Opening
THE MYSTERIES OF ALL NATIONS:
RISE AND PROGRESS OF SUPERSTITION, LAWS AGAINST AND TRIALS OF WITCHES, ANCIENT AND MODERN DELUSIONS,
TOGETHER WITH
Strange Customs, Fables, and Tales
RELATING TO
MYTHOLOGY--DAYS AND WEEKS--MIRACLES--POETS AND SUPERSTITION--MONARCHS, PRIESTS, AND PHILOSOPHERS--DRUIDS--DEMONOLOGY--MAGIC AND ASTROLOGY--DIVINATION--SIGNS, OMENS, AND WARNINGS--AMULETS AND CHARMS--TRIALS BY ORDEAL--CURSES AND EVIL WISHES--DREAMS AND VISIONS--SUPERSTITION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
BY JAMES GRANT.
LEITH: REID & SON, 35 SHORE. EDINBURGH: W. PATERSON. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.
[THE RIGHT OF TRANSLATION IS RESERVED.]
REID AND SON, PRINTERS, LEITH.
Preface
In whatever light this work may be regarded by archæologists and general readers, the writer submits it to the public, chiefly as the result of antiquarian research, and actual observation during a period of nearly forty years. The writer does not attempt to define what superstition is, either in its broadest or most literal sense; but, as he desires the expression to be understood, it may be considered to imply a fear of the Evil One and his emissaries, a trust in benign spirits and saints, a faith in occult science, and a belief that a conjunction of certain planets or other inanimate bodies is capable of producing supernatural effects, either beneficial or prejudicial to man. Superstition, generally so called, has run through a course of ages from sire to son, leaving it still deeply rooted in the minds of many of the present generation.
Not a few seeming repetitions in this work are not such in reality, but are instances brought forward to mark the resemblance between the opinions prevalent in past and present times, and to illustrate the similarity of perverted views in various parts of the world.
The examples of superstition herein given are taken from an almost unlimited number, yet the writer confesses to have omitted many interesting particulars. In proof of this it may be stated, that while the last sheet of these pages was being revised, an esteemed friend wrote, saying: "I can quite corroborate what you say of Ireland; for lately, on my way from Macroom to Glengariff, at a weird mountain pass, the coach stopped to enable us to visit the hermitage of St. Finbar. There, beside a lonely lake, I saw a number of devotees, afflicted with various ailments, expecting to be healed through the good offices of the departed saint."
In spite of a determination to omit unimportant matter and to be concise, this volume has swelled out far beyond what was originally intended. The more the subject of superstition is studied, the more interesting it becomes. One judges of a nation's strength by its victories, of its industry by its products, of its wealth by its mines and cultivated fields, of its domestic condition by its diet and dress, of its moral condition by its laws, of its religion and intelligence by its literature; but before obtaining full knowledge of a people's convictions, it is necessary to search into their superstitions. In these are discovered the secrets of man's inner life, and by these also have been forged strong fetters, which have kept his soul in thraldom for ages.
If the author has succeeded in pointing out, that, notwithstanding the progress of science and the advancement of civilisation and Christianity, some of the darker shadows that have disfigured past ages are still floating over a portion of our social horizon, he feels his labour will not have been altogether in vain. Like many of the ghosts alluded to in the following pages, that of superstition needs only the continued light of day to shine upon it, in order to make it vanish for ever.
January 1880.
THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF SUPERSTITION.
CHAPTER I. PAGE Rise and Progress of Superstition--The Serpent--Cain's Departure from the true Worship--Worship of the Sun, Moon, and Stars--Strange Story of Abraham--The Gods of Antiquity--Ether, Air, Land, and Water filled with living Souls--Guardian Angel--Cause of the Flood--Magic--How the Jews deceived the Devil--A Witch not permitted to live--Diviners, Enchanters, Consulters with familiar Spirits, and Necromancers proved a Snare to Nations--Charms worn by the Jews--Singular Customs and Belief--Prognostication--Allegorical Emblems--Marriage Customs--Ceremonies at Death and Burials--Divination among all Nations--Observers of Times--Opinion concerning the Celestial Bodies--Power of Witches--Wizards--Necromancers' Power to call up the Dead 1
Chapter II
Men endowed with Prophetic Spirits--The Jews forbidden to consult the Oracles of the Heathen--Schools of Prophets--Influence of Music--The Prophetic Mantle--Way Revelations were made--Bath Kol--Urim and Thummim--False Prophets Strangled or Stoned--Diabolical Art--Moloch--Seething a Kid in its Mother's Milk--The Smooth Stones mentioned by Isaiah--Sheep-head and Sheep-head Broth--Casting Sins into the Sea--Fasting among the Pharisees--Dust of Heathen Countries--The number 10--Angels that had the Care of Men--Predictions by Hebrew Women--Punishment in the Grave 10
Chapter III
Egypt steeped in Superstition--Power of Magicians--Obtaining Visions--Demons--Departed Heroes--Gods and Demi-gods--Altars or Living Stones--Sacred Animals--Isis searching for Osiris--Leeks and Onions--Priests, Physicians, and Interpreters of Oracles--Sacrificing Human Victims--Wax Figures--Magic--Teaching of the Egyptian Priests--Transmigration 14
Chapter IV
Babylon--The Chaldeans--Downfall of Babylon predicted--Worship of the Medes and Persians--Sacred Fire--The Gaures--Births and Deaths in Early Times--A Narrow Bridge--An Immense Tree--Creation of Prophets--A Stone to which Abraham tied his Camel--Adam and Eve's Trysting Place--Black Art--Ways of discovering whether a supposed Criminal was Guilty or Innocent--Looking into Futurity--Canaanites, Syrians, and Arabians--Strange Fables--Abraham breaking Heathen Idols--Altars--Religion of the Carthagenians and Tyrians--Supremacy of the Gods 20
Chapter V
Greek Religion and Superstition--Jupiter regarded as the President of the Law and Protector of Cities--Dreams and Charms--Sacred Stones--Omens of Evil--Sacrificing the Hair--Flight of Birds--Compassing the Altar to the Right--Love secured by Magic--Marriage Ceremonies--Way of protecting a Child from Evil Spirits--Divers Magical Ceremonies--Laws as to Dead Bodies--Fingers and Toes of Dead Men worn as Charms--Preparing a Body for Burial--Swine and Swine's Flesh--Drinking Toasts--Prophets consulted before Armies marched to Battle--Certain Words avoided--Sneezing--Evil Omens--Throwing a Person overboard to save a Ship 26
Chapter VI
Roman Delusions and Customs--Tokens of Futurity--Drawing of Lots--Events foretold by reading the first passage that turned up on opening a Book--Lucky and Unlucky Stars--Fortune-tellers--Dreams--Omens drawn from the Appearance of parts of Animals offered in Sacrifice--Sibylline Books, Charms, and Incantations--Spirits observers of Men's Actions--Unlucky Days--Dress of a Bride--Anointing Door-posts and crossing the Threshold--Fire and Water--Bridal Feast and Nuptial Songs--Funeral Rites--Souls of Unburied Persons--Customs at a Deathbed, and Funeral Observances--Hobgoblins--Purifying with Water and Fire--Appeasing the Manes--Dead Bodies used for Magical purposes 34
Chapter VII
Ethiopian Superstition--Heathen Indian Gods--Superstitious Observances at Marriages--Disposal of Dead Bodies--Different Degrees of Glory after Death--Reverence for the Cow--Detecting Criminals--Addressing Oracles--Astronomy--Eclipse of the Moon--Magic--John Gondalez 39
Chapter VIII
Wizard and Man-tiger--Man-lion--Sacrificing Children--Offerings to the Ganges--A Rajah offering himself as a Sacrifice--Various Superstitious Ceremonies--King's Wives and Retainers going with the Dead Monarch into another World--An eternal Succession of Worlds--Apes supposed to have Human Souls--Worshipping Demons--Drinking Blood--Prognosticating from the Cries of Beasts--Witchcraft and Magic--Singular Opinions and Customs--Foretelling Future Events at the New Moon--Discovering a False Swearer--Offerings to the Sea and Winds--Superstition in China--Superstition in Japan 48
* * * * *
HEATHEN GODS AND GODDESSES.
Chapter IX
Classification of Gods and Goddesses--Primeval Parent Chaos--Creation--Influence of Ether--Celestial Fire--Birth and Banishment of Cupid--Fate--Eternal Decrees--Throne of Jove--Fortune and Happiness--Misfortune and Misery--Rewards and Punishments--First Man and Woman--Pan the Emblem of all Things--Power of Heathen Gods--Descriptions of Juno--Venus the Goddess of Love and Beauty--Rustics turned into Frogs--Vulcan--Æolus--Momus the Jester--The Carping God 59
Chapter X
Satyrs described--Diana's Retirement--Pallas, the Goddess of Shepherds--The vile Flora--Pomona deceived--Nymphs--River Gods and Goddesses--Sirens--Witch Circe--Infernal Deities--Passage to Tartarus--Palace of Pluto--Judges of Hell--Goddesses of Destiny--Furies--Night, Death, and Sleep--Tartarian Regions--Delights of the Elysian Fields--Festivals of Heathens--Sacrifices to Deities--Things sacred to Gods 65
Chapter XI
Achilles--Taking of Troy--Acrisius's Daughter--Danae and her son Perseus--Ardea changed into a Bird--Pluto's Invisible Helmet--Minerva's Buckler--Mercury's Wings--Medusa deprived of Life--Sea Monster--A Gorgon's Head--Stheno and Euryale--Minerva's Revenge--Serpents and Pegasus produced by Medusa's Blood--Tales by the Daughters of Minyas--Punishment by Bacchus--The Search of Cadmus for his sister Europa--Halcyon's Sorrow--Transmigration--Exploits of Hercules--Love Potion--Hymen--Jason's Adventures--Power and Cruelty of Medea--How a Favourable Wind was procured--Manner in which Orion came into Existence--False Swearer punished--Palladium--Deeds of Paris--Golden Apple--Marriage of Peleus and Thetis--Impiety of Pentheus--Rhea and her Sons--Scylla turned into a Sea Monster 71
* * * * *
MYTHOLOGY OF GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, SCANDINAVIA, ETC.
Chapter XII
Mythology of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia--The world Niflheim--The world Muspelheim--How Ymir was created--The cow Aedhumla--Ymir's Offspring--Odin, the chief God--Valhalla--Queen Frigga--How the Seas, Waters, Mountains, and Heavens were made--Chariots and Horses in Heaven--Night and Day--Evil-disposed Maidens--Creation of New Beings--Bridge between Midgard and Asgard--Sacred Fountain--Roots of the ash Yggdrasil--Baldur's Dreams and sad End--Loki, the Evil Spirit--Hel and her Brothers--Worship of Scandinavian Gods--Norsemen and their Ancient Gods and Goddesses--The Volsung Tale--Odin, Loki, and Hænir's Wanderings--The Sword Gram--Sigurd's Exploits--What the Worshippers of Odin believed--Frodi's Maidens and Quern--Gods of the Laplanders--Sale of Winds--Lucky and Unlucky Days--Other Superstitions 85
* * * * *
NAMES OF DAYS, WHENCE DERIVED.
Chapter XIII
The Calendar--Names of Days, whence derived--The Power of Jupiter--Influence of Zeus--The God Indra--Origin of the term "Hours"--Hours under Planetary Control--Coronation of a Persian King--Evils transferred to the Turks and Kafirs--The Moon's Controlling Power--Time reckoned by Moons--A Strange Story--Heathen Gods--Thor's Palace--Thor's Power--Frigga's Abilities--Description of Seater or Crodo 99
* * * * *
NAMES OF MONTHS, WHENCE DERIVED.
Chapter XIV
Names of Months, whence derived--January--First of January, how kept--New Year Gifts--February--Sacrifices for purging Souls--Second of February--Virtue of Candles--Shrove Tuesday--Eating Pancakes--Partaking of Brose--Choosing a Valentine--March--April dedicated to Venus--First of May--May Poles and May Fires--Dispute between Men and Gods--Superstitious Customs in Scotland--Superstitious Ceremonies in England--June Marriages--July--August--September--October--Hallow-e'en Ceremonies--December--Christmas Trees and Gifts--The Misletoe--Privileges in Leap Year--Yule Log--Christmas Festivities 110
* * * * *
MIRACLES PERFORMED BY HOLY PERSONS, AND THE INFLUENCE OF SACRED RELICS.
Chapter XV
St. Peter, and Simon the Magician--Clement's Miracles and Death--St. Agnes--A Miraculous Circumstance--St. Blase's Power--St. Agatha's Holy Life--St. Patrick's Missionary Labours, and Expulsion of Reptiles from Ireland--St. Germanus stilling the Raging of the Sea--St. David and the Welsh Leeks--Stirrup Cup and Origin of "Pledging"--Elfrida's Treachery and Remorse--St. Benedict's Power--St. Dunstan cured by an Angel--The Æolian Harp--St. Columba's Prophecy concerning Iona--Sacred Ducks of Ireland--St. Paul binding a Dragon--Saints and Frogs--Friars and Jesuits--Father Mark proof against Fire--Virtue of Holy Water--St. Noel's Imprecation--St. Boniface--Pope Silvester assisted by Satan--Necromancing Popes--St. Januarius's Blood--St. Anthony's Conflicts with the Devil--St. Anthony's Hog and Bees--A Tradition concerning Melrose--St. Cuthbert--A Princess swallowed up by the Earth--Monk Waldevus's inexhaustible Stores--Holy Relics--Rusticus and his Hog 130
* * * * *
POETS AND SUPERSTITION.
Chapter XVI
Prophetic Verse--The Bardi--Bards maintained by Noblemen--Queen Elizabeth and the Bards--Effects of Prophetic Sayings and of Pipe Music--Messages to another World--Voices of Deceased Friends heard in the Gale--Human Forms in the Clouds--Evenings in the Highlands--Michael Scott--Constant Work for Evil Spirits--Stemming the Tweed--How the Eildon Hills were formed--Ropes of Sand--Scott and his Magic Books buried at Melrose--Ossianic Poems--Stories by Bards 150
Chapter XVII
Shakspeare--An Outline of his Composition--"The Tempest"--Miranda beseeching Prospero to allay the Wild Waters--Ariel's Readiness to serve his Master--The Witch Sycorax--Caliban's Evil Wish--Neptune chased--"Midsummer Night's Dream"--Exploits of a Fairy--Doings of Puck--Titania and her Attendants--Ghosts and Spirits--Song--"Macbeth"--Weird Sisters--Macbeth's Doom--Witches' Caldron--Macbeth admonished by Spirits--"Antony and Cleopatra"--Dreadful Apparition--King's Death avenged 161
Chapter XVIII
The Poet Gay--The "Spell"--Hobnelia--Lubberkin--Spells resorted to--Valentine Day--Ladybird sent on a Message of Love--Virtue of United Garters--Gipsies' Warnings--Knives sever Love--Story of Boccaccio--Apparition of a Deceased Lover--Poems by Burns--"Address to the Deil"--"Tam o' Shanter" 173
Chapter XIX
Sir Walter Scott--His Belief in Superstition--How his Tales of Fiction are composed--A Town-Clerk frightened by an Apparition--A Ghost that did not understand Erse, but could communicate in Latin--Lovel and Edie Ochiltree--Discovery of Hidden Treasure--"Rob Roy"--Fairies' Caverns--Supposed Apparition in the Trossachs--Elfin People at the Firth of Forth--A Minister taken away by Fairies--Dame Glendinning's Tale--Lines from "Marmion"--A Fairy Knight--Mysterious Steed 187
Chapter XX
Lord Byron taught Superstition--Byron and the Maid in Green--Bridge of Balgonie--Byron's Fear to ride over it--His Belief in Unlucky Days and Presentiments--Socrates's Demon--Monk Lewis's Monitor--Napoleon's Warnings--A Sorrowful Tale--Byron's Fortune told by a Sibyl--Hebrew Camyo--Abracadabra--Loch-na-Garr--Oscar of Alva--Byron's last Instructions 197
Chapter XXI
Tale by Hogg, the Ettrick Shepherd--Aikwood Castle--The Witch Henbane--Imps demanding Work--Michael Scott--Curious Sport--Dreadful Threat--Rats transformed into the form of Men--Inventor of Gunpowder--Summoning Evil Spirits--Latin the Language best understood by Satin and his Emissaries--Holy Signs and Charms--Effects of a Friar's Blessing--Magic Lantern--Michael Scott's Subscribed Conditions--Imps' Song--Dreadful Storm--Warlocks' Hymn--Eildon Hill 210
Chapter XXII
Allan Ramsay--"The Gentle Shepherd"--Bauldy the Clown--Mause the reputed Witch--Praying Backwards--Sad Misfortunes--Supposed Power of the Devil to raise the Wind and send Rain and Thunder--Sir William disturbed--Symon's Announcement--Promise to gain a Lassie's Heart--Witches' Tricks--Longfellow's "Golden Legend"--"Song of Hiawatha" 218
* * * * *
MONARCHS, PRIESTS, PHILOSOPHERS, AND SUPERSTITION.
Chapter XXIII
Superstition--Commencement of Monarchy in Scotland--King Fergus I. crowned on the Fatal Stone of Destiny--Signs, Assistance of Spirits, Magicians, and Fortune-tellers--Natholocus sends a Friend to consult a Cunning Woman--Her Prediction--Constantine and Maxentius--A Heavenly Cross--A Famous Standard--Queen Guanora's Grave--Fear of St. Martin--The Church's Belief in Departed Saints--Relics venerated--King bewitched by Witches of Forres--Evil Signs--Sea Monster in the Don--Kenneth III. killed by an Infernal Machine--Virtue of Precious Stones--Weird Sisters--Consulting a Pythoness--Predictions by Druids--Domitian's Death foretold by Astrologers--Simon Magus--A Platonic Philosopher--The Emperor Julian instructed in Magic 234
Chapter XXIV
Louis XI. and the Astrologer--A King's Enchanted Cap--David I. and the Mysterious Stag--Merlin the Magician--Prophecies concerning Queen Elizabeth and Mary--Dragon Caverns--Predictions of Evil--Changing a King's Love--The Holy Maid of Kent--Nobles put to Death for keeping company with Sorcerers--James I. of England and the Witches--Tranent Witches and Warlocks--Wise Wife of Keith--Two Hundred Witches sailing in Sieves--Raising Storms--Witch and Warlock Convention at Newhaven--Meeting of Witches at North Berwick--Witches tortured in Holyrood--The Devil's Mark--Bothwell's Fortune told--Witches and their Associates burned 242
Chapter XXV
Cromwell in league with the Devil--Cromwell consulting Astrologers--Memorable Days in the Life of Cromwell--Duke of Hamilton warned of his Fate--Peden's Predictions--Traditions concerning Peden--John Brown the Martyr--Linlithgow Loch Swans--Hereford Children--Great Comet--Conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter at Eventful Periods--Solomon's Power 254
* * * * *
THE DRUIDS.
Chapter XXVI
Druids laid claim to Supernatural Power--Representations of the Sun and Moon--Belief of Druids--Beltane Feasts--Arkite and Sabian Superstition--Dancing to the Song of the Cuckoo--Initiation into the Druidical Mysteries--The Goodmane's Land and the Guidman's Fauld--Offerings to Demi-gods--Propitiating Beasts of Prey--Sacred Cairns--Trees dedicated to Demons--Law forbidding Worship of the Sun, Moon, Fire, Rivers, Wells, Stones, or Forest Trees--Extracts from Kirk-Session Records--Land dedicated to Satan--Midsummer and Hallow Fires forbidden--Yule-day--Order of the General Assembly as to Druidical Customs--Old Customs ordered to be discontinued 262
Chapter XXVII
Dr. Stuart on the Druids--Their Deities, etc.--Gauls descendants of Dis--Funeral Rites--Slaves and Clients burned--What Pliny says--Tallies used in making known the Will of Heaven--Walking through the Fire--Wonder-working Eggs--Easter Eggs represent Druidical Eggs--Origin of Druids--Wise Men of the East were probably Druids--Island of Iona--Druidical Cairns--Stones of Judgment--Misletoe regarded as a Charm--Rings worn as Preventatives against Witchcraft--Stonehenge--Merlin the Magician--Stones brought from Africa by Giants--Graves of British Lords 267
* * * * *
DEMONOLOGY.
Chapter XXVIII
First Ideas of Demonology--Rabbinical Tradition--Adam's Marriage--The Wicked Lilith--Egyptian Tradition--Arabian Worship of Genii--Christians' Opinions of Demons--Forms assumed by Evil Spirits--Demoniacal King--Duty of Inferior Demons--Task of Benign Spirits--Schools of Magic--Circassian Opinions--Belief of Indians--Situation of Hell--Men's Actions recorded--Rewards and Punishments--How to frighten Demons--Treatment of the Sick--Attendant Angels--Worship of Gods--Foretelling Future Events--Small-pox propagated by an Evil Genius--Souls of Deceased Persons--Effect of Charms 273
Chapter XXIX
Heathen Devotion in Ceylon--Superstitious Customs among the Schismatic Greeks--Negro Belief in Fetishes--Charms--Magic taught by the Priests--Dead Persons metamorphosed into Serpents--How the Gaures disposed of their Dead--Souls Blessed or Damned--Orders of Genii in Madagascar--Belief of the Caribbees--Brazilian Superstition--Peruvian Tradition--American Indians--Demons in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries--Satan in France--Manes, Anima, and Umbra among the Greeks and Romans 279
Chapter XXX
Visible Ghosts--Superstition on the Baltic Shores--A German Legend--Demons in the West of Europe--Love, how plighted in Orkney--The Monster Ymir--Origin of Fairies--The Duergar or Dwarfs--Brownies in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland--Nine Classes of Evil Spirits--Vampires--Man's Double or Fetch--Churchyard Ghosts--Souls of Suicides--Burial of Suicides and Murderers at Cross Roads--Luther on Evil Spirits and Witches 284
Chapter XXXI
Belief and Teaching of the Roman Catholic Church--Swedenborg's Intercourse with Spirits--Marcus Brutus and his Evil Genius--Cassius and Julius Cæsar's Ghost at Philippi--Plutarch on Spectres--Socrates on the same subject--Archbishop Bruno and the Spectre--A Haunted House--Spectre at Sea--Ghost of a Murdered Man in New South Wales 291
Chapter XXXII
Spiritualism Past and Present--Magic taught in Leipsic--Spirit of Marshal Saxe--How Spirits were Invoked--Voices of Spirits--Mysterious Death of a Magician--Unearthly Huntsman--Prediction and its Fulfilment--An Estate lost at the Gaming Table--A Baron Shot--A Marriage prevented by an Apparition--Consulting a Witch--Raising the Spirit of a Murdered Man--A Murderer's Fate 297
Chapter XXXIII
Antonio the Rich--Dreadful Announcement from a Volcano's Mouth--Three Ghosts--Mozart apprehensive of Death--Mozart writing a Requiem for himself--Messenger from another World--Mozart's Death--Ghost of a Lady--A Haunted House--Iron Cage--Youth starved to Death--Frightful Dreams and Dreadful Sights--Dog frightened by a Spirit--Disturbed House--Duchess of Mazarin--Madame de Beauclair--Compact between the Living and the Dead--A Lady's Death foretold by a Spirit 304
Chapter XXXIV
Sir George Villiers' Ghost--Duke of Buckingham Murdered--Lord Lyttelton and others profaning Christmas--A Troubled Mind--Apparition of a Suicide--Neglected Warning--Ominous Hour--Lord Lyttelton found Dead at the dreaded time--Death of an old Roman King--Alarming Prodigies--Tales from the Eddas--A Scandinavian Warrior's Ghost--An Icelandic Lady's Ghost--Fear of approaching Calamities--Association of Ghosts--Apparitions of Drowned Men--Christians not disturbed by Spectres--A Band of Demons--Priest exorcising Evil Spirits 312
Chapter XXXV
A Mysterious Hunter--Man and Horse supposed to be Devils--Flagellation--Tales of the Scotch Highlands--Croaking Raven--Death of a suspected Witch--Resort of Witches and Evil Spirits--Spirits hastening to a Church--Black Man with Eyes like Fire--Horse breathing Smoke and Flame 318
Chapter XXXVI
Churchmen subjected to the Onslaught of Demons--St. Maurus rebuking Evil Spirits--St. Romualdus' Conflict with Satan--St. Frances--St. Gregory--Monk in Purgatory--Institution of the Thirty Masses for the Dead--An Excommunicated Gentleman--St. Benedict and the Blackbird's Song--A Monk restored to Life--St. Benedict's Sister ascending to Heaven--St. Francis' Dominion over Living Creatures and the Elements--St. Catherine's Power--St. Stanislaus' Miracles--A Dead Man giving Evidence--The Dead refusing a Renewal of Life--St. Philip Nerius and Evil Spirits--Spirits ministering to St. Erasmus--St. Norbert--Story relating to Henry I.--St. Margaret's Triumph--St. Ignatius--St. Stephen--Satan's Hatred of St. Dominick--St. Donatus endowing a Corpse with Speech--St. Cyriacus, St. Largus, and St. Smaragdus, the Martyrs--St. Clare--St. Bernard's Power--St. Cæsarius' Wonder-working Crook--St. Giles and the Hind--St. Euphemia's Guardian Angels--St. Francis' Spirit--St. Bridget--St. Denis' Spirit--St. Teresa and the Angels--St. Hilarian--St. Martin--St. Catherine's Body carried by Angels to Mount Sinai--St. Francis Xaverius' Belief in Virtue of Bells--St. Nicholas--St. Ambrose--St. Lucy raising her Mother from the Dead--St. Anastasia sustained by Bread from Heaven--St. Thomas enduring Martyrdom in Life and after Death--Penance of Henry II.--Barbarous Conduct of Henry VIII.--A Hungarian Legend 323
* * * * *
MAGIC AND ASTROLOGY.
Chapter XXXVII
Magic a Study among the Learned--Plato and Pythagoras travelled to learn the Art, and taught it--Speakers made Eloquent by Magical Art--Virtue of Gems--How Jewels should be set--When they are to be Graven--Cures effected by Hippocrates--Democritus on Magic--Many Charms--Evil Spirits--Magicians sacrificing to the Planets--Magician's Power to produce Monstrous Creatures--Egyptian Magicians--Magical Circles--Throwing Old Shoes--Figures on Shoes--A Hangman's Soul--Directions for raising Ghosts and Spirits 339
Chapter XXXVIII
Josephus' Account of Astrology--Antediluvians acquainted with Astrology--Astrology after the Flood--Magicians in various Nations--Compact and Confederation with Spirits--Feats of Magicians--A French Priest in compact with the Devil--Married to Venus--Turning Leather into Gold--A Novice in Magic destroyed by a Spirit--Principles of Magic--Lilly the Astrologer--Lilly consulted by Royalists--Astrological Predictions 349
Chapter XXXIX
Judicial Astrology--Reading the Heavens--Lucky and Unlucky Days--Highland Superstitions--Climacterics--Astrologer and Charles IX.--Influence of the Moon--Official Air-gazers--Sacrificing to Planets--Dryden's Faith in Astrology--Dryden calculating the Nativity of his Children 356
* * * * *
DIVINATION AND ORACLES.
Chapter XL
Divination--Heathen Gods giving Signs--Sortes Prœnestinæ--St. Augustine's View of Divination--Sortes Sanctorum--Divination in the Greek and Latin Churches--Declarations of the Divine Will--How St. Consortia became a Nun--Hieroglyphic Texts--Divination among the Jews--Plutarch on Oracles--Malthus' Belief in Oracles--A Missionary's Opinion--Sibylline Oracles--Alectoromantia--Belomancy--Cleromancy--Napoleon's Belief in Cleromancy 362
* * * * *
SIGNS, OMENS, AND WARNINGS.
Chapter XLI
Crying in Youth--Image of Opis--Man born to Trouble--Bacon's Belief in Presages--Dugdale's Foresight--Sir Thomas More's Power to judge of Passing Events--Erasmus at the Tomb of Becket--Sir Walter Raleigh's Predictions--What Tacitus foresaw--Solon's Predictions--Cicero's Predictions--Knox's Predictions--Queen Mary and Darnley--Death of Thomas Maitland and of Kirkaldy of Grange predicted--Regent Murray warned against going to Linlithgow--The Human Body a medium for discovering Future Events--Death Warnings--Appearance of Spirits 372
Chapter XLII
Ornithomancy--Mohammed's Pigeons--Cock-crowing--Sacred Geese--Phenomenon at Rome--Divination by means of a Sieve--Capnomancy--Catoptromancy-- Dactyliomancy--Cledonism--Onomancy--Names--Romans toasting their Mistresses--How Success in War was ascertained--Loss of Ships' Colours--Regimental Standards--Consecrated Banners--Battle of the Standard--A Highland Superstition 380
Chapter XLIII
Caution of our Ancestors--Magpies--Flight of Birds--Swarming of Bees--Howling of Dogs--Lowing of Cattle--Crowing of Cocks--Stockings wrong side out--Sign of a Letter coming--Sneezing of a Cat--Various Signs and Omens--How to prevent Ill Luck--Reputed Witches--Print of a Caldron, what it denoted--Unlucky to pass over a Balance--When not to pare your Nails--Touching a Dead Body--Funeral Processions--Storks--How to Sit--Marriages--A Prophetic Rhyme--Wedding Ring--Throwing Slippers, Besoms, Salt, and Rice after Newly-married Persons--Charms for Bridegrooms and Brides--Mothers and Children--Rules to be observed at Baptisms--How to treat Young Children 387
Chapter XLIV
Sweeping Floors--New Year and Christmas--"First-Foots"--Weather Prognostications--How to secure Favourable Gales--Superstitious Customs--Corpse of one guilty of Felo-de-se--Finding of Persons who die unseen--Superstitious Belief of Russian Seamen--Ancient Customs of Scotland--Friday an Unlucky Day for commencing an Important Undertaking--Friday as a Marriage Day--Anecdote of a Ship called "Friday"--Loss of the Ship "Amazon"--Sunday a Favourable Day for commencing a Voyage--Lawyers and Clergymen, how looked upon by Sailors at Sea--Rats deserting a Ship--Whistling to raise the Wind--Legend of Vanderdecken or the Flying Dutchman--A Grandfather's Axe--Other Signs and Warnings 393
* * * * *
AMULETS AND CHARMS.
Chapter XLV
Amulets and Charms among the Chaldeans, Jews, and Persians--Amulets among the Greeks and Romans--Ecclesiastics forbidden to wear Amulets and Phylacteries--Pericles' Amulet--Lord Bacon's Opinion of Charms--Effect of Music--Yawning and Laughing, Fear and Shame--Diseases cured by Charms--Philosophers' Opinions of Amulets--Mr. E. Chambers on Amulets--Poets on Enchantments--A Dairymaid's Charm--A Charm sent by a Pope to an Emperor 401
Chapter XLVI
Ear-rings buried by Jacob--Solomon's Belief in Spells--Reginald Scot's Recipe for preserving Cattle--What Mr. Pennant says on Charms--Images Powerful Charms--The Egyptians' Confidence in Amulets and Charms--Evil Eye--Cold Iron--Holy Things used as Charms--Filing of St. Peter's Keys--Lustral Water--Uses of Snow--Keys of a Consecrated Building--Virtue of Consecrated Bread--Various Methods of securing Love--Indian Charms--Cure for Corns--Simple Plan for getting rid of a Troublesome Person--Curing the Hooping-cough, etc. 409
Chapter XLVII
Horse Shoes used as Charms--Spitting on Money to secure Luck--Fortunate Persons to deal with--Professor Playfair on Superstition--The Lee Penny--Divers Charms--A Seer's Prescription--Grose on Sorcerers, Magicians, and Witches--Irish Shamrock--Praying to Swords--Irish Superstition--Smugglers and Brigands addicted to Superstition--Superstition in the East--Arab Charms--Ladies' Arts 415
Chapter XLVIII
Earl of Derby's Death--A Queen Enchanted--Image of a young King--Belgrave on Charms--Childebert's Device for detecting Witches--Witch Burned--Witch Ointment--Men-Wolves--Church Authorities' Instructions to Inquisitors--Killing by a Look or Wish--The King of Sweden and his Witches--Witches' Help in War--Witches causing a Plague--Cattle Poisoned--Various Charms--An Angel's Charm to Pope Leo--Physicians' Faith in Charms--Inescation--Insemination--Egyptian Laws--Curing the King's Evil 421
Chapter XLIX
Precious Stones regarded as Objects of Virtue--Extravagance in Jewellery accounted for--Abraham's Precious Stones--Altars called Living Stones--Rod of Moses--Sacred Rings and Belts--The Month of one's Nativity has connection with one or other of the Precious Stones--Kings of England hallowing Rings--Ring preserved in Westminster Abbey--Iona Relics--The Green Stone of Arran--A Crystal kept as a Charm--A Conjuring Beryl--Prophetic Stones--The Coronation Stone or Stone of Destiny 429
* * * * *
TRIALS BY ORDEAL.
Chapter L
Trials by Ordeal resorted to in Ancient and Modern Times--Ordeal by means of Hot Iron--Plunging the Arm into Boiling Water or Oil--Walking Blindfold in Dangerous Places--Weighing a Witch--Extending the Arms before a Cross--Swallowing Consecrated Bread--Ordeal among the Hindoos--Touching a Dead Body--An Inquest, how conducted long ago--Dead Henry's Wounds--Sir George M'Kenzie's Opinion of Trial by Ordeal--Sir K. Digby on Trial by Ordeal 438
Chapter LI
A Popular Story--Theatberge, wife of Lothaire--Forbes's Memoirs--Trial by Wager of Battle--When Trial by Wager of Battle ceased--Trial by Jury--Court of King's Bench deciding the Legality of Trial by Battle--Sir Walter Scott's Illustrations of Superstition and Trial by Battle in Olden Times 445
* * * * *
CURSES AND EVIL WISHES.
Chapter LII
Curses, Excommunication, and Anathemas--Diræ, the Executioners of Vengeance--Interment of Excommunicated Persons--Excommunication among the Hebrews--Last Degree of Excommunication sometimes followed by Banishment or Death--Form of Excommunication used by Ezra and Nehemiah--The Greek Church annually excommunicates Roman Catholics--The Druids resorted to Excommunication--Bishops excommunicating Rats, Mice, Caterpillars, and other Insects and Vermin--The Pope's Claim--Napoleon I. excommunicated--Victor Emmanuel excommunicated--The Inquisition and its terrible Doings--The Pope's Fearful Curse--Mr. Donald Cargill excommunicating the King and Nobles--Indulgences, Pardons, and Penance 453
Chapter LIII
St. Adelbert's Curse--Complexion of Blackamoors attributed to a Curse of Noah--False Accusation, and its Results--Ancestors of the Whelphs and Guelphs of Germany--An Interesting Legend--A Gipsy's Curse--A Cruel Father and Husband--Morrar-na-Shean--Restoration of Three Daughters--A Grateful Father--Ancestors of the Sinclairs of Caithness, and of the noble family of Keith--The Curse of Moy--A Cruel Chieftain of Clan Chattan--Swearing by the Hand of a Bride--Grant of Glenmorriston waiting his Doom--Death of a Father and Lover--Maledictions and Prediction--Lady leaping from a Lofty Tower--The Monroes of Foulis--End of a Relentless Tyrant 462
* * * * *
DREAMS AND VISIONS OF THE NIGHT.
Chapter LIV
The Gift or Art of interpreting Dreams--Official Interpreters of Dreams--Sleep, how portrayed--Goddess of Dreams--Greeks soliciting the Inspiration of Dreams--Xenophon on Sleep--Prophetic Power of the Dying--Æsculapius's Discoveries in Dreams--Code of Menu--The Soma-drink--Josephus as a Seer--Dreadful Proposal by Josephus--His Fortunate Escape--An Eastern Conjuror--Reading a Sealed Letter--A Sultan warned of his Death in a Dream--Alexander's Death foretold in a Dream--Records of Dreams in Westminster Abbey--Lord Falkland's Dream--Rev. John Brown's Opinions--Early Christian Faith in Visions and Dreams--Death of a Friend foretold--The Devil's Sonata--Marriage of Queen Mary--Fatality of the Stuart Family--Death of Henry IV. of France 469
Chapter LV
Dreaming Dictionaries--Dreaming of an Anchor--Sick Persons--Raiment--Fruit--Funerals--Dreams sometimes to be read contrariwise--Dreaming of Darkness--Jewellery--Losing and finding Property--Fowls and Eggs--Flying--Bagpipes, Dancing, and Banquets--Dreaming of Animals, Cakes, Corn, and Milk--Dreaming of Carrying and of being Carried--Angels, Spirits, and Children--Clergymen and Churches--A Broken Watch or Clock--Clouds--Falling--Flowers and Fruit--Sailors' Dreams--Running Streams and Still Water--Ploughed Ground and Green Fields--Presents--Glass, Hair, Fire, Cold, Tooth, Kisses, and Knives--Leaping, Climbing, and Writing--Linen--The Sun, Moon, and Stars, Rainbow, Snow, Thunder, and Lightning 475
* * * * *
LAWS AGAINST AND TRIALS OF WITCHES.
Chapter LVI
Witchcraft treated with Severity--Cutting out the Tongue--Laws of Æthelstane--Witchcraft in England--Royal Writers--Sir Edward Cole's Opinion--Statute of Elizabeth against Sorcerers--Law of Mary Queen of Scotland against Witches--Law against Witches abolished--Sir George Mackenzie on Witchcraft--Extracts from Forbes's Institute of the Law of Scotland--Sir Matthew Hale a Believer in Witchcraft--Trial of Rose Cullender and Ann Duny--Punishment of Witches, by whom first countenanced--Pope John's Bull--Bishop Jewell--Lord Bacon and the Law against Witches--Fearful Slaughter of supposed Witches--Malleus Maleficarum, or Hammer for Witches--The last Persons executed in Scotland and England for Witchcraft--First German Printers condemned to be burned as Sorcerers--Reginald Scot on the Fables of Witchcraft--Mr. E. Chambers's Views of Witchcraft 482
Chapter LVII
Witch-finders--Disasters ascribed to Witches--Witches' Familiars--John Kinnaird--Patrick Watson and his Wife pricked--The Devil's Sabbaths--Grandeur at Satan's Feasts--When Feasts ended--Transformation--A Witch-finder sent from Scotland to Newcastle--Complaints against Witches--Deception discovered--Trying Witches in Northumberland--Escape of a Witch-finder from Justice--Zeal of the Clergy in Scotland in condemning Witches--Witch burned within the Sea-mark--Extracts from Kirk-session Records of Perth relative to Witchcraft--Witches at Kirkcaldy--A Clerical Witch-finder 493
Chapter LVIII
Hiring a Witch to detect a Witch--Clerical Witch-finders--Agnew, the Sturdy Beggar--A Distressed Family--Minister's Remonstrance and Advice--Fresh Afflictions--Prayer and Fasting--Spirits Speaking--Minister's Reply--Application to the Synod for Advice--Solemn Humiliation ordained by the Synod--Beggar suspected and hanged for Blasphemy--Bargarran Witches--An Esquire's Daughter bewitched--Physicians puzzled--Ministers' Visits to Bargarran--Presbytery ordering Days of Humiliation--Recourse to the Law--Catherine Campbell imprisoned--Girl's continued Affliction--Representation to His Majesty's Privy Council--Commission appointed to inquire into the case--Trial of Witches--Condemnation and Execution 500
Chapter LIX
Victims of Superstition--Lady Glammis--Her Trial for causing the Death of her Husband and attempting to poison the King--Found Guilty, and Burned--Lady Fowlis an intended Victim--Image of the young Lady of Balnagowan--Elf Arrows--Consulting Egyptians--Hector Munro's connection with Witches--Charge against Sir John Colquhoun and Thomas Carlips for consulting Necromancers--Love Philters and Enchanted Tokens--Bewitching Sir George Maxwell--Witch-marks discovered before the Sheriff of Renfrewshire--Commission appointed by the Privy Council to try Witches--Witches Burned--Intercourse with Fairies--Another Witch Story 511
Chapter LX
Edinburgh and Leith Witches--Black Catalogue--James VI. and the Witches--Complaint to the Scottish Privy Council of Barbarous Conduct--Relics of Superstition--Witch-finders in Edinburgh and Leith--Royal Commission to Magistrates and Ministers to search for and put Witches to Death--Wife of a Judge in Edinburgh meeting a Witch's Fate--Repeal of the Laws against Witchcraft--Opposition to Acts being Repealed--Judge of the Supreme Courts against a Change of the Law--James Reid--Potter-row Witch--Alexander Hamilton, the Warlock--The Devil and Hamilton burning a Provost's Mill--Bewitched Man--A habit-and-repute Witch--Young Laird of Duddingston--Major Weir and his Magical Staff--A Magical Distaff--Agnes Williamson, a Haddingtonshire Witch--Elizabeth Bathgate of Eyemouth--Isabella Young of Eastbarns burned at the Castlehill 519
Chapter LXI
The Demon of Jedburgh--An Apparition--Witch shot in the form of a Cat--Auldearne Witch--Sabbath Meetings with Satan--Farmer Breadley--Disinterring Unbaptised Children--Singularly-constructed Plough and Team--Attempt to shoot a Minister--Borrowstounness Witches--A Pittenweem Witch--An Unearthly Horse--Merciful View of a Witch's Case--A Perthshire Witch--Water of Ruthven Well--A Changeling 524
Chapter LXII
Witchcraft in Aberdeen--Dean of Guild rewarded for his Diligence in burning Witches--Expense of burning Witches--The Marquis of Huntly's Desire to punish Witches--Action of the Presbytery anent Witches--Man under the Protection of the Fairy Queen--Strathdown Witches--Riding on Brooms--Crossing the Spey in Riddles--Disappearance of Witches--Madge M'Donald of Tomintoul--Witches' Pool--A Mountain Tale--Girl controlling the Elements--Witch Burned--Caithness Witches--One of the Evil Sisterhood--Investigation by the Sheriff--Margaret Nin-Gilbert--Helen Andrew--Shetland Witches--An Orkney Lady--Mary Lamont of Innerkip 529
Chapter LXIII
Neither Police nor Medical Men much required in Olden Times--Instrument of Torture--Torture declared Illegal--Berkly Witch--Attempt on the Life of Edward II.--Master John of Nottingham--Escape of Coventry Necromancers from Justice--Rutland Family bewitched--A Pendle Witch--Strange Narrative--Essex Witches--Witches of Northamptonshire--Bullet-proof Witch--Drawing Blood above the Temples--Anne Bodenham foretelling how a Law Plea would be decided--Strange Proceedings--Discovering Concealed Poison--Performing Spirits--Ride to London through the Air--Impenitent Witch 538
Chapter LXIV
Paying Blackmail to Witches--Demon of Tedworth--A Persecuted Family prayed for--Unaccountable Sounds and Sights--Drummer found guilty of Sorcery--Raising Storms--A Wizard in Cromwell's Army--Aldermen's Children bewitched--Man kissed to Death--Witch unable to say the Lord's Prayer--A Taunton Witch--Bewitched Cattle--Mode of discovering a Witch--Selling a Soul to the Devil--Witch Executed--A Song of the Seventeenth Century 547
Chapter LXV
Elizabeth Style's Confession--Signing a Covenant with Blood--Alice Duke, Anne Bishop, and Mary Penny--Somerset Witches--Running backwards round a Church--Compact with Satan--Accusation against Sarah Morduck--A Judge's Opinion of Witchcraft--Supposed Sufferer from Witchcraft prayed for in the Church, and a Subscription raised for him--Falsely accusing a Woman of Witchcraft--Witch and Stolen Plate--Charm for Sore Eyes--Flames issuing from a Bewitched Person's Mouth--Tormenting a Witch--Jane Wenham's Witchcrafts and Trial--The last Persons who suffered in England for Witchcraft--List of Persons who suffered as Witches 552
Chapter LXVI
Scotchmen and Englishmen in America--Superstition in the Back Settlements--Witchcraft in New England--Rev. Cotton Mather's View of Witchcraft--Judges and Witnesses overawed by Witches--Bewitched Persons prayed for--Trial of Susan Martin--Absurd Evidence--Witchcraft in Sweden--Commission of Inquiry--Day of Humiliation appointed on account of Witchcraft--Threescore and Ten Witches in a Village--Children engaged in Witchery put to Death--The Devil bound with an Iron Chain--An Angel's Warning Voice--Witch assaulting Ministers--Witches' Imps--Butter of Witches--Witches Punished--Horse Burned 558
Chapter LXVII
Superstition in France--Pope John XXII. celebrated in the History of Sorcery and Magic--A Bishop skinned alive and torn by Horses for Witchcraft--King Philippe and Superstition--Extracting Teeth without Pain--Berne Witch--Sorcerers in Navarre--Demoniacal Operations--Witches meeting their Deserts--Maria Renata's Witchcrafts--Nuns possessed of Devils--Jeanne D'Arc--Credulity of France and England--Fairies of Domremi--Charmed Tree--Sparkling Spring--Jeanne's Heavenly Mission--Maid at the head of Troops--Her Achievements--Siege of Orleans--Great Victories--Dauphin Crowned--Heroine Betrayed--Charmed Sword--Jeanne's Surrender--King's Ingratitude--Great Rejoicing at the Maid's Downfall--Attempt to Escape--Trial and Condemnation--Maid Burned--A White Dove rising from her Ashes 564
* * * * *
SUPERSTITION IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Chapter LXVIII
Generality of Superstition--The Church and Superstition--St. Mourie--Various Modes of Superstition--Charms--Lucky and Unlucky Times--Sailors' and Fishermen's Delusions--Weddings, Funerals, and Baptisms--Spae-wives--May Dew--Holy-days--Kirk-session Records--Fort-William Fisherman--Dipping in Fountains--Lochmanur--Holy Well of Kilvullen--Well of Craiguck--Superstition in the Highlands--Warlock Willox--Superstition in Dundee 572
Chapter LXIX
Ghost at Sea--Ghosts in Edinburgh--Fear of Ghosts in Glasgow--Fortune-telling--Choice of Lovers, how decided--Irish Story--How a Ghost settled a Land Question--Prophecy respecting the Argyll Family--Yetholm Gipsies--Curses--Superstition among Fishermen--Superstition among Seamen--Providing for the Dead--A Warning--Blood Stains--Hallow-e'en at Balmoral--Faith in Dreams, etc. 583
Chapter LXX
Lizzie M'Gill, the Fifeshire Spae-wife--Predicting a Storm--Servants alarmed--Prediction fulfilled--Adam Donald, an Aberdeenshire Prophet--His Predictions and Cures--His Marriage--The Wise Woman of Kincardineshire--The Recruiting Sergeant--High-spirited Lady--Charmed Ring and its Effects--Elopement and Marriage--An Enraged Father--Life in America--Strong-minded Women 597
Chapter LXXI
Superstition at Chelmsford--Woman Bewitched--Old Zadkiel--Incantation in Somerset--Turning the Bible and Key--Woman assuming the form of a Hare--Ruling the Stars--Superstition in London--How to preserve Children from Disease--Dreams fulfilled--Virtue of Holly and Ivy--Legend concerning the Tichborne Family--Romantic Divorce Case 608
Chapter LXXII
Spiritualism--Spiritualism not a new Delusion--Phantoms at a Seance--Juggling of a Medium--Unsuccessful Effort at a Vulgar Deception--Spiritualists Exposed--A Medium's Deception discovered--Foolish Exhibitions--Russian Peasants and their House Spirits--Spirits' Care over Persons and Property--Death, Pestilence, War, and other Evils foretold by Spirits--A Suggestion 622
Chapter LXXIII
Superstition in Roman Catholic Countries--Miracle-working Images, etc.--Image paying Homage to the Virgin Mary--Madonnas at Trastevere--Miraculous Cures--Superstitious Ceremony at Dieppe--Blessing the Neva--Superstitious Belief of Napoleon's Mother--Trust in Amulets--Zulu Superstition--Witchcraft forbidden by Great Britain--Eating Fetish--Superstition among the Ashantees--Endeavour to prevent the Advance of the British Army--Shah of Persia's Talismans--Indian Princes consulting Fortune-tellers--Procuring Rain in India--Mysterious Lights on the River St. Lawrence--The Queen of Hearts--Superstition in America--Superstitious Artists--Hogarth's last Picture, "The End of all Things" 629
THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF SUPERSTITION.
Chapter I
Rise and Progress of Superstition--The Serpent--Cain's Departure from the true Worship--Worship of the Sun, Moon, and Stars--Strange Story of Abraham--The Gods of Antiquity--Ether, Air, Land, and Water filled with living Souls--Guardian Angel--Cause of the Flood--Magic--How the Jews deceived the Devil--A Witch not permitted to live--Diviners, Enchanters, Consulters with familiar Spirits and Necromancers proved a Snare to Nations--Charms worn by the Jews--Singular Customs and Belief--Prognostication--Allegorical Emblems--Marriage Customs--Divers Ceremonies at Death and Burials--Divination among all Nations--Observers of Times--Opinion concerning the Celestial Bodies--Power of Witches--Wizards--Necromancers' Power to call up the Dead.
Superstition has prevailed in every generation and country in the world. There are people who think that even Adam and Eve were tainted with this hateful delusion, and that their offspring of the second generation entertained opinions opposed to true religion. That man, soon after the Creation, became acquainted with and yielded to the doctrine of devils, scarcely admits of doubt. Those who conversed with our first parents must have learned from them the circumstances connected with the temptation, fall, and expulsion from the Garden of Eden. It is not unreasonable, then, to suppose that the serpent was looked upon at an early period as something more than an ordinary earthly reptile. One can imagine Adam and Eve, when wandering in perplexity and fear, after their first great sin, starting at the sight of a serpent,--not being certain whether they beheld a reptile of flesh merely, or looked upon their old enemy that had betrayed them in their days of innocency. If they looked with suspicion on the serpent, it is natural to suppose that their children would learn to view this creeping animal as a creature endowed with supernatural powers, by which it could bring about evil, and perhaps good.
Cain, there is reason to conclude, departed from the true worship of the Most High before his offering was refused, and ere he dipped his hands in his brother's blood. In Genesis iv. 26 there is an implication that man had forsaken the right and holy religion prior to the days of Seth. There is an opinion that men soon began to worship the sun, moon, and stars, and that subsequently they paid homage to objects which contributed to their preservation and to things that might do them injury. The wandering Jew, Benjamin, one of the greatest travellers in the East, gives an interesting account of solar worship in early times. The posterity of Cush, he tells us, were addicted to the contemplation of the stars, and worshipped the sun as a god. Their towns were filled with altars dedicated to this orb. At early morn the people rose, and ran out of the cities to await the rising sun, to which on every altar there was a consecrated image, not in the likeness of a man, but after the fashion of the solar orb, formed by magic art. These artificial orbs, as soon as the sun rose, took fire, and resounded with a great noise, to the joy of the deluded devotees.
Many Jewish doctors have condescended upon the precise time when man began to commit idolatry, and they name Enos as the first star-worshipper. Arabian divines tell a story of Abraham being brought up in a dark cave, and at his first coming forth he was so much struck with the appearance of the sun, moon, and stars, that he worshipped them; and there are people who imagine that in the Book of Job they discover evidence of the heavenly host being adored in the time of the old patriarch of Uz.
Some suppose that all the gods of antiquity were Egyptian kings, others that they were Thessalian princes, others that they were Jewish patriarchs; while not a few are of opinion that they were kings of the several countries where they were worshipped. It has been supposed that Saturn represented Adam; Rhea, Eve; Jupiter, Cain; Prometheus, Abel; Apollo, Lamech; Mercury, Jabal; Bacchus, Noah; and Phaeton, Elias. Others imagine that Saturn came in place of Noah; Pluto, of Sem; Neptune, of Japheth; Bacchus, of Nimrod; and Apollo, of Phut. A third class of thinkers maintain that all the heathen gods centre in Moses, and the goddesses in Zipporah his wife, or in Miriam his sister. A fourth class hold that Saturn was Abraham; Rhea, Sarah; Ceres, Keturah; Pallas, Hagar; Jupiter, Isaac; Juno, Rebecca; Pluto, Ishmael; Typhon, Jacob; and Venus, Rachel. Such are examples of imaginary resemblances between real and fictitious persons or gods that never had any existence except in the minds of fanatical romancers and a deluded people, whose faith was kept alive by deception and artifice.
It was an early belief that ether, air, land, and water were full of living spirits; and people believed, soon after man was created, that the souls of just men, subsequent to death, had part of the universe committed to them. This opinion being once established, assistance was sought from the spirits of departed men and women, and efforts were made in various ways to secure their favour. In course of time altars were set up, temples consecrated, and sometimes victims offered to obtain favour from spirits and false gods. Some rabbis affirmed that the angel Raziel was Adam's master, and taught him the Cabbala; and that Shem, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Elias, etc. had each his guardian angel, who directed his thoughts and actions. Jewish doctors assign to magic great antiquity; they assert that it was known to those who lived before the Flood. There is a tradition that one of the causes of the Flood was the intercourse men had with demons. Though it has been stated by ancient historians that Abraham was given to magic, and that he taught it to his children, Josephus (obviously overlooking what had been written prior to his time, and forgetting what Moses had seen performed by the Egyptian priests before Pharaoh) thinks Solomon was the first who practised this art. The Jewish historian gives credit to the "wisest man" for inventing and transmitting to posterity certain incantations for the cure of diseases, and for the expulsion of evil spirits from the bodies of those possessed with such demons. According to Josephus, the expulsion was brought about by the use of a certain root sealed up in a wrapper, and held under the afflicted person's nose while the name of Solomon and words prescribed by him were pronounced. The learned historian does not seem to doubt the wonderful power of Solomon, but rather advances statements corroborative of what he had heard, for he asserts that he himself was an eye-witness to a like cure effected, by equally mysterious means, on a person named Eleazar in presence of the Emperor Vespasian. Descendants of Abraham believed that their great ancestor wore round his neck a precious stone, the sight of which cured every kind of disease.
Suppose we set aside these assertions as fables, we cannot deny that the Jews were at an early period addicted to magical arts. This propensity, there can be no doubt, whenever first manifested, was increased through the Hebrews' intercourse with the inhabitants of Egypt, Syria, and Chaldea.
Jews, who professed to work wonders by enchantments, gave directions how to select and combine passages and proper names of Scripture that would render supernatural beings visible, and bring about many surprising results. The sacred word Jehovah, they said, when read with points, multiplied by or added to a given number of letters, and composed into certain words, produced miraculous effects. By that sacred name and strange arrangements, their prophets, they thought, performed miracles. The devil was supposed to have the power of accusing mortal man at the great day of propitiation, so the Jews endeavoured to appease him with presents. They believed that on that day only he had the power to bring a charge against them, and therefore, to deceive him, they had recourse to a singular stratagem. In reading the accustomed portion of the law, they left out the beginning and the end,--an omission which was expected to cause Satan to overlook the important time. Those versed in magic could tell that the five Hebrew letters of which the devil's name was composed constituted the number 364, during which number of days he could not accuse them; and in some way or other unknown to us, in addition to the plan of mutilating the law, they kept his mouth shut year after year.
We find from the Holy Scriptures, that a witch was not permitted to live,--that there should not be found among the Hebrews any that used divination, an enchanter, a charmer, a consulter with familiar spirits, nor a necromancer, because the abominations of these mischievous people proved a snare to the nations that were driven out before the Israelites. Various opinions have been expressed regarding the witch of Endor. Parties are not agreed as to whether she did or did not bring up Samuel before Saul; but into their disputes it is unnecessary for us to enter. All that we mean to draw from the narrative is, that if the King of Israel had recourse to a witch in his hour of perplexity, superstition must have been general in the nation.
Religiously disposed Jews wore upon their arms and foreheads two pieces of parchment containing the ten commandments. These charms, or emblems of sanctity, or whatever they were called, were not allowed to be worn by women or by men when they went to a funeral or approached a dead body.
The Jews confessed their sins to their rabbis, and the penance or punishment was commensurate with their guilt. It was not uncommon for Jewish devotees to lash themselves, but the number of stripes did not at any time exceed thirty-nine. During the flagellation the penitent lay on the ground with his head to the north and his feet to the south, and it would have been considered profane to look to the east or west while the chastisement was being inflicted. A Jew would as soon have eaten swine's flesh as look to the east or west while he was in a bath. Offenders were sometimes cursed in addition to their other punishments; hence, it is presumed, the more modern recourse to curses or denunciations. A doomed or cursed individual was consigned to the power of evil angels, and prayers were offered up that he might be tormented in life with every disease, and afterwards cast into eternal darkness.
At the commencement of the Jewish Sabbath, half an hour before sunset on Friday, every Jew was bound to have his lamp lighted, though he should beg the oil. The women were required to light the lamps in memory of Eve, who by her disobedience extinguished the light of the world. Every Hebrew was obliged to pare his nails on Friday, beginning with the little finger of the left hand, and then going to the middle finger, after which he returned to the fourth finger, and then to the thumb and fore finger. In cutting the nails of the fingers of the right hand, he began with the middle finger, then proceeded to the thumb, and after that took the fore finger, the middle and fourth fingers, in the order stated. The parings were either buried or burned. The Hebrews believed that the sounding of a consecrated horn drove away the devil.
A curious custom prevailed among them in early times. The father of a family took a white cock, and each of his wives selected a hen, but such of them as were expectant mothers took both a cock and a hen. With these fowls they struck their heads twice, and at every blow the head of the family said, "Let this cock stand in my room; he shall die, but I shall live." Having said this, the neck of the fowl was drawn and its throat cut; and either the dead fowl, or its value in money, was given to the poor. In the evening previous to the feast of expiation, a man wishing to pry into futurity carried a lighted candle to the synagogue, and from particular appearances of the flame he prognosticated whether good was to follow him and his, or whether he and his family were to be overtaken by evil.
At their great feasts of tents or tabernacles (observed in memory of their living in tents in the wilderness) the Israelites went from their tents to the synagogue every day during the feast, bearing in their right hands branches of palms, myrtle, and willows, and in their left hands branches of citron. When they reached the synagogue, they turned the branches first to the east, then to the south, next to the west, and lastly to the north. These ceremonies were allegorical: the palm was an emblem of hypocrisy, the myrtle pointed to good works, the willow represented the wicked, and the citron the righteous. At marriages, while the young persons present held torches in their hands and sang the marriage song, the bride walked three times round the bridegroom, and he in turn walked thrice round her. In some countries--Germany and Holland, for instance--the guests threw handfuls of corn at the young wedded pair, telling them to "increase and multiply." The newly married people drank a little wine, and then emptied the cup on the floor. At the wedding repast a roasted hen and an egg were presented to the bride, who, after partaking of them, distributed the remainder to the guests. The hen had reference to the fruitfulness of the bride, and her delivery in childbirth.
The thumbs of a dead Jew were tied down close to the palms of his hands, to preserve the deceased from the devil's clutches. While the body was being washed, an egg was put into a glass of wine, and the deceased's head anointed with the mixture. Those who were not reconciled to the departed, before his death, kissed his great toe and asked pardon, lest he should accuse them at the great tribunal before the Most High. When the body was carried away for interment, a person, who remained behind, threw a brick after it, as a sign that all sorrow was past. The nearest friends or relations walked seven times round the grave, after each of them had driven a nail into the coffin. Hence the saying in our own time, when one signifies his willingness to do a friend a favour or kindness, "I will drive a nail into your coffin." When the body was put into the grave, every person present threw a handful of earth in after it.
On important occasions the Hebrews, like Pagans, consulted diviners, who had recourse to various ways of divination. In the days of Joseph there was divination by cups, one particular manner of proceeding being to observe how their wine sparkled when poured out. Casting or drawing of lots was a favourite method of divination, not only among the Jews, but among all nations. Mention is made of divination by means of household gods or images in human shape, prepared by astrologers under particular constellations, and made capable of the heavenly influences. The rabbis, in making some of these images, killed a man who was a first-born son, wrung off his head, seasoned it with salt, spices, etc., and then put a gold plate, bearing the name of an unclean spirit, under the head, which was fixed to a wall, and had candles burning beside it. The images were consulted as oracles concerning things accomplished but unknown, and regarding events in the future.
Among the Jews there were observers of times who laid great stress on certain seasons and critical moments, which they supposed depended on particular positions of the heavenly bodies. A learned rabbi expressed the opinion that the celestial bodies rewarded persons who put confidence in them, and that consequently men acted wisely to reverence the stars and implore their assistance. Guesses at futurities were made from the falling of a crumb of bread out of one's mouth or a staff from a man's hand, from a person sneezing, or the breaking of a shoe-latchet.
The Hebrew witches were supposed to possess the power of doing mischief to man and beast by their occult science, and of changing the form of things. Witches used their wicked skill to allure maidens. Through magical operations, a Jew endeavoured long ago to procure the love of a Christian woman, but she was preserved from the power of his craft by sealing herself with the sign of the cross. It was an ancient way of enchantment, to bring, by the power of magic, various kinds of beasts together into one place, which were designated as the "great congregation" and the "little congregation." The great congregation consisted of many of the larger animals, and the lesser was made up of numerous smaller creatures, such as serpents, scorpions, and the like. Wizards were famous fortune tellers; they pretended to be the interpreters of all the most important occurrences of the world. According to the Hebrew laws, the deceivers, and those who consulted them, were liable to be stoned. Necromancers obtained a footing among the Jews. Such wicked people were accustomed to fast, go to burying-places, and there lie down, fall asleep, and pretend that the dead appeared to them in dreams or otherwise, and told them what was desired. They also pretended to call up the dead by means of certain fumes and particular words. In cases where the spirits of dead men were obstinate and refused to appear or answer when summoned in the more simple form, recourse was had to the burning of portions of black cats, or the still more cruel method of cutting up young boys and virgins.
Chapter II
Men endowed with Prophetic Spirits--The Jews forbidden to consult the Oracles of the Heathen--Succession and Schools of Prophets--Burial of Prophets--Influence of Music--The Prophetic Mantle--Way through which Revelations were made--Bath Kol--Urim and Thummim--False Prophets Strangled or Stoned--How False Prophets were discovered--Recourse to Diabolical Art--Moloch--Seething a Kid in its Mother's Milk--The Smooth Stones mentioned by Isaiah--Oil and Candles supposed to possess peculiar Virtues--The Saint entombed near the Barbary shore--Sheep-head and Sheep-head Broth--Casting Sins into the Sea--Custom of Fasting among the Pharisees--Dust of Heathen Countries--The number 10--Angels that had the care of Men--Souls of Dead Persons whispered with a feeble Voice--Hebrew Women who predicted when one would die--Punishment in the Grave by the Devil.
Every person who has read the Old Testament, knows that the Hebrews had among them extraordinary men really endowed with prophetic spirits. The Jews were forbidden to consult the oracles of the heathen nations round about them, but they were permitted to consult their own true prophets concerning that which was concealed from ordinary persons. There was a constant succession of prophets, and there were schools where young persons aspiring to the office of a seer were instructed. Over each of these institutions a venerable prophet presided. At first the scholars were not inspired, but received prophecies from the mouth of their master or president. At Jerusalem there was one of these schools within the second wall of the city. So great respect was paid to the prophetic character, that none were suffered to be buried in Jerusalem but kings, descendants of David, and prophets. Though old prophets could not inspire their young students, they improved their natural faculties, and taught them how to subdue irregular emotions that hindered inspiration. That the minds of the prophets might be the better disposed to receive the proper impulses, instrumental music was used in their devotions; and it is reported that at certain of their musical meetings the young men became so elated, that they manifested poetical genius as well as a prophetic spirit. When a young prophet gave unequivocal evidence of being inspired, he was installed into office by having the prophetic mantle (made of lamb's skin) thrown over his shoulders. Subsequent to inauguration, a prophet wore hair-cloth next his skin, and had a leather girdle round his loins.
The general way through which revelations were made to them was in dreams and visions, or by immediate inspiration. Their dreams were sometimes, indeed generally, sent for instruction or admonition; and in the prophetic dreams a clear and distinct impression was left through a real or imaginary communication with an apparition. At times the prophets had overpowering visions when awake, during which mighty revelations were made to them. When prophetic revelations ceased, the Jews had recourse to Bath Kol, that is, the Daughter of Voice, or the Daughter of a Voice, because it succeeded, they say, the Oracular Voice delivered from the Mercy Seat when Urim and Thummim was consulted.
The prophetic spirit being so common among the Hebrews, it became necessary to adopt a method to prevent false prophets from deceiving the people. To deter men from pretending they possessed a prophetic spirit, a severe punishment for every such pretence was appointed,--strangling or stoning to death. The manner of trying a false prophet was this: the judgments threatened by a prophet, and the good things predicted by him, were observed. If the judgments declared were not fulfilled, it was not regarded as conclusive evidence against him, because it might be that the punishments were for some wise reason averted; but if the promised good did not come to pass, the predictor was condemned as a deceiver and false prophet. If the words of a prophet were fulfilled in one or more particulars, but not in all, he was not deemed worthy of credence. When once one was condemned as a false prophet, no interest was powerful enough to save him from death.
The trial of prophets prescribed by the Mosaic law was intended to prevent impostors pretending to be prophets, and to save the people from being enticed by wicked deceivers into idolatry. In the time of Moses there were many who had recourse to diabolical arts. The oblation of children to Moloch being frequently mentioned, together with other diabolical and divinatory arts, reasons appear for supposing there was something magical in such superstitious rites, and that thereby people consulted demons about things future or secret. Moloch was the principal idol of the Ammonites, but other nations took the same idol for their chief god; for it appears from Pagan records, that the different nations were so very accommodating with their gods that they lent them to one another. Moloch seems to have been the same as Baal, both names signifying dominion, or more particularly the sun, the prince of the heavenly bodies.
There can be no doubt but the passage in the Old Testament, "Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk," was a warning to the Hebrews not to follow the example of the heathen in connection with the payment by the latter of their first fruits. Dr. Cudworth, writing on this subject, says that he learned from the comments of an ancient Karaite upon the Pentateuch, that a superstitious rite prevailed among the ancient idolators, of seething a kid in his mother's milk when they had gathered in all their first fruits, and sprinkling the trees and fields with the broth, after a magical manner, to make them more fruitful in the following year. Spencer also observes that the Zabii used this kind of magical broth to sprinkle their trees and gardens, in hope of obtaining a plentiful crop.
The smooth stones mentioned by Isaiah, to which meat offerings were offered and drink offerings poured out, were anointed stones in the streets, on which passengers poured on them oil from phials; but what advantages were to result from the custom we are not fully informed. Oil and candles were believed by the ancients to possess peculiar virtues. Oil was often burned in honour of the dead; and the Algerines, when on the water, tied bundles of wax candles together, and, with a pot of oil, threw them overboard as a present to the saint, entombed near the Barbary shore, whom they regarded as their protector. We believe few who partake of sheep-head or sheep-head broth know that it is, or was, a custom with the Jews to serve up sheep-head on New Year's Day at their chief entertainment, as a mystical representation of the ram offered in sacrifice instead of Isaac. When a family or company sat down to this repast, each person took a piece of bread, and, dipping it in honey, said, "May this year be sweet and fruitful." The Jews, to cast their sins into the depth of the sea, sometimes went after dinner to the brink of a pond, if not near the sea, and threw into the water a live fish, in the hope that it would carry away all their iniquities, never more to be found.
It was customary among the Pharisees not only to fast twice a week (on Monday and Thursday), but at periods of perplexity to fast thirteen days consecutively. Sometimes, on account of such small trifles as dreams, they would abstain from food; but severe drought, pestilence, famine, war, and inundations were sure to make them fast until nature was nearly exhausted. The Hebrews held certain views and followed particular customs with respect to the dust of heathen countries. Dust that came from Gentile lands was reckoned so defiling, that the Jewish rulers would not permit vegetables to be brought from heathen countries into the land of Israel, lest the detested particles should be brought along with them. The number 10 was much noticed and used by the Jews. The blessing of the bridegroom, which consisted of seven blessings, was of no avail unless delivered in the presence of ten persons. Angels, which were believed to have the care of men, were supposed to ride unseen, on white horses, beside the objects of their attention.
Among the Jews there was a popular notion that the spirits of dead persons whispered in a feeble and peculiar way out of the dust; and it was a common belief that the soul had no rest unless the body was interred. There were women among the Hebrews who predicted how long one would live, and pretended to know when he was to die. One of a Jew's solemn prayers on the day of expiation was that he might be delivered from the punishment of the devil in his grave,--a punishment supposed to be inflicted by causing the soul to return to the body, breaking the deceased's bones, and tormenting both soul and body for a season. A similar form of prayer was used by the Mohammedans.
Chapter III
Egypt steeped in Superstition--Power of Magicians--Way of obtaining Visions--Demons--Deification of Departed Heroes--Gods and Demi-gods--Altars or Living Stones--Sacred Animals--Isis searching for Osiris--Leeks and Onions--Priests were Physicians and Interpreters of Oracles--Sacrificing Human Victims--Wax Figures--Magic--Teaching of the Egyptian Priests--Transmigration--Character of Men judged of after Death.
Egypt was a country steeped in superstition. The people believed in sorcery, magic, and enchantments; and there is the fullest evidence in the sacred pages that the Egyptian magicians were able to perform dexterous feats that were truly surprising. Astronomy was studied with a view to success in astrology, as the latter was a science much esteemed, and very lucrative. Public or state astrologers were consulted in cases of emergencies. None dared to practise astrology, magic, sorcery, or any of the various modes of divination unless authorised by a master in the art, before whom he had "spread the carpet" for prayer. To procure sublime visions, seers shut themselves up for a long time, without food or water, in a dark place, and prayed aloud until they fainted. While in a swoon, strange visions appeared to them, and revelations made which sometimes filled the nation with gladness, and at other times spread mourning over the country. In advanced ages, as well as in early times, men believed there were a multitude of subordinate spirits, as ministers, to execute the behests of the supreme sovereign. To these spirits were committed the superintendence of all the different parts of nature, and their bodies were imagined to be composed of that particular element in which they resided. Altars were built in the midst of groves, where the spirits were supposed to assemble. Gratitude and admiration tended to the deification of departed heroes and other eminent persons. This probably gave rise to the belief of national and tutelar gods, as well as the practice of worshipping gods through the medium of statues cut into human form. At one time demi-gods gradually rose in the scale of divinities until they occupied the places of the heavenly bodies. Thus, following ancient hyperbole, a king, for his beneficence, was called the sun, and a queen, for her beauty, was styled the moon. As this adulation advanced into an established worship, the compliment was reversed by calling planets or luminaries after heroes. And to render the subject more reconcilable to reason, the Eastern priests taught that the early founders of states and inventors of arts were divine intelligences, clothed with human bodies. When celestial divinities disappeared or were obscured from observation, men had recourse to symbols of a temporary nature that produced fire. Altars of stone were built and consecrated in the name of the divinity whom it was intended to represent. Such altars were called animated or living stones, from a belief that a portion of divine spirit resided in them, and the prayers and praises offered up before them were thought to be as acceptable as if addressed to the gods themselves. That those altars or stones might be as near as possible to the objects of worship represented, they were generally placed on the tops of mountains, or, in flat countries like Egypt, on high structures, the works of men's hands. Many have attributed the building of the pyramids to the worship of gods; but whether that was the purpose to which those majestic structures, that have puzzled learned men, were devoted, we shall not venture to say. This, however, is certain that, throughout the East, altars, statues, and pillars were erected for superstitious purposes upon mountains and other high places.
Herodotus informs us that the ancient Egyptians were the first people who gave names to their gods. Of Osiris, Isis, and the many other gods and sacred animals that were worshipped in Egypt, we shall say little at this part of our subject. The bull, it is well known, was one of the most sacred animals. The priests affirmed that Apis was of divine origin, the cow that produced him having been impregnated with holy fire. Dogs, the Egyptians said, deserved homage because they guided Isis when she searched for the body of Osiris. She, it may be remembered, sought for the precious remains with true pertinacity till she found them. To accomplish her purpose, she found it necessary to transform herself into a swallow, to dry up the river Phœdrus, and to kill with her glances the eldest son of a king. Her tears were supposed to cause the inundation of the Nile. At times she had the head of a cow, which identified her with the cow of whom the sun was born. The hawk was deified because one of these birds brought to the priests of Thebes a book, tied round with a scarlet thread, containing the rites and ceremonies to be observed in the worship of the gods. The wolf was adored because Osiris arose in the shape of that animal from the infernal regions, and assisted Isis and her son Horus to battle against Typhon. The cat was revered as an emblem of the moon, for its various spots, fruitfulness, and activity in the night. The goat (which, by the by, is said to be absent from the earth and present with Satan a part of every twenty-four hours of the day, and can never be seen from sunrise to sunrise without being lost sight of for a longer or shorter time) was honoured as the representation of manhood in full vigour, and was worshipped, from gratitude to the gods, for multiplying the people of the country. The crocodile was also advanced to the dignity of a god. If one killed any of the sacred animals designedly, he was put to death,--if involuntarily, his punishment was referred to the priests; but if a man killed a hawk, a cat, or an ibis, whether designedly or not, he died without mercy. During a severe famine, when the Egyptians became cannibals, not one of them was known to have tasted the sacred animals.
All revered animals were kept at great expense, and when they died costly funerals took place. When the Apis died at Memphis, in the reign of Ptolemy the son of Lagus, his funeral cost not less than £13,000 sterling. When a cat died, the family it belonged to expressed great grief, and prayed and fasted several days. In cases of fire, more care was taken to preserve the feline animals than the most valuable property in the house. Dead cats, which were almost invariably embalmed, were sometimes carried from remote parts to be interred in the city of Bubastis, and hawks and moles were buried with great solemnity at Butos, even though they should have died in foreign countries. Juvenal mentions that leeks and onions were objects of worship, and others say that the lotus was also sacred in various parts of the East. The priests were both physicians and interpreters of oracles; they carefully observed the phenomena of nature, and registered every uncommon occurrence. From such observations, they calculated the results of other events of similar nature. Hence arose the practice of divination, and afterwards that of dispensing oracles. Oracles were erected in every part of Egypt. Even the sacred animals had their several oracles. The Apis was consulted by observing into which of his chambers he entered. By a certain principle understood, the omen was regarded as foretelling good or evil.
The barbarous custom of sacrificing human victims was long in force in Egypt, and prevailed down to the reign of Amasis, by whom it was abolished. Not to give too severe a shock to the superstitious feelings of the people, wax figures, representing human beings, were permitted to be substituted for the living mortals. These customs were, no doubt, what sorcerers and witches imitated at their midnight feasts in after ages, and which led old women to imagine that, by making wax images of those whom they intended to injure, and sticking sharp instruments into them at one time, and at another time exposing them to a scorching heat before a fire, they would wreak their vengeance upon the individuals whom the figures represented. We have it from more than one learned writer, that the cruel and gloomy worship of Egypt arose from a belief that Typhon was labouring incessantly to counteract the happiness of mankind. He was considered to be greedy and voracious, and that it was necessary to glut his altars with blood in order to appease his anger.
Magic was a science in which the Egyptians excelled. Its attainment was esteemed the highest exertion of human intellect. Some imagined that the invention of magic exceeded human invention, and they pretended that the angel who fell in love with the antediluvian women taught it, and that the principles thereof were preserved by Ham after the Deluge, and that he communicated them to his son Mizraim; but others ascribed the invention to Hermes. Without either admitting or denying these assertions, we can have no hesitation in stating that much of our superstition may be traced back to Egyptian religion and customs, and that the singular belief of the Egyptians was general, and long anterior to the time Jacob and his sons went down to that country.
The Egyptian priests, taking advantage of the people's credulity, taught that the sun, moon, and whole host of heaven were endowed with intelligence, and exerted an influence over the destinies of men; and they (the priests) pretended to work miracles, and obtain oracles and omens. They also laid claim to the power of interpreting dreams.
The Egyptians believed that the souls of men went into other bodies at death,--such as had been virtuous going into exalted bodies, but the vicious passing into mean reptiles and other contemptible creatures. After remaining in a state of punishment for a certain number of years, they were supposed to pass into more exalted beings. Praise was not bestowed indiscriminately upon every person who died, however exalted his position. Characters were given by judges, after inquiry into the life and conduct of the deceased. The judges sat on the opposite side of a lake; and while they crossed the lake, he who sat at the helm was called Charon, which gave rise to the fable among the Greeks, that Charon conducted the souls of deceased persons into the infernal regions.
Chapter IV
Babylon--The Chaldeans were Priests, Philosophers, Astronomers, Astrologers, and Soothsayers--Downfall of Babylon predicted--Worship of the Medes and Persians--Devils confined in an Egg--Sacred Fire--The Gaures--Births and Deaths in Early Times--A narrow Bridge--An immense Tree--Creation of Prophets--A Stone to which Abraham tied his Camel--Adam and Eve's Trysting Place--Black Art--Ways of discovering whether a supposed Criminal was Guilty or Innocent--Looking into Futurity--Canaanites, Syrians, and Arabians--Strange Fables--Abraham breaking Heathen Idols--Worship of the Egyptian Thorn--Altars--Religion of the Carthagenians and Tyrians--Supremacy of the Gods.
The great city of Babylon owed its origin to the ambition of the proud people who built the tower of Babel. In course of time Babylon rose to great grandeur, but superstition became so prevalent that it proved a snare to the inhabitants. Like the heathen around, they worshipped fire and images. The Babylonians pretended to great skill in astrology, soothsaying, and magic. The Chaldeans, so called in a strict sense, were a society of pretenders to learning, priests, philosophers, astrologers, and soothsayers, who, it is said, dwelt in a region by themselves, and the rest of the people were called Babylonians. While Babylon was in its glory, prophets predicted that dreadful judgments would befall it. And so it happened. On the very night the destruction came, the king, alarmed by the mysterious handwriting on the wall, consulted his magicians; and Daniel, who had been made master of the magicians, astrologers, Chaldeans, and soothsayers, made known the sad end of Belshazzar and his kingdom.
The Medes and Persians worshipped the sun, fire, water, the earth, the winds, and deities without number. Human sacrifices, as in other idolatrous countries, were offered by them, and they burned their children in fiery furnaces appropriated to their idols. At first the gods they worshipped were Arimanius, the god of evil, and Oromasdes, the giver of all good. Plutarch says that Oromasdes created several inferior gods or genii, and that Arimanius created many devils. The former also created twenty-four devils, and enclosed them in an egg; but the latter broke the egg, and by that means let out the demons, and created a mixture of good and evil. The religion of the Persians underwent a variety of revolutions. Temples were built for the worship of fire, prior to which Magian priests kept the sacred fire burning on mountain tops under considerable difficulties. They fed it with wood stripped of the bark; they were prohibited from blowing the fire with their breath or with bellows, lest it should be polluted. Had one done either, he would have been punished with death. The Jews had the real fire from heaven, and the Magi pretended to have received theirs from the upper regions likewise.
The Gaures held that the earth was inhabited at first by two persons. They had a tradition that Eve brought twins into the world every day, and that for one thousand years death had no power over her seed. They believed that a select company of angels were appointed guardians of mankind, but that, notwithstanding this, evil increased: men grew wicked and perverse in their ways, and therefore the deluge was sent to sweep them away. The Gaures had their guardian angels for every month and day throughout the year, and to them they devoted their prayers. New Year's Day was a high day with them, and they had a great many lucky and unlucky days.
The Persians hold that at the last judgment every man must pass along a bridge no wider than a razor's edge; that the unbelievers and the wicked will certainly in their passage fall into hell, there to be for ever and ever tormented; but that the faithful shall be so guided and supported that they shall pass the bridge swifter than a bird can fly through the air, and enter into paradise, and seat themselves on the banks of the river of delight, which, they say, is shaded by a tree of such immense size, that if a man were to ride forty thousand years, he would not pass the extent of one of its leaves. In Persia it was a common belief that there were many prophets living between the days of Adam and Mohammed, who were created before the world was made. Their prophets, according to history, were possessed of the power of working miracles; and charms and amulets were common in the country.
Pilgrims who went to Mecca invariably kissed a black stone, regarding which there is a curious legend: Abraham, we are informed, tied his camel to this stone when he went to sacrifice Ishmael, for the Mohammedans represent Hagar as Abraham's lawful wife, and Ishmael his heir. There is another tradition, that when Abraham was about to build the Kaaba, held in great veneration, the stones marched thither of themselves ready hewn and polished, and that the black stone, being left out when the building was completed, demanded of Abraham why it had not been used in the sacred structure. The prophet told the stone not to be disappointed, for he would cause it to be more honoured than any stone in the building, by commanding all the faithful to kiss it as they went in procession. The faithful people were wont to meet at the place which they supposed was Adam and Eve's trysting place after the expulsion, for it is related in one of their legends that the first man and woman wandered about the world, separately, hundreds of years after the Fall.
The Persians were extremely addicted to the study and practice of the black art and all magical incantations, supposing that by such mysterious operations they could influence the elements and all the products of nature. When any one was suspected to have died an unnatural death, the surviving relatives consulted spirits, with the view of discovering the cause of it. Sometimes the relatives alleged that a spell had been cast on the spirits consulted, which prevented their giving answers to interrogatories. In that case, magicians were employed to remove the fascination. A suspected murderer was submitted to a severe ordeal:--A particular liquid was poured upon the arm or thigh of the unfortunate person; but before the fluid was used it was boiled, while the supposed criminal's name was repeatedly mentioned. The moment the liquid began to boil, they commenced to address their imaginary spirits in the following terms: "Is the party on whom I pour this water guilty or not? If he is, may it scald him and shrivel up his skin." If the application of the boiling liquid did not injure the suspected person he was declared innocent, but if it burned him he was pronounced guilty. People anxious to know the result of approaching warlike engagements put a vessel full of water, mixed with particular ingredients, over a fire. As soon as the water commenced to boil they performed magical incantations, which, as they imagined, irresistibly attracted the titular genius of their enemies, and obliged the spirit or god to plunge himself into it. In this painful situation they confined him for a considerable time. When he had endured sufficient penance to humble him, he was questioned relative to the success of the war. The information sought was delivered, as the people thought, through the appearance of the scum on the water. By turning a red-hot pot upside down, attended with magical incantations, they imagined the courage of their soldiers exposed to its heat could be raised.
Canaanites, Syrians, and Arabians were all superstitious, and given to idolatry. These people had various idols, regarding which there are strange fables. An idol worshipped by the Philistines and Syrians, called Derceto, has an interesting history. Near Askelon there was a deep lake, abounding with fish. Not far from the lake stood the temple of this famous goddess, the mother of Semiramis, who had the face of a woman, and the rest of her body resembling part of a fish, for which the Syrians assigned the following reason:--Venus having conceived a hatred against Derceto, caused her to fall in love with a young Syrian, whom she subsequently murdered, and then threw herself into the lake, where she was transformed into the shape of a fish with a woman's face; for which reason the Syrians did not eat any fish, but worshipped them as gods. There is a legend of Abraham, before he left Ur of the Chaldeans, which exhibits the contempt he had of idols. It is said he took an opportunity of breaking in pieces all the idols he could reach, except Baal, and that he suspended about the neck of this idol the axe with which he had performed the destruction. The people coming to see what had been done, supposed that Baal was the author of the mischief. Some say that Abraham accomplished the exploit in his father's shop during his absence, and that Terah, returning home, inquired how the work of destruction had taken place. Abraham told him that the idols had quarrelled about an offering of flour that an old woman had brought them, and that Baal had proved the strongest, and broke all the rest to pieces.
The Arabians, Ishmael's offspring, were equally guilty of idolatry. So far did they carry this sin, that they actually worshipped idols under the shape of Egyptian thorns. In early times the thorns were adored in the open fields, but subsequently altars and temples were erected for their worship. The Arabians worshipped Assaf under the shape of a calf; and they had a goddess named Beltha, supposed to be the Venus of the Greeks. The Sabeans were the principal worshippers of this goddess; and such was their devotion to her, that they regularly presented to her a portion of their plunder.
The religion of the Carthaginians and Tyrians was horrid and barbarous. Nothing of moment was undertaken without consulting the gods, which was done in various ridiculous ways. Hercules was the god in whom the people placed most confidence. He was invoked before they went on any important expedition; and when their armies were victorious, sacrifices were offered to him. One of the chief deities that they worshipped was Urania, or the moon, to whom they appealed when overtaken by calamities, such as drought, excessive rain, destructive hail, thunder, and dangerous storms. Urania was the queen of heaven mentioned in the Scriptures, to whom even the Jewish women offered cakes, etc. Carthaginians, in worshipping Saturn, offered up human sacrifices to him. Even princes and other great men were wont, in times of distress, to sacrifice their most beloved children to this deity. People who had not any children of their own, purchased infants that they might offer them as victims to this idol, with the view of inducing him to fulfil their desires. Diodorus relates that when Agathocles was going to besiege Carthage, the people imputed all their misfortunes to the anger of Saturn, because, that instead of offering up to him children nobly born, he had been fraudulently put off with the offspring of slaves and foreigners. To atone for past shortcomings, two hundred children of the best families in Carthage were sacrificed, and further, to obtain the god's favour, three hundred adult citizens immolated themselves.
Nimrod, the great-grandson of Noah, was an idolator, as were also his descendants. Nineveh was the seat of his empire. As the sun and moon became early objects of worship among the Assyrians, so in later days they adored the fire as their substitute,--a form of worship that was common among the ancients in many lands. The Assyrians published abroad that the gods of other nations could not stand before their fire-gods. A competition took place. A vast number of idols were brought from foreign nations, but as they were composed of wood, the god Ur (or fire) consumed them. After many contests, an Egyptian priest discovered a plan of destroying the reputation of this idol, which had become the terror of alien people. He caused the hollow figure of an image to be made of perforated earth, with the holes stuffed with wax, and the large internal cavity filled with water. He then challenged the god Ur to oppose his god Canopus,--a challenge which was accepted by the Chaldean priests. No sooner did the heat that was expected to devour the Egyptian idol begin to take effect, than, the wax being melted, the water gushed out and extinguished the fire. Before the Assyrian empire was joined to that of Babylon, Nisroch was the god worshipped in Nineveh, and it was in the temple of this idol that the great Sennacherib was murdered. This idol was in the shape of a bird--a dove or an eagle--made, if we can believe the Jewish rabbis, from a plank of Noah's ark. The people repented at the preaching of Jonah, but it was not long before they relapsed into their former idolatry and general wickedness.
Chapter V
Greek Religion and Superstition--Whence the Greeks derived their Religion--Jupiter regarded as the President of the Law and Protector of Cities--Entertainment of Strangers--Dreams and Charms--Sacred Stones--Omens of Evil--Sacrificing the Hair--Flight of Birds--Compassing the Altar to the Right--Methods of discovering whether a Person was in Love--Love secured by Magic--Marriage Ceremonies--Most lucky time for Marriage--Way of protecting a Child from Evil Spirits--Divers magical Ceremonies--Strange Laws as to Dead Bodies--Fingers and Toes of Dead Men worn as Charms to frighten away Ghosts--Preparing a Body for Burial--Superstitious Customs--Swine and Swine's Flesh--Drinking Toasts--How Strangers were expected to behave in a Strange Land--Prophets consulted before Armies marched to Battle--Certain words avoided--Sneezing--Evil Omens--Throwing a Person overboard to save a Ship.
Herodotus was of opinion that the Greeks derived their religion and superstition from the Egyptians; Plutarch arrived at another conclusion; while many maintained that Orpheus brought the mysteries of religion into Greece. Whoever is right, this we know, that the Greeks became so prone to worship ancient deities, and so anxious to do homage to all the divinities, that they erected altars to unknown gods, for fear they would fail in their duty to any power that could assist them in time of need. Above all gods, Jupiter was held in the highest esteem. He was regarded as the president of law and justice, as the protector of cities, as governor and director of their councils, and as chief of their societies. To him they ascribed thunder, and supposed it was he who delivered them from the Persians, and who assisted them to buy and sell to advantage. They erected altars to him in the courts of their houses and before their gates. Regarding him as the god of strangers, they received and entertained visitors with great ceremony. As a sign of fidelity, the right hand of fellowship was given to a stranger, to whom salt was presented, in token that his person would be safe under the entertainer's roof. A stranger's bottle was kept, and when a visitor arrived at the door the head of the family and he joined feet together on the threshold. A cup of wine was drunk to an unknown person before his name was asked. To return respect to those in the house, the stranger did reverence to the genius of the place, and saluted the ground with a kiss. When one sojourned in a strange land, he was expected to conform to the recognised customs thereof; and on taking his departure he not only bade farewell to those with whom he had become acquainted, but took leave of their deities. When an important agreement was entered into, Jupiter was sacrificed to, and called to witness the covenant.
The Greeks purified themselves after frightful dreams; they wore charmed rings to protect themselves from witchcraft; they were accustomed to spit three times on seeing a madman; and they spat every time the devil's name was mentioned in their hearing. Stones were cast at every cat and weasel met by one when commencing a journey, and the meeting of a bitch with whelps was carefully avoided. The crowing of hens and the whistling of maidens were listened to with as great fear as the hissing of a serpent.
If a rat or a mouse ate a hole in one's clothes, evil, it was thought, was about to befall the luckless owner. The people had days of good luck and of bad omen. They cut their hair, and sacrificed it to rivers. They marked the flight of birds, particularly that of the owl. On seeing this night bird flying overhead at the battle of Salamis, the soldiers considered it a good sign, took courage, and won the fight. When one was going round an altar, he took care to keep his right hand towards it. People anointed sacred stones in token of thankfulness, as Jacob poured oil on the stone he took for a pillow at Bethel.
To know if one was in love, special notice was taken of his garland at a feast, and from its appearance the wearer's feelings were supposed to be known, though it might be thought there was no necessity for such observation; for, according to an old proverb, "Love and the cough can never be concealed."
If one could not secure a lady's affections in the usual way of courting, he endeavoured to get something of hers into his possession in order to bewitch her. Having received a glove, a ring, or any other article, he operated on it in a magical way, and thus obtained his desire. If a lady's girdle was properly tied into a true-lover's knot, she could not resist loving him who performed the charming trick. Another way of softening a woman's heart was by throwing a bitten apple into her lap. If she received it and ate the fruit, her affections were won. All the tokens and charms did not come from the gentleman's side, for it was not unusual for a lady, when she wanted to control a lover's affections, to send him charmed garlands, roses, or bitten apples.
On the wedding day, a bride, on coming to the house of her husband, found the doors hung with garlands made of herbs, flowers, and plants consecrated to certain gods and goddesses, which possessed peculiar virtues suitable for the occasion. Cakes were bestowed on the bride on her marriage day; and there was a custom among the Greeks and Romans of combing her hair with a spear which had belonged to a man that lost his life in a fight, or with a weapon that had been used in killing a man. If this was done, she was sure to have brave sons. As the bride rose to leave her father's house, she was carried over the threshold; and as she entered her husband's house, a practice similar to that observed among other nations was followed,--throwing figs and other fruit at her head, as an omen of fruitfulness. It was also the custom for a servant, on first coming into his new home, to have palm branches and various ornaments placed on his head, to secure prosperity. As the bride was led into her chamber, there was a sieve carried along with her, and a pestle hung at the door, implying that afterwards she was to assist in the household duties. When the bride and bridegroom were together in the house, they ate an apple between them, to signify the pleasantness and harmony they were to enjoy in after life. Recourse was had to augury, the day before the wedding, to ascertain whether the married life was to be prosperous. Before the bride retired for the night, she was bathed with water drawn from nine different springs. The time of the year the Grecians deemed most lucky for marriage was the first month of winter. This was contrary to the views of the Persians, who considered spring the proper season for entering into the matrimonial state. The Greeks thought it better to get married in the first or second quarter of the moon rather than when it was waning. General rules were at times departed from, for occasionally astrologers were consulted as to the most auspicious day and hour for the happy lovers being united.
Through magical influence, a husband could have been made to hate his wife; but, to regain his affections, a spider caught in early morn was confined in a box, protected by charms, prepared for its reception. When a child came into the world, three men kept watch all night to keep away evil spirits. One of those on guard was armed with an axe, another with a pestle, and the third with a broom. Each protector kept his implement swinging through the air, to prevent the approach of the dreaded beings. As soon as a child was born it was washed in water or wine, and wrapped in a cloth worn by the mother when she was a virgin. In the cloth were wrought the image of the Gorgon and the snakes of that monster's head, together with the likenesses of two dragons. When the child was five days old, it was carried about the hearth to introduce it to the Penates. Arrangements were then made for naming the child. A feast was prepared, at which there were doves, thrushes, coleworts, and toasted cheese, besides many other things. The feast was kept up for seven days. The mother, in gratitude for her child, sacrificed to Diana, and the father returned thanks to the nymphs for giving him a fruitful wife.
If the little stranger died in infancy, it had only a cold funeral without fire, or any burial service or mourning. Sons, as soon as they were three years old, were registered in the tribe. A feast was then prepared, called "the shearing feast," because at that time the youngster's hair was cut, and consecrated to one of their gods.
The Athenians had a law, that if any one happened to discover a dead body, whether of a friend or a stranger, he should cast earth on it three times; and the Romans had a similar law. If a Greek omitted this duty, he was bound to make satisfaction by sacrificing a sow-pig. But some went farther, and insisted that whoever saw a dead body and did not cast dust upon it, was both a law-breaker and an accursed person. The people feared that the gods underground were angry if the dead were left uncovered with their kindred dust. No greater imprecation could have been cast at an enemy than that he might not be covered with the earth. Hence it was that the ancients stood in great fear of death on the ocean, for there their bodies could not be interred. When one went to sea, it was not uncommon for him to tie a reward to his body, that in case he should be drowned and his body found, the finder would see it buried, and so become entitled to the treasure. Next to the happiness of being assured that the body would be buried, was that of being interred in one's own country, and not among strangers. When a man died far from home, frequent solemn invocations were made for his soul, which, it was thought, could hear and understand what was said by friends even in distant lands. At the burial of one that was slain in battle, his comrades marched three times round the burning pile or grave, shaking their arms, and throwing swords, bridles, belts, and other articles into the fire or grave after the body. When a soldier fell fighting in the field, and his body could not be found, he was honoured with the carriage of an empty bier, and funeral ceremonies as if his remains were present.
If a man killed himself, the hand with which the deed was committed was cut off, and buried in another place to that in which the other part of the body was interred. If one man killed another in a righteous cause, the slayer washed his hands and held up the weapon that had been used towards the sun, with the blood on it, to show that he feared not though the heavens as well as the earth knew what he had done. The ancients were of opinion that if one were slain by a relative, the blood could never be thoroughly wiped off the blade that had cut down the individual. And for fear the Furies would avenge the death of one killed by a relation, amulets and spells were provided to prevent untoward events. The most powerful charms were supposed to be parts of the slain individual. Therefore the fingers, toes, and other extreme parts of the body were cut off and worn under the arm-pits, to prevent the murdered person's ghost taking revenge for the unlawful deed. In preparing a body for burial, the Greeks took a piece of money and put it into the mouth, to give to the ferryman Charon. With the money a small quantity of pudding or cheese was put in for Cerberus, to propitiate him. As a corpse was being carried out to be interred, the deceased was commended to the protection of the infernal gods. To burn a body was considered more honourable than to lay it in the cold grave, for the Greeks thought that the divine and purer part of man was carried by fire to the abode of the gods above. This belief induced fanatical persons, when tired of life below, to burn themselves, that they might all the sooner take their flight to the regions of bliss. If a high wind sprang up when a body was being consumed by flames, it was regarded as a favourable omen. On the body being consumed, the fire was extinguished with red wine.
After a funeral, the people fumigated the house with brimstone, and cleansed themselves by passing over a fire. They then kept a feast, or rather feasts, at which they sacrificed to Mercury, that he might carry the soul of the deceased to the realms of happiness. At the same time the ghosts of relations were sacrificed to. Those who petitioned the gods had garlands about their necks, or green boughs in their hands. The branches were either laurel or olive, because the former signified triumph, and the latter peace and goodwill.
Swine and swine's flesh were held in high esteem by the Greeks and Romans, for various reasons--one of which was that Jupiter was nursed by a sow. It was the custom to drink healths or toasts, and the last one before going to bed was to Mercury, that he might give sound sleep and pleasant dreams. Great men would, on a high occasion, drink to a favourite, and hand him the cup to keep. When a person drank to the health of one he loved, he partook of part of the liquor, and poured the remainder of the wine on the ground. Drinking cups in remote times were made from bulls' horns. The Greeks consecrated their horses to the sun, and before engaging in war they consulted their prophets and diviners. In particular, they paid great attention to the utterances of Egyptian priestesses kept by them. Then, similar to the manner of the Jews, Persians, and others, the Greeks consecrated to the gods, in the event of obtaining victory, portions of goods secured from the vanquished; and even relations were offered in sacrifice to the gods supposed to have given triumph to the victorious armies. A Greek general did not think it lucky to march his forces before full moon, or until the seventh day of the month. Sacrifices were offered to the water when an army came to a river,--a custom observed by other nations.
Certain words were never pronounced by the Greeks. For instance, they carefully withheld their lips from uttering "prison;" and if they happened to hear what they thought an unlucky speech, they replied, "Let it return to thine own head." So far did they carry their superstition, that if one heard an unfavourable expression when he was about to drink, he would throw the liquor on the floor and call for another cup. Sneezing was so superstitiously regarded, that it came to be counted among the number of gods. It was deemed inauspicious if a host sent his guests away from a feast without giving each of them a piece of cake, or such like, to take home. The cracking of a table and the spilling of wine or salt were regarded as evil omens. When a Greek ship was in danger in a storm, one of the crew or a passenger was chosen by lot, and thrown overboard, like Jonah, to appease the spirit that ruled the winds and the waves.
Chapter VI
Roman Delusions and Customs--Augury--Election to the Magistracy; Omens relative thereto--Tokens of Futurity--Dire Misfortunes followed the Contempt of Augurs--Drawing of Lots--Events foretold by reading the first passage that turned up on opening a Book--Lucky and Unlucky Stars--Fortune Tellers--Dreams--Omens drawn from Appearance of parts of Animals offered in Sacrifice--Sibylline Books, Charms, and Incantations--Spirits going about to observe Men's Actions--Unlucky Days--Dress of a Bride--Marriage Ceremonies--Anointing Door-posts with the Fat of Swine or of Wolves, and crossing the Threshold--Fire and Water--Bridal Feast and Nuptial Songs--Funeral Rites--Souls of Unburied Persons--The Expiring Breath--Customs at a Deathbed; the Cypress exhibited at Houses in which were Dead Bodies and Funeral Observances--Hobgoblins and Lares--Purifying with Water and Fire--Ghosts partial to Beans, etc.--Offerings made to appease the Manes--Persons reported to be Dead--Dead Bodies used for Magical purposes.
The old Roman delusions and customs were as extraordinary as those of any nation with which history has made us acquainted. The augurs pretended to foretell future events from the flight of birds and the chirping and feeding of fowls, and also from other appearances. "Augurium" and "auspicium" were generally used promiscuously. Auspicium was properly the foretelling of future events from the inspection of birds; augurium from any omen or prodigy whatever. The augurs are supposed to have derived tokens of futurity chiefly from five sources--appearances in the heavens (such as thunder or lightning), from the singing or flight of birds, from the feeding of fowls, from the movements of quadrupeds, and from uncommon accidents. The birds which chiefly gave omens by sound were ravens, crows, owls, and cocks,--and those by flight, eagles and vultures. Contempt of the augurs, and neglect of their intimations, were said to be followed by dire misfortunes. Omens coming from the left were generally supposed by the Romans to be lucky. Thunder on the left was regarded as a good sign, and so was the cawing of a crow on the same side; but it was considered more fortunate to hear the croaking of a raven on the right than on the left. The Romans, as the Greeks had done before them, took omens from quadrupeds crossing their path or appearing in unaccustomed places. The augurs taught the people how to draw conclusions from sneezing, spilling salt, and other accidents, called dira.
Drawing of lots was frequently resorted to by the Romans wishing to pry into futurity. The lots were dice, or articles resembling those instruments of chance. They were thrown into an urn filled with water, or cast as dice in the ordinary way. If there was any difficulty in ascertaining the import of the dice throwing, the priests were employed to interpret. Future events were frequently inquired into by an inquisitive person cutting the branch of a tree into small pieces, and distinguishing them by certain marks, and then scattering them at random on a white cloth. The searcher after knowledge having prayed to the gods, took up the slips three times, and interpreted according to the marks. Future events were often inquired into by reading the first line or passage which happened to turn up on opening a book, or by observing the stars. It was supposed to be lucky to be born under a certain star, and unlucky to come into the world under another. Astrologers were consulted regarding one's natal hour. Fortune-tellers and books of fate were consulted on the most trivial occasions; and persons aspiring to the magistracy, after saying their prayers in the open air, had recourse to augury with the view of ascertaining whether the gods favoured their cause.
Great attention was paid by the Romans to dreams, and persons of disordered minds were supposed to possess the faculty of presaging future events. Omens of futurity were also drawn from the appearance of the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice to the gods. The flame and smoke from the altar were noticed, and so were the circumstances attending the driving, felling, and bleeding of the victim. Sibylline books were inspected by appointment of the senate at perilous times, as they were supposed to contain the fate of the Roman Empire. There was something mysterious about the origin of the sibylline books. It is reported that a woman called Amalthæa, from a foreign country, came to Tarquin the Proud to sell nine sibylline books. Upon Tarquin refusing to give her the price asked, she went away and burned three of them. Returning soon after, she sought the same price for the remaining six. Still the price was refused, and she went away and burned other three books. She again came to the king, and demanded the same price for the three unconsumed volumes as she had asked for the nine. Tarquin, who first regarded the woman as a senseless old creature, became surprised at her strange behaviour, and inquired at the augurs what he should do. They advised him to give the woman the price she demanded. The woman delivered the books, and, after desiring that they should be carefully kept, disappeared, and was never seen again.
The use of charms and incantations originated in the worship of the heathen gods. As people in this country believe that spirits, good and bad, go about at night, so did the Romans suppose that their gods went up and down the earth during the night to observe the actions of men. The priests and others, when engaged in acts of piety or important business, took care, when turning, to move to the right. Every Roman avoided repeating words of bad omen. Certain days were reckoned unfortunate for the celebration of marriages. The month of May was thought an unlucky time for marriages being solemnized. The most fortunate time for weddings taking place was in the middle of June. The dress of a bride on her marriage day was a long white robe and her face was covered with a veil, in token of her modesty; her hair was divided with the point of a spear into six locks, and she was crowned with flowers. No marriage was celebrated before recourse to auspices. The nuptial ceremony was performed in the bride's father's house, or in the residence of the nearest relation. In the evening the bride was conducted to her husband's house, taken thither apparently by force from the arms of her mother or other relative, in memory of the violence used to the Sabine women. Three boys, whose parents were alive, attended her; two of them supported her by the arms, while the third walked before, bearing a flambeau of pine or thorn. Maid-servants followed with a distaff and wool, intimating that she was to spin as matrons formerly did. Many relations and friends attended the nuptial procession. The young men repeated jests and made sport as she passed along. The bride bound the door-posts of her new home with woollen fillets, and anointed them with the fat of swine or wolves, to prevent enchantments. She was lifted over the threshold, or lightly leaped over it, as it was thought ominous to put her foot upon it, because the threshold was sacred to Vesta, the goddess of virgins. Both she and her husband touched fire and water, as all things were supposed to be produced from these two elements. With the water their feet were bathed. The husband gave a feast, and musicians attended and sang the nuptial song. After supper the bride was conducted to her bed-chamber by matrons who had been only once married, and laid on her couch, which was covered with flowers; songs were then sung by young women before the chamber door till midnight. Next day another entertainment was given by the husband, when presents were sent to the bride by her friends and relations; and she began her family duties by performing sacred rites.
Great attention was paid to funeral ceremonies. Many people believed that the souls of the unburied were not admitted into the abodes of the dead before they had wandered about the Styx at least a hundred years. If one happened to discover an unburied body and did not throw earth on it, he was compelled to expiate his crime by sacrificing a hog to Ceres. When persons were at the point of death, their nearest relation present endeavoured to catch the expiring breath with their mouth, as they believed the soul or living principle went out by the mouth. The nearest relation among the Romans closed the eyes and mouth of the deceased, after putting money into the mouth for the ferryman who was to take the soul of the dead over the lake it had to cross. A branch of cypress placed at the door where the deceased lay, indicated that there was a dead body within. People were invited to public funerals by a herald. Magistrates and priests were supposed to be violated by seeing a corpse, and therefore the dead were generally buried at night with torch-light. At funeral processions pipers and other musicians attended, and women sang the funeral song or the praises of the deceased to the sound of the flute. By the law of the twelve tables, the number of flute players was restricted to ten. Next followed actors and buffoons, who danced and sang, while one of them imitated the deceased's words and actions when alive. Before the corpse there were carried the images of the deceased and of his ancestors. The ancients buried their dead at their own houses, whence arose the fear of hobgoblins, and a belief in lares, supposed to be the souls of the deceased.
When the body was laid in the tomb, the people present were sprinkled three times with pure water by the priest, and when the friends returned home they were again sprinkled. Beans, lettuces, bread, eggs, etc. were laid in the tombs, in the belief that the ghosts would come and eat them. Offerings were made to appease the manes. If a person, falsely reported to have been dead, returned home, he did not enter his house by the door, but went into it through the roof. Dead bodies were often violated for magical purposes, by stripping them of valuable articles, or cutting off fingers, toes, or arms. Wax images of deceased persons were made, and, after a variety of ridiculous ceremonies, burned on piles, from the tops of which eagles were let loose to convey to heaven the souls set free from the body.
Chapter VII
Ethiopian Superstition--Sacred Bread--Customs of Ethiopian Monks--Heathen Indian Gods--Paraxacti and her three Sons--Thirty thousand millions of Gods--Fate of a Child written on its Forehead--Transmigration of Souls--Seven Seas--Mountain of Gold--Adder of monstrous size with a Hundred Heads--Vixnu--Dispute between Bruma, Vixnu, and Rutrem--Curse pronounced against the Thistle--Iranien the Giant--Transformation--Morning Star--Vixnu's different Forms--A King's Head kicked into the lowest Abyss--Prediction by Soothsayers--A Tyrant's Intentions frustrated--Vixnu's Guilt and Punishment; his Marriages and supposed future Appearance--Rutrem--A Son with Seven Heads--The Seven Stars as Nurses--Parvardi's Loss of her Husband and Birth of a Son--Rutrem's Revenge and its Consequences--The Indians' Offering to the Sun--The Ganges--The Giant Piamejuran--Superstitious Observances at Marriages--Disposal of Dead Bodies--Different degrees of Glory after Death--Reverence for the Cow--Ways of detecting Criminals--Addressing Oracles--Astronomy--Eclipse of the Moon--Magic--John Gondalez.
In Ethiopia, superstition was general over the entire empire. The Ethiopians used a sacred bread, called the corban. While this bread was being made, the baker was obliged to repeat seven psalms. Upon every loaf there were twelve impressions of the cross, and each cross was within a square. Ethiopian monks slept on a mat spread on the ground, and before lying down they stretched out their hands one hundred and fifty times in the form of a cross. Baptism was understood by the people of this empire to be a solemn ceremony that washed away all impurities; but the rite was observed by nearly all the ancient nations, in memory of the Deluge.
In an account of the empire of the Great Mogul, we find no end of superstitious observances. Each heathen Indian tribe had a separate god. Some tribes even worshipped boiled rice; after the same manner the Egyptians paid homage to leeks. Indian writers say that, in the beginning, a woman, whose name was Paraxacti (brought into existence by the great Creator), had three sons,--the first named Bruma, who came into life with five heads. He was endowed with the power of creating all inferior beings. The name of the second was Vixnu, appointed lord of providence and preserver of all things formed by Bruma. The third was named Rutrem, whose function or inclination was to destroy all things his other two brothers had made and preserved. Rutrem, like his brother Bruma, had five heads. Bruma assumed the form of a stag; and, to punish him for a serious crime he committed when in that shape, his brothers and thirty thousand millions of gods punished him by cutting off one of his heads.
According to the notions of Indian heathens, Bruma writes upon the forehead of every child an account of all that shall happen to him in the world. It is reported of Vixnu that he metamorphosed himself at pleasure. He first took the form and nature of a fish, and the second form assumed was that of a tortoise. The Indians believed there were seven seas in the world,--one of milk, of so delicious a nature that the gods ate butter made of it. One day, when the gods wanted to feast on the butter according to custom, they brought to the shore of the milk sea a high mountain of gold, which supported fourteen worlds that composed the universe. The uppermost part of the mountain served for a resting place, and over it was brought an adder of monstrous size, having a hundred heads. The gods made use of this adder as a rope, in order to get at the butter more easily; but while they were attempting to procure the butter, the giants, who had a continual hatred against the gods, drew the adder on the other side with so much violence that it shook the whole universe, and sunk it so low, that Vixnu, in his tortoise form, placed himself under it and supported it. Meanwhile the hundred-headed adder, being unable any longer to endure the pain the gods and giants inflicted on him, vomited poison upon the giants, which killed many of them on the spot. Vixnu afterwards assumed the form of a beautiful woman, and such of the giants as remained alive fell in love with the fair being. In this guise, he amused the giants till the gods had eaten all the butter.
In his third incarnation, Vixnu changed himself into the form of a hog, in consequence of the following circumstance:--One day a contest arose between the three gods, Bruma, Vixnu, and Rutrem, regarding the extent of their power. Rutrem undertook to go and hide himself, and at the same time promised to submit himself to him who should first discover his head and feet; but if they could not find these parts, then the baffled gods were to acknowledge him their superior. Bruma and Vixnu having agreed to this proposal, Rutrem vanished, and hid his head and feet in places a great distance from each other, where he imagined they could not be found. Bruma, in the likeness of a swan, commenced to search for the head, but, finding he could not obtain any trace of it, he resolved to return home. Just, however, as he was going to give up the search, he met the thistle flower, which came and saluted him, and showed the place where Rutrem had hid his head. Rutrem, exasperated, cursed the flower, and forbade it ever to enter his presence. For this reason, his followers prevented thistles being brought into their temples in any part of the East Indies.
For the purpose of finding the feet, Vixnu transformed himself into a hog, and went from place to place digging into the earth, but without success. For cogent reasons, Vixnu next assumed the form of a man and lion at the same time. Rutrem, it appears, conceived a strong friendship for one Iranien, a mighty giant, and granted him the privilege that no one should kill him either by day or by night. Instead of the giant proving grateful, he became proud and overbearing, and even insisted on being worshipped as a god. To punish the giant, Vixnu suddenly appeared before him in the form of a cloud, and then, taking the monster shape of a being half-man half-lion, resolved to take vengeance on the ungrateful wretch. In the evening, when Iranien was standing at the threshold of his door, Vixnu sprang at him, tore him to pieces, and drank his blood. But the blood affected Vixnu so much that he became stupid. Vixnu's fifth transformation was into a dwarf. At that time a cruel king's subjects appealed to Vixnu to relieve them of their oppressor, and, to carry out the people's desire, he, in the form of a dwarf, went to the city where the tyrant kept court. The dwarf begged from the king a grant of three feet of ground whereon to build himself a house. The tyrant was about to comply with the request, when the morning star, which attended the king in the character of secretary of state, suspected there was treason in the case. It was common, when requests were granted, for the king to take water into his mouth and pour some of it into the hand of the suppliant, and therefore the secretary, by the assistance of magic, slipped imperceptibly down the prince's throat, in order to prevent the water being thrown out. The magic had not the desired effect; for the king, finding something in his throat, forced a sharp instrument into it, which put out one of the secretary's eyes, and the water gushed out, ratifying the agreement. Vixnu changed himself into a monster so large that the whole earth was not sufficient to afford room for his feet. He then said to the king, "You have given me three feet of earth, and yet the whole world can scarcely contain one of my feet: where am I to place the other?" The tyrant, seeing deserved wrath awaiting him, laid his head down before Vixnu, who with one kick tossed it into the lowest abyss of hell. The wretched king, finding himself condemned to such a place of torment, begged pardon and mercy of Vixnu, but all the favour he received was one day's respite every year, to enable him to take part at a particular ceremony, to be observed in commemoration of his own downfall and punishment.
Vixnu's sixth form was that of a white man. He subdued many tyrants, and washed his hands in their blood. In this form he destroyed many giants, and compelled all the apes in the country to attend him. The last form Vixnu assumed was that of a black man, in which likeness his cunning and success were not less marked than when he was disguised in several of his former shapes. Here is another story told of him:--There was a great tyrant named Campsen, a violent persecutor of good men, who had a sister called Exudi. It happened that the soothsayers, of whom there were many in the country, having consulted the stars, told the king that Exudi would have eight children, and that the youngest of them would kill him. This enraged the monarch so much that he destroyed seven of her children as soon as they were born. Notwithstanding the natural affliction of the princess, she became pregnant for the eighth time, but, wonderful to relate, of no less a personage than the god Vixnu, who, unknown to her, succeeded in finding a place in her womb. Fearing the child would be conveyed beyond his reach as soon as it was born, the king placed spies everywhere to prevent the young prince's escape. The supposed father of the child succeeded in carrying him away, and placing him under the care of shepherds far up the mountains. Every effort was made by the baffled monarch to discover the young prince, and at last he found him. Desiring to be the executioner himself, he went and laid hold of the child to murder him. Just as the hand was raised to inflict the fatal blow, the prince vanished, and in his room appeared a little girl, whom the tyrant also attempted to kill; but she too, after mocking the king, disappeared uninjured. Vixnu grew from boyhood to manhood, when he raised an army against Campsen, whom he defeated and slew with his own hands, fulfilling the prediction of the soothsayers. Vixnu married two wives, but, neither of them pleasing him, he divorced them and espoused sixteen thousand shepherdesses. The people imagined that he would appear some time or another in the form of a horse, but thought that until that metamorphosis took place he would wallow in a sea of milk, with his head supported by a beautiful snake.
We are informed that Rutrem, the third son of Paraxacti, was much respected by the people, though, judging from the accounts transmitted to us, the wonder is that he was not detested. He married Parvardi, daughter of a king, whose dominion was in the mountains, with whom he lived a thousand years; but his two brothers, Bruma and Vixnu, having disapproved of the match, gathered together the thirty thousand millions of gods, and went in search of him. Accordingly he was found and dragged away from his wife, which caused him to wander up and down the earth in search of forbidden pleasures. One day the earth gave him a son with seven heads; but as a nurse could not be got to bring up the child, the seven stars undertook the task. Parvardi, disconsolate at the loss of her husband, went in search of him, but could not discover his place of abode. In her lonely state, she begged the gods would give her a son,--a request that was complied with, for a man-child dropped out of the sweat of her forehead. In the meantime Rutrem returned to his house, and, finding the child, became exceedingly enraged. His anger, however, turned into love on being informed of the miraculous manner in which he was born. The king of the mountains made a feast, to which the gods were invited, but Rutrem, his son-in-law, was not asked. This want of respect provoked him so much that he went to the banquet, and, laying hold of one of the gods, tore off a handful of hair from his head. From the hair a giant of enormous size started up, whose head reached to the firmament, and struck the sun with so great violence that all its teeth were knocked out. For this reason, the Indians refused to offer anything to the sun but what could be eaten without teeth. Not satisfied with knocking out the teeth of the sun, he bruised the moon so severely that the marks remain to the present day. He then killed several of the guests, among whom was his step-son, created from the sweat of his mother's forehead. Vinayaguien (that was the youth's name) lost his head, and had it replaced with that of an elephant. In the disfigured state into which he was turned, his father dispatched him in search of a wife as beautiful as his mother,--a task that proved endless, because there could not be found a woman equal in beauty to his maternal parent.
Rutrem married the River Ganges, which was represented under the form of a blooming woman. At that time there was a giant named Piamejuran, who had for several years undergone a severe penance for having offended Rutrem, but, becoming sensible of his offence, desired to be absolved. The favour was granted him, with the privilege of reducing to ashes everything he laid his hands upon. The power with which he was endowed proved his death. One day he went to the Ganges to bathe, and, lifting his hand to his forehead, it reduced him to dust.
At their marriages, the Indians were very superstitious, and paid great regard to omens. The consent of the parents being obtained, and a fortunate day appointed, the parties met with the relations, when the bridegroom threw three handfuls of rice on the head of the bride, and she cast an equal quantity at him. Part of the marriage ceremony consisted of the fathers of both bridegroom and bride putting a piece of money and a small quantity of water into the bride's hand. This being done, the bridegroom hung a ribbon, with a coin attached to it, round her neck.
As soon as a man died, his beard was shaved, his body washed, lime put into his mouth, and women rubbed his face with rice. When the body was burned, the deceased's ashes were thrown into the Ganges, for the water of that river was supposed to have a virtuous and holy influence on whatever it touched. The Brahmins believed that there were five different degrees of glory after death. Bruma, with his wife Sarassuadi, was in the fourth state attended by a large swan, on which he rode abroad, this god being supposed to be exceedingly fond of travelling. None but the most innocent were exalted to the fifth seat of glory.
Cows' dung was spread over the floors of Indian temples; and such was the people's reverence for the cow, that when sacrificing they poured milk on their altars. Their priests pretended that their gods had oracles, by which they could foretell future events. When several persons were suspected of stealing anything, and the guilty one could not be discovered by ordinary means, the priests wrote the names of the suspected persons on different pieces of paper, and laid them down before the altar, and invoked their oracle, after which they locked the doors, so that no person could get in. When they returned and found any paper removed, the person whose name was on it was declared to be the criminal. On the priests addressing their oracles, they became so excited that they remained for hours seemingly in great agony. After recovering, they explained to the people the sayings of the oracles. The Indians had tables of astronomy which they consulted. When the moon was eclipsed, they believed she was fighting with a black devil.
The Indians supposed that by means of magic a man could change himself into the form of a lion or any other animal he chose. We have heard of one John Gondalez, who changed himself into the shape of a lion, and in that form was shot by a Spaniard. The day on which Gondalez was fired at he was reported to be sick. A clergyman was called in to take his confession. The pious man, in giving an account of what he saw and heard, said, "I saw Gondalez's face and nose all bruised, and asked him how he had received the injuries. He told me that he had fallen from a tree and nearly killed himself. After this he accused the Spaniard of shooting at him. The affair was inquired into by a Spanish justice of the peace. My evidence was taken, and I told what Gondalez had said to me regarding his fall. The Spaniard swore that he had shot at a lion in a thick wood, where an Indian was not likely to be."
Gondalez was examined as to how he was not seen by the Spaniard when he went to look for the lion; to which he replied that he ran away lest the Spaniard should kill him. As Gondalez's dealings with the devil were well known to all in the neighbourhood, it was held that he had received his injuries when roaming as a four-footed beast; and therefore the justice discharged the Spaniard.
Chapter VIII
John Gomez the Wizard and Man-tiger--Lopez the Man-lion--Vermilion Marks rendered the Devil powerless--Sacrificing Children--Offerings to the Ganges--A Rajah offering himself as a Sacrifice--Preventatives against Disease--Various Superstitious Ceremonies--Sacrificing to the Gods of the Four Winds--How the Devil was kept away--King's Wives and Retainers going with the Dead Monarch into the other World--An eternal Succession of Worlds--Apes supposed to have Human Souls--Worshipping Demons--Drinking Blood--Prognosticating from the Cries of Beasts--Witchcraft and Magic--Singular Opinions and Customs--Watching Graves, and providing for the Dead--Foretelling Future Events at the New Moon--Method of discovering a False Swearer--Offerings to the Sea and Winds--Superstition in China--Chinese Genealogy and Worship--Opinion of their Gods and Goddesses--Sacrifices--Beggars--Magical Arts--False Worship--Comfort of the Dead provided for--Superstition in Japan--Fortune-telling--Idols--Gods and Goddesses--Five Hundred Children hatched from Eggs--Human Souls supposed to reside in Inferior Animals--Beasts held in great esteem--Statues of Witches and Magicians placed in Temples in Japan--Charms sold by Priests--Value of Charms--Fortunate and Unfortunate Days--A Fairy in the likeness of a Fox--A valuable Charm.
The gentleman (a clergyman) who told the story of John Gondalez, gives another tale equally interesting. John Gomez, the chief of an Indian town, was nearly eighty years of age, and reputed to be possessed of more than ordinary shrewdness. His advice was preferred to that of all other chiefs. He seemed to be a very godly Indian, and very seldom missed morning and evening prayers in the church. "He was suddenly taken ill," proceeds the clergyman; "and one of his friends, fearing that he might die without making confession, called me up at midnight, desiring me to go presently to John Gomez to help him to die. I therefore visited Gomez, who lay with his face muffled. He confessed, wept, and showed a willingness to die. I comforted him, after which I returned home to refresh myself. Scarcely had I crossed the threshold of my house than I was called on to visit the sick man a second time, and give him extreme unction. As I anointed him on his nose, lips, hands, eyes, and feet, I perceived he was swollen black and blue. I went home again, and after I had rested a little, an Indian called to buy candles to offer up for the soul of John Gomez, who, he told me, had departed. I went to the church, and found the grave being prepared for the deceased. Two Spaniards, to whom I spoke, told me of a great stir being made in the town concerning the death of Gomez. Amused at the information received, I desired a full and particular account of the whole circumstances. They told me that Gomez was the chief wizard of the town--that he was often changed into a tiger, and in that form walked about the mountains. Wondering at this statement, I went straight to the prison, where, I was told, I might obtain information on the subject. At the stronghold the officers communicated to me the whole matter. There were witnesses, they said, who saw a lion and a tiger fighting, and presently lost sight of them, but saw in their places Gomez and a man named Lopez. Gomez returned home much bruised, and on his deathbed declared to his friends that Lopez had killed him. Lopez was therefore taken into custody, and put in irons. The crown officers investigated the case with great care, and found that the body of Gomez was all bruised and torn in various places. Lopez, upon this, was taken to Guatemala, and there hanged, the evidence against him, in the estimation of the judges and people, being conclusive that he had fatally injured Gomez while the former was in the shape of a tiger, and the latter in the likeness of a lion."
The inhabitants of Bisnagar, Deccan, and elsewhere believed that the moment a priest marked any one on the forehead with vermilion, the devil had no power over the person thus distinguished. At Samorin there was a statue to which children were sacrificed. It was of brass, and, when heated by a furnace underneath it, the children were thrown into its mouth and consumed. Flowers were scattered upon the altars during the sacrifices, and herbs, steeped in the blood of a cock, perfumed the idol. The cock's throat was cut with a silver knife dipped in the blood of a hen. At the conclusion of the barbarous ceremony, the priest walked backwards from the altar to the middle of the chapel, where he threw a handful of corn over his head.
The Ganges, as is well known, was, and still is, worshipped by a large number of people. Vast numbers of pilgrims continually visit this great river. Formerly, if not now, they bathed in it in a peculiar fashion, holding short straws in their hands while they were performing their ablutions. Gold and silver were often thrown into the stream, in testimony of admiration.
At Quailacara a remarkable ceremony took place once every twelve years. On the morning of the important day, the rajah, who was both high priest and sovereign, offered himself a sacrifice to the gods. He first delivered an oration, and then with a sharp instrument cut off his nose, lips, and ears, and concluded the tragical event by cutting his throat. Similar ceremonies were performed in the same district by scores of deluded devotees, who bent their steps to the most celebrated temples, where they cut off their flesh, piece by piece, and then stabbed themselves to death. Their bodies were burned, and the ashes sold by the priests at high sums, as preservatives against disease. When the people came to bathe in the Ganges in the month of May, they erected piles of cows' dung, on which were placed baskets of rice, roots, and every description of vegetables. These were surrounded with wood besmeared with butter, and set on fire. From the appearance of the smoke and flame, those present pretended to discover whether the harvest was to be abundant or otherwise. At seed-time the priests took branches from trees, and walked in procession with them, going three times round the temples. A hole was then dug in the ground, and water from the Ganges poured into it. In this hole cows' dung and the branches were put and set on fire, and from the appearance of the flames the arch-priest was enabled to foretell what was to happen during the year. When a person was dying, he was carried to a river and dipped into it, that his soul and body might be purified. Happy was the individual who could be conveyed to the Ganges, because its waters were supposed to be possessed of virtues that did not exist in other rivers. Sometimes the hands of the dying person were tied to a cow's tail, and the invalid dragged through the water. If the cow emitted urine upon the person, it was considered a most salutary purification. If the fluid fell plentifully upon the expiring man, his friends testified their joy by loud acclamation, believing he was about to be numbered among the blessed. But when the cow did not supply the purifying liquid, the relatives showed their grief, for they thought their dying friend was going to a place of punishment.
At Assam and elsewhere, when a person was sick, sacrifices were offered to the god of the four winds. If the patient died, servants were kept beating on instruments of copper to keep away evil spirits, supposed to be hovering round the corpse. There was a belief that if an evil spirit passed over a dead body, the soul would return to the inanimate remains. At a funeral procession, men surrounded the coffin with drawn scimitars, to drive the devil away and help to confine him to his home of darkness. At a king's death, all his wives, ministers of state, and retainers surrounded the grave, and poisoned themselves, in order to accompany him into the other world. Horses, camels, elephants, and hounds were also interred along with his majesty, to be useful to him in the world of bliss.
In Pegu, the people believed in an eternal succession of worlds, and imagined that, as soon as one would be burned, another would spring out of its ashes. They thought that people devoured by crocodiles went to a place of perpetual happiness. The people believed that asses had human souls, and, reversing the theory of Darwin that human beings were the offspring of inferior animals, thought they were formerly men; but, to punish them for crimes they had been guilty of, the gods transformed them into their present shape. White elephants were much esteemed by the people. As the devil was worshipped, altars were erected in honour of him, and sacrifices were daily offered to appease his wrath and obtain his favour. Devout persons refused to taste food, before throwing part of it behind them for the dogs or devils to eat; for they imagined that every dog was possessed with evil spirits, if the animal was not Satan himself. It sometimes happened that a man left his house, swept clean and genteelly furnished, for the devil to take possession of it for a whole month.
On entering into a solemn agreement, the natives of Siam drank each other's blood. They attentively listened to the groans and cries of wild beasts, and prognosticated from them, and believed in witchcraft. They imagined, as spiritualists of the present time do, that answers were received from deceased friends or relations. Natives of the Philippine Islands had a notion that they could know, from seeing the first objects that presented themselves to them in the morning, whether they would be successful or unsuccessful in their undertakings during the day. If one of them happened to tread upon an insect when setting out on a journey, he would proceed no further. The islanders of the Moluccas watched the graves of their deceased relations seven nights, for fear the devil would steal the body away, and during that time the bed of the deceased was made as if he were alive. Further, victuals were prepared for him, lest he should return to earth and require nourishment. Many of the people wore bracelets, and on the appearance of the new moon a hen's neck was cut, and the bracelets dipped into the blood. From the appearance of the ornaments after being taken out, future events were brought to light. When the people of Ceylon were called upon to make oath, they wrapped their right hands in a cloth the previous night, and when they appeared in court, a caldron, containing a mixture of cows' dung and water, kept boiling over a strong fire, was in readiness for the deponents, subsequent to removing the bandages, to immerse their hands therein. This being done, their hands were again wrapped up until next day, when the fingers were rubbed with a linen cloth. He whose skin peeled off first, was declared to have spoken falsehoods; and he not only lost his cause, but was compelled to pay a penalty to the king. At the Maldive Islands, offerings were made to the sea when a voyage was about to be undertaken. Sacrifices were also offered to the winds, which was done by setting fire to a new boat, and consuming it to ashes. But if one was too poor to offer a boat, he threw into the ocean several cocks and hens; for it was the opinion that there was in the water a god that ate such things as were offered in sacrifice. One was warned not to spit against the wind when at sea. The ships and other vessels belonging to the people of these islands were consecrated to the gods of the sea and the winds.
Superstition in China was, and still is, both general and absurd in the extreme. The Chinese profess to have an uninterrupted genealogy of their kings for a period of twenty-four thousand years; but, notwithstanding their pretensions to antiquity, learned men suppose that these people are descendants of the Egyptians. On this difficult question, however, we do not propose to enter, and therefore proceed to notice a few of their ridiculous customs and notions. They have been idolaters for ages, and pay divine honours to numerous gods--particularly to Fo, who was deified and worshipped for more than a thousand years before the Christian era. The Chinese say that Fo was a king's son. As soon as the infant god was born, he could speak and walk. When young, he had four philosophers to instruct him, and at the age of thirty he began to work miracles. Report has it that he was born eight thousand times, and that his soul had passed through the bodies of many different animals. The doctrine of transmigration of souls was part of the people's creed, and this doctrine is still believed in by the people generally. Cang-y was the god of the lower heavens, and had power over life and death. He had three spirits constantly attending him, the first of whom sent rain to refresh and nourish the earth; the second was the god of the sea, to whom all their navigators made vows before going away with ships, and performed them on their return home; and the third presided over births and war. The great Chinese reformer, Confucius, was born four hundred and fifty years before Christianity was preached. As soon as he was born, two dragomans came to guard him against harm, and the stars bowed themselves before him. He married a wife, but, finding that she hindered him in his pursuit of knowledge, he put her away. He lived to the age of seventy years, when he died of a broken heart at beholding the evils around him. The highest honours were paid to him after death.
Hogs were offered in sacrifice to the gods. Wine was poured on the animals' ears, and if they shook their heads at this operation they were deemed proper objects to be offered, but if they remained motionless they were rejected.
On the 14th August of every year sacrifices were offered by the people to their ancestors, and all who assisted them at the solemn ceremonies were assured that they would receive particular favours from their dead relatives. Vast numbers of beggars constantly went about the country. If those mendicants were refused alms, they told the people that their souls would pass into the bodies of rats, mice, snakes, toads, and such other creatures as they knew the Chinese abhorred. Those mendicants told fortunes, and, if report speaks true, could raise the wind by striking the earth with a hammer of magical virtue. A ship captain, on going to sea, might have a fair wind and a prosperous voyage for a moderate sum. Divination was practised by means of household gods, of which there were many in the empire.
Conjurers and fortune-tellers were by law forbidden to frequent the houses of civil or military officers under the pretence of prophesying impending national calamities or successes, but the prohibition was not understood to prevent them telling fortunes and casting nativities by the stars in the usual manner. Whenever signs of calamity were observed in the heavens by the officers of the astronomical board, and they failed to give faithful notice thereof; they were punished with one hundred and twenty blows and two years' banishment. In later times a law was passed against sorcerers and magicians, prohibiting them, under pain of death, from employing spells and incantations, calculated to agitate and influence the minds of the people. Killing by magic was by statute placed among the most serious classes of offences. Magicians who raised evil spirits by means of magical books and dire imprecations, or who burned incense in honour of the images of their worship when they assembled by night to instruct their followers, were strangled.
It was enacted by the Chinese laws, that if any members of a private family performed the ceremony of the adoration of heaven and of the north star, and lighted the lamps of the sky and of that star, they were guilty of profanation, and liable to be punished with eighty blows. When a dead body was laid in the coffin, the mouth of the deceased was filled with corn, rice, silver, and gold; and scissors, tied up in purses, were put into the coffin, that the departed person might cut his nails as often as he pleased.
There was a sect in Japan called Jammabugi, who studied magic chiefly among the rocks and mountains. They procured a subsistence by pretending to tell fortunes. They possessed an almost incredible number of idols, one of which was Abbuto, noted for curing inveterate diseases, and for procuring a favourable wind at sea. To secure a quick passage, sailors and passengers were wont to throw money into the ocean as an offering to this idol.
The Japanese had gods for almost everything. A most ridiculous account is given of their goddess of riches. When a mortal, she had no children by her husband, which caused her to supplicate the gods to give her offspring. Her prayers were heard, and she produced five hundred eggs. Being afraid that if the eggs were hatched they would bring forth monsters, she packed them up in a box bearing a particular mark, and threw them into a river. An old fisherman found the box, and, seeing it full of eggs, carried it home to his wife. Not having a sufficient number of hens to hatch so many eggs, she put them into an oven, and, to the surprise of the aged couple, every egg produced a child. The two old people succeeded in bringing up the strange progeny to manhood, for they were all sons. They became robbers and beggars by turn; and it happened, one day during their rambles, that they came to their mother's house. From inquiries she made, it became clear that the young ruffians were her own children. She kept them, and reared them up to be virtuous and useful. She was afterwards taken up from the earth to be among the gods, where she remains, attended by her five hundred sons.
Apes and monkeys, as well as other creatures, were worshipped in Japan. So great faith did the people of that country put in the transmigration of souls, that they had hospitals for the reception of animals in whose bodies souls were supposed to reside. In a wood near Jeddo there were many sacred animals, daily fed by priests. These animals, the priests said, were animated by the souls of the most noble and illustrious heroes that ever lived. The people had such a profound veneration for stags, that they were to be seen in every street as numerous as the dogs in our country. If one killed a stag, not only was he condemned to die, but the houses where the deed was committed were razed to the ground. Dogs were held in great esteem. The inhabitants of every street were obliged to support a fixed number of them, they being quartered on the people like so many soldiers. When a dog died, it was buried among human remains. A man who killed a canine creature was punished with death. Fish were looked upon as sacred. Near the capital was a river that was so plentifully stocked with fish, that they thrust one another ashore, yet not one of them was injured. The people believed that if they touched one of the finny tribe, they would be smitten with leprosy, and it was considered an unpardonable sin to eat any of them. A belief prevailed, that fish possessed the souls of naval officers. Statues of witches, magicians, and devils find places in the Japan temples.
Charms were sold by the priests, which were represented to possess the virtue of curing diseases and driving away the devil. Money was sometimes borrowed on security of charms, not to be repaid in this world. A note was given, authorizing payment of the money in the land of spirits; and when the holder of the document died, his relations put it into his hand, believing that the debt would be duly paid to the deceased. The Japanese thought certain days were more fortunate than others. A table of their fortunate and unfortunate days was hung up in the passage of every house, for the guidance of the family when they went out. This table of days was prepared by a celebrated astrologer of universal knowledge in all mysteries, whether relating to the stars, dreams, or omens. Like other men of note in the East, he was born in a miraculous manner. His father was a prince, and his mother a fox. It appears that the lady fox being pursued by huntsmen, ran to and obtained protection from his highness. The creature discovered herself to be a fairy, and, throwing off her false appearance, became a beautiful princess. The prince being enamoured with her charms, married her, and had by her the celebrated astrologer spoken of. When he grew up he invented a set of mysterious terms, which he comprised within the compass of one verse, as a charm or protection for such persons as were compelled to work on unlucky days; and every one who repeated the verse reverently on the morning of an unlucky day, was preserved from all the evils that would have otherwise befallen him.
THE GODS AND GODDESSES OF HEATHEN NATIONS.
Chapter IX
The Classification of Gods and Goddesses--Primeval Parent Chaos--Creation--Influence of Ether--The Human Race in danger of Perishing--Celestial Fire--Birth of Cupid--Banishment of Cupid from the Blest Abodes--Cupid's Armour--Fate--Eternal Decrees--Throne of Jove--Fortune and Happiness--Misfortune and Misery--Twofold Nature--Rewards and Punishments--First Man and Woman--Pan the Emblem of all Things--Power of Heathen Gods--Descriptions of Juno--Venus the Goddess of Love and Beauty--Rustics turned into Frogs--Vulcan--Æolus--Momus the Jester--The Carping God's Fault-finding--Improper Position of the Bull's Horns--Minerva as a House--Window in Man's Breast.
We do not intend to notice at great length the ancient opinions and writings concerning the deities which heathen nations thought presided over the world and the heavens, and influenced the affairs of the spheres above and below; but as much of comparatively modern superstition has been traced to mythology, generally so called, we cannot pass without observation the history of the gods, nor avoid giving such extracts therefrom as bear particularly on our subject, "The Collected Mysteries of all Nations."
The gods and goddesses of heathen nations were classified as follows:--1st, the celestial gods and goddesses; 2nd, the terrestrial deities; 3rd, the marine and river gods and goddesses; 4th, the infernal gods; 5th, the subordinate and miscellaneous deities; 6th, the ascriptious gods, demigods, and heroes; and 7th, the modal deities. Ancient writers speak thus:
"When the primeval parent Chaos, hoary with unnumbered ages, was first moved by the breath of Erebus, she brought forth her enormous first-born Hyle, and at the same portentous birth the amiable almighty Eros, chief of the immortals. They had no sooner come to light than they produced the terrible Titans."
Again we are informed that--"Ere the universe appeared; ere the sun mounted on high, or the moon gave her pale light; ere the vales were stretched out below, or the mountains reared their towering heads; ere the winds began to blow, or the rivers to flow, or plants or trees had sprung from the earth; while the heavens lay hid in the mighty mass, and the stars were unknown, the various parts of which the wondrous creation consists lay jumbled without form in the Abyss of Being." There, it is said, they had lain for ever and ever if the breath of the terrible Erebus, the spirit that dwelt in eternal darkness, had not gone forth and put the mass into vital agitation.
From another source we learn that, first of all, Chaos existed; next in order the broad Earth; and then Love appeared, the most beautiful of all things. Of Chaos sprang Erebus and dusty Night, and of Erebus and Night came Ether and smiling Day.
The Earth conceived by the influence of Ether, and brought forth man and every description of animal. The human race was in danger of perishing from the face of earth. Naked, needy, and ignorant, they passed their dreary days, living in caves and lurking in woods like wild beasts. They were alike destitute of laws and arts. Their food consisted of herbs. Often were they compelled to fly before the mountain tigers and bears of the forest, while they were nearly frozen to death. Thus they lived in wretchedness until Prometheus came to their relief. He called Pallas, the goddess of wisdom, to his aid. By her assistance he mounted to heaven, where he secretly held the reed he carried in his hand to the wheel of the sun's chariot. In this way he obtained the celestial fire, and conveyed it to Earth, where he presented it to man. Prometheus did not stop here: he instructed man in arts and industry of almost every description.
There is an interesting account of Cupid. The goddess of beauty, we are informed, brought forth a delicate infant, whom she gave to the Graces to nurse. Unhappily, the child neither throve in person, nor put forth feathers to cover the wings which he had. Under this affliction, Cupid's mother and nurses had recourse to the most ancient and infallible Themis, who gave this answer: That love came, for the most part, single into the world, but that the child would not thrive until his mother brought forth another son. Then the one would thrive in virtue of the other; but if the one died, the other could not long survive. Venus brought forth another son, Anteros. He no sooner came into being, than his elder brother Cupid grew, and his wings were soon fledged. So strong did the little urchin become, that he flew to heaven. There he associated with the Muses, became intimate with Mercury, kept company with Hymen, and grew in favour with every one except the implacable Momus. Unfortunately, Cupid became insolent and vain, behaving with arrogance to the superior powers. He made enmity reign where peace and concord should have been found. Feuds raged among the gods and goddesses on his account. To rid themselves of a pest, the rulers of heaven called an assembly of the gods, to consider how peace could be restored. Cupid was accused of being a public incendiary, a disturber of good order; and the fomenter of discord being found guilty, he was banished from the blest abodes; ordered to be a retainer of Ceres and Bacchus on earth; and doomed to have his wings stripped of their feathers, that he might not again infest the confines of heaven.
Cupid is now armed with two bows, one of which he bends with the aid of the Graces, to secure a happy smiling lot, and he with the other, blind-folded, lets fly his arrows, to the confusion and misery of many in life. Like his mother, he is constantly in want. He is eager, ravenous, and wandering about bare-footed, without home or habitation, sleeping before doors or by the wayside, under the open sky. But at the same time he is ever forming designs upon all that is beautiful, is forward, cunning, and fond of new tricks.
Fate mysteriously clings round this earth, the heavens, and the creatures in the regions above and below. When Jupiter heard of the death of his son Sarpedon, in great grief he called on Mercury to go instantly to the Fates, and bring from them the strong box in which the eternal decrees are laid up. Mercury went to the Fatal Sisters, and delivered his message. The Sisters smiled, and told him that the other end of the golden chain which secured the box with the unalterable decrees was so fixed to the throne of Jove, that were it to be unfastened, the master's seat itself might be shaken.
Jupiter holds in his hands the unerring balance of fate. Close to his throne stand the two inexhaustible urns--the one filled with good fortune and happiness, the other with misfortune and misery. Out of these is mixed a dose of life to every mortal man; and as the draught is, so are one's days embittered with disasters, or made pleasant with serenity, ease, and prosperity. To every star is allotted a mind, and all things have their fixed irrevocable laws. The human nature is twofold; and man, who lives well on earth, returns after death to the habitations of his congenial star, and there leads a blessed life; but, failing in his duties, he is doomed to live a thousand years in a degraded state. Sometimes a human soul is destined to animate a wild beast, never to be relieved until it reattain the purest of its first and best existence.
The Goths and Vandals entertained the opinion that the first man and woman were made of an ash-tree. Odin, it is said, gave them breath, Hener endowed them with reason, and Lodur injected blood into their veins, and provided them with beautiful faces.
Pan has been represented as the emblem of all things, and among the learned of early times he passed for the first and oldest of the divinities. His person is composed of various and opposite parts--a man and a goat. According to the most ancient Egyptians and Greeks, he had neither father nor mother, but sprang of Demogorgon at the same instant with the Fatal Sisters, the Parcæ.
The power of the heathen gods and goddesses is reported as truly wonderful. Apollo turned Daphne, whom he loved, into a laurel, and his boy Hyacinth into a violet. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, or, according to Ovid, of Juno alone, who conceived him at the smell of a flower shown her by the goddess Flora.
Juno is esteemed the goddess of kingdoms and riches. She is represented as a majestic beautiful woman, riding in a golden chariot drawn by peacocks, waving a sceptre in her hand, and wearing a crown set about with roses and lilies, and encircled with fair Iris, or the rainbow. She is also supposed to preside over matrimony and births, and is the guardian angel of woman.
Venus is the goddess of love and beauty; she sprang from the foam of the sea. As soon as she was born she was cast upon the island of Cyprus, where she was educated, and afterwards being carried to heaven, was married to Vulcan. Her image is fair and beautiful; she is clothed with purple, glittering with diamonds. There are two Cupids on her side, while around her are the Graces. Her chariot is of ivory, drawn by swans, doves, or swallows.
Whilst Latona was wandering through the fields of Lycia, she desired to drink from a spring at the bottom of a valley, but the country rustics drove her away. In spite of her entreaties, they refused to allow her to slake her thirst, whereupon, in wrath, she, cursing them, said, "May ye always live in this water!" Immediately they were turned into frogs, and leaped into the streams and pools, where they continued to exist.
Vulcan, notwithstanding his noble descent, is obliged to follow the trade of a blacksmith. On account of his deformity, he was cast down from heaven into the isle of Lemnos. His leg was broken by the fall. He erected a forge, where he makes thunderbolts for his father Jupiter and armour for the other gods. His servants are called Cyclops, because they have but one eye. Though Vulcan is unpleasant in the sight of others, Venus thinks him the most beautiful of all the divinities.
Æolus keeps the winds under his power in a cave in the Æolian Islands, where he dwells. He can raise storms and hurricanes, and restrain their rage at pleasure.
Momus is a jester, mocker, or mimic. His life is spent in idleness, merely observing the sayings and doings of the gods, and then censuring and deriding them. For instance, when Neptune was made a bull, Minerva a house, and Vulcan a man, Momus was appointed to judge as to whom the greatest skill was manifested in creation. The carping god disapproved of all. He found fault with the bull for not having his horns before his eyes in his forehead, that he might be enabled to push the surer. He condemned the house, because it was fixed and could not be carried away in case it was placed in a bad neighbourhood. But the god, he said, who made man, was most imprudent because he did not make a window in the human breast, that the thoughts might be seen.
Chapter X
Satyrs described--Diana's Retirement--Pallas, the Goddess of Shepherds and Pasture--The vile Flora--Pomona deceived--Celestial Nymphs--Terrestrial Nymphs--River Gods and Goddesses--Sirens--Witch Circe--Infernal Deities--Passage to Tartarus--Palace of Pluto--Judges of Hell--Goddesses of Destiny--Furies--Night, Death, and Sleep: by whom presided over--Names of Monsters condemned in the place of Punishment--Tartarian Regions--Delights of the Elysian Fields--Food and Drink of Pagan Gods--Festivals of Heathens--Colour of Gods--Sacrifices to Deities--Things sacred to Gods.
Satyrs are partly of human likeness and partly of bestial shape. They have heads of human form, with horns and brutish ears; they have crooked hands, rough hairy bodies, goats' legs and feet and tails. The chief of these monsters is the god Pan, the inventor of the musical pipe.
Diana, out of love to Chastity, avoids consort with men, retires into the woods, and there diverts herself with hunting, whence she is reckoned the goddess of the woods and the chase. Pallas is esteemed the goddess of shepherds and pasture, and is the reputed inventress of corn, and is thought by some to be Ceres or Vesta. Flora is the goddess of flowers. By a vile trade, she accumulated a vast amount of money, and made the people of Rome her heirs, who, in return, placed her among the divinities.
Ferona and Pomona are two goddesses of trees and fruits. The latter was advised by the god Vertumnus to enter the matrimonial state in the guise of a hagged old woman; but without success, till he appeared to her as a fair young man, and then she felt the power of love, and yielded to his wishes. The Nymphs are a company of neat charming virgins, living near the gardens of Pomona. They are of three classes:--1st the Celestial Nymphs, called Genii, who guide the spheres and dispense the influences of the stars to things on earth. 2nd, the Terrestrial Nymphs, as Dryades, who preside over the woods and live in the oaks; and Hamadryades, who are born and die with the oaks; the Oreades, who preside over the mountains; the Napææ, who preside over the groves and valleys; the Limnatides, who look after the meadows and fields. 3rd, Marine Nymphs.
As the chief of the marine and river gods and goddesses, Neptune stands at the head. He is represented with black hair and blue eyes, arrayed in a mantle of azure, holding a trident in his right hand, and embracing his queen with his left arm. He stands upright in his chariot, drawn by sea horses, and is attended by nymphs. Proteus is the son of Neptune, but some say he is the offspring of Oceanus and Tethys. His business is to tend the sea-calves. He can turn himself into any shape. Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune, is a man to the middle and a dolphin below; he has two fore feet, like those of horses, and is provided with two tails. Oceanus is the son of Cœlum and Vesta, husband to Tethys, god of the sea, and father of the rivers and springs. Nereus, also the son of Oceanus and Tethys, is father of fifty daughters, called Nereides or Sea Nymphs. Palæmon and his mother Ino, together with the fisherman Glaucus, are reckoned among the sea deities. The Sirens resemble mermaids, having the faces of women, but bodies of flying fish. They are reported to be excellent songsters, that play on the Sicilian coasts, and tempt passengers on shore, where they sing them asleep and kill them. Scylla and Charybdis are two other sea monsters. Scylla is the daughter of Phorcys, and beloved by Glaucus, whom therefore the witch Circe by her enchantments turned into a rock, with dogs around her. Charybdis is a very ravenous woman, who stole Hercules's oxen, for which crime Jupiter struck her dead with a thunder-bolt, and then turned her into a gulf or whirlpool in the Sicilian Sea. The Sea Nymphs are the Nereides already referred to. The Naides or Naiades preside over fountains and springs; the Potameides preside over rivers, and Limniades over lakes.
In noticing the Infernal Deities, we shall describe the dismal regions, where wicked spirits dwell, and over which they are reported to preside. The name commonly given to these regions is Hades or Tartarus, understood to signify hell. The passage leading thereto is a wide dark cave, through which one has to pass by a steep rocky descent till he arrives at a gloomy grove and an unnavigable lake called Avernus, from which such poisonous vapours rise as to kill birds flying over it. Yet over this lake the souls of the dead must pass. To assist them, an old decrepit, long-bearded fellow, the oft-heard of Charon, attends with a ferry-boat to carry them to the other side, at a fare not less than a halfpenny.
After this there are four rivers to be passed over--Acheron, whose waters are very bitter; the Styx, a lake rather than a river, and so sacred to the gods, that if any of them swore by it and broke his oath, he was deprived of his godhead, and was prohibited from drinking nectar for a hundred years; the river Cocytus, which flows out of Styx with a lamentable groaning, resembling the painful sounds and exclamations of the damned; the river Phlegethon, so called because it swells with waves of fire and streams of flames.
The souls having passed these rivers, are conducted to the palace of Pluto, king of the infernal regions, where the gate is guarded by Cerberus, a dog with three heads, whose body is covered with snakes in place of hair. This dog is the porter of hell.
Pluto initiated funeral obsequies for the dead: he sits on a throne covered with darkness, holding a key in his hand, and crowned with ebony. Beside him is his queen Proserpina, whom he stole from Ceres.
Minos, Æacus, and Rhadamanthus are judges in hell. The first two are sons of Jupiter by Europa, and the last is his son by Ægina. These are believed to judge the souls of the dead.
The Fates are named Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, and are the goddesses of destiny. They order and manage the fatal thread of life. Clotho draws the thread, Lachesis turns the wheel, and Atropos cuts the string asunder when spun to a due length.
The Furies, called sometimes Eumenides, Diræ, and Manes, are the daughters of Nox and Acheron: their names are Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megæra, and are known by the common name of Erinnys. They have faces like women, their looks are full of terror, they hold lighted torches in their hands, and snakes and serpents cling to their necks and shoulders. Their office is to punish the crimes of wicked men, and to torment and frighten them by following them with ghastly looks and burning material.
Erebus and Nox preside over darkness and the night; Mors over death; and Somnus is the god of sleep, who, by his servant Morpheus, sends dreams to men while asleep.
Besides others, there are in the infernal regions the following monsters:--The Centaurs, whose upper parts are human, but whose bodies and legs are those of a horse. They were begotten of a cloud by Ixion. Gorgon is a monster with three heads. The Harpies, born of Oceanus and Terra, have the faces of virgins, and the bodies of birds with claws. Their names are Ocypete, Aello, and Celeno. The Gorgons are Medusa, Stheno, and Euryale, daughters of Phorcys and Cete. They have heads covered with snakes instead of hair, which so terrifies beholders that they immediately turn into stones. The Lamiæ and Empusæ have each only one eye and one tooth. They have faces, necks, and breasts like women, but their bodies are covered with scales, and they have the tails of serpents. The Chimœra is a monster that vomits fire, and has the head and breast of a lion, the belly of a goat, and the tail of a dragon. The Sphinx, begotten of Typhon and Echidna, has the head and face of a virgin, the wings of a bird, and the body of a dog. A riddle she put forth being explained by Œdipus, so enraged her that she threw herself from a rock and was killed.
The most famous of the condemned in the place of punishment are the Giants; they are great in stature, and have horrible feet, like dragons. They make war against the celestial gods, but never prevail, and are struck down to hell by Jupiter's thunder-bolts and the arms of the gods. The principal offenders are Typhon, Ægæon, Alœus, and Tityus; and, to prevent them rising again, the Island of Sicily is fixed on Typhon, and Mount Ætna on Ægæon, and Tityus is doomed to have a vulture always gnawing his liver, which grows afresh every month. Phlegias fired Apollo's temple at Delphi, for which he was sentenced to have a great stone hung over his head, ready every moment to fall and crush him to pieces. Ixion, for an assault on Juno, was struck down to hell, and tied to a wheel, which kept continually turning. Sisyphus is a notorious robber, condemned to roll a stone up to the top of a hill, which is made to roll down again immediately; and as he has to begin and roll it up again as soon as it comes down, his labour is perpetual. The Danaides are fifty virgins (sisters), who all but one, by the command of their father Danaus, slew their husbands on their wedding night. For this they were condemned to draw water out of a deep well, to fill a tub whose bottom was full of holes like a sieve. Tantalus invited the gods to a feast, and, to improve their divinity, he killed, boiled, and served up Pelops on the table before them to eat. They refused to partake of this horrid dish, and condemned Tantalus to stand in water which he could not drink, and to have meat placed before him which he could not taste, though suffering the pangs of hunger and thirst--a punishment he was to endure for ever.
In the Tartarian regions there is a place supposed to abound with all kinds of pleasures and delights, called Elysium, because thither the souls of good men are conveyed after being freed from the body. This is the heathen paradise, consisting of pleasant plains, the most verdant fields, the shadiest groves, and the finest and most temperate air that can be found. After the souls of the pious have spent many ages in these Elysian fields, they drink the water of the river Lethe, which makes them forget all things past; and then they return to the world and pass into new bodies.
The Pagan deities have ambrosia for their food, and nectar for their drink, both of which have the property of giving immortality to those who partake of them.
The festivals of the heathens were many, as almost every deity was allowed sacred honours. In sacrificing, the animals offered to the celestial deities were white, and those to the infernal gods were black. To Jupiter a white ox was sacrificed; to Neptune, Mars, and Apollo a bull, ram, and boar; to Ceres, milk, honey, and a sow-pig were offered; to Æsculapius, goats and poultry; to the Lares, a cock; to the Sun, a horse; to Juno, a she-lamb; to Venus, a dove; to Diana, a crow; to Pan and Minerva, she-goats; and to the Fauns, kids.
The fir and vine were sacred to Bacchus, the cypress to Pluto, the cedar to the Furies, the ash to Mars, the oak to Jove, the laurel to Apollo, the myrtle to Venus, the olive to Minerva, the poplar to Hercules, the pine to Cybele, and the rose to Venus.
Chapter XI
Achilles's Mother--Prediction concerning the taking of Troy--Bravery, Armour, Love, and Death of Achilles--Acrisius's Daughter--Danae and her son Perseus--Ardea changed into a Bird--Pluto's Invisible Helmet--Minerva's Buckler--Mercury's Wings--Medusa deprived of Life--Sea Monster--A Gorgon's Head and its Virtues--Stheno and Euryale not subject to Old Age or Death--Minerva's Revenge against Medusa--Serpents in Africa and Pegasus produced by Medusa's Blood--Tales by the Daughters of Minyas--Punishment by Bacchus--The Search of Cadmus for his sister Europa--Halcyon's Sorrow--Transmigration--Strength and Exploits of Hercules--Love Potion--Hymen--Jason's Adventures--Power and Cruelty of Medea--How a Favourable Wind was procured--Manner in which Orion came into Existence--False Swearer punished--Palladium--The Life and Deeds of Paris--Golden Apple--Marriage of Peleus and Thetis--Impiety of Pentheus--Rhea and her Sons--Scylla turned into a Sea Monster.
Achilles's mother being endowed with a prophetic spirit, knew that her son would lose his life at Troy. She dipped him in the river Styx, by which he was rendered invulnerable, except in the heel, by which he was held during the operation. The seer Calchas announced that, without Achilles, Troy could not be taken. His mother, to keep him from danger, concealed him among King Lycomedes's daughters, disguised as a girl; but being discovered by Ulysses, he joined his countrymen, and sailed for the Trojan coast. After giving many proofs of his bravery and military prowess, he quarrelled with Agamemnon, commander-in-chief of the Grecian army, and in disgust withdrew from the contest. During the absence of Achilles, the Trojans were victorious; but his friend Patroclus, clad in his armour, having rashly encountered Hector, fell by the hand of that hero. Achilles, to revenge his death, resolved instantly to take the field. For this purpose, Vulcan, at the request of Thetis, made her son a complete suit of armour and weapons. With these celestial arms, many of the Trojans were put to death. Achilles, falling in love with Polyxena, a daughter of the Trojan king, whilst soliciting her hand in the temple of Minerva, was wounded by her brother Paris in the heel, which caused his death.
Acrisius, the son of Abas, king of Argos and Ocalea, being informed by an oracle that he would be put to death by his daughter Danae's son, confined her in a tower, to prevent her having children; but without effect, for Jupiter, in a golden shower, entered the chamber of Danae, and she became the mother of Perseus. She and her infant son were then, by order of Acrisius, exposed to the sea in a slender bark, which the wind drifted to Seriphus, where both were taken ashore by some fishermen and carried to Polydectes, the king of the island. The king conceived a violent attachment to the mother, but sought the destruction of the son. Danae and her son left Seriphus and went to Larissa. Danae built Ardea; and on its being burned, the inhabitants said it was changed into a bird. Perseus, by the aid of Pluto's invisible helmet, Minerva's buckler, and Mercury's wings (the Talaria), and short dagger made of diamonds (called Herpe), deprived Medusa, one of the Gorgons, of life, and carried off her head in triumph. He killed the sea monster to which Andromeda was exposed, and then married her. A memorable battle ensued at their nuptials. Phineus, the uncle of Andromeda, who passionately loved her, entered with a band of armed men, and attempted to carry her off by violence. But Perseus made a brave resistance; and at last, finding himself on the point of being overpowered, presented the Gorgon's head, which instantly turned all his enemies to stone in the posture in which they were then standing. Immediately after this he returned to Seriphus, in time to protect his mother from the insult of Polydectes, to whom Perseus showed the Gorgon's head, which converted him into stone also. Medusa, it will be remembered, was the only one of the three Gorgons who was mortal. Her sisters, Stheno and Euryale, were neither subject to old age nor death. She greatly surpassed the other two in elegance of figure and comeliness of face; but in nothing was her superiority more remarkable than in the beauty of her locks. Minerva, provoked either because her temple had been profaned, or because her personal charms had been slighted by Medusa, who had preferred her own beauty to that of the goddess, turned her fine hair, of which she boasted greatly, into serpents, and gave to her eyes the power of converting to stone all at whom she looked. The blood which fell from Medusa's head when Perseus carried it over Africa in his flight, was supposed to produce the numerous serpents which infest that country, and also the winged horse Pegasus.
But to return to Acrisius. Let us see whether the prediction of the Oracle, that foretold he would be put to death by his daughter's son, was fulfilled. The fame of his grandson, after his remarkable adventures, having reached the ears of Acrisius, he went to Larissa to see him, at the time Teutamis was celebrating funereal games in honour of his father. To this city Perseus had repaired with the view of distinguishing himself among the combatants. Here he accidentally killed, with a quoit, an old man, who was found to be his grandfather Acrisius, and thus verified the oracular prediction.
Alcithoe and her sisters denied the divinity of Bacchus, and refused to join in his worship. Whilst the Theban women were employed celebrating the orgies of that god, the daughters of Minyas (for that was their father's name) continued at their looms. To enliven their hours of labour, one of them proposed that each in her turn should relate some amusing tale, to which, the other sisters agreeing, she with whom the idea originated was requested to begin. After hesitating for some time which of her numerous collections would be most agreeable--whether Babylonian Dercetis changed to a fish or her daughter to a dove, or Naias, who by magic transformed young men to fishes, or the tree the berries of which were formerly white, but turned to purple by being stained with blood--she preferred the last in consequence of its being little known. She then narrates the simple but beautiful and affecting fable of Pyramus and Thisbe. Leuconoe next, after mentioning the exposure of Mars and Venus, relates the history of Leucothoe, with whom Apollo fell in love, and afterwards turned into a rod of frankincense. To this she adds the fiction of Clytie, whom the same god changed into a sunflower. Alcithoe being then requested by her sisters to tell a story--despising as too common the fables of Daphnis, a shepherd on Mount Ida, who, for violating his marriage promise, was transformed to stone; of Scython, who changed his sex; of Celemis, a nurse of Jupiter, converted to adamant; and of the nymph Similax, and her lover Crocus, turned into flowers--prefers the history of the fountain Salmacis, who conceived a violent attachment for Hermaphroditus, the son of Mercury and Venus. These sisters, having discontinued their narrating, remained still obstinate in their contempt of Bacchus, who, in revenge, changed their implements into vines and ivy, and themselves into bats.
Cadmus, a son of Agenor, king of Phœnicia, and Telephassa or Agriope, was ordered by his father to go in search of his sister Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away, and not to return unless he found her. His search being unsuccessful, he is said to have consulted the oracle of Apollo, by which he was commanded to build a city where he saw a heifer standing on the grass, and call the country Bœotia. Having found the heifer, he sent his men to a fountain for water, which was at no great distance, that he might offer a sacrifice in gratitude to the god. But the spring being sacred to Mars, a dragon guarded it, which devoured all his men. By the art of Minerva, he overcame the dragon, and sowed its teeth, which grew up armed men, who, on his throwing a stone amongst them, began to fight, and all were killed except five, who assisted him in building Thebes. Hence Pentheus, in addressing the Thebans, calls them Anguigenæ, serpent or snake-descended. The ferocity of the petty tribes who inhabit that part of Greece, and Cadmus's plan of subduing the natives by artfully exciting them to fight against each other until the strength and resources of the contending parties were quite exhausted, satisfactorily explain the tale of the dragon, the armed men that sprang from his teeth, and the stone which he threw among them. He afterwards married Harmonia or Harmonie, the daughter of Mars and Venus, by whom he had one son and four daughters. In advanced life, oppressed with sorrow at the fate of his daughter Ino and her two sons, he fled from Thebes to Illyricum, where he was changed into a dragon.
Halcyone's husband, Ceyx, a king of Trachinia, was drowned while attempting to cross to Claros to consult the Oracle. Disconsolate in consequence of his departure, she incessantly implored the gods for his safe return. Juno, moved by her constant prayers for her husband after his death, and compassionating the violence of her sorrow, entreated Somnus to send Morpheus, who, assuming the form and voice of Ceyx, appeared in a dream, and informed her of his fate. Frantic with grief, she ran to the beach, and, according to her dream, found the body of Ceyx floating lifeless to the shore. The queen of Trachinia was changed into a bird, in her attempt to reach by a bound the body of her husband, which she no sooner touched than it underwent the same transformation. Their mutual attachments remaining, they continue to live together as birds, distinguished by the same tenderness and affection which had marked their conjugal state when in the human form.
Hercules was possessed of the greatest physical strength. He had a great enemy in Hera, who, knowing that the child who should be born that day was fated to rule over all the descendants of Perseus, contrived to delay the birth of Hercules and hasten that of Eurystheus. Eurystheus thus, by decree of fate, became chief of the Perseidæ. While yet in the cradle, Hercules showed his divine origin by strangling two serpents sent by Hera to destroy him. In course of time Eurystheus summoned Hercules to appear before him, and ordered him to perform the labours which, by priority of birth, he was empowered to impose on him. Hercules, unwilling to obey, went to Delphi to consult the Oracle, and was informed that he must perform ten labours imposed on him by Eurystheus, after which he should attain to immortality. The first labour imposed on him was to destroy the lion that haunted the forests of Nemea and Cleonæ, and could not be wounded by the arrows of a mortal. Hercules boldly attacked the lion and strangled him. The second was to destroy the Learnæan hydra, which he accomplished with the aid of Iolaus; but because he obtained assistance in his work, Eurystheus refused to reckon it. Hercules's third labour was to catch the hind of Diana, famous for its swiftness, its golden horns, and brazen feet. The fourth was to bring alive to Eurystheus a wild boar, which ravaged the neighbourhood of Erymanthus. The fifth was to cleanse the stables of Augeas, king of Elis, where three thousand oxen had been confined for many years; which task he accomplished in one day, by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stables. For certain reasons this exploit was not counted. His sixth was to destroy the carnivorous birds, with brazen wings, beaks, and claws, which ravaged the country near the lake Stymphalis, in Arcadia. The seventh was to bring alive to Peloponnesus a bull, remarkable for its beauty and strength, which Poseidon had given to Minos, king of Crete, in order that he might sacrifice it; which Minos refusing to do, Poseidon made the bull mad, and it laid waste the island. Hercules brought the bull on his shoulders to Eurystheus, who set it at liberty. The eighth labour was to obtain the mares of Diomedes, king of the Bistones, in Thrace, which fed upon human flesh. The ninth was to bring the girdle of Hippolyta, queen of the Amazons. The tenth was to kill the monster Geryon, and bring his herds to Argos. These were all the labours originally imposed on Hercules; but as Eurystheus acknowledged only eight of them, Hercules was commanded to perform two more. The eleventh labour was to obtain the golden apples from the garden of the Hesperides. Atlas, who knew where to find the apples, brought them to Hercules, who meantime supported the vault of heaven. The last labour was to bring from the infernal regions the three-headed dog Cerberus. When Hercules brought the dog to Eurystheus, the latter, pale with fright, ordered him to be set at liberty, whereupon Cerberus immediately sank into the earth. Hercules's servitude was now ended, but his great performances were not. He fought with the centaurs and giants. When his period of slavery had ended, he married Dejanira; with her he went to Trachinia. At the river Evenus he encountered the centaur Nessus. Nessus, under pretence of carrying Dejanira over, attempted to offer her violence, which caused Hercules to slay him with a poisoned arrow. Nessus, before expiring, instructed Dejanira how to prepare a love potion for Hercules. He erected an altar to Zeus Kenæos. In order to celebrate the rite with due solemnity, he sent Lichas to Trachis for a white garment. Dejanira, being jealous, anointed the robe with the philter she had received from Nessus. Hercules put it on, and immediately the poison penetrated his bones. Maddened by the pain, he seized Lichas by the feet and flung him into the sea. He tore off the dress, but it stuck to his flesh, which was thus torn from his bones. Dejanira, being informed of what had taken place, destroyed herself. Hercules repaired to Mount Œta, where he erected a funeral pile, and, ascending it, commanded that it should be set on fire. The pile was suddenly surrounded by a dark cloud, in which, amid thunder and lightning, he was carried up to heaven.
Hymen, the god of marriage, attended the celebration of marriage, and the ancients believed the parties would be miserable during the remainder of their lives unless he attended.
Jason was a famous hero of antiquity. No sooner had he finished his education under the centaur Chiron, than he went boldly to Pelias, who had banished him, and mounted the throne, and demanded the kingdom. Pelias, for various reasons, durst not appeal to arms, but, to accomplish the warlike youth's ruin, advised him to undertake an expedition against Æetes, king of Colchis, who had murdered their relation Phryxus, and, on his return, promised to resign to him the crown. To this proposal Jason agreed, and undertook the voyage to obtain the golden fleece, so celebrated in history under the name of the Argonautic Expedition. After a series of wonderful adventures he arrived at Colchis; and by the assistance of Medea, the king's daughter, whom he promised to marry, he fulfilled the hard terms on which he was to accomplish the object of his voyage. By her aid and directions, he was enabled to tame the bulls with horns and feet of brass, which breathed nothing but fire, and to plough with them a certain field; to kill a huge serpent, from whose teeth sprang up armed men; to destroy a dreadful dragon, which watched continually at the foot of the tree on which the golden fleece was suspended; and then to carry off the prize in the presence of all the Colchians, who were equally confounded at his intrepidity and success. He returned to Thessaly in great triumph, but his future life was rendered miserable by his infidelity, and the barbarous mode of revenge adopted by Medea, whom he married according to promise and carried to Greece. After many years' happiness, it may be remembered, he most iniquitously divorced her. But she severely revenged his ingratitude by causing the death of his favourite Glauce, and the ruin of her family. Not satisfied with these acts of cruelty, she put two of Jason's sons to death before his eyes, and then fled through the air in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. Having visited Corinth, she settled at Athens. Other barbarous actions again forced her to have recourse to her chariot. She returned to Colchis, where a reconciliation took place between her and Jason.
When the princes of Greece had, in fulfilment of their oaths, taken up arms to revenge the criminal conduct of Paris, Agamemnon, on account of his military talents, and being the brother of Menelaus, was appointed commander-in-chief of the combined forces. After the army had assembled in the port of Aulis, Diana, provoked at his having killed one of her favourite stags, prevented by contrary winds their sailing for Troy. On consulting the Oracle, the Greeks were informed that Iphigenia, daughter of Agamemnon, must be sacrificed to appease the enraged goddess, otherwise they must remain in harbour. Struck with horror at this awful response, Agamemnon sternly refused to give up his daughter, and ordered the princes to return home with their troops. But the winning eloquence of Ulysses and the urgent remonstrances of the other chiefs at last prevailed, and paternal affection yielded to military fame. Ulysses was then sent to Mycenæ, to carry the beautiful Iphigenia to bleed on the altar of Diana. The innocent victim's blood procured a favourable wind to the Grecian fleet.
Orion sprang from Jupiter and Mercury. These gods promised to Hyricus, a Bœotian peasant, who had entertained them hospitably, whatever he would ask. Having no child, his wife being dead, and he being bound by promise not to marry again, requested a son. The gods then put water into the hide of a bull, which Hyricus had offered to them in sacrifice on discovering their divinity, and ordered him to bury it in the earth for nine months. At the end of that time, taking it out, he found a lively boy.
Palici, twin brothers, were sons of Jupiter and Thalia or Ætna, a daughter of Vulcan, who during her pregnancy prayed to be saved from the fury of Juno, by being concealed in the bowels of the earth. Her request was granted, and Tellus at the proper time brought to light the two boys. They were worshipped with great solemnity by the Sicilians. Their temple stood near the lakes or springs, strongly impregnated with sulphur, to which those who wished to put an end to quarrels by oath used to repair. False swearers were punished there in a miraculous manner, whilst the innocent escaped without injury. Some suppose that the perjured persons were destroyed by secret fire, while others think they were drowned.
Palladium was a statue of the goddess Pallas or Minerva, said to have fallen from heaven, near the tent of the king of Troy, when he was building the Citadel. An ancient oracle declared that, so long as the Palladium remained within the walls, Troy could not be taken. On that account it was kept with great care. The Greeks, aware of this prediction, sent Diomedes and Ulysses to carry it away during the night--a feat which they accomplished.
Paris was a son of Priam, king of Troy. His father ordered him to be put to death at his birth, in consequence of his mother having dreamt that she was delivered of a firebrand which reduced the city to ashes, and the augurs interpreting the dream to portend that the child would occasion the destruction of Troy. The persons appointed to despatch the child, contented themselves with exposing him on Mount Ida, where he was brought up by the shepherds. On account of his extraordinary strength and courage in defending the flocks from ravenous beasts and repelling the attacks of robbers, he was called Alexander. There he passed the early part of his life, and, whilst engaged tending his flock, gave judgment in the appeal of the three goddesses, Venus, Juno, and Minerva, who contended for the golden apple. Each endeavoured to bribe him: Juno promised him a kingdom, Minerva military glory, and Venus the most beautiful woman in the world for his wife. Upon the mind of the noble shepherd the promise made by Venus produced the deepest impression, and he adjudged the golden apple to her. The decision of Paris, which gave great offence to the other two goddesses, provoked their wrath against the empire and nation, and caused the Trojan War, and all the evils and calamities to which that memorable struggle gave rise. His father subsequently received him at court, and treated him as his son. After spending some time in his native city among the Trojan princes, Paris set out for the court of Menelaus, king of Sparta, with a view to carry off his wife Helena, the most beautiful woman in the world, as the reward of the judgment which he had pronounced in favour of Venus. The young Trojan met with a most welcome reception at the Spartan court; but he abused the laws of hospitality by prevailing on the queen to elope with him. Though demanded back by all the princes who had sworn to protect her, and threatened with the vengeance of the combined forces of Greece, he persisted in refusing their request. His father, on account of Ajax carrying off his sister Hesione, encouraged him in his obstinacy and guilt. In consequence of this outrage, the Greeks immediately commenced hostilities, which ended in the total destruction of the city and kingdom of Troy.
To bring out more fully the story of the apple adjudged by Paris to Venus, it is necessary to notice what happened at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis. At the celebration of the nuptials, all the gods and goddesses were present except the goddess of discord, who, exasperated at not being invited, threw into the assembly a golden apple with the inscription, "Detur Pulchriori." At first all the female deities asserted their right to the apple; but subsequently it was claimed by Juno, Minerva, and Venus only. These three agreed to refer the matter to Jupiter. But the sovereign of Olympus, knowing that it could not justly be given to Juno, and dreading the effects of her anger were it awarded to either of the other goddesses, advised them to plead their cause before Paris. The decision of Paris, and the serious results thereof; are already known.
Pentheus foolishly refused to acknowledge the divinity of Bacchus. To complete his impiety, the Theban king sent his servants to bring the god in chains before him. Assuming the appearance of one of his attendants, Bacchus allowed himself to be taken prisoner, and to be carried into the presence of the king, to whom, under the character of Acœtes, he related the transformation of the Tuscan sailors. Despising the narrative, Pentheus ordered him to be put to death. Loaded with fetters, the attendants of that prince shut him up in prison, from which he miraculously escaped. Pentheus then went out to see the Bacchanals, and to learn their mysteries; but, approaching too near, he was torn in pieces.
Quirinus, son of Rhea Sylvia, sometimes called Ilia, a vestal virgin, the daughter of Numitor, king of Alba Longa, was the twin brother of Remus. This princess, to extenuate her guilt, and to give divinity to her sons, declared that Mars, the god of war, was their father. Amulius, who had dispossessed his brother Numitor, killed the sons of the latter, and made Rhea a vestal, and, to secure the crown to himself and his descendants, ordered his niece to be burnt alive, and her infants thrown into the Tiber. The river at that time being swollen above its banks, the persons appointed to dispose of the children could not reach the main current. The cradle in which the twins were exposed floated to a place of safety on dry ground; and the infants were suckled by a wolf until found by Faustulus, the king's shepherd, who carried them to his house, where they were brought up as his own children. Their youthful years were spent in feeding cattle. After they were grown up, Remus being taken prisoner by the servants of Amulius, Faustulus, anxious to preserve the captive, disclosed to Romulus the truth respecting their birth. He, with the assistance of a few daring and resolute young men, killed Amulius, delivered his brother, and restored their grandfather to the throne.
After this event, the two brothers formed a design of building a city on the mountains where they had spent the early part of their life. From its being unknown which of them was the elder, they had recourse to augury to decide which of them should have the honour of founding and governing the new city. To Remus six ravens appeared, and to Romulus twelve. The former claimed the sovereignty from the priority of his omen, and the latter from the greater number of the birds. Each being saluted king by his own party, a battle ensued, in which Remus was killed. Others say that he was killed by Romulus, because he had, in contempt, leapt over the wall the latter was building when founding the city of Rome. The measures which Romulus adopted to increase the number of his subjects, the plans he formed for the regulations of the city, and the laws he enacted, discovered a surprising degree of political knowledge. His military talents were still more remarkable. He conquered every nation which declared war against him. The Sabines and Romans having for a considerable time fought with great ferocity, and victory inclining to neither side, they coalesced, and Tatius, the king, was appointed joint sovereign of Rome with Romulus. After the death of Tatius, Romulus found himself sole master of the city. His prosperity rendered him insolent and tyrannical. When reviewing his army, the senators, taking advantage of a storm that suddenly arose, tore him in pieces, and reported that he had been translated to heaven. The Romans, believing the story, deemed Romulus worthy of divine honours, and accordingly ranked him among their gods under the name of Quirinus.
Scylla, a daughter of Phorcys, was turned by Circe into a sea-monster of a most hideous form, either from jealousy, because she was a greater favourite with Glaucus, or at the request of that deity. According to some, she retained her original form and beauty down to the waist; but others say she had six heads and as many throats, and instead of hands had two claws. Her middle was compassed by dogs, which never ceased barking. The lower part of her body terminated in a large fish with a forked tail.
There was another Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, king of Megara, who conceived a violent passion for Minos when he was besieging her father's capital. To ensure the fall of the city, she cut off from her father's head, whilst he slept, a hair of purple colour, on which his good fortune depended, and presented it to her lover. Possessed of this charm, Minos soon carried the place, but he punished the perfidy of Scylla: she was thrown into the sea, and changed, according to one account, into a fish, and, if we can believe another narrative, her form became that of a bird.
MYTHOLOGY OF GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, SCANDINAVIA, ETC.