much to develop the resources of the country and advance the cause of good government by the patronage of learning; the crimes he had committed weighed heavily on his mind towards the end of his days, and he died in great fear of death and the judgment (1423-1483).

LOUIS XIII., the son of Henry IV.; being only nine years old at the death of his father, the government was conducted by Marie de' Medicis, his mother, and at his accession the country was a prey to civil dissensions, which increased on the young king's marriage with a Spanish princess; the Huguenots rose in arms, but a peace was concluded in 1623; it was now Richelieu came to the front and assumed the reins with his threefold policy of taming the nobles, checkmating the Huguenots, and humbling the house of Austria; Rochelle, the head-quarters of the Huguenots, revolted, the English assisting them, but by the strategy adopted the city was taken and the English driven to sea; henceforth the king was nobody and the cardinal was king; the cardinal died in 1642 and the king the year after, leaving two sons, Louis, who succeeded him, and Philip, Duke of Orleans and the first of his line (1601-1644).

LOUIS XIV., the "Grand Monarque," son of the preceding, was only nine when his father died, and the government was in the hands of his mother, Anne of Austria, and Cardinal Mazarin, her minister; under the regency the glory of France was maintained in the field, but her internal peace was disturbed by the insubordination of the parlement and the troubles of the Fronde; by a compact on the part of Mazarin with Spain before he died Louis was married to the Infanta Maria Theresa in 1659, and in 1660 he announced his intention to rule the kingdom alone, which he did for 54 years with a decision and energy no one gave him credit for, in fulfilment of his famous protestation L'état, c'est moi, choosing Colbert to control finance, Louvois to reorganise the army, and Vauban to fortify the frontier towns; he sought to be as absolute in his foreign relations as in his internal administration, and hence the long succession of wars which, while they brought glory to France, ended in exhausting her; at home he suffered no one in religious matters to think otherwise than himself; he revoked the Edict of Nantes, sanctioned the dragonnades in the Cévennes, and to extirpate heresy encouraged every form of cruelty; yet when we look at the men who adorned it, the reign of Louis XIV. was one of the most illustrious in letters and the arts in the history of France: Corneille, Racine, and Molière eminent in the drama, La Fontaine and Boileau in poetry, Bossuet in oratory, Bruyère and Rochefoucauld in morals, Pascal in philosophy, Saint-Simon and Retz in history, and Poussin, Lorraine, Lebrun, Perault, &c., in art (1636-1715).

LOUIS XV., Bien-Aimé (i. e. Well-Beloved), great-grandson of the preceding, and only five at his death, the country during his minority being under the regency of Philip, Duke of Orleans; the regency was rendered disastrous by the failure of the Mississippi Scheme of Law and a war with Spain, caused by the rejection of a Spanish princess for Louis, and by his marriage to Maria Lesczynski, the daughter of Stanislas of Poland; Louis was crowned king in 1722 and declared of age the following year; in 1726 Cardinal Fleury, who had been his tutor, became his minister, and under him occurred the war of the succession to Poland, concluded by the treaty of Vienna, and the war of the Austrian succession, concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; with the death of his minister Louis gave way to his licentious propensities, and in all matters of state allowed himself to be swayed by unworthy favourites who pandered to his lusts, the most conspicuous among them being Madame de Pompadour and Dame de Barry, her successor in crime; under them, and the corrupt court they presided over, the country went step by step to ruin, and she was powerless to withstand the military ascendency of England, which deprived her of all her colonies both in the East and in the West; though Choiseul, his last "substantial" minister, tried hard by a family compact of the Bourbons to collect her scattered strength; the situation did not trouble Louis; "it will last all my time," he said, and he let things go; suffering from a disease contracted by vice, he was seized with confluent smallpox, and died in misery, to the relief of the nation, which could not restrain its joy (1710-1774).

LOUIS XVI., the grandson of the preceding and his successor; had in 1770 married Marie Antoinette, the youngest daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria, and a woman young, beautiful, and accomplished, in high esteem for the purity of her character; his accession was hailed with enthusiasm, and he set himself to restore the ruined finances of the country by taking into his counsel those who could best advise him in her straitened state, but these one and all found the problem an impossible one, owing to the unwillingness of the nobility to sacrifice any of their privileges for the public good; this led to the summoning of the States-General in 1789, and the outbreak of the Revolution by the fall of the Bastille in July of that year; in the midst of this Louis, well-intentioned but without strength of character, was submissive to the wishes of his court and the queen, lost his popularity by his hesitating conduct, the secret support he gave to the EMIGRANTS (q. v.), his attempt at flight, and by his negotiations with foreign enemies, and subjected himself to persecution at the hands of the nation; he was therefore suspended from his functions, shut up in the Temple, arraigned before the Convention, and condemned to death as "guilty of conspiracy against the liberty of the nation and a crime against the general safety of the State"; he was accordingly guillotined on the 21st January; he protested his innocence on the scaffold, but his voice was drowned by the beating of drums; he was accompanied by the Abbé Edgeworth, his confessor, who, as he laid his head on the block, exclaimed, "Son of St. Louis, ascend to heaven" (1754-1793).

LOUIS XVII., second son of the preceding, shut up in the Temple, was, after the execution of his mother, proclaimed king by the Emigrants, and handed over in his prison to the care of one Simon, a shoemaker, in service about the prison, to bring him up in the principles of Sansculottism; Simon taught him to drink, dance, and sing the carmagnole; he died in prison "amid squalor and darkness," his shirt not changed for six months (1785-1796).

LOUIS XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., and called Monsieur during his brother's reign, flew from Paris and joined the Emigrants along with his brother, Count d'Artois, and took up arms, which he was compelled to forego, to wander from one foreign Court to another and find refuge at last in England; on Napoleon's departure for Elba he returned to France and was installed on the throne as Louis le Desiré, but by the reappearance of the former on the scene he was obliged to seek refuge in Belgium, to return for good after the battle of Waterloo, July 9, 1815, with Talleyrand for minister and Fouché as minister of police; he reigned but a few years, his constitution being much enfeebled by a disease (1755-1824).

LOUIS NAPOLEON (Napoleon III.), nephew of the first emperor, born at Paris, brought up at Augsburg and in Switzerland; became head of the family in 1832; he began a Bonapartist propaganda, and set himself to recover the throne of France; an abortive attempt in 1836 ended in a short exile in America and London, and a second at Boulogne in 1840 landed him in the fortress of Ham under sentence of perpetual imprisonment; escaping in 1846 he spent two years in England, returning to France after the Revolution of 1848; elected to the Constituent Assembly and the same year to the Presidency he assumed the headship of the Republic, and posed as the protector of popular liberties and national prosperity; struggles with the Assembly followed; he won the favour of the army, filled the most important posts with his friends, dissolved the Constitution in 1851 (Dec. 2), was immediately re-elected President for ten years, and a year later assumed the title of Emperor; he married the Spanish Countess Eugénie in 1853, and exerted himself by public works, exhibitions, courting of the clergy, gagging of the press, and so on to strengthen his hold on the populace; in the Crimean War (1854-56) and the Lombardy campaign (1859) he was supported by Britain; in 1860 he annexed Savoy and Nice; ten years later suspecting the enthusiasm of the army, he plunged into war with Germany to rekindle its ardour, on a protest arising from the scheme to put Leopold of Hohenzollern on the Spanish throne; France was unprepared, disaster followed disaster; the Emperor surrendered to the Germans at Sedan, Sept. 2, 1870; a prisoner till the close of the war, he came to England in 1871 and resided with the Empress at Chislehurst till his death (1808-1873).

LOUIS PHILIPPE, king of the French from 1830 till 1848, born at Paris, eldest son of the Duke of Orleans, renounced his titles along with his father, and joined the National Guard and the Jacobins at the Revolution as M. Egalité; after the defeat of Neerwinden 1793, where he commanded the centre, he fled to Austria and Switzerland and supported himself by teaching; after three years in the United States he came to London in 1800, and on the fall of Napoleon repaired to Paris and recovered his estates; he gained popularity with the bourgeoisie, and when the Revolution of July 1830 overthrew Charles X. he succeeded to the throne as the elected sovereign of the people; under the "citizen king" France prospered; but his government gradually became reactionary and violent; he used his great wealth in giving bribes, tampered with trial by jury and the freedom of the press, and so raised against him both the old aristocracy and the working-classes; political agitation culminated in the Revolution of February 1848; he was forced to abdicate and escaped with his queen to England, where he died (1773-1850).

LOUIS-D'OR, an old French gold coin which ranged in value from 16s. 7d. to 18s. 9¾d., and ceased to be issued in 1795.

LOUISIANA (1,119), an American State on the Gulf of Mexico, between the Mississippi and Sabine Rivers, with Arkansas on the N. and traversed diagonally by the Red River, is half upland and half alluvial; much of the lower level in the S. is marshy, subject to tidal flow or river inundation, and is covered by swampy woods, but is being reclaimed and planted with rice; on the uplands cattle are grazed, there are pine and oak forests, while the arable land is under cotton, sugar, oranges, and figs; the principal manufactures are shingles and tanks, cotton-seed oil, tobacco, and clothing; there is a State University and agricultural and mechanical college at Baton Rouge; the Southern and Tulane Universities are in New Orleans; free schools are throughout the State. Founded by France, but held by Spain from 1762 till 1800, ceded again to France and sold to the United States by Napoleon, it was admitted to the Union in 1812. In the Civil War a hundred battles were fought within the State and New Orleans was captured, which left ruin behind; but since 1880 prosperity has returned, property is increasing fast, and finances are healthy.

LOUISVILLE (205), on the left bank of the Ohio River, the largest city in Kentucky, is well built and regular, with a Roman Catholic cathedral, many colleges and charitable institutions; it is the largest tobacco market in the world, has pork packing, distilling, tanning, and many other industries.

LOURDES, a French town in the dep. of the Hautes-Pyrénées, with a grotto near by in which the Virgin Mary, as is alleged, appeared to a girl of the place in 1858, and to which multitudes have since resorted in the hope of being healed of their maladies from the waters which spring up on the spot.

LOUTH (71), the smallest Irish county, in Leinster, stretches from Carlingford Bay to the estuary of the Boyne, washed by the Irish Sea; the country is flat and the soil fertile, potatoes, oats, and barley are grown; there are coarse linen manufactures and oyster fisheries; rich in antiquities, its chief towns are Dundalk (12), Drogheda (12), and Ardee (2).

LOUVET, French romancer, born in Paris; author of the "Chevalier de Faublas," which gives a picture of French society on the eve of the Revolution, in which the author played a part (1760-1797).

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