The Lake-Dwellings of Europe Being the Rhind Lectures in Archæology for 1888 (part 3 of 4)

The Lake-Dwellings of Europe Being the Rhind Lectures in Archæology for 1888 (part 3 of 4)

Age.--In the spring of 1865 Pigorini explored and described a station in the district of Parma called Fontanellato, which, at the time, he considered to be a terramara containing a fascine structure belonging to the Iron Age. (B. 112.) In the excavations which were conducted here the following different strata were exposed from above downwards:--(1) 2 feet of soil; (2) a bed of alluvial deposits 4 inches thick; (3) a bed of materials similar in colour and composition to those of the ordinary terramara deposits, 1 foot 10 inches thick; (4) a mass of mixed materials 2 feet 7 inches thick, containing roots, branches, leaves, etc., mixed with clay, together with pottery, short piles, charcoal, bones of animals, shells, fruits, seeds, etc.

The objects of special interest collected were fragments of coarse pottery, made, however, on the wheel, and particularly some vessels made of potstone; a large stone splinter, showing marks of usage; a bronze ring, and some iron slag.

In 1883 Pigorini recurs to the remains at Fontanellato (B. 408) and explains that, owing to the great progress made in the investigations of the terramara deposits, and the additional light thrown on the subject, he has come to the conclusion that the station at Fontanellato was not a direct continuation of the terramara system which prevailed in the Bronze Age, but a "palafitta barbarica," in which he sees the practical evidence of the incursions, into the Po valley many centuries later, of the northern hordes of barbarians which gave the final coup to the Roman empire. That these people were conversant with such structures there is ample evidence in the analogous remains of terpen in Holland, the burgwälle and lake-dwellings of Germany, the Tószeg and other mounds in Hungary, etc. (B. 410b.)

Nor does the station at Fontanellato stand as an isolated example of these later structures. Chierici found one at Marmirolo, in the district of Reggio.[42] Another is recorded by Cornalia,[43] and Pigorini thinks that several other stations which have been more or less described belong to the same class as those in the Thrasimene district[44] and that at Offida, near Piceno. (B. 343.) With these exceptions, there are no terramara mounds of the Iron Age, and the system is supposed to have flourished in the early Bronze Age and to have fallen completely into desuetude before the commencement of the Iron Age.

FOOTNOTES:

[37] Atti della Soc. It. di Sc. Nat., vol. ii. p. 177.

[38] So called by the Congress of Italian Naturalists who met here in 1878, after Virginia Ponti, wife of the proprietor.

[39] Atti della Soc. It. di Sc. Nat., vol. ii.

[40] B. 90, and Giornale dell' Ing. Arch. ed Agri., an. xii.

[41] Brizio, "La Grotta del Farnè."

[42] Bul. Palet. It., 1883, p. 17.

[43] Atti della Soc. It. di Sc. Nat., vol. vii.

[44] Brizio, "La Grotta del Farnè," p. 45.

Fourth Lecture.

SPECIAL CHARACTER OF THE REMAINS FOUND AT LA TÈNE AND IN LAKE PALADRU: LACUSTRINE AND MARINE DWELLINGS IN THE LOWER RHINE DISTRICT AND NORTH GERMANY.

LA TÈNE.

The celebrated lacustrine station, La Tène, is situated at the north end of Lake Neuchâtel, just close to the present artificially formed outlet where the land end of its mole or dyke begins. Stretching from this point eastwards there is a gravelly elevation, some 200 yards long by 50 wide, which, before the "Correction des Eaux du Jura," formed a shallow part of the lake, and for this reason it was called among the fishermen La Tène (the shallows). As early as 1858, Col. Schwab discovered this to be the site of a rich repository of antiquities of a totally different character from those found in any of the hitherto explored Pfahlbauten. Subsequently Professor Desor directed his attention to the locality and made a collection of its antiquities, among which he announced some Gallic coins (=Fig. 92=, No. 8) and a sword-sheath ornamented with the forms of three fantastic animals (=Fig. 87=, No. 9). Further discoveries of its remarkable antiquities were made by M. Dardel-Thorens, who for many years, while resident superintendent of the Lunatic Asylum of Préfargier, situated close by, devoted his spare time to the investigation of La Tène. As the relics were associated with numerous piles there appeared to be no doubt among these antiquaries that the station was quite analogous to the ordinary pile-dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages, the only difference being that it represented a later age.

Notwithstanding the facilities for investigation afforded by the lowering of the waters of the lake in 1876, which had the effect of making La Tène dry land, nothing further was done till 1880, when M. E. Vouga, schoolmaster at Marin, interested himself in the matter. One reason for this neglect was the opinion that the whole area had been already so thoroughly examined by previous explorers, that nothing remained to be done. Before, however, describing the discoveries of M. Vouga, it will be necessary to look more minutely at the situation of La Tène and the nature of the substratum in which its antiquities were found.

In making a section through the La Tène elevation there is first encountered a bed of water-worn gravel and sand, varying in thickness from three or four feet to as many yards. This gravel had evidently been thrown up by the action of the waves, and in it there are no antiquities found, with the exception of occasional fragments of Roman pottery and tiles. Beneath this superficial gravel there lies a blackish bed of peat of considerable thickness, below which is the ancient lake sediment. It is on the surface of this intermediate mossy bed, and sometimes buried in it, that the objects characteristic of La Tène are found. From these stratigraphical glimpses of Natures workings it would appear that during prehistoric times the whole low-lying district from Préfargier to the lake of Bienne was a shallow bay, which became ultimately overgrown with marsh plants and peat to the extent of forming the "Gross Moos." Scattered throughout the deposits of this quiet bay, and especially along the waterway to Bienne, are frequently found antiquities belonging to all the three ages of prehistoric times previous to the occupation of the locality by the Romans, remains of whom are, of course, also met with. Professor Desor, and others who have carefully examined the locality from a geological point of view, account for the subsequent overspreading of La Tène as the combined result of two natural causes, viz. first, the elevation of the level of the lake owing to sedimentary deposits or accidental obstruction in the channels through which the surplus water found its escape; and, second, the gradual removal, by the action of the waves, of a protective barrier in the shape of a projecting moraine of sand and gravel, which stretched outwards from Préfargier in the direction of La Sauge, and sheltered La Tène for many ages from the action of the open lake. But whatever the explanation may be, it is certain that a considerable change has taken place since these sedimentary deposits of fine silt were formed, as at the present time the amount of gravel thrown up on the shore of La Tène is so great as to advance the beach at the annual rate of two or three yards; and this occurs notwithstanding that the level of the water, owing to the operations necessitated by the "Correction des Eaux du Jura," is even lower than it was when the neighbouring lake-dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages flourished.

RECENT EXPLORATIONS.--While M. Vouga was one day making excavations near a group of piles, which he considered to have been supports for a bridge, he came upon the foundations of a wooden house, and in the course of clearing it out he made the important discovery that it had been situated on the brink of a deep channel, which had subsequently become filled up with sand and gravel. The most natural explanation was that this channel was an ancient river-bed which, when the house was constructed, formed the outlet of the lake. With this idea paramount in his mind, Vouga determined to trace out its direction and bearings. About 20 yards farther up--i.e. in the direction of the lake--he came upon the remains of a second wooden house, with its foundation beams still in situ, and two of its containing walls (which had evidently fallen over) lying one over the other. Here the bank of the channel formed a steep descent of 10 feet deep. The floor of this structure was formed of two square-cut beams, each over 16 feet in length and 8 inches in thickness, having a series of closely-set mortised holes for transverse beams. Its breadth was 9 feet 2 inches, and it lay 2½ feet below the surface, and about 7 feet higher than the bottom of the river. The two sides of the building were formed of three beams corresponding in length with that of the flooring, and about 2½ feet apart, and having transverse mountings and a trellis-work of branches. One of these had apparently fallen into the river, as its end reached nearly to the bottom of the channel. Pursuing his investigations still in the direction of the lake, he came upon the remains of a third building, near which were the piles of a second bridge. The space between the two bridges was about 100 yards, and, judging from the position of the piles, this bridge was directed to the same point as the former--probably La Sauge, at the opposite corner of the lake. These bridges were supported on a succession of parallel rows of oak piles 4 to 6 inches in diameter, and placed at intervals of 3 to 20 yards; and each row contained five or six piles, from half a foot to 3 feet apart. About 50 yards above the second bridge a fourth dwelling was encountered, but it appeared to have been already pillaged of its contents. Near this our explorer proceeded to clear a portion of the bed of the river, and lying in the mud and gravel at a depth of 10 feet from the original surface he found a large quantity of antiquities--swords, lances, axes, chains, razors, various wooden implements, fragments of a large vase, the entire wheel and other parts of a chariot, together with the bones of men, horses, and oxen. A fifth building was subsequently discovered between the third and fourth, so that we have here the evidence of a row of five houses situated along the right bank of the ancient river, and all within a distance of 200 yards.

On the left bank of this supposed river only one habitation, opposite No. 1, was discovered, which M. Vouga thought had already been pillaged. It was reported that near this spot several human skeletons had been discovered, one of which had a rope round the neck! Below this the channel becomes deeply buried, and the superficial gravel attains the depth of some ten feet; but, nevertheless, Vouga succeeded in making excavations which decided the chronological sequence of the Roman and Gallic remains. "It was," says he, "in the midst of these gravels that I found the layer containing Roman remains--tiles and fragments of pottery, nails, etc.--at a height of two and a half to three feet above the Gallic objects." (B. 428, p. 13.) These Gallic objects consisted of the well-known fibulæ and other articles characteristic of La Tène, so that superposition clearly indicates the Roman occupation to be posterior to that of its original constructors.

M. Vouga believes that the channel, along the banks of which he found the remains of so many houses, was the right branch of two outlets which at that time existed, and which united lower down to form the Thielle. The left branch was nearer the rising ground towards Epagnier, but it is now covered over with gravel, and has never yet been examined. Some 300 or 400 yards lower down there are some gravel pits, which are occasionally worked for road metal, in which I saw in the summer of 1886 a great many piles, singly and in groups, cropping up through a black peaty deposit underneath the gravel. I mentioned the matter to M. Vouga, and he informed me that the few things found there indicate a Gallo-Roman period.

According to M. Vouga, the site of La Tène station extended from the south bank of the outlet to the small island formed by its two branches before they became united. The upper part of this island, now denuded of its peaty deposits by the action of the waves, forms part of the lake. This denuding process is still going on at the margin of the lake all the way from La Tène to Préfargier. Large masses of the ancient sedimentary deposits, containing piles and relics of the lake-dwellers, become undermined and broken up by the waves, leaving their more solid relics, such as stone hatchets, mixed with the gravel. These are often thrown up on the beach, and in this way many beautiful jade hatchets have been picked up from the sites of the four lake-dwellings now almost entirely disintegrated, which existed along the north shore from La Tène to Préfargier. It is in the gravel at the upper end of La Tène that most of the coins have been collected.

The success attending Vouga's excavations induced M. Borel, on behalf of the Museum of Neuchâtel, to make further excavations along the banks and bed of the ancient river discovered by the former, but without much success. Finally, in 1884, the Cantonal Government having granted to the Historical Society the exclusive right of conducting explorations at La Tène, this society undertook fresh excavations under the management of Messrs. Vouga and W. Wavre. During these researches portions of a gold torque and some gold coins were the principal finds. These coins are valuable inasmuch as they were found in situ, and not, as most of the others, among the shifting gravel.

From Keller's description (B. 126) of the earlier discoveries on La Tène it appears that Col. Schwab, on removing some large mortised beams, found many weapons and other antiquities all huddled together. In the light of Vouga's researches it is probable that this spot was a dwelling similar to those I have already described, as we are told that there were three beams of fir wood, from 15 to 20 feet long, lying parallel to each other and a few feet apart. These beams rested on upright piles, and contained a series of triangular holes as if for the tenons of wooden superstructures.

RELICS.--Like the fate of most lacustrine remains, those from La Tène have been widely scattered. Many are deposited in the Cantonal Museums of Bienne, Neuchâtel, and Berne. The Gross collection, being now public property, finds also a temporary lodgment in a room in the Federal Hall in the latter town. A few, including some of the most interesting relics, have been secured for the Museum of Geneva. The largest of the private collections are those of Messrs. Vouga, of Marin, and Dardel-Thorens, of St. Blaise. With the exception of the articles in the possession of the latter gentleman (which are, however, copiously illustrated in Antiqua and the works of Vouga and Gross), I have studied more than once all these collections. As the principal objects have already been more or less described and illustrated in the excellent works of Keller, Desor, Gross, and Vouga, I wish here to acknowledge that in the production of the accompanying illustrations I have made free use of all these publications, either to rectify my own sketches, or (and this more especially) to give me the correct size of the objects--a point which is rather troublesome to attain through a glass case when, as it often happens as regards the smaller museums, authoritative officials may not be at hand to give access to the cases.

Owing to the peaty nature of the matrix in which the relics from La Tène were embedded they are in a remarkably good state of preservation. They consist chiefly of iron implements and weapons, presenting a striking difference not only in material but also in form and style of manufacture from any found in the ordinary lake-dwellings. Articles of bronze are sparingly met with, and they are, with one or two exceptions, very dissimilar to those from the true palafittes of the Bronze Age. In giving a short description of these relics it will be convenient to group them under the following heads:--(1) Arms; (2) Implements and Utensils; (3) Articles of Ornament and Dress; (4) Horse-Trappings and Waggons; (5) Money, and Objects of Amusement, etc.; (6) Osseous Remains.

1. ARMS.--Swords (=Fig. 87=).--The swords from La Tène, which now number considerably over 100, are all made after one characteristic type. They vary in total length from 30 to 38 inches (or even more), of which the handles occupy 4 to 6½ inches. The blade is always double-edged, generally without a defined median ridge, and scarcely tapers in its whole length till within a few inches of the extremity, when it gradually forms a round blunt tip. It is devoid of ornamentation, except in one or two instances where parallel grooves run along the median line, or the surface becomes thickly dotted with small impressions. Others again have small incised figures upon them (No. 15), but these are supposed to be makers' marks--an interpretation which seems to be corroborated from the fact that those bearing such marks are of a superior quality. The handle is separated from the blade by a prominent curved ridge attached to the hilt of the blade, into the concave side of which the end of the scabbard neatly fits. Although all the swords hitherto found at La Tène have this dividing ridge in the form of a graceful curve such as is represented in the illustrations, I may remark that some of the same type from other stations are straight. What now remains of the handle is merely the central tang, over which there was a grip of horn or wood. On this tang were sometimes small transverse plaques for fastening the handle (No. 8); and Vouga figures one with two small circles from a grave of the Iron Age at Bevaix, which I here reproduce (No. 7) on account of its striking similarity to the sword-handles from Lisnacroghera. (See =Fig. 124=, Nos. 1 and 2.)

The sheaths are formed of two plates of iron (rarely bronze), one of which overlaps the other at the margins, where they are riveted together. Sometimes these plates are strengthened by one or more cross ridges, and about the lower third a raised bead begins which runs round the tip. These attachments often assume an ornamental character (Nos. 3, 4, and 5). The upper surface of the sheath is also generally ornamented with a variety of curious designs, in which spiral and recurring scroll patterns play a conspicuous part (Nos. 3, 10, and 11). But perhaps the most remarkable design is that of three fantastic animals (No. 9), which, from their resemblance to the figures on Gallic coins, first led Desor to the conclusion that the weapons had a similar origin. Only three sheaths are known to have been ornamented along their entire length--viz. Nos. 1, 2, and 12. That on No. 12 was repeated three times at regular intervals. The underside of the sheath has always a suspension clasp, which assumes various elegant shapes (Nos. 4, 13, and 14). In one instance the upper sheath-plate was of bronze, and another had both plates of iron, but the surrounding bead was of bronze. No. 6 represents a piece of iron (being one of about a dozen similar pieces found at La Tène), which is supposed to be the rudimentary stage of the sword-blade.

Lance and Javelin Heads (=Fig. 88=).--These weapons are extremely varied in shape and size, as may be seen from a glance at the illustrations. They all have sockets, and the smallness of the bore at once distinguishes them from Roman weapons of the same class. Sometimes the socket is short, while the blade is large and leaf-shaped, and at other times it runs nearly the whole length of the latter. Two nail holes, and sometimes small prominences, are seen at the lower end of the socket, by which the wooden handle was more firmly fastened. In a few instances (No. 12) there is no median ridge, but generally this is a prominent feature extending the whole length of the blade, and sometimes it assumes a triangular form, like that in our modern bayonet (Nos. 3, 4, etc.). Another peculiarity of some of these weapons is the cutting away of segments and semilunar portions, either at the edges (Nos. 1, 3, and 17) or in the body of the blade (Nos. 1 and 2). One fine weapon has an oval blade with a crenated or wavy edge (No. 5).

The butt end of the wooden handle was protected by an iron knob (Nos. 7, 10, 13, and 14), either simply conical or multilateral, above which there was a neat ferule (No. 13).

Arrow-heads.--It is only in the later excavations that a few arrow-points have come to light. Like the spear-heads, they are all socketed (Nos. 15 and 16).

Shields, etc. (=Fig. 89=).--Several objects have been found at La Tène which must be considered as shield-mountings. The umbo was of thin iron, arched in the centre, and attached to the shield by large studs or sometimes small nails (No. 1). The handle was made of a curved iron rod riveted to two rectangular plates of iron attached to the shield (No. 2). Some large handsome plaques of bronze, of a flamboyant character, are supposed to have been ornaments on the face of the shield (Nos. 3 and 4), of which about half a dozen altogether have been found. Besides these there are several discs and other objects of bronze (Nos. 5, 8, 9 to 11, and 21), many of which were probably ornaments for horse-harness, and there are some which Dr. Gross conjectures to have been ornaments for helmets. (B. 446, p. 28.) The curious object of thin bronze represented by No. 20 is also supposed to be an ornament for a helmet.

2. IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS.--Hatchets (=Fig. 90=).--Though comparatively rare, the hatchets are of various kinds (only about twenty have been hitherto found). One form (Nos. 1, 2, and 7) reminds one of the winged celt of the Bronze Age. The former, however, has only two wings, instead of four as in the latter, and its cutting edge is more expanded. Others are like our modern axes and adzes (Nos. 4, 5, and 6). One of this type is made of bronze, but of so diminutive a size as to give rise to the idea that it was a toy (=Fig. 91=, No. 31).

Chisels and Gouges.--These tools differ only from those of the Bronze Age in being made of iron. They are in considerable numbers (=Fig. 90=, Nos. 33 and 34).

Hammers.--Only a very few hammers are recorded; they are small, and generally hafted by means of a central hole (No. 22). The almost entire absence of implements from La Tène, required in the forging of iron, is somewhat remarkable, and in striking contrast with the number of foundry materials collected from the palafittes of "le bel âge du bronze."

Saws.--Also sparingly represented. Two found by Vouga had handles, one of horn (No. 25) and the other of wood (No. 24). Another has a solid handle of iron, and terminates at the other end in a curious raised hook (No. 29).

File.--Only one object of this class (No. 37) is recorded.

Shears.--Three of these implements are here illustrated (Nos. 15, 16, and 17), from which it will be seen that they are precisely similar to those still used for sheep-shearing. They are elegant in shape, and some even still retain their elasticity. The number collected from La Tène is over a dozen.

Sickles and Scythes.--The few sickles recorded resemble those of modern times, and some of them had teeth. Scythes, more numerous than the sickles, vary in size from 14 to 20 inches in length, and 1½ to 3 inches in breadth. They were hafted by a crooked tang and a ring, precisely like those still in use (Nos. 30 and 32).

Knives.--As regards style and ornamentation, the knives of the Iron Age are greatly inferior to those of the preceding age. Their size and special characters are sufficiently shown in the illustrations (Nos. 8 to 12). One, like the saw already noticed, has a peculiar hook at the point (No. 23).

Razors.--The so-called razors are short, thick, and heavy blades with a rounded cutting edge, and a small prolongation as a handle (Nos. 18, 27, and 28). One of these implements was found adhering by its rust to a pair of shears (Nos. 17 and 18).

Pruning Hooks.--Under this category I reckon some large cutting implements in the form of a bent knife, similar to that in present use for cutting hedges. The one here figured from La Tène (No. 31) is very similar to those found on some of the palafittes in Lake Constance. (See =Fig. 32=, No. 11.)

Pincers.--Pincers are of bronze and iron, and vary considerably both in size and form, as may be seen from the illustrations (=Fig. 91=, No. 11 to 14).

Pots and Dishes.--Of earthenware only a few fragments have come to light, and it is said to be of a totally different kind from that of the true palafittes. It is black and coarse, and shows no evidence of having been made on the wheel; but as to this there appears to be difference of opinion. (B. 428, p. 27, and 446, p. 48.) In addition to this kind, however, there are usually found on the surface of the peaty bed and in the superimposed gravel beds fragments of tiles, pottery, etc., the Roman origin of which cannot be mistaken; but such industrial remains, according to the explorers, are more superficial, and, consequently, posterior to the Gallic remains. (B. 428, p. 27.)

On the other hand, La Tène has furnished several large pots of beaten bronze, with rims and ring-handles of iron (=Fig. 92=, No. 19), some bronze cups (No. 18), a large iron ladle (No. 20), and one or two chains with large hooks, probably pot-hangers (No. 1). The cup here represented was found on the shore in the vicinity of La Tène, but it is supposed to have come from this station.[45]

Fishing Materials (=Fig. 90=).--Among this class of objects are some large spears with two or three prongs (No. 14), fishing-hooks of bronze and iron (Nos. 39 and 40), and some implements like the iron tips of boating gaffs (Nos. 13 and 26).

Diverse.--Hammer-stones, polishers, and corn-grinders are like those used in the preceding ages.

3. OBJECTS OF ORNAMENT AND DRESS.--As regards the objects coming under this category, if we exclude the fibulæ and torques, which we now know to have been worn by men as well as women, it is noteworthy that those peculiar to female adornment are extremely rare, if not entirely awanting--a fact which strongly supports the theory that this station was a military fort.

Fibulæ (=Fig. 91=).--The number of fibulæ from La Tène now amounts to several hundreds. They are all made on one principle, viz. that of our modern safety-pins. This principle is simply an evolutionary stage of the function of the straight pin, by which the point is bent round so as to meet the top after having subjected the stem to several twists so as to give it elasticity. In the part corresponding to the top of the pin there is a catch for the point when fastened. The ornamentation on the upper part and the number of spiral twists on the stem are so varied that each fibula has a distinct individuality of its own, and no two specimens exactly alike have ever yet been found. Their average size is from two to six inches in length, but sometimes they exceed this, as in one here figured (No. 1), which is 10½ inches in length. They are almost exclusively made of iron (Nos. 1 to 6), the exceptions being one or two of bronze (Nos. 18 and 26), and a small circular-shaped brooch of gold (B. 428, p. 28), which are somewhat analogous to those of the Hallstadt period.

Pins, Needles, etc.--The ornamental pins are few in number, and generally made of bronze. Of four here figured (Nos. 8, 9, 10, and 36) one has a double stem, and is so similar to some half-dozen found in the Pfahlbauten of the Bronze Age that it is more likely to be a stray object from the latter than a relic of La Tène. Nor is this at all improbable, as we have already seen that there were several of these stations quite in the vicinity of La Tène, the relic-beds of which have become almost entirely disintegrated by the waves.

A remarkable object, found by Vouga, consists of an ornamental bronze tube, closed at one end, and having six movable rings symmetrically arranged (No. 19). There can be no doubt this was a needle-holder, as it contained a well-formed needle of iron (No. 20). Another curious object, having an eye like that of a needle, terminating in an elongated bulb instead of a sharp point, is represented by No. 15.

Buckles, Rings, etc.--A large assortment of iron clasps (Nos. 27 and 30), buckles (Nos. 28 and 32), rings (No. 33), etc., is to be found in all the collections from La Tène. There are also to be met with a few beads and buttons of bronze (No. 23), and some glass beads of a pretty blue colour, or variegated with blue, yellow, and white (Nos. 22, 24, and 25). One has part of a bronze twisted wire passing through it (No. 21).

Bracelets.--In striking contrast to the fibulæ, bracelets are very rare. Dr. Gross figures one of bronze wire; another of an iron rod, with the inside flattened; and a third of iron plate, riveted, forming a hollow tube, reminding one of the ornamental hollow rings of the Bronze Age. (B. 446, Pl x. 17, 18, and 27.) Of the two here figured (Nos. 34 and 35), one is a spiral rod, and the other a flat band, both of iron. Fragments of glass bracelets, in the form of a flat band, having the outside ornamented with wavy corrugations, have also been found. (B. 126, p. 294.)

Neck-Rings.--Several portions of massive neck rings, precisely similar to those represented on ancient statuary as peculiar to distinguished Gallic warriors, as, for example, that on the neck of the "Dying Gladiator" in Rome, have been found at La Tène. They appear to have been made of two symmetrical portions, which, when worn, were united at the back of the neck, and then formed a large penannular ring, with an expanded bulb at each end (Nos. 16 and 17). They were sometimes plain rings, but generally they were more or less worked into some artistic pattern. That represented on the dying gladiator is distinctly seen to be twisted spirally immediately above the terminal bulbs. Of the two here represented, one (No. 16) is of gold, and weighs 72·90 grammes, and the other of bronze (No. 17).

4. HORSE-TRAPPINGS, WAGGONS, ETC.--Among the objects under this class we have not only bridle-bits (=Fig. 89=, Nos. 14 to 18), spurs (No. 6), various discs and other objects of bronze, supposed to have been ornaments on horse-harness (Nos. 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, and 21), but the actual remains of waggons, as wheels (No. 12), part of the wooden pole, linch-pins (No. 19), and other attachments. The wheel here figured shows a nave with 10 spokes and fellies, which are bound together by an iron hoop, precisely similar to the wheels now in use. "La roue entière," writes its discoverer, "a un mètre de diamètre; trouvée en compagnie d'épées gauloises, elle avait sur le moyeu un umbo de bouclier. Le cercle de fer qui l'entoure, d'environ un centimètre d'épaisseur, a 5 centimètres de largeur, le moyeu a 60 centimètres de longueur, il est formé de deux pièces, reliées de chaque côté par un ou deux petits cercles. Les rais sont en chêne au nombre de dix et la jante est, ou plutôt était, d'une seule pièce courbée et paraît de frêne; elle avait été raccommodée et la pièce est assujettie au moyen d'un clou et d'une embrasse de fer.

"Elle était encore entière, mais, en la transportant, quelques rais tombèrent et comme je ne pus pas la mettre immédiatement et entièrement dans l'eau, la jante se retira en peu de jours, laissant un espace entre le bois et le fer, de sorte que, quand je voulus mettre la roue entière dans son bassin de zinc, elle se sépara en plusieurs morceaux.

"Dans la même couche, mais dans la partie inférieure, puisqu'elle allait en pente, on trouvait des parties d'autres roues, des rais, moyeux calcinés, des manches de haches droits ou coudés pour celts, des parties de bois de lances, des poches en bois avec manches des fragments de grandes écuelles en bois, etc., de grandes et fortes poutres avec mortaises." (B. 428, p. 22.)

The fragments of this interesting relic are now carefully preserved in liquid in a large trough in the Museum at Neuchâtel.

The number of bridle-bits (excluding objects represented by Nos. 15 and 16, which are also supposed to have been used for this purpose) amounts to about a dozen. They are all made of well-beaten iron, with the exception of one (No. 17) which has a superficial layer of bronze over the iron, and have large side-rings, and a central mouthpiece divided into two symmetrical halves.

5. MONEY, OBJECTS OF AMUSEMENT, ETC.--Coins.--But perhaps the most interesting feature of La Tène is the discovery of coins among its strange assortment of relics. Some of these are Roman, but others are undoubtedly of Gallic origin, being identical with those otherwise known to have been current among the various tribes in Gaul, prior to any intervention in their affairs by the Romans. In most cases they were picked up on the surface or amongst constantly shifting gravel, and of course no conclusive inferences could be drawn from them. This uncertainty is now, however, removed by the discovery of two gold pieces at a depth of 10 feet below the present surface, and associated with the usual characteristic objects of La Tène. "En creusant à la drague," says Vouga, "les pêcheurs de M. Schwab ont découvert une monnaie d'or et plusieurs monnaies d'argent et de potin ou de bronze. Plus tard, M. Alexis Dardel et d'autres personnes en ont aussi trouvé en assez grand nombre, surtout sur la tourbe et sur les bords du lac où les vagues les entraînaient, et une quantité de monnaies romaines avec des monnaies de Marseille, de Nîmes, de Lyon, de Vienne. Le plus grand nombre a dû se trouver sur l'île, entre les deux bras de la Thielle; mais de là, à mesure que le terrain était enlevé, ces monnaies étaient balayées et entraînées au bord avec les graviers.

"Comme elles se trouvent toutes pêle-mêle, on ne peut en tirer des conclusions bien sûres. Il n'en est pas de même de deux monnaies en or trouvées à trois mètres de profondeur avec les objets mêmes de la Tène, en février, 1884; ce sont, d'après les descriptions qu'en a faites M. le Dr. Trachsel, de Lausanne, qui les croit Carnutes, du pays Chartrain. Une monnaie gauloise, en or pâle, concave, du poids de 7.783 grammes (=Fig. 92=, No. 2): A. Tête à bandeau royal; R. Aurige conduisant un char attelé de deux chevaux; à l'exergue, inscription étrusque ou grecque, indistincte." (B. 428, p. 29.) The other coin is very like the above in every respect, except that it is smaller, being only about one quarter of its weight.

The gold coins are rare, only seven in all, according to Vouga, being recorded. One, in the Museum of Bienne, is described by Keller (B. 126, p. 302, and Pl. xv. 34) as a bad imitation of the Macedonian coins of Philip. Another (described in the Anzeiger for 1883, p. 401) is similar to =Fig. 92=, No. 2. A fifth is a fragment, and the remaining two consist of small elongated rolls of gold (No. 10).[46]

Besides the gold coins from La Tène, there are about 100 of silver, and about the same number of bronze or potin (a mixture of copper, tin, and lead), representing a great variety of coinages, both native and foreign (Nos. 3 to 9, and 11).

Dr. Gross, having submitted some specimens of these coins, intended as illustrations for his work on La Tène, to M. A. de Barthelémy, publishes the following as the opinion of this eminent numismatist as to their date:--

"En résumé les monnaies dessinées sur la planche XI, à l'exception des Nos. 23 et 24 [gold coins] qui, à cause de leur métal, ont en un cours prolongé, sont de la seconde moitié du premier siècle avant l'ère chrétienne, principalement de la fin." (B. 446, p. 47.)

Amusements.--Among objects of this nature are several dice, some of bronze and others of bone (Nos. 12 to 14). Also, about a dozen small stones of the size of ordinary marbles, and perfectly round, except on one side, where there is a segment, as it were, cut off, are supposed to have been used for some kind of game.

Diverse.--In concluding this summary of the relics from La Tène, I have merely to mention as unclassified objects a four-footed figurine and a small wheel, both of bronze, and in the collection of Mr. Dardel (Nos. 16 and 17). Dr. Gross describes a bronze object resembling a tobacco-pipe (No. 21) which, he believes, was found on this station.

6. OSSEOUS REMAINS.--To these relics is further to be added a large quantity of the osseous remains of men and domestic animals. Of the circumstances in which the earlier finds of this description were made we have not very definite information. Keller, writing in 1866 (B. 126, p. 295), speaks of a basketful of human bones representing some eight individuals; and Desor about the same time found a human skull, which he figures in his work on the palafittes. (B. 95.) M. Vouga, however, gives precise and most interesting information regarding the conditions in which he encountered the osseous remains of human beings, as well as those of the horse, ox, pig, and dog.

We have already seen how M. Vouga came upon the débris of a series of wooden houses constructed on the banks of an ancient river. Referring to these establishments he thus writes:--

"Devant le premier établissement je trouvai un crâne entier de femme. Devant le second, je trouvai pareillement les ossements de trois ou quatre personnes et trois crânes, dont un portait les traces de coups d'épée sur le sommet; un second était remarquable par sa déformité et l'extension de la partie postérieure. Devant le quatrième, deux mâchoires inférieures et les ossements dune trentaine de personnes, avec un très grand nombre d'os de chevaux, de boeufs, et de porcs. Devant le troisième, un crâne de chien grand et entier. Devant le cinquième, trois squelettes entiers dont un portait une corde au cou(?).

"Outres ces crânes et ces ossements dont je puis indiquer la provenance, il a été trouvé un grand nombre d'autres squelettes, d'ossements divers, de crânes de chevaux appartenant à une petite race.

"Je ne pourrais pas garantir l'âge de tous les squelettes, puisque, comme je l'ai dit en commençant, deux doivent être bourguignons, ayant retrouvé l'emplacement de la tombe avec un poignard de cette époque, et que six autres se sont trouvés à mi-hauteur, non loin d'un chénau en bois, et que la couche romaine paraissait s'incliner vers ce côté-là," (B. 428, p. 31.)

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON LA TÈNE.--In face of the above facts, the opinion of the earlier investigators that La Tène was an ordinary palafitte of the Iron Age, analogous to the lake-villages of the preceding ages, can no longer be entertained. Its geographical position, commanding the great highway between Constance and Geneva, and the vast preponderance of warlike weapons among its relics, clearly point to its having been a military station or outlook. Nor does it require much penetration to learn from its present ruins something of its final fate. The quantity of human bones representing some 30 or 40 individuals, some with gashes on the tops of their skulls; the number of abandoned swords, still in their scabbards; the incongruous medley of relics found by Vouga at the bottom of the ancient river-bed--all indicate that its capture by an enemy was sudden and the struggle fierce. The discovery of Roman remains, such as coins, tiles, pottery, bricks (one with the mark of the 21st legion, "Rapax"),[47] on and around La Tène, leave little doubt that its conquerors were the Romans.

Literature.--B. 22, 31, 72, 95, 119, 126, 419, 420_a_', 420_b_', 420_c_, 428, 434_a_, 446, 449_a_", and 463_c_. Also Virchow on the human remains in vols. xv. and xvi., Zeit. für Ethn. Verhand.

LAKE PALADRU.

From time immemorial a legend prevailed among the inhabitants around Lake Paladru that a city had been buried in its waters--a catastrophe brought about by the maledictions of the monks of the neighbouring Carthusian establishment of Sylve Bénite. On the 24th September, 1864, M. Vallier, of Grenoble, and some friends arranged a boating excursion for the purpose of examining the lake as to the reported existence of piles in it, with the view of accounting for the currency of the above legend, and found no less than six different sites where piles were to be seen projecting more or less from the mud. These were supposed to be the remains of lacustrine villages of which the following particulars were ascertained:--

1. STATION DES GRANDS ROSEAUX.--This station was situated near the head of the lake, and about two hundred yards from shore; depth of water from one to two feet; piles sometimes three feet apart, and sometimes much less; over 150 were counted.

2. STAT. DE L'ILE DE LOYASSE.--Two hundred and fifty yards from the former, and about 100 yards from shore. Only about twenty piles were counted.

3. STAT. DE LA GENEVRIÈRE.--About 600 yards farther on and 70 yards from shore. About twenty piles counted.

4. STAT. DE LA NEYRE.--About 200 yards from the preceding, and close to the shore.

5. STAT. DU PLÂTRE.--About thirty piles counted in water from 10 to 13 feet deep.

6. STAT. DU PUITS DES CARPES.--Fifty or sixty piles observed close to each other and about 20 yards from the shore.

These indications of pile-dwellings, though strengthened by further observations by M. Vallier in the following year, really contributed little to the elucidation of the problem as to the period to which they belonged; so that the work of M. Vallier, "La Légende de la Ville d'Ars sur les Bords du Lac de Paladru," leaves the question much in the same position as it was left by Professor Fournet, who had already suggested, in 1860,[48] that the legend of the buried city had its origin in the former existence of lake-dwellings. It remained to M. Ernest Chantre, of Lyons, to make the first practical investigations to clear up the mystery. To this line of research he was led by the encouragement and knowledge he had received at the first meeting of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, held at Neuchâtel, in 1866, when he had an opportunity of being initiated by Professor Desor and others in lacustrine research. His first efforts, an account of which was published in the Matériaux for 1867, showed that two of the stations mentioned by M. Vallier belonged to the Iron Age. Learning then that engineering works were in progress for regulating the outflow of the waters of this lake, which would have the effect of lowering its level, M. Chantre deferred his proposed excavations till these more favourable conditions should be accomplished. His subsequent investigations, conducted in the autumn of 1870, were confined to the first-named station (Grands Roseaux), which, from his former experience, gave greater promise of archæological results. From it he had already picked up some bones of the ox, pig, stag, etc., the kernels of a species of small cherry and of two kinds of plums, fragments of pottery of a different kind from any found in the Swiss lake-dwellings, an iron knife, and a wooden comb. Owing to the lowering of the lake the station was now (1870) a foot above water, and it could be easily examined by the spade on terra firma. In the excavations which ensued the following strata were met with:--(1) Eight inches of peaty mud and roots of water plants; (2) About eighteen inches of peat containing bits of worked wood and bones; (3) Ten inches of peat containing bones, fragments of pottery, and a great variety of antiquities; (4) Underneath this peat was the whitish lake sediment known as shell-marl.

The area occupied by the piles and wooden beams was about 1,600 square yards in extent, and of a somewhat circular shape. The tops of the piles were water-worn, and projected above the mud from one foot to one foot and a half. They were made of the stems of trees from 10 to 16 feet long, and 7½ to 15 inches in diameter, some being squared and pointed with the hatchet, and most of them penetrated to the shell-marl. Their distance from each other varied very much. Many were observed to be in groups of four, rectangularly placed, with cross timbers stretching between them, thus forming a series of square or rectangular chambers. The cross-beams overlapped each other, and each had a cutaway cavity at the point of crossing, which kept it in position, precisely on the principle on which the Swiss chalets are constructed at the present day. The walls of the submerged compartments contained some four or five of these transverses, and the space enclosed varied from 7 to 30 feet long. In the larger spaces the uprights were not restricted to the corners, but occupied intermediate positions inside the enclosed area. Numerous tenons, mortises, pegs, and other portions of worked timbers, proved that these structures were erected by the hatchet and chisel alone, as none showed any evidence of the use of the saw; nor were there any iron nails found.

The woodwork was so abundant, that the removal of it became a regular employment; and for its discovery the mud was probed with iron rods.

In two places a double row of piles stretched to the shore, one 230 feet and the other 130 feet long, which, there can be little doubt, were the remains of gangways.

The industrial relics (=Fig. 93=) consisted largely of iron objects, among which were several knives (No. 3), an axe (No. 11), an · awl, a gimlet, part of a pair of shears (No. 2), a chisel, part of a lock (No. 8), chains (No. 7), several keys (No. 9), horseshoes (Nos. 5 and 6), a curry-comb (No. 10), a spur (No. 12), a lance (No. 4), and portions of a javelin.

Of other materials there were two bone-counters (Nos. 14 and 15), a sharpening stone, the half of a leaden bracelet (No. 1), and a number of wooden objects, viz. two combs (No. 21), spoons (No. 19), pestles (No. 17), a bobbin (No. 20), and some perforated bits, like floats for nets (Nos. 13 and 16).

Pottery is of a greyish-black colour, well baked, and fashioned on the wheel, with an ornamentation of a very unusual character (Nos. 18, 22, 23, and 24). The only entire vessel was flask-shaped, having a hole in the middle of one of its sides (No. 24). Some pieces of cloth like Roman tissues, and a portion of a Roman vase, were also found.

The animals identified from the bones were the ox, sheep, goat, horse (a small race), pig, dog, and a large-sized otter. Among the remains of fruits were two species of cherry, two species of plums, peaches, walnuts, hazel-nuts, acorns, etc.

Oak was the only wood used in the construction of the submerged foundations, with the exception of one trunk of a chestnut tree; but ash, cornel-cherry, and box had been used for making utensils. (B. 193.)

In 1885, owing to the lowness of the water in the lake, further discoveries were made on this station (Grands Roseaux). Immediately in front of the lacustrine village, on its lake side, a triple row of piles was detected, which appeared to have acted as a breakwater; and on its site, along with some great oak-beams, were found various relics of a similar character to those already described. Among these were the following iron objects of the Carlovingian period--viz. 17 knives, 2 keys, a hook, a pair of shears, a stirrup, 2 spurs, a portion of the umbo of a shield, and some horseshoes of a small size. The other objects recorded were two portions of wooden spoons, fragments of a comb made of yew, and a piece of goatskin.[49]

RHINE DISTRICT.

In the two lacustrine stations just described we had to deal with remains essentially different from any that have hitherto come under our notice. In La Tène both stone and bronze objects are quite the exception, while those of iron are not only in great abundance, but, from their variety and style of art, clearly show that the working and forging of this metal had reached a great state of perfection. In short, we have inherent evidence that the civilisation of the Bronze Age was now superseded by one of a totally different character, and yet it would seem that this complete change had been accomplished independent of, and prior to, the advent of the Romans. On the other hand, the class of antiquities found in Lake Paladru brings us down to Carlovingian times, probably as late as the ninth or tenth century. In pursuing our investigations northwards we find records of many lake-dwellings which, like these, are the products of later ages than those in which the Swiss Pfahlbauten flourished. But, at the same time, there is satisfactory evidence as regards others in the same localities that they belonged to the Prehistoric Ages. Professor Virchow (B. 165) considers that, with one or two exceptions, all the lake-dwellings of North Germany were founded during the Iron Age, and, like our Scottish and Irish crannogs, continued down to the Middle Ages. As regards many, however, no conclusive inferences can be drawn, as they are imperfectly or entirely unexplored.

THE PALATINATE.

Mr. C. Mehlis (B. 400) states that in the low-lying land near Billigheim, on the left bank of the Rhine, evidences of a pile-dwelling have for many years been observed. In one place piles were found in their original position. They consisted of square-cut oak beams, about six feet long, and placed in the form of a rectangle. Near them were collected in great numbers tiles of a dark-red colour, fragments of pottery peculiar to the period from the tenth to the thirteenth century, and bones of the deer. In addition to these relics, which point to the early Middle Ages, there were others at a greater depth which no less conclusively point to a much earlier period. These are described as implements of stone and flint, such as knives, axes, spear-heads, etc.

Other indications were noticed in the turf-beds at Landstuhl and Durkheim; and below Mayence, Lindenschmit has shown that a pile-dwelling existed in Roman times. Other stations are said to be at Würzburg, Wiesentheid, and Niedissigheim, in which the bones of various oxen and pigs were found associated with piles. (400a, p. 254.)

DEÛLE-À-HOUPLIN.

In 1876 M. Rigaux announced the existence of a pile-dwelling in the marsh of Deûle-à-Houplin, in the Département du Nord, in which were found not only broken bones, flint objects chipped and polished, and pottery, but also some metal objects.[50]

MAESTRICHT (HOLLAND).

In the valley of the Meuse, near Maestricht, Mr. Ubaghs (B. 413) describes a sort of artificial island composed of trunks of trees brushwood, leaves, etc., which came to light in 1883 in the course of railway excavations. This curious structure lies close to the canal from Maestricht to Bois-le-Duc; and it appears that when this canal, many years ago, was being constructed, it is recorded that the workmen had come upon much wood and bones, which were thrown away as of no importance. The portion now exposed by the railway excavations was about 16 feet below the surface and extended parallel to the canal for about 50 yards, with a breadth of 11 yards, and Mr. Ubaghs estimates that 4 or 5 yards more were destroyed by the canal operations. The trunks were from 6 to 13 feet long and, in some instances, 1 foot in diameter. The larger ones were underneath and reposed on a bed of gravel, in which they were partially embedded. Above the beams were decayed branches and leaves, forming a bed of vegetable débris some eight or nine inches in thickness, but no upright piles were anywhere observed. Mr. Ubaghs considers this was in former times an island constructed partly, at least, artificially, like the Irish crannogs or the Pfahlbauten at Schussenried, and that it served as a dwelling-place for hunters, who left the remains of feasts and broken weapons behind them.

Among the objects of archæological value collected were the following:--Portion of a human skull, and various bones of the horse, urus, ox, stag, goat, dog, pig, beaver, and the humerus of a bird. The industrial relics consisted of various kinds of implements and weapons of bone and staghorn, as harpoons, perforated clubs, daggers, etc., of which a few are here represented (=Fig. 94=). As these illustrations are merely copied from Ubaghs' work, and are not drawn to scale, I give the respective lengths of the objects, viz. (1) 15½, (2) 10, (3) 6½, (4) 13½, (5) 4¾, (6) 3, and (7) 3½ inches.

No complete skeleton of any animal was found, because, as Mr. Ubaghs remarks, these hunters only carried certain portions of the dead animals to their abodes. It was also observed that the spongy portions of the bones had been gnawed away, probably by dogs.

To the portion of the human skull (dolichocephalic) there is now more than ordinary interest attached, as it was near the same spot that Professor Crahay discovered the celebrated human jaw known as the "Smeermaas mâchoire," and subsequently described by Sir Charles Lyell in his "Antiquity of Man" as coeval with a mammoth tusk found in the vicinity. The present skull was found 11 to 13 feet below the surface, lying upon the gravel bed on which the wooden structures reposed. From a careful comparison of it with the "Crahay jaw," now in the cabinet of anatomy in the University of Leyden, Mr. Ubaghs found that the two relics were identical as to patina, consistency of bone, and the composition of the material in which they were embedded (traces of which still adhered to them), and he comes to the prosaic conclusion that the two belonged to the Maestricht crannog: "Cette mâchoire, ainsi que les autres ossements de la même provenance, ont appartenu à notre station lacustre près de Maestricht."

M. Kerkhoffs[51] attacks Sir Charles Lyell for some palpable mistakes he has made regarding the relative positions of the Crahay jaw and the mammoth tusk. According to Sir Charles, the tusk was found "six yards removed from the human jaw, in horizontal distance."[52] M. Kerkhoffs gives the following quotation from Crahay's original notice of the discovery:--"Dans une pointe que forme le plateau de Kaberg, en s'avançant dans la plaine, près de Smeermaas, on a rencontré dans la terre argileuse à 6m50 au-dessous du sol, la mâchoire inférieure d'un homme garnie de ses dents, sans être accompagnée d'aucun autre reste; elle ne semblait pas avoir roulé; les ouvriers assurent que la terre n'y avait pas été remuée. L'os est très fragile, mais n'a pas été dans cet état de mollesse des ossements d'éléphants; aussi n'est-ce pas la même couche de terre; car au-dessous de cette mâchoire s'étendait une couche irregulière de gravier et de cailloux de 2 à 3 mètres d'épaisseur, au-dessous de laquelle était placée une nouvelle couche argileuse dans laquelle on a trouvé des restes d'éléphants à 14 mètres au-dessous du sol."

From these remarks it would appear that Sir Charles Lyell's account of the position of the mâchoire is neither a fact nor in accordance with Professor Crahay's description of the conditions in which it was found, as the tusk is here described as having been over 24 feet deeper.[53]

NORTH GERMANY.--(A) MECKLENBURG.

LATTMOOR.--The discovery of lake-dwellings in North Germany dates back to the summer of 1863, when Dr. Lisch, Curator of the Antiquarian Museum at Schwerin, accompanied one Sergeant Büsch to inspect a peat bog at a place called Gägelow, in the vicinity of Wismar, where the latter reported that some stone implements had been found. Dr. Lisch recognised in this place the site of a lake-dwelling and looked upon the discovery as one of great importance. Soon afterwards Büsch, who was a member of the Antiquarian Society of Schwerin, and took an active part in collecting objects for the museum, ascertained that similar remains were often met with in the peat bog known as the Lattmoor, situated about a mile to the north of the town of Wismar. On the 4th July, 1864, Büsch so greatly astonished the members of the society with the number and variety of objects he placed before them that Dr. Lisch again accompanied him to this new field of discovery, and again came to the conclusion that it was the site of a true Pfahlbau. Sergeant Büsch, to whom the credit of these discoveries was undoubtedly due, became greatly elated over his successes, and continued to supply Dr. Lisch with the most extraordinary objects from this lake-dwelling, all of which were accepted without exciting the slightest suspicion that any of them had been falsified. In 1865 Dr. Lisch published an illustrated report of the Wismar lake-dwellings (B. 100), and the subject attracted much attention in archæological circles on account of their analogy to those in Switzerland. Shortly after the appearance of Lisch's work Dr. Lindenschmit, of Mayence, announced that certain objects included in a small collection which Büsch had sent to him were falsifications, and especially pointed out a bone comb and some other bone objects which undoubtedly came under this category. The doubts thus cast on the relics from the Wismar lake-dwelling became intensified when soon afterwards Büsch got into trouble in regard to some money matters, which ended in his being convicted and punished for forgery. Not only was there now doubt cast upon the genuineness of the entire relics, so much prized at the Schwerin Museum, but the very existence of the lake-dwelling was called in question. After this untoward event Dr. Lisch became more cautious and carefully inspected all the relics that had already come to the museum, the result of which was that Büsch had not only fabricated a considerable number, but also included real objects of antiquity found elsewhere as coming from the lake-dwelling. All the doubtful specimens were then carefully eliminated from the collection, and further investigations were undertaken by competent and trustworthy men, notably Messrs. Fromm and Mann of Wismar. The result of this inquiry was such as to leave no doubt whatever as to the genuineness of the Wismar lake-dwelling, as the same class of objects continued to be found after the disappearance of the unfortunate Büsch altogether from the scene. A couple of years later Dr. Lisch published a second report of the Wismar Pfahlbauten (B. 142), in which he notes those articles he considered to have been forgeries, chiefly objects of bone and horn, in his previous report, and incorporates the further discoveries. Since 1867 little peat-cutting has been carried on in this part of the moor, and the antiquities have correspondingly decreased. A final report of this lake-dwelling was, however, given in 1873, by Dr. Lisch, which in every respect confirms its previous character. (B. 242.) Professor Virchow, who also visited the locality and, with his usual critical acumen, investigated the whole matter, came to the conclusion that, notwithstanding Büsch's incomprehensible mystifications, the lake-dwelling at Wismar was undoubtedly trustworthy. (B. 165.)

I visited the Museum of Schwerin during the summer of 1888 for the express purpose of seeing these remains, and after a careful inspection of them I could not differ from the conclusions arrived at by Lisch and Virchow. Moreover, I had the assurance of Miss Buchheim, custodian of the antiquarian department, that there could be no doubt at all that the entire collection from Wismar now in the museum was as genuine as anything of the kind in Europe.

The lake-dwelling remains occupy a separate compartment in one of the wall-cases. Among those from Wismar are 32 flint hatchets and chisels more or less perfect (=Fig. 95=, No. 6), three perforated stone axe-heads (Nos. 16 and 17), eight semilunar flint saws (Nos. 11 and 12), one or two arrow-points (No. 20), a flint dagger with handle (No. 10), some flint flakes and a number of polishers (No. 18). Of horn and bone there are many worked portions, among which are three perforated implements (No. 14), one perforated bead of amber, portions of piles and worked wood, and a large heap of bones. But, of course, all the objects have not come to this museum, as there are some described in Dr. Lisch's reports which have evidently found a resting-place in some other collections. Among the relics are not only large hollow polishing-stones and round rubbers, but also fragments of true querns or handmills, the presence of which appeared to have astonished Dr. Lisch, as he considered the latter to be of much later date than any of the other associated objects.

Of bronze only one socketed celt with side loop and portion of an arm band are mentioned.

The pottery was of a peculiar character, much broken and difficult to make out. One portion, which is here represented (No. 9), shows groups of lines running up and down the bulge of the vessel. A few clay spindle-whorls were also found.

Among the osseous remains Professor Rütimeyer identified the following animals:--ox (Bos taurus and primigenius), sheep, goat, pig (Sus scrofa ferus and domesticus), stag, roe, horse, dog, beaver, rat, wild duck, seal, tortoise, and pike. A few human bones were also collected.

The site of this lake-dwelling is in the low ground known as the Lattmoor, a short distance to the north of the town of Wismar. Judging from the nature of the locality and its surroundings, all authorities are agreed that in prehistoric times it was the bed of an irregularly shaped lake, but of no great depth. The piles were found by the peat-cutters in a somewhat contracted portion some 260 yards to the south of the Muggenburg tile works. On excavating into the accumulated deposits of this basin the following layers were encountered:--(1) ordinary turf, about 5 feet; (2) a layer of alluvial mould, about 1 foot thick; (3) black muddy stuff, containing the remains of water plants for a depth of 10 feet. It was in the latter that rotten piles were detected, which penetrated its whole depth to the underlying glacial clay. These piles were about 10 feet long and 6 or 7 inches thick; and they were placed about 2 feet apart, with their present tops at least 6 feet below the surface of the bog. From the arrangement of the woodwork Dr. Lisch formed the opinion that the huts erected over them were both round and square, and he thought he recognised three of the former and two of the latter. The round huts had a diameter of 14 to 18 feet, and were placed at intervals of 6 to 8 feet. Horizontal beams were found both on the supposed sites of these huts and in the intervals. Leading from one of the huts to the shore there was a line of seven or eight large granite stones.

GÄGELOW.--The site of the Gägelow lake-dwelling, the first discovered in North Germany, is a small hollow near the seashore a few miles to the west of Wismar. This hollow contained a rich deposit of mould, which Herr Seidenschnur, the proprietor, was in the habit of utilising as manure for his fields. It appears that as early as 1861 some horn objects were found in the stuff taken out of this place, which, on being presented to the Museum at Schwerin, then led Dr. Lisch to make the suggestion of a lake-dwelling--a suggestion which was afterwards confirmed by his visit to the place in May, 1863.

By the removal of the mould from year to year, this hollow had been partially converted into its pristine aqueous condition, which, however, could hardly be dignified by the name of a lake, being nothing more than a pond, some 40 yards long by 30 broad. Here a semicircular area containing oak piles was detected, which measured about 22 feet in diameter. The piles were 7 to 10 feet long, and 7 to 8 inches thick, and interspersed among them were some horizontal beams. Associated with this wooden structure were found various kinds of antiquities--viz. four polished or chipped axes of flint (=Fig. 95=, Nos. 2 and 3), two perforated axe-hammer heads of diorite (No. 4), a portion of a third (No. 7), and some flint daggers (No. 1) and flakes. A four-cornered mortar of grey basalt, 3½ inches high by 2½ broad (No. 8); the corners of this vessel are rounded, and its surface neatly polished. A hand-millstone or quern, 1 foot in diameter and 2½ inches thick, made of porous basalt: this quern had a hole in the centre, with two swallow-tail notches on each side for fixing the handle, and its under surface was worked into a series of narrow grooves, precisely similar to those of Roman and post-Roman times. There were also some spindle-whorls (No. 19), a portion of a clay weight, and fragments of dishes of black and red pottery, some of which had handles. The bones were all of the ordinary domestic animals.

Marine Pile-dwellings.--The spirit of antiquarian research aroused in the neighbourhood by these discoveries, led to the recognition of the remains of marine pile-dwellings (Meerpfahlbauten) in the bay of Wismar. Attention was first directed to this subject by Mr. Mann, who pointed out that for several years past flint hatchets, daggers, and knives, as well as various objects of horn and bone, and even bronze implements, were frequently turned up by the dredging machines used in the harbour. The matter, however, excited no interest among the workmen, and thus many valuable objects were re-deposited in deep water along with the dredged mud. It was reported that some bronze objects had been sold to the smith, Vossech, and melted; while others of stone and horn had been dispersed. It appears also that at a particular place called the Baumhaus piles of oak had been observed. In 1864 the workmen engaged at the dredging machines, having their attention called to the matter, reported the existence of piles at various places in the bay, one of which was between the shore and the little island Wallfisch, and the other close to the island Poel. One peculiar horn object which had been sent to the museum was supposed to have been a Taschenbügel or rim for a pouch. (B. 100, p. 101, and vol. xxix. p. 132.)

BÜTZOW.--There was also, according to Dr. Lisch, a lake-dwelling in a turf moor called the "Sühring," near the town of Bützow. Here at a given place near the margin of the moor the peat-cutters were occasionally finding antiquities associated with piles, which, on being sent to the Schwerin Museum, led to the recognition of the true character of the find. Over 60 objects were collected, among which Dr. Lisch enumerates the following:--two round stone rubbers, three semilunar flint saws, a flint celt, a perforated axe-head, a bronze pin three and a half inches long, several objects of horn and bone, a piece of reindeer horn, and shells of hazel-nuts. (B. 142.)

VIMFOU.--Dr. Weichmann-Kadow (B. 142) describes a lacustrine dwelling found in a small lake at Vimfou, near Goldberg. The lake was drained and converted into meadow land in 1865, and in its former bed three localities containing piles had been observed, only one of which, however, was subjected to any examination. This was near the middle of the lake, and the piles, which appeared to have been the foundations of a burnt-down hut, occupied a circular area about 12 feet in diameter. Inside the piled area were bits of burnt wood, charcoal, and some broken pottery and three whole vessels. Some of these vessels were well made and had handles and a style of ornamentation which corresponded with the early Iron Age. The only other remains were a few grinding stones (Quetschmühle), some small round pebbles supposed to have been used as draughtsmen, bits of bone, and the shells of hazel-nuts.

(B) POMERANIA AND CENTRAL PRUSSIA.

RYCK.--Almost contemporary with Lisch's discoveries in the vicinity of Wismar were those by Von Hagenow at the mouth of the river Wiek. (B. 97.) Rumours of the discovery of various ancient objects of flint, bronze, and iron, while the bed of the river was being deepened, induced Mr. von Hagenow to investigate the matter. These reported discoveries extended backwards for upwards of twenty years, embracing the years 1839-47-59-62 and '64. It was only in the latter year that it became surmised that the antiquities indicated a lake-dwelling. There was no doubt of the existence of piles, which Von Hagenow unhesitatingly concluded had been used for this purpose; but others thought they were the remains of a bridge. Prof. Virchow, writing in 1869 (B. 165), after examining into all the circumstances, was unable to form an opinion or to decide whether these remains pointed to a bridge or to a lake-dwelling.

HEGAR LAKE.--This lake is situated in the district of Dramburg, near Sabin, and in it were found many iron objects, upwards of 100 arrow and lance-heads, spurs and horse-bits, associated with the remains of a small wooden house. No objects characteristic of the Stone or Bronze Ages were found, so that there can be no doubt that this station was of a comparatively late age. (B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 629.)

WERBELINSEE.--According to Professor Virchow, this lake contains the remains of a most interesting pile-dwelling. (B. 165.) The lake is situated not far from Joachimsthal and Angermünde, and on its south side, near the village of Altenhof, piles were detected which, by a vague tradition, were supposed to mark the site of a bridge. Professor Virchow, however, by placing long wooden poles in the water where the submerged ancient piles were observed, demonstrated the existence of a vast area which even the sceptical boatmen admitted could only have been intended for the foundations of a village.

PERSANZIGERSEE.--This lake, according to Kasiski (B. 125 and 362), is situated four and a half miles to the west of Neustettin, and formerly covered about 186 acres; but in 1863 it was lowered some 10 feet by the construction of a drainage canal, thereby reducing its area to less than as many roods. At the north end of the lake, and 170 yards from the shore, there appeared a small island, which was found to have been surrounded by a remarkable structure of piles and cross-beams. Sixty yards to the north of this island there was a flat prominence, called the "Werder," which was completely cut off from the mainland, partly by bogs and partly by an arm of the lake 55 yards wide. (See accompanying Sketch Map.)

Stretching between the island and the point of the Werder the stumps of a double row of piles, doubtless the remains of a bridge, were detected. A similar bridge also extended from the Werder to the shore; and to the south of this were the remains of a third bridge, which appears to have never been finished, as it stopped suddenly short after reaching some 40 yards into the lake in the direction of the island. Another row of piles, commencing at the outer end of the bridge which connected the island with the Werder, extended circularly for a considerable distance in the bed of the lake, as if intended to protect the island.

The chief point of interest, however, lay in the peculiar structures which surrounded the island. These consisted of a series of rectangles, some 60 in number, formed of horizontal beams 16 feet long and 8 to 12 inches in diameter; they overlapped each other near their extremities, leaving about 18 inches free, and each beam had deep cuts by which it was kept in position, exactly similar to the plan used in the construction of a log house. The rectangular spaces measured four or five square yards, and had 30 or 40 piles placed on both sides of the chamber-walls, apparently for the purpose of strengthening the horizontal beams, as shown in the plan. These chambers appear to have formed a complete girdle to the island, but they were partly destroyed on the south side. The quantity of wood used was enormous, as the piles alone numbered about 1800. On the north side the structures were remarkably well preserved, being protected by a covering of slime and rushes eight to twelve inches thick. At first Major Kasiski believed that the rectangles were cottages, but subsequently, after comparison with similar structures in other lakes in North Germany, he came to the conclusion that they formed merely the submerged foundations over which the cottages had been built.

The bridges from the Insel to the Werder, and from the Werder to the shore, were built on two rows of piles, 8 feet apart, and the piles in each row were about 7 feet apart. Major Kasiski inferred from the remains of the unfinished bridge, which showed the use of tenons and mortises, that it was of later date than the others.

Among the relics collected on the island or amidst its surrounding structures are two halves of an upper quern, 14½ inches in diameter and 5 inches thick. The under side is concave, and the centre hole, which has a diameter of 1¼ inches, widens upwards like a funnel. Querns have been found in several lake-dwellings in North Germany, as Gägelow, Wismar, and Cottbus, in Neumark.[54] Other relics consist of wooden clubs, two portions of leather, a skate made of the leg-bone of a horse, staghorn hammers, five sharpening-stones, a few spindle-whorls of stone and clay, a bit of coral, seven portions of worked wood--a shovel, rudder, etc. Of metal there are a fragment of bronze and an iron hatchet. The latter implement is small, measuring only 3½ inches long, and 2½ inches wide at its cutting-edge, and has a round hole for the handle.

The pottery, of which 45 fragments were collected, was made of fine clay, by means of the potter's-wheel, and from the variety of its ornamentation and characteristic wavy lines, there can be no doubt that it belonged to the type of the Burgwälle--an inference which is greatly strengthened by its resemblance to that found in the Wallberg in the Raddatzsee, a noted Burgwall situated in the close vicinity. Illustrations of a few specimens of this pottery are given on =Fig. 96=, Nos. 6 to 9.

From an examination of the bones collected the following animals were identified, viz.:--horse, ox, goat, sheep, pig, dog, fox, deer, and roe.

In the Virchowsee a little to the north of Persanzig there is a huge Burgwall surrounded by water, in which the remains of piles have been found. (B. 165.)

STREITZIGSEE.--On the lowering of this lake a very large assortment of piles became exposed, but although several excavations were made, both by Professor Virchow and others, no decided results were obtained bearing on their character and scope. (B. 165.)

LÜBTOWSEE.--Another locality which has furnished remains of pile-dwellings lies to the right of the Oder, in the vicinity of Lübtow. (B. 165.) Here the river Plöne traverses a long lake, and on its being lowered in 1859, an extensive area covered with piles became visible towards its northern end. It is said that many relics were found among these piles, some of which were collected by the proprietor; but the idea of their belonging to lake-dwellings was not mooted till several years afterwards. Professor Virchow visited the locality in 1865, and again in 1869, and on the latter occasion he made extensive excavations, which convinced him that this was a regular lake-settlement. Later on the foundations of a quadrangular wooden building came to light, from which, owing to its being 3 feet under the late lake level, Mr. Kühne inferred that the lake must have formerly stood at a lower level. That this structure, however, as well as the piles, belonged to the Iron Age, he says there can be no doubt whatever, as the antiquities collected in both were precisely similar, being generally iron objects, such as swords, lance and arrow-heads, stirrups, spurs, knives, and bricks of the thirteenth or fourteenth century. In the rectangular building, in addition to such objects, were found a helmet and greaves. But what was considered still more singular, there was found among the piles a number of stone chisels and hammers, together with one bronze celt. (B. 119, 2^o ed., p. 629.)

Adjacent to this lake at Bonin, and deeply buried in the turf, indications of wooden structures came to light which, in 1872, attracted the attention of Professor Virchow, who, in company with the local antiquaries, made excavations which revealed structures analogous to those in the Persanzigersee. (B. 227.) In excavating they passed through the following distinct layers:--First, 5 to 8 feet of peat; second, some thin layers of marl, sand, and mud; and third, a relic-bed, 2 to 4 feet in thickness. The woodwork appeared to the investigators to have been cut by sharp metal tools. Among the relics collected were four sharpening-stones, a few perforated staghorn hammers, a bone chisel 6½ inches long, some large horn handles, a small iron knife, bits of leather, fragments of wooden dishes, and part of a boat. Pottery was also found which belonged to the Burgwälle type.

SOLDINERSEE.--In 1857 this lake was lowered 7 to 8 feet, when two islands became visible, one of which turned out to be the site of a lake-dwelling, and yielded a considerable number of antiquities, among which was portion of a reindeer horn. (B. 165, p. 407.)

In 1873 Major Kamienski examined it with greater care, and published a short notice of the results. (B. 241.) The island was 150 yards from the shore, and measured 85 by 30 yards. It contained many piles, and showed no evidence of having been destroyed by fire. The relics were of a mixed character. With flint flakes and broken stone-axes were various iron objects, as a hook, a spear-head, three knife-blades, and three halves of horseshoes. There were also arrow-points of bone, two portions of bows, a clay spindle-whorl, a bone shuttle, beautifully worked, and a piece of horn with a kind of ornamentation cut on it. The fragments of pottery also indicated different kinds. Stones, which looked as if they had been exposed to fire, were supposed to have been used as hearths. Among the osseous remains were those of the ox, pig, stag, roe, fox, bear, beaver, wild boar, and a single vertebra of a fish.

A Burgwall was on the land near the lake-dwelling--a fact which is somewhat significant, as, according to Virchow, there was often a close connection between these two classes of remains.

DABERSEE (HINTER POMMERN).--The Pfahlbauten in this lake were shown by Professor Virchow to be connected with an adjacent Burgwall by a wooden bridge. (B. 165.) He also found that the piles were associated with submerged wooden rectangles similar to those already described in the Persanzigersee. Together with pottery of the Burgwälle type, he found bone skates, an iron hatchet, and an ornamented comb, constructed of several pieces of bone banded together with iron rivets. About this comb he remarks that the teeth were sawn after the pieces were put together--a peculiarity which I have noted of the bone combs found on the Ayrshire crannogs.[55]

LÜBBINCHENERSEE (KR. GUBEN).--In 1877 a lake-dwelling of the Slavish period (Spätwendischer und darüber Mittelalterlicher Pfahlbau) was examined by members of the Märkisches Museum, in Berlin, from which they collected a large quantity of iron objects, pottery, bones, etc., which may now be seen in this museum. The base of this lacustrine dwelling was constructed precisely similar to that at Persanzig, and the beams had similar cuts near their extremities, where they overlapped each other.

ALT FRIESACK (KR. RUPPIN).--A similar Slavish Pfahlbau was found at Alt Friesack, from which there is now in the Märkisches Museum a large quantity of débris--wooden beams, quern-stones, some perforated clay sinkers (=Fig. 96=, No. 5), an iron hatchet (No. 2) with traces of ornamentation on it, an iron oblong ring (No. 1), and pottery with the characteristic wavy lines (Nos. 3 and 4).

KLOPPSEE (NEUMARK).--A lake-dwelling in the Kloppsee, near Woldenburg, has yielded a fine black pottery, so well burnt that it gives a metallic ring when struck. The vessels found here are well shaped, and the fragments show handles, feet, and well-formed recurved rims. (B. 165.)

SPANDAU.--One of the most remarkable lacustrine discoveries in North Germany was made a few years ago (1881) at the town of Spandau, near Berlin. Here, in a flat space called Stresow, close to the river Havel, in which workmen were excavating the foundations of a military powder-house, oak piles and bronze weapons were turned up from considerable depths.

The locality was almost surrounded by the adjacent sluggish waters, and so wet that two pumps had to be kept going before the men could carry out the necessary excavations. From the sedimentary character of the deposit, as well as the abundance of fresh-water shells, there could be no doubt that formerly the place had been occupied by a lake. There was, first of all, a bed of peat about five feet thick, and under this came a deposit of mud and sand. On the south side of the space being excavated there was observed at a depth of nearly 12 feet a layer of greenish stuff, mixed with bones, impregnated with vivianite, and through this layer the piles were found to have penetrated to the sand underneath. It was in the muddy deposit immediately beneath the peat that the tops of the piles appeared, and they were arranged sometimes in parallel rows, and sometimes without any apparent regularity. Some were of oak, and others of soft wood. There was also much timber lying transversely, and many of the beams showed signs of charring.

The relics were collected between and around these piles, and uniformly all over the area. They consisted of a remarkable series of bronze implements and weapons, together with a few of stone and horn. There were also found the bones of tame and wild animals, a human brachycephalic skull and some other human bones, a portion of a canoe, and a very small quantity of pottery of an indeterminate character. The bones were very much broken, but, notwithstanding, they were identified as belonging to the following animals, viz.:--stag, roe, hare, bear, ox, horse, pig, and dog. It is noteworthy that the reindeer and elk were both unrepresented.

Relics.--It is, however, the relics that distinguish this lacustrine find from others in North Germany, and these I shall now describe shortly:--three swords with handles (=Fig. 97=, Nos. 8, 9, and 10), one sword-blade attached by rivets (No. 11); an ornamented commandostab (No. 18), and a small button-like object, ornamented with a running scroll of double spiral; three daggers have rivet-marks and one has a tang (Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 12); one dagger, still in its bronze handle (No. 13), has its butt end ornamented with concentric circles and spirals characteristic of the Scandinavian archæological area; two lance-heads with sockets (Nos. 4 and 17), one of which is ornamented with lines and crossbars (No. 17); one socketed celt (No. 3); five paalstabs (Nos. 1 and 2); and a piece of bronze wire.

Of stone objects there were two round grindstones or polishers (No. 15) and some sharpening stones, a polished perforated stone (No. 16), a portion of a hammer of greenstone, and a round stone ball 4 inches in diameter, like a cannon-ball.

Five staghorn axe-heads, a disc of horn perforated, a portion of a horn spear, five bits of rough unornamented pottery, and a large perforated ball of clay. Fragments of a canoe showing a length of 10 feet. Report goes that an iron implement, and a portion of a dish like earthenware of the twelfth century, were found; but probably they had no connection with the bronze objects above described. It is noteworthy that all the relics are of a military character, there being among them no spindle-whorls, combs, hair-pins, fibulæ, bracelets, or any other objects that can be said to belong to domestic life. For this reason this lacustrine abode is generally supposed to have been a military fort like La Tène. (B. 384 and 396.)

(C) POSEN AND POLAND.

OBJEZIERZE.--In the province of Posen there are several localities to be recorded which have yielded unequivocal indications of lake-dwellings, two of which, viz. Objezierze and Czeszewo, are supposed by local archæologists to date as far back as the Stone Age. The former existed in a swamp now filled up with peat, which has thus preserved and concealed piles and other remains recently brought to light by peat-cutters. The relics collected from this place are now deposited in the Posen Archæological Museum, and among them I have noted the following:--A few remarkably fine knife-flakes of flint, one of which is 7½ inches long, a perforated bead, four large clay rings (=Fig. 98=, No. 8), and three flint celts of the Scandinavian type (No. 7). In the same turf moor and in the vicinity of the lake-dwelling was found a large bronze torque ornamented as shown in No. 9.[56]

CZESZEWO (KR. WAGROWICE).--Although for many years the existence of piles in a particular spot in this lake was known to fishermen, it was not till 1871 that their true nature was recognised by Professor Lepkowsky of Krakow. The lake was surrounded by marshy borders and peat bogs, and at various times its level was lowered, which thus considerably reduced its area. Firewood being scarce in the district, the fishermen were in the habit of pulling out the piles, and in this way the structures were greatly damaged before a competent archæologist saw them. The site of the Pfahlbau was near a large tumulus constructed close to the original lake margin. The area occupied by the piles was in the form of a segment of a circle, the base of which was 250 paces long and its greatest breadth 75. Transverse beams from 10 to 12 feet long were found interspersed among the uprights, which were supposed to have bound the latter together, though neither wedges nails, nor mortises were detected. It was observed that the uprights had their tops charred and that the portions remaining were longer the farther they were placed from the shore, and hence it was supposed that the dwelling had been destroyed by a conflagration.

The remains of human industry collected from this station are now deposited partly in the Jagellon Museum at Krakow, and partly in the Archæological Museum at Posen. Among them are fragments of pottery, one being part of a dish perforated with small holes (=Fig. 98=, No. 5), perforated stone and horn hammers and axes (Nos. 1 and 2), one or two plain celts (No. 6), some fragments of clay rings (No. 3), two fragments of human skulls, and a large quantity of the osseous remains of different animals. One object of bronze is said to have been found on this station, and one of the stone implements is only partially perforated, the operation having been unfinished. The stone objects are made of dark granite.

Messrs. Kohn and Mehlis have published a small photographic view of the objects in the Krakow Museum, but the more interesting ones, though fewer in number, are at Posen, from which the illustrations here shown are taken. Notices of this lake-dwelling have been published by Count Przezdiecki (B. 156 and 195), by Kohn and Mehlis (B. 338), and by Ossowski of Krakow (B. 361)--the last being in Polish and French.

GROSSESEE.--At Alt-Gortzig, in the Grossesee, there was a small island which became visible on the lowering of the lake some 10 feet, around which were found piles and the usual débris of a lacustrine dwelling, among which were pottery with parallel and wavy lines, charcoal, and an iron axe-head, together with numerous osseous remains. (B. 228 and 352.)

PAWLOWICE.--Mr. Schwartz, of Posen, describes what he considers to have been a lake-dwelling near Pawlowice. Here, in a turf-moor which had formerly been a lake, he found, at a depth of five feet, bits of clay plaster, hearth-stones, fragments of cooking vessels, etc.[57] Also at Komorowo, in the Bythinersee, indications of lake-dwellings have been found.[58]

LAGIEWNICKI.--Another interesting locality, discovered a few years ago, is at Lagiewnicki (Posen). Here the tops of oak piles were found at a depth of five feet in the peat, and associated with them were fragments of two kinds of pottery--one rough, like that used in the manufacture of urns, and the other of the Burgwälle type. Among the relics were a wooden mallet, a perforated bone implement, some flint flakes, the pin of a bronze fibula of La Tène type (=Fig. 98=, No. 11), and a silver necklace (No. 10), terminating at one end in a raised button which clasped with an eye at the other when fastened. (B. 430.)

KWACZALA.--At the request of the Academy of Sciences of Krakow, Mr. Adam Kirkor, curator of the Archæological Museum at Wilna, investigated, in the summer of 1873, a peat-moor near the village of Kwaczala, said to contain pile-dwellings. Mr. Kirkor found beams and piles in several spots pointed out by the proprietor, where the peat-cutters were said to have formerly encountered woodwork. Water came upon his trenches at a depth of three feet. Both upright and transverse beams of oak were found, some being over a yard in circumference and 8½ yards long. The area containing structural remains of woodwork was 70 yards long by 40 broad. The foundation was of horizontal beams, spread out in all directions, which he concluded to have been arranged after some kind of architectural principle. There was a large quantity of rude pottery, some showing linear or punctured ornamentation. Two perforated axe-hammer heads of stone, and about 300 bits of worked flint were collected among the débris, as well as some bones of the horse. Altogether, this primitive habitation appears to have been of a peculiar kind. (B. 338.)

BIALKA (LUBLINER KR.).--In the moor of Bialka, formerly covered with water, there is a small island about 100 paces in diameter, on which tradition says there was once an enchanted castle. Professor Joseph Przyborowski, of Warsaw, made some excavations on the island, and found on the surface some tiles and modern implements, which so far confirmed the tradition of the ancient castle; but upon digging he came upon wooden piles at a depth of four feet. His excavations extended some twenty feet long and nine feet wide, and in the whole of this area he found numbers of piles, as well as cross-beams. Associated with these wooden structures there was also a relic-bed, entirely distinct from the superficial layer, on which he found two well-formed flint arrow-heads, a portion of a perforated axe of serpentine, some flint implements, and broken bones of edible animals. If this site were properly investigated the author prognosticated results of considerable scientific value. (B. 338.)

Professor Ossowski, in his "Carte Archéologique" (B. 361), gives the following sites of lake-dwellings, none of which, however, have been carefully investigated:--(1) Warlubie (Kr. Swieć). This is a vast peat deposit from which neolithic implements and staghorn hammers have been extracted from time to time. It was visited by Ossowski in the year 1878, who found some fragments of pottery and charcoal. But these merely strengthened the suspicion that the antiquities were due to Pfahlbauten. (2) Similar indications were found at Kowalewo, in the district of Tornú. (3) At Wabrzeźno, in the district of Chelmno, there is a small lake, in which were found a primitive vase, a bronze fish-hook, a stone hammer, and an implement of staghorn. (4) Lankorsz, district of Lubawa.

(D) EAST PRUSSIA AND LIVLAND.

In the eastern districts of Prussia lake-dwelling remains have been discovered in the following places, which have been more or less investigated and described in various archæological publications, especially in the Altpreussiche Monatsschrift:--

ARYSSEE (KR. LÖTZEN).--A. M., vol. iv. p. 667; xii. p. 89; xiv. p. 181. Zeit. für Ethn., vol. xix., Verhand., p. 491. CZARNISEE (KR. LÖTZEN).--A. M., vol. xiv. p. 181; vol. xv. p. 481. KOCKSEE (KR. RÖSSEL).--A. M., vol. xxii. p. 169; Zeit. für Ethn., vol. xvi., Verhand., p. 560. PROBCHENSEE (KR. RÖSSEL).--A. M., vol. xxii. p. 169 QUERTZ (KR. HEILSBERG).--A. M., vol. xxii. p. 169. BONSLACK (KR. WEHLAU).--A. M., vol. xxii. p. 485. TULEWOSEE (KR. LYCK).--A. M., vol. v. p. 750. SZONTAGSEE (KR. LYCK).--A. M., vol. xxiv. p. 488. KOWNATKENSEE (KR. NIEDENBURG).--A. M., vol. xxiv. pp. 168 and 496. LONKORRECKERSEE (CULMERLANDE).--A. M., vol. x. p. 579. GESERICHSEE--Phy. Ok. Gesel., 1874, Verhand., p. 14.

ARYSSEE.--The existence of the débris of a remarkable lake-dwelling in the Aryssee became known in 1863, in consequence of the discontinuance of a mill which had its motive power supplied by the surplus water from this lake, and the subsequent deepening of its outlet, which had the effect of lowering its level about seven feet. Its remains have been investigated and described by various persons, notably Professor Heydeck, of Königsberg, who has made plans and models of its peculiar structure. These, as well as a large collection of relics, are now deposited in the Prussia Museum at Königsberg. It appears to have been a kind of Packwerk. There were, first of all, two or three layers of round timbers lying transversely to each other on the bottom of the lake in the form of rectangles, after which their sides only were continued upwards by single beams, laid successively on each side, thus leaving empty spaces above. These horizontal beams were kept in position by numerous uprights, which here and there flanked them on both sides, as well as by deep cuts towards their extremities where they overlapped each other, precisely similar to the plan adopted at Persanzig and elsewhere. This understructure had a thickness of three to four feet, and over it was laid a wooden platform, above which the huts of its inhabitants were constructed. Clay floorings were found over these platforms, with evidences here and there of fire-places. The relics were found both on the platform and in the originally empty spaces, which, of course, were now filled up with débris. Upon its first appearance there was a layer of from 1½ to 2 feet of mud over the woodwork, but after its exposure for some time the mud dried and became greatly contracted. The central area of this structure measured 72 by 36 feet, and was surrounded by three rows of piles. A bridge or gangway, also constructed on a triple row of piles, extended to the shore, a distance of about fifty yards.

At first, and for several years after its discovery, no metal objects were found, and hence it was supposed to belong exclusively to the Stone Age; but this is no longer the case, as latterly it has furnished both iron and bronze objects.

Among the relics are the following:--fragments of an iron socketed lance-head 4 inches long, a large bronze button 1¾ inch in diameter, and a portion of cast bronze. Wooden hooks, like those from Robenhausen, and perforated square bits, supposed to have been floats for nets. Fragments of pottery and some whole dishes, the largest being 18 inches high, showing nail and finger marks (=Fig. 99=, No. 11), perforated rims (No. 10), and sometimes handles. A few flakes, arrow-points, and scrapers of flint (Nos. 8 and 9). Fragment of a perforated axe-hammer of diorite and some mealing stones. Six perforated horn axes, the largest 6½ inches long; pointers, pins, two needles, and various other objects of bone (Nos. 1 to 7). Arrow-points of bone are 3 to 4 inches long, and scrapers 1½ to 3½ inches. Portions of roofing thatch of rushes, clay flooring, etc.

CZARNISEE AND TULEWOSEE.--These two lakes are in the vicinity of the Aryssee, and each contained a lake-dwelling similar to that in the latter, both in structure and in the character of its relics. On the station in the Czarnisee were found a blue glass bead; a partially perforated stone axe, 3⅛ inches long, with the core still remaining; and two socketed iron lance-heads.

The KOWNATKEN Pfahlbau was also a Packwerk formed of round and split stems. It extended along the margin of the lake for about seventy paces, and had a breadth of twelve at the east end, which became reduced to seven or eight at the west end. Some of the pottery from this station, of which fragments of twelve vessels were found, was ornamented with finger marks as well as string marks (Schnurornament). Among the relics are pointers of bone, one supposed to be a skate (=Fig. 99=, No. 14); some round sling-stones; a well-formed stone hatchet (No. 12); worked flint flakes (No. 13); and sharpening stones. Among the bones were those of the stag, roe, pig, horse, ox, and portions of reindeer horn.

The lacustrine dwelling in the KOCKSEE was discovered on the lowering of the lake in the autumn of 1882. When its level had sunk 4½ feet, the structure appeared above the water. It was 34 yards long by 15 broad, and stretched lengthways along the shore, with which it was connected by a bridge. The woodwork appeared to have been cut by metal tools, although none of them have hitherto been discovered in the débris. The relics consisted of fragments of pottery and a few stone and bone objects.

In the neighbouring PROBCHENSEE a lake-dwelling, in all respects similar to that in the Kocksee, has recently come to light.

At BONSLACK transverse beams were observed, tied to the uprights by means of birch thongs (Birkengeflecht). From this station, some pottery, perforated like a sieve, and a mallet of wood, are recorded.

In the SZONTAGSEE there was also a lake-dwelling of the same class as those above described, the exact details of which have not yet been published. From it there are several interesting objects in the Prussia Museum at Königsberg, among which I have noted bone pointers and spatulæ, a well-formed needle of bone with the eye at one end, and a large bronze button with a raised eye.

As to the other localities in East Prussia where indications of lake-dwellings have been observed, the discoveries hitherto made on their sites are too indefinite to merit a detailed notice here, and I shall content myself with the references already given as to where such observations have been recorded.

ARRASCHSEE (LIVLAND).--In 1876 Count Sievers announced the discovery of a lake-dwelling in the Arraschsee, which was subsequently visited by the indefatigable Professor Virchow. This was a small circular island, covered with birch trees and bushes, which, on examination, turned out to have been an artificially-constructed island, like our own crannogs. Like them, also, it was surrounded by piles, and its interior was constructed of layers of wooden beams laid transversely over each other. Its structure was ascertained by digging two large square holes in different parts of the island, and in one nine layers of wood were counted, and in the other six. The chief relics collected were a bronze ring-pin, seven inches long; a bronze fibula (eine lettische Fibel); portion of a mould; a few clay beads; a pointed bone implement; bits of string and rolls of birch-bark; also fragments of grey and black pottery, with rude knobs and finger-marks, and without handles. From marks on the woodwork it was inferred that iron tools were used. The osseous remains belonged to the horse, ox, pig, and beaver. (B. 292.)

General Remarks on the Lake-Dwellings of North Germany.

Professor Virchow, as early as 1869, published an excellent thesis on the lake-dwellings of North Germany (B. 165), in which he maintained that all of them, with perhaps one or two exceptions, belonged to a much more recent period than those of Switzerland and South Germany. This opinion he founded on the following considerations:--

(1) Though many objects of stone and bronze were found on the former, yet in almost every case they were associated with others of a more recent type, including iron implements, etc.

(2) The food refuse contained most commonly the bones of the ordinary domestic animals, those of wild animals, such as reindeer, wild boar, stag, wild goat, and beaver, being but rarely met with.

(3) Many of the lake-dwellings were synchronous with the Burgwälle, a fact which was conclusively proved by their possessing the characteristic pottery of the latter, as was notably the case in the Persanzig lake-dwelling. Moreover, Virchow showed that some of the Burgwälle had direct communication with adjacent lake-dwellings, as in the Dabersee, Soldinersee, and Kloppsee.

Referring to this subject at a later date (1877), at the eighth Congress of the German Anthropological Society (B. 306), Virchow, while reviewing the further discoveries of lake-dwellings in North Germany, maintained the general correctness of his previous conclusions. These northern Pfahlbauten, according to him, were due to the immigration into the country of the Slavish people, and bear the same relation to the Burgwälle that the pile-dwellings in Italy do to the terremare. "Ich denke," says he, "wir werden uns entschliessen müssen, ganz im Gegensatze zu den süddeutschschweizerischen Pfahlbauten, die Einführung der nördlichen Pfahlbauten an die Einwanderung des Slavo-lettischen Stammes anzuknüpfen."

Virchow's opinion is not, however, universally accepted, as many of the local archæologists maintain that there are several lake-dwellings which have yielded relics that can only be explained on the supposition that they were founded during the earlier prehistoric ages. The chief examples relied on in support of their contention are those at Wismar, Spandau, Czeszewo, Objezierze, and Aryssee.

After carefully examining the relics from all these stations I must admit that much could be written on both sides of this controversy. Notwithstanding the number of typical objects of the Stone Age from Wismar and Gägelow, Dr. Lisch records that along with them were portions of querns. Now, querns are never found among the remains of the Swiss lake-dwellings, nor am I aware of their existence in any prehistoric remains in northern or western Europe prior to Roman times. The station at Spandau, if it be considered a true Pfahlbau, was undoubtedly of the Bronze Age. Czeszewo and Objezierze have yielded a considerable quantity of Stone Age relics, with scarcely any of the succeeding ages. Only one bronze object is said to have been found on the former, and from the latter there is in the Museum of Posen a bronze torque (=Fig. 98=, No. 9), which was found at a little distance from the lake-dwelling. As regards the Aryssee and its neighbouring lakes of Czarni and Tulewo, with their respective lake-dwellings, all of which are of the Packwerk type, Professor Heydeck relies largely on the presence of pottery with string and finger ornamentation, as a proof of their antiquity, in addition to the ordinary stone celts, horn clubs, etc.; but yet along with them were found iron lance-heads and a blue glass bead (Czarnisee). Similarly in the Packwerk in the Kownatkensee, polished stone celts, pottery with finger marks and Schnurornament, and portion of a reindeer horn, were found associated with a bone skate, and the osseous remains of the domestic animals, as the horse, pig, ox, etc. In attempting, therefore, to estimate the chronological range of these lake-dwellings from an examination of their contents, which (being unnoticed in the early annals of the country) is the only available means, the mixed character of these relics presents a considerable difficulty--a difficulty which, as we shall afterwards see, is equally applicable to the Scottish and Irish crannogs. But, whatever doubts may be cast on their antiquity and early origin, there can be none as to the comparatively late occupancy of many of them. A bone skate and a comb made of square bits bound together by cross pieces, and showing that the teeth were cut by a saw after the pieces were put together, precisely as may be seen in the combs from the Scottish crannogs and the terp-mounds of Holland, were found by Virchow in the Dabersee Pfahlbau. Iron hatchets (Dabersee, Persanzigsee, and Alt Friesack), horseshoes, and other iron implements (Soldinersee), pottery of Slavish type (Bonin, Kloppsee, Persanzig, etc.), leather (Bonin), and even armour and bricks of the thirteenth century (Lübtowsee), leave no doubt as to their almost mediæval character.

Reindeer horns were found at Butzow, Soldinersee, and Kownatkensee; but these objects do not necessarily indicate great antiquity, as this animal, though not referred to in the early annals of North Germany, is stated to have been an inhabitant of the country in the time of Cæsar.

The undoubted contemporaneity of many of these lake-dwellings with the Burgwälle opens up a field of research of considerable importance to European archæology; but their exact chronological relationship still remains an obscure problem, owing chiefly to the mystery which surrounds the latter.

Burgwälle or Rundwälle is the general name given to the remains of a remarkable class of prehistoric constructions found scattered over the larger portion of middle and north-western Europe, embracing the southern parts of Russia around the shores of the Black Sea, Roumania, Bulgaria, Transylvania, Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, Poland, North Germany, France, Great Britain, and the southern parts of Scandinavia. Their foundations now only remain and these show that the structures were generally circular or oval, but sometimes square and semicircular. They may be divided into three kinds, according to the materials of which their foundations are constructed, viz.:--earth, stones or stones in vitrified condition (Erd-, Stein-und Schlackenwälle). Their sizes vary from 20 to 100 paces in diameter, and their height from 10 to 30 feet, and they contained one, two, or sometimes three walls. Those made of earth were circular and generally situated in swampy land, or in countries where stones were not readily accessible. The Steinwälle were in hilly districts and varied in form according to the nature of the ground. Sometimes they assumed the irregular outline of a promontory or peninsula in a lake, at other times, especially when placed on an overhanging cliff, they were mere semicircles. Those of vitrified materials are of special interest to Scottish archæologists owing to the number of vitrified forts in Scotland. They are not very numerous on the Continent, Saxony and Bohemia containing the largest number. In the former country eight are known, viz.:--Schafberg by Löbau, Rothstein by Sohland, Stromberg by Weissenberg, Landeskrone by Görlitz, Brandwall by Blumberg, Koschütz near Dresden, Burgberg by Lichtenberg, and Vorberg by Kirchberg. According to Jelinek, Bohemia is rich in Schlackenwälle, those best known being near Katovic, Bukovec, Litoradic, Hradiste von Hostem, Hradiste bei Strakonic, Hradec bei Domanic Burgberg, Vladar, etc. ("Schutz-und Wehrbauten." p. 102). Instances also occur in Silesia, Thuringian Forest, Rhine district, Brittany, and Normandy.

The Burgwälle, like their analogues in the British Isles, have not yet been systematically investigated. From the character of the relics found in those that have been explored in North Germany they are divided into Vorslavisch, Slavisch and Spätslavisch, a distinction which has been suggested by the unique character of Slavish pottery. These Slavish dishes are always without handles, but of well-burnt pottery, and when ornamented the ornamentation is in wavy lines running parallel to the rim forming the characteristic Wellenlinie.

Many of these remains have, of course, now entirely disappeared in the interests of agriculture, but their number still remaining is very great. In Eastern Germany Dr. R. Behla describes and tabulates no fewer than 1,100. They are more numerous in the fertile districts. In Oberlausitz, in one district measuring 9 miles long by 3 to 16 broad, they number 100, and in the neighbourhood of Bautzen within a one mile circle 20 can be counted.[59]

It is probable that the material used in the upper structures of the Burgwälle was wood, which, of course, has now completely decayed, except in some special conditions, as in swampy ground where wooden piles were used in their foundations. This is another point of contact between these buildings and the lake-dwellings which has not been overlooked by archæologists. Virchow describes the Burgwall of Potzlow, and that of Zahsow near Cottbus, as constructed over former Pfahlbauten;[60] and, indeed, the town of Cottbus seems to have been altogether built over piles, as, wherever diggings have been made, piles are met with, and in this way a finely ornamented quern was found.[61] Wooden substructures, in the form of a platform or Packwerkbau, have also been observed and recorded in many places, as at Schlieben, Gross Topola (Posen), the Labenzsee, Westpreussen.[62] Moreover, those in boggy places were approached by means of wooden gangways, the remains of which have been frequently met with in the form of a double row of piles.[63]

ANCIENT MARINE DWELLINGS ON THE COASTS OF HOLLAND AND WESTERN GERMANY.

Notwithstanding the striking and singular appearance the Swiss lake-dwellings must have presented to foreigners and strangers, it is a remarkable fact that Roman writers are entirely silent about them. Nor can this silence be accounted for on the supposition that the lake-dwellings had entirely come to an end prior to Roman times, as several of them have furnished antiquities whose Roman origin cannot be mistaken. Some archæologists think they recognise in the representation of a Dacian village on the Column of Trajan a true pile-village (B. 164); but this is doubtful, and, even if true, it is but a very meagre evidence of the custom, and leaves the problem of the lake-dwellings as mysterious as ever. Such reticence on the part of classical writers does not, however, extend to the class of ancient remains I am now about to describe.

Pliny very distinctly states that the Chauci (Frisians and other races along the coast of the German Ocean) were in the habit of constructing artificial mounds, on which they built their houses so as to be beyond the influence of the waves and tides. The following passage from his "Natural History"[64] will be read with interest in relation to the recent discoveries that have been made in the localities referred to.

"I have myself personally witnessed the condition of the Chauci, both the Greater and the Lesser, situate in the regions of the far north. In these climates a vast tract of land, invaded twice each day and night by the overflowing waves of the ocean, opens a question that is eternally proposed to us by Nature, whether these regions are to be looked upon as belonging to the land, or whether as forming a portion of the sea?

"Here a wretched race is found, inhabiting either the more elevated spots of land, or else eminences artificially constructed, and of a height to which they know by experience that the highest tides will never reach. Here they pitch their cabins; and when the waves cover the surrounding country far and wide, like so many mariners on board ship are they; when, again, the tide recedes, their condition is that of so many shipwrecked men, and around their cottages they pursue the fishes as they make their escape with the receding tide. It is not their lot, like the adjoining nations, to keep any flocks for sustenance by their milk, nor even to maintain a warfare with wild beasts, every shrub, even, being banished afar. With the sedge and the rushes of the marsh they make cords, and with these they weave the nets employed in the capture of the fish; they fashion the mud, too, with their hands, and drying it by the help of the winds more than of the sun, cook their food by its aid, and so warm their entrails, frozen as they are by the northern blasts; their only drink, too, is rainwater, which they collect in holes dug at the entrance of their abodes; and yet these nations, if this very day they were vanquished by the Roman people, would exclaim against being reduced to slavery! Be it so, then--Fortune is most kind to many, just when she means to punish them."

Notwithstanding the preciseness of Pliny's description and the fact that for several centuries, since the great sea-dykes were erected, the scattered remains of these mounds have been accessible on dry land, they have only quite recently attracted the attention of archæologists. I consider their investigation important, not only for the large amount of industrial remains they contain, but for supplying a missing link in the evidence of continuity in the European habit of constructing pile-dwellings.

TERPEN (WEST FRIESLAND).

Before the construction of the great sea-dykes in Holland nearly the whole of West Friesland would have been in that hybrid condition described by Pliny in which it was difficult to say whether it belonged to sea or land (dubiumque terræ sit, an pars maris). At the present time, however, these lands are richly cultivated and look as if they were a dead level. It is only on close inspection that the monotony is relieved by certain elevations of considerable extent called Terpen, whose summits rise to about the level of the larger dykes. These mounds are situated at more or less regular intervals, so that if the tides by any calamity had free scope, they would appear as so many islands scattered over the country. It is on such elevations that modern churches and villages are generally built, and, till they accidentally attracted the attention of agriculturists, nobody seemed to think anything about their origin. A few years ago it was discovered that their interior was composed of a rich ammoniacal deposit which agriculturists found valuable as a fertilising agent when spread over their fields. The excavation of this substance for manuring purposes now forms an important industry, and any landed proprietor who happens to own a workable terp--i.e. one free of buildings--is on the way to realise a small fortune. When a terp is found suitable for being excavated they generally commence by digging a canal close up to its base, sufficiently large to admit of the passage of good-sized boats. The boats are then easily loaded with the stuff and so it is conveyed to all parts of the country. As the workings advance the canal is also advanced, so that the boats are always in close proximity to the diggings. In the course of these operations, bones and horns of various animals, pottery, and other relics of human industry, were occasionally turned up.

By degrees these repeated discoveries attracted the attention of antiquaries, and Dr. Pleyte, of Leyden, is now publishing a large illustrated work on the antiquities of Holland (B. 301), in which a conspicuous place is given to the terp-mounds and their contents. It is, however, to some of the office-bearers of the Museum of the Friesch Genootschap at Leeuwarden, more especially Mr. Corbelijn Battaerd, its conservator, that I am indebted for much of my information on the subject. In this museum are stored up most of the objects hitherto found in the terp-mounds, and the collection, already unique of its kind, is daily and rapidly increasing, as orders have been issued in regard to many of them that no relics are to be disposed of without being, in the first place, submitted to the authorities of the museum.

Like most countries, the early traditions of Holland have been forgotten or ignored, and in its annals little mention is made of the terpen. In explanation of the origin and early use of the word, Dr. Pleyte quotes from Ocko van Scharl a passage to the effect that one of the ancient kings of Friesland, named Adgillus, who reigned towards the end of the sixth century, had caused, on account of the ravages of an inundation which took place four years prior to his accession, a large number of elevated places to be formed, so as to give shelter to man and beast in the event of a recurrence of this danger. These mounds were then called Terpen.

Mr. Dirks, president of the Friesch Genootschap, as early as 1871 characterised these mounds as analogous to the terramara beds of North Italy ("ce sont des terramares historiques");[65] but it remained to Professor Pigorini of Rome to show that they were identical as regards internal structure. This he did in 1881 (B. 372c), after a visit to one at Aalzum which was then being excavated, when he showed that there was a circumscribing dyke, and, although no actual piles were then visible, he was informed by the proprietors that such wooden structures had been occasionally met with. Prior to his visit, it appears that no special attention was directed to these structural remains. From all he could learn, however, on this point, and especially from a consideration of the stratified arrangements of the débris, Pigorini concluded that the deposits were due to pile-dwellings, and had accumulated under precisely similar conditions to the terremare, in regard to which he is such a distinguished authority.

The terp at Aalzum is still being systematically excavated, and, though only as yet partially cleared off, its results, from an archæological point of view, are now second to none of the kind in Holland. Moreover, the excavations are conducted on an extensive scale, and the locality is readily accessible. I can, therefore, conceive of no better means of conveying to you some knowledge of the nature and structural phenomena of these remarkable deposits, than by detailing the facts which came under my own cognisance during a visit I made this summer to the same spot under the guidance of my excellent friend, Mr. Battaerd.

The terp lies about a mile to the north of the town of Dokkum, some twelve miles from Leeuwarden, and four or five from the seashore. In approaching the locality from Dokkum there was little to attract special notice beyond the usual Dutch scenery--canals, rich meadows, herds of splendid cattle, and here and there some well-cultivated cornfields. In front of us a slight elevation could be discerned, crowned by a small church in the midst of a clump of trees, the surroundings of which were neatly hedged meadows and cornfields. As we advanced towards this church, and within a few hundred yards of it, we entered on a sloping road, as if raised on a dyke, but on each side the land was perfectly flat and bearing a splendid crop: here a field of magnificent beans, and there an equally promising one of wheat. These fields, said Mr. Battaerd, were formerly part of the terp-mound from which the fertilising stuff has already been removed, but this road was left undisturbed, so that we are now actually walking on a portion of its surface. By-and-by we came in sight of heaps of clayey stuff, the tops of which sparkled with reflected light, and in their midst were to be seen the masts and rigging of three boats. Those whitish clay-like heaps, said Mr. Battaerd, formed the surface soil, which, being of no commercial value, had to be wheeled off before the saleable deposits could be got at. At last the actual workings were reached, and we found ourselves in front of a perpendicular section some 15 or 18 feet high, from which men and women were busily engaged in loading the boats. Uppermost in my thoughts was the paramount question of the existence of upright piles, which, it will be remembered, Pigorini had not actually seen. Great was my delight when, at the very first glance, my eye detected an undoubted pile of oak just in face of the cutting. Close by it I soon found another and as we moved along numbers were observed, some soft and yielding, scarcely offering any resistance to the spade; and others of oak very hard in the centre, but more decayed and ragged-like than those I have been in the habit of seeing among the lake-dwelling remains. Those seen in this section differed considerably in size; and I observed that some penetrated deeper than others. At a little distance lay a heap of oak beams which had recently been removed from the trenches--one of which I measured and found it to be four yards in length, and from six to eight inches thick. Upon inquiry, I ascertained that these beams lay horizontally, and about half way down, in the stratified stuff.

Those who, like Professor Pigorini, are acquainted with the structural features of the terremare of Northern Italy, will not be surprised at the comparative rarity with which piles are met with in the terpen, because of the rapidity with which timbers, when buried in dry earth, decay and disappear altogether, leaving in many instances no traces whatever behind them. This fact was strikingly shown by Chierici, who produced positive evidence of the former existence of piles in the upper strata of some of the terremare, by showing that the holes left by the piles, after the woody fibre had completely disappeared by decomposition, had become subsequently filled up by dust and infiltrated material, which ultimately became hardened, and so retained the actual form of the original piles. (See page 248.) In short, natural casts of the original piles were accidentally formed, which thus disclosed a knowledge of their former existence, which otherwise might never have been suspected. To the soundness of this deduction I have myself unconsciously contributed by an observation which I made some years ago, while digging at the crannog of Lochspouts, and having recorded it I may perhaps be allowed here to repeat my words. "One day I was greatly puzzled by finding what was evidently a portion of a birch tree, from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, quite flat, and with scarcely any wood left inside the thick bark. In no instance previously had I seen the evidence of pressure on logs of this size; but after carefully considering the point it was ascertained that such effects occurred only in the upper portion of the mound, and above the log pavement, where the wood had been exposed to atmospheric influences, so that when the woody fibres rotted away the flattening of the bark was easily produced. All the logs found buried in water or mud retained their original dimensions and showed no trace of having yielded to superincumbent pressure."[66]

The absence of piles and wooden structures from many of these mounds is, therefore, no proof that they have not formerly existed; and, indeed, it is difficult to account for the horizontality and regularity of the beds on any other hypothesis.

While I wandered about amidst the various sections presented by the progressive stages of the excavations, wondering at the distinctness of the strata, or picking up stray objects from the débris, such as mussel shells, bits of bone, fragments of pottery, etc., which were to be found here and there sticking in the face of the cuttings, my friend, Mr. Battaerd, was deeply occupied in examining a heap of bones, which lay weathering in a sunny corner. Having joined him in his osteological study, I found that the chief point of attraction was the head of a urus (Bos primigenius) of great size, and with splendid horn cores--the finest example, according to Mr. Battaerd, that had yet found its way to the museum.

The land close to the brink of the section, and extending over a considerable portion of the mound, was occupied by growing corn, and hence its dimensions can only be approximately stated. The proprietors, Messrs. W. and J. Bierma, obligingly accompanied us, and one of them assured me it could not be less than from three to four hundred yards in diameter. Its greatest height above the water in the canal was 18 feet, but of course the level of the canal water is considerably lower than that of high tide in the open sea. The commercially valuable stuff commenced some 3 or 4 feet below the surface, and continued without interruption to within a few feet of the canal water. It was in this intermediate portion that the relics were found: but their exact position, especially that of the smaller objects, was seldom determined, as it was generally after the stuff had become partially broken up during transport that they were found.

The stuff in situ was distinctly stratified, forming layers of various thicknesses, from a finger breadth up to 3 or 4 inches, or sometimes more, which in some instances could be continuously traced for long distances. Sometimes they shelved out altogether, and others commenced. Here, a bed of fibrinous matter, in which quantities of the partly decomposed fibres of flax could be readily recognisable; there, a thickish deposit of a brownish glutinous stuff like peat. Charcoal and ashes permeated the whole, and showed themselves sometimes as distinct layers. Clay and sand were also largely mixed with these deposits, and occasionally assumed the form of distinct and separate beds.

Having so far satisfied ourselves as to the structural arrangements of the mound, and the disposition of its contents, we walked up to the church, which is but a short distance from the workings. This small edifice is surrounded by a burying ground, and among the gravestones are some ancient-looking ones. Mr. Battaerd informed me that it dates as far back as the eleventh century.

It is calculated that there are altogether about 150 of these mounds in West Friesland alone, and that of these about the half have been more or less examined, some being now entirely cleared away. They are also to be found in the province of Gröningen and some other parts of Holland. Dr. Dirks states that the town of Leeuwarden is built over two terp-mounds;[67] and Dr. Pleyte informed me that he has reason to believe that the town of Leyden also reposes on similar deposits.

RELICS (=Fig. 100=).--The relics of human industry collected from the terpen are very varied and numerous. Of these the following notes and illustrations, taken chiefly from the large assortment in the Leeuwarden Museum, will serve to convey some general idea of the social economy which prevailed among the occupiers of these singular settlements, as well as of the period in which they flourished.

Prehistoric.--The prehistoric remains, commonly so-called, such as cutting implements of stone, are only feebly represented, but occasionally they do turn up, in which respect the terpen resemble the Scottish and Irish crannogs.

Clay Objects.--Perforated loom-weights, both conical and flat; spindle-whorls in great numbers, and often ornamented with finger marks or grooved lines (Nos. 2 and 3). Some flat and triangularly-shaped objects of clay (No. 22) are perforated with three holes, one at each angle, which are sometimes perpendicular and sometimes parallel to the surface; in bulk and composition they correspond with the loom-weights.

Pottery.--Pottery is, as a rule, coarse but abundant, and represents vessels of various shapes and sizes, generally with ears, but a few with handles (Nos. 20 and 23). Samian ware is represented by many fragments of bowls and dishes. A few vases, apparently home-made, have some traces of coloured patches; and there are lids with raised handles and ornamented with hollowed dots.

Bone and Horn.--Bone and horn implements are very abundant, consisting of combs (Nos. 1 and 16 to 19) of varied forms, and constructed of plates riveted together with iron rivets, and ornamented with consecutive circles, lines, dots, and curvilinear figures; among them are also a few combs with very long teeth (No. 30).[68] There are also pins (Nos. 26 and 28), needles (No. 29), buttons (No. 25), dice (No. 21), finger rings (No. 12), knife handles, pointers, etc. (Nos. 10, 11, 13 and 27). Many so-called skates made from the long bone of the horse's leg. Two or three short bones (foot of the ox) are covered with concentric circles, apparently for ornamentation. A curious bone object (No. 7) is supposed to have been used in making twine or ropes.

Glass.--Beads, blue, green and variegated; also glass slag.

Metal Objects.--A few bronze dishes (No. 5), one a tripod with projecting handle (No. 15). Figurines of men and animals; the hand of a Roman statue, apparently a female and about full size; Roman fibulæ; some three or four double spirals; a small pair of shears (No. 8), and a few bracelets with clasping-hooks. All these are of bronze. Among objects of iron are shears, hammers, bridle-bits (=Fig. 101=), slag, etc. A leaden bar or pig weighing 17 kilogrammes and marked with three crosses, so, "XXX", was found at Achlum.

Coins.--Anglo-Saxon coins very abundant: at Hallum 180 sceattæ were found in a jar; Byzantine money in gold; Roman imperial money, generally in silver, but sometimes in gold; Frankish coins. The proprietors of Aalzum found a few silver coins in this terp with the following inscription: "+ HLOTHARIVS. IMP. DORE STATVS MON (eta)," which defines their date to be between 840 and 855 A.D.[69]

Wooden Objects.--Small spades precisely similar to those used by children while amusing themselves by digging the sand on the seashore. Numbers of large casks the staves of which are kept together by three iron hoops. In diameter these casks are not more than an ordinary herring barrel, but in length they are from six to seven feet, and about one-third from the top there is a small square hole 4 or 5 inches in diameter. The ends of the staves at the top rim of some are much decayed, but the rest is perfectly sound, and for this reason they are supposed to have stood in water with only the upper parts exposed. They have been found in almost all the terpen examined, usually at regular distances, and deeply buried. One, 6 feet high, was found resting inside a vat 3 feet deep, and its highest point was over two yards below the surface of the mound. Canoes and small paddles may also be mentioned as occasional relics.

Nondescript Objects.--Cock spurs; egg-shells of the domestic fowl and goose, some of which, singularly enough, were, when found, still unbroken; shells of various kinds of sea-urchins, star-fishes, and mussels; amber beads, also this material in the unworked form; amorphous vivianite; large quantities of the débris of flax; one curious object is a flute made of the shank bone of a small animal; one small fictile dish has four feet, and a few others are in the form of three cups attached. At Aalzum, on the occasion of my visit, among the articles purchased by Mr. Battaerd were a mitten and some sort of head-dress like a felt wide-awake. The mitten had only one stall, for the thumb.

In the terp called Beetgum there was found an urn, like those from the dolmens of the Drenthe, containing some burnt bones. Human bones are sometimes found, but they are supposed to have belonged to secondary burials. At Aalzum a grave was found containing a body and along with it was a fibula of the Merovingian period, with a flat back containing a beautiful mosaic pattern of variegated glass and amber.

Fauna.--Osseous remains representing the following animals:--Horse, ox (several varieties--Bos taurus, primgenius, longifrons, brevicornis), cat, dog, sheep, wild boar, deer, roe, and fallow deer. Among the skulls of these animals (of which there are many) are one or two of the four-horned sheep. It may be of interest to note that the osseous remains of this animal were among those identified by Sir W. R. Wilde as coming from the crannog of Lagore (page 351).

WARFEN (EAST FRIESLAND).

In 1879 Dr. Tergast, of Emden, published a short account of the prehistoric antiquities of East Friesland,[70] in which he takes notice of the existence of certain mounds, in the low-lying regions, called "Warfen," which he believes to be the remains of very ancient settlements constructed for the protection of their inhabitants against floods and the fluctuations of the surrounding waters. The author does not give many details about these mounds. It would appear, however, that they are to be met with in considerable numbers, as he suggests that it would be of the highest interest to archæological science to have a map constructed showing their local distribution. Nor do they appear to have been subjected to much practical investigation, as only three objects from them are illustrated in Dr. Tergasts book. These are a bone implement (so-called skate or cloth-polisher), a necklace of glass and amber beads, and an iron arrow-point. He also figures a comb (six inches long) similar to that from the terpen (=Fig. 100=, No. 30), but without specifying the locality where it was found. All these are precisely similar to objects found in the terp-mounds of Holland. Every indication, therefore, points to the conclusion that the Terpen and Warfen are quite analogous to each other and belong to the same period of time.

WURTHEN (DITHMARSCHEN).

In 1883, Dr. Hartmann, of Marne (B. 397), gave a more detailed account of similar dwellings in the Holstein fen district, near the embouchure of the river Elbe. These, in the form of low mounds, are met with, according to him, in all the marshes along this part of the North Sea coast. In the Dithmarschen, both north and south, they are very numerous, and the larger ones, like the terp-mounds of Holland, are now generally occupied by one or more modern buildings. In extent they vary from 1¼ to 15 acres, and in height from 13 to 23 feet above ordinary mean tides. On several occasions in recent times, in the course of excavating the foundations of new buildings, the digging of wells, etc., various relics, such as fragments of pottery, clay weights, iron implements, bits of manipulated staghorns, broken bones, etc., were turned out, which, however, suggested nothing more than passing comments. But their real nature is now clearly pourtrayed by the facts recorded by Dr. Hartmann, the chief of which were ascertained from excavations conducted by himself in the Fahrstedter Wurth situated some three miles to the north of the Elbe. This Wurth, some years ago, became the property of a brick manufacturer, of the name of Huesmann, who was in the habit, from time to time, of utilising its contents, partly for filling up old clay-pits and partly for manuring purposes. Such was the condition of the Fahrstedter Wurth when Dr. Hartmann's attention was directed to it in August, 1881. On his first visit, while poking about the open trenches, he picked up, at a depth of four feet from the surface, a perforated clay weight, four inches in diameter, and two and a half inches thick. After this he continued his visits to the locality regularly, and, in a short time, collected a number of relics, besides determining many interesting points in regard to the structure of the mound. The greatest depth reached by the haphazard excavations of Mr. Huesmann was nine and a half feet. Along the exposed section down to this point Dr. Hartmann distinguished the following layers:

1. Ordinary soil (Ackererde) about 2 feet. 2. Greenish sandy earth (hellgrüne sandige Erde), supposed to be due to sea action, from the fact of its containing many of the spicules or needles of sponges 1 " 3. A layer of reddish clay (rother Estrich) ½ to 1 " 4. Remains of wooden structures (Packwerk) 2 to 4 " 5. Earth mixed with clay (helle Kleierde) 1½ "

This Packwerk is described as made up of decomposed branches, from the size of a finger to, occasionally, the thickness of an arm, arranged horizontally, but sometimes perpendicularly. Its lower portion was composed of large quantities of the twigs of birch and oak, the fibres of several marsh plants, broken bones, and other organic débris. In the underlying clay he noticed some holes, which he concluded to have been due to small piles, the wood of which had disappeared by decomposition. Scattered through this Packwerk were found, besides charcoal and ashes, a varied assortment of the relics of human industry, of which the following may be noted:--Fragments of pottery, (grey and black), among which were some with perforations round the rims; sharpening-stones; a perforated clay weight; twelve portions of quern stones, made of basalt, and having a thickness of one and a half to two and a half inches--from a fragment, the entire diameter of one was ascertained to be 17 inches; several iron knives, a socketed lance-head, and some nails, together with lumps of both iron and glass slag. A wooden handle, some worked objects of bone with marks of rivets, bits of birch-bark, etc. A black mass of asphalt, supposed to be a product of birch-bark, had embedded in it the shell of a hazel-nut. From this it was inferred that the mass was originally in a fluid condition.

Among the osseous remains the following animals were identified by Dr. Pfeffer, of the Natural History Museum at Hamburg, and Dr. Rautenburg:--dog, ox, pig, sheep, stag, horse, bittern (?), and sturgeon (recognised by its scales).

In the clay below the Packwerk (Kleierde) were found the stumps of eight piles, five to six feet apart, which Dr. Hartmann concluded had originally passed upwards through the fascine work, but now only the portions embedded in the clay remained, the rest having disappeared by decomposition. Of these piles (four oak, three birch, and one ash), some were round and some rectangular, and nearly all more or less pointed at the lower extremity. The exceptions were blunt and rested on some fragments of granite stones. One of the piles, which measured six inches broad, and two and three-quarter inches thick, contained four round holes, in one of which a portion of a spar still remained.

Having satisfied himself as to the condition of this portion of the mound already exposed, Dr. Hartmann got permission from the proprietor to sink a shaft into the undisturbed portion underneath. The superficial area of this shaft was 12 feet long and 9 broad, and it was excavated until the sea-sand was reached, at a depth of 11½ feet--i.e. about 21 feet from the surface of the mound.

Continuing now our inspection of this section (the upper portion of which I have already detailed) the following layers were successively passed through:--

6. Clay earth continued 1½ ft. 7. Packwerk (No. 2) 1 " 8. Blackish clayey stuff (dunkle Kleierde) 1 " 9. Light clay (containing the stumps of a second series of piles, four in number, and from three to five and a half inches thick) 1 " 10. Packwerk (No. 3) 3 " 11. Whitish clay, mixed with twigs, branches, reeds, etc. 2 " 12. A layer of cowdung (Grüngelblicher fester Kuhdünger) 2 " 13. Sea sand (Meeressand)

The two Packwerke here encountered are stated to be similar to the first, and the relics are also much of the same character. The under portion of both is described as being made up of twigs of oak, birch, and hazel, very much birch-bark, worked bits of wood, wooden handles of tools, burnt faggots, débris of marsh plants (Schilf, Binsen, und Samen von Polygonum), small bundles of bast and other fibres of fine roots, shells of hazel-nuts, fragments of pottery (six pounds), lumps of iron slag (five pounds), broken bones (sixteen pounds), charcoal, a piece of redstone, and the shells of some edible molluscs (Helix fruticum and Strigella, and Cardium edule).

Among the relics to be noted are a spindle-whorl, an iron buckle, and a bit of leather.

Of special interest is a third series of piles, which he describes as terminating in the sea-sand underneath all. These piles were five in number, four oak and one birch, 2 to 5½ inches in thickness, and 18 to 33 inches in length. They were placed in a zig-zag fashion about 1½ foot apart, and traced through the layer of "Kuhdünger" to the "Packwerk," where they became so rotten as to be no longer recognised. One of them had also a hole, which still retained portion of a projecting spar.

Our investigator made observations, but of a much more limited character, on nine other Wurthen, and in all of them he found the "Packwerk" to be a special feature in their structure.

Such is an epitome of the facts on which Dr. Hartmann bases his opinion that not only the Wurthen, but also the neighbouring Warfen and Terpen, were constructed like the fascine islands of prehistoric Switzerland, and the Scottish and Irish crannogs. The idea of pile-buildings can scarcely be entertained by him, and he stoutly combats Pigorini's opinions in regard to the Terpen of West Friesland.

The Fahrstedter Wurth, according to Hartmann, consisted of an original mound some seven feet high, to which on two subsequent occasions additions were made. The initiatory process of its construction was to form a basis of Kuhdünger two feet in thickness. Over this clay and rubbish were placed, to the extent of other two feet; and then came the fascine structures, which raised the mound other three feet. To keep the mass together, piles were driven here and there down to the sandy bottom. But the inhabitants soon found that this was too low to shelter them from the waves and floods, so they constructed an addition to their mound, which raised its surface to ten feet. But this was not enough, and so a third addition was made, which added six feet more to the mound. At this height its surface would be about twenty feet above the medium sea level (Normal Null), and at this height Dr. Hartmann concludes that cottages would be quite secure, as the highest tides on record--viz. 4th February, 1825, reached only 12 feet 4 inches above the medium sea level, a result which would leave a considerable margin for the Fahrstedter Wurth. Of course, the tides never reach it now, as it is protected by the sea-dykes, the first of which was constructed in the middle of the twelfth century.

Very little reflection shows the inherent improbability of Dr. Hartmann's theory. Where could the primitive builders get such a quantity of "Kuhdünger" to start with? If the "Packwerk" was constructed as a solid mass, how could its under portions be so prolific of such varied relics, and other odds and ends of human occupancy? Moreover, the disproportion between the original and final height of the mound is incompatible with the supposition that the successive increases were merely additions entailed by unforeseen circumstances, such as an unusual storm. The three platforms with their corresponding series of upright piles, the stratified assortment of the structural materials, and the position of the relics and débris of its inhabitants scattered throughout the entire mound, are, in my opinion, inexplicable on any other hypothesis than that we have here the remains of pile-dwellings, successively erected one above the other, precisely similar to the terremare already described. The more probable modus operandi was to construct in the first place a circumscribing dyke of mud, varying in size according to the number of the tribe or family, behind which the cottages were built on platforms supported on piles. When the under spaces became filled up with the accumulated débris of men and cattle, and all the other odds and ends of continued occupancy, the process was repeated again and again, until the whole enclosed area, in the course of some centuries, became a flattish mound or island within the limits of the tidal shore.

FOOTNOTES:

[45] Antiqua, 1886, p. 65.

[46] Antiqua, 1884, p. 128; and Bul. de la Soc. suisse de Num., 1884, No. 7.

[47] Rev. archéologique, 1884. p. 194.

[48] Acad. de Lyon, tome xi. p. 229.

[49] Association Française pour l'avancement des Sciences, 1885, vol. i. p. 175.

[50] Matériaux, etc., vol. xi. p. 95.

[51] Bul. Soc. Anth., 1884. See also "Crannia Ethnica": "Les Préhistoriques" (Mortillet); Bul. Soc. Anth., 1874, 22nd Jan.

[52] "Antiquity of Man," 4th edition, p. 241.

[53] In a footnote on page 241 of his "Antiquity of Man," Sir Charles states that the Memoir of Professor Crahay was published in 1836, in the Bulletin de l'Académie Royale de Belgique, tome iii. p. 43. I find, however, that in this reference Crahay merely notices in a few lines the finding of the bones of the elephant in the excavations above referred to, and makes no mention whatever of the human jaw.

[54] Das Ausland, 1877, p. 960.

[55] "Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings," p. 219.

[56] Zeit. für Ethn., Verhand., p. 39, vol. viii.

[57] Zeit. für Ethn., vol. vi., Verhand., p. 228.

[58] Ibid., vol. x., Verhand., p. 52.

[59] "Die vorgeschichtlichen Rundwälle im östlichen Deutschland." Berlin, 1888.

[60] Zeit. für Eth., vol. vi., Verhand., p. 115, and vol. vii., Verhand., p. 127.

[61] Ibid., vol. ix., Verhand., p. 449.

[62] Behla, "Die vergeschichtlichen Rundwälle," p. 8.

[63] Ibid., p. 22.

[64] "Nat. Hist.," lib. xvi. 1.

[65] Inter. Cong, d'Anthrop. et d'Arch., Ses. V., p. 212.

[66] "Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellings," p. 273.

[67] Cong. Inter. d'Anthrop. et d'Arch., Ses. V., 1871, p. 212.

[68] A comb precisely similar to the one here figured (No. 30) is described and figured by Ossowski as coming from the cavern of Wierzchowska-Górna in Poland. Antiqua, 1887, p. 41, and pl. vii. Fig. 10.

[69] Handelingen van het Friesch Genootschap, 1886-7, p. 12.

[70] "Die heidnischen Alterthümer Ostfrieslands." Emden, 1879.

Fifth Lecture.

THE LAKE-DWELLINGS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

I.--IRISH CRANNOGS.

Public attention was first directed to Irish crannogs by Sir W. Wilde, in the year 1839. It appears that early in this year Dr. Petrie's curiosity was roused by the frequency of the visits of a local dealer offering for sale objects of more or less archæological value, which, he stated, were found in a peat bog at Dunshaughlin, in the county of Meath. The articles exhibited were of a miscellaneous character, and their assortment in such a place seemed so strange that Dr. Petrie determined to visit the locality. Accordingly he and Surgeon Wilde (afterwards Sir W. R. Wilde) started for West Meath in search of the mysterious find, and were conducted to the peat-bog of Lagore, near the village of Dunshaughlin. Here, within the boundaries of a drained lake, they found an artificial mound entirely overgrown with peat, then partially exposed by turf-cutters. On making inquiries as to the antecedents of this mound they were informed that it had been well known to bone-collectors for upwards of ten years, and that already 150 cart-loads of bones had been dug out and forwarded to Scotland for manure. Altogether the find was considered of great importance, and it was arranged between the two antiquaries that Petrie should write a description of the antiquities, while Wilde was to confine himself to an analysis of the animal remains.

According to Mr. W. F. Wakeman,[71] it appears that Dr. Petrie was a little jealous of Surgeon Wilde's enthusiasm for archæology, and accordingly wished to limit the scope of his investigations. Wilde's paper, entitled "On the Animal Remains and Antiquities recently found at Dunshaughlin," was read at a meeting of the Irish Academy on the 27th April, 1840, and it is singular, and perhaps confirmatory of Wakeman's suggestion, that, with the exception of two extracts bearing on the situation and structure of the mound, it is reported in the Proceedings only in abstract. I here quote these extracts as the most authoritative description of this remarkable lake-dwelling now extant:--

LAGORE OR DUNSHAUGHLIN.

"About a mile to the east of the village of Dunshaughlin, on the townland of Lagore, and near the margin of a 'cutaway' black bog, is a circular mound, slightly raised above the surrounding plain, its highest central part being about eight feet above the margin, and the circumference of the mound measuring 520 feet. A small stream passes through the circle; and the whole bog in which it is situated occupies a slight concavity of about a mile and a half in circumference, bounded by raised tillage and pasture lands. Within the memory of some of the old inhabitants of the neighbourhood, this bog was covered with water during the greater part of the year, and it is so invariably during winter up to the present period. A large pond is still in existence in one of the fields adjoining the mound. A few years ago some labourers, while clearing the stream-way, discovered several bones protruding from its sides; and in May, 1839, the quantity of bones found in the drain was so great, and their value so well known, that a further examination was made, when it was discovered that the greater part of the mound was composed of the remains of animals, placed there in the following manner:--

"The circumference of the circle was formed by upright posts of black oak, measuring from 6 to 8 feet in height; these were mortised into beams of a similar material, laid flat upon the marl and sand beneath the bog, and nearly 16 feet below the present surface. The upright posts were held together by connecting cross-beams, and fastened by large iron nails; parts of a second upper tier of posts were likewise found, resting on the lower ones. The space thus enclosed was divided into separate compartments, by septa or divisions that intersected one another in different directions; these were also formed of oaken beams in a state of great preservation, but joined together with greater accuracy than the former, and in some cases having their sides grooved or rabbited to admit large panels driven down between them. The interiors of the chambers so formed were filled with bones and black moory earth, and the heap of bones was raised up in some places within a foot of the surface. It was generally found that the remains of each species of animal were placed in separate divisions, with but little intermixture with any other; and the antiquities, etc., were found along with them, without any order or regularity, but for the most part near the bottom." (B. 4, p. 420.)

From the abstract of Wilde's paper I find that among the osseous remains the following animals were represented:--several varieties of oxen, the pig (a smaller variety than is now bred in Ireland), the horse, the ass, the common and fallow deer, the goat, one skull of the four-horned sheep, a large species of the greyhound tribe, probably the Irish wolf-dog, and the fox. A few bones of birds, the shells of limpets and buccinums, and a large quantity of the broken shells of hazel-nuts were also noted. Nearly in the centre of the heap, and within 2 feet of the surface, were found two human skeletons lying at length, and without any surrounding wood or stone coffin. Owing to the prejudices of the peasants these bones had to be re-interred. The report then goes on to say:--

"The antiquities found in this place may be divided into the warlike, the culinary, and the ornamental. They consisted of iron swords of different lengths, with straight edges and angular points, and bearing a resemblance to the ancient Roman swords. Very many knives were found, of different shapes and sizes, with iron spear, javelin, and dagger blades, and part of the boss or central ornament of a shield; but no brazen weapons of any description. Two querns, or ancient corn-mills, were found on the marl, at the bottom of the enclosure; sharpening-stones, iron chains, an iron axe, a brazen pot, and three small brass bowls of most elegant shape and workmanship; several articles precisely resembling miniature frying-pans, of about three inches in diameter (perhaps incense-burners); circular discs of turned bone, wood, and slate, like those supposed to have been used at the end of the distaff; small shears, like the modern sheep-shears; brazen, bone, and iron pins, from 4 to 6 inches in length, the former of great beauty of construction; brooches, and parts of buckles, containing pieces of enamel and mosaic work; bracelets; wooden (yew-tree) combs, toothpicks, etwees, and other articles belonging to the toilet. Several of these articles show an extraordinary state of perfection of the arts at the period of their construction.

"A very curious bone was likewise found (=Fig. 102=), and exhibited to the meeting, with a number of devices carved on it, as if by way of practice in engraving; these devices consisted of scrolls and marks precisely similar to those found on ancient Irish crosses, ornaments, and gravestones. There were no crosses, beads, or Christian sacred ornaments found in the excavation: but a number of pieces of stags' horns sawn across, and also pieces of hazel-wood, in great quantity, as if laid up for firewood, were found in one spot near the bottom. Some of the articles exhibited now belong to the collection of the Dean of St. Patrick's: but the greater number were forwarded for the inspection of the Academy by Mr. Barnwall, of Grennanstown, on whose ground the discovery was made, and to whom Mr. Wilde was indebted for the bones, and permission to make any researches he might require."

The late Lord Talbot de Malahide, writing in the Archæological Journal of June, 1849 (B. 10, p. 101), says, in regard to the Lagore find:--

"A great portion of these valuable relics became the property of the late Dr. Dawson, Dean of St. Patrick's; and on his decease were purchased, with the rest of his Irish antiquities, and presented to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Surgeon Wilde also presented to the same institution a valuable collection of the bones found in the same locality. Mr. Barnwall, the owner of the soil, still possesses some remnant of this treasure, after having been plundered to a considerable extent by dishonest servants; and those specimens which I possess, representations of some of which are given in illustration of this paper, I owe to the liberality and kindness of the same gentleman."

The following list comprises the various antiquities from Lagore then in the possession of Lord Talbot, and laid before the members of the Institute at the monthly meeting on February 2nd:--

Objects of Iron.--Two double-edged swords, one measuring 22¼ inches, inclusive of the tang which passed through the hilt; the blade, 18½ inches long and 1⅜ inch wide, was formed with a wide shallow groove along its entire length. The other sword-blade measures 15¼ inches and is formed with a central ridge. A blade, curved towards the point, in some degree resembling certain Oriental weapons; the curved portion alone has a cutting edge on both sides; length 13¼ inches, and width of curved portion 1 inch. Two spear-heads, in fine preservation and very sharp; length 10 inches. A peculiar single-edged weapon, resembling the glaive of simplest form, but of diminutive size, the blade measuring only 8 inches. An iron axe-head, length 7 inches. A peculiar iron pipe. (See page 431.) An iron ladle. An iron ring with portion of chain manacle (=Figs. 103= and =104=).

Bronze.--A small bowl 5¼ inches diameter, height 3 inches. Three armillæ of rude fashion. Portion of bronze ornament with enamelled work and exquisite finish. Portion of a ring fibula, with the extremities, between which the acus passed, dilated and flat. There are cavities in the metal in which enamel or some other ornament appears to have been incrusted. Portion of an object with interlaced ornamentation (=Fig. 105=), of unknown use. Several bronze pins of various fashion and size, from 3 to 6 inches in length. Four of these have movable rings appended to one extremity in lieu of a head. Another pin has a head of very singular fashion, as shown by the representation here annexed, of the same size as the original (=Fig. 104=).

Bone.--Two bone needles or bodkins, being perforated at the extremities, 2½ to 3½ inches long. A double-toothed comb of bone, rudely ornamented with lines and concentric circles, 3½ by 2¼ inches.

In April, 1887, through the courtesy and assistance of the present Lord Talbot de Malahide, I had the satisfaction of inspecting most of the above described objects, which are still in safe keeping among the art treasures of Malahide Castle. Illustrations of most of them are given on =Figs. 103= and =104=.

The objects from Lagore which went to the Museum of the Irish Academy, together with those in the Petrie collection (now belonging to the Academy), are in such a state of confusion, owing to the absence of distinguishing labels, and the want of harmony between the numbers on the objects and those in the official catalogue, that, notwithstanding several visits to the museum with the express purpose of identifying and singling out some of the crannog remains, I have been unable to make much addition to those already illustrated.

By the kind permission of the council of the Royal Irish Academy I am enabled to make use of the few woodcuts from Wilde's catalogue illustrative of objects from Lagore. They are as follows:-- The top of a pin ornamented with three movable rings (=Fig. 104=), an ornamental bone comb, a bronze dagger, and three beads (=Fig. 105=). The ribbed bead is opaque, with traces of a light green varnish, and is almost identical with beads found in the Scottish crannogs. Another is an inch long and has a raised ornament in white on a deep blue ground.

The objects represented on =Fig. 106= I have identified, with the assistance of Mr. Wakeman, as coming from the same remarkable locality. They are all of iron and represented one-third natural size, and will be readily recognised as tools and weapons of ordinary use.

In regard to the historic notices of Lagore Sir W. R. Wilde writes as follows:--

"As the earliest discovered and examined crannoge in modern times has been that of Lagore, near Dunshaughlin, County of Meath, so, upon looking into the authorities, we find it the first alluded to. Loch Gabhair is said to have been one of the nine lakes which burst forth in Ireland A.M. 3581 ('Annals of the Four Masters'; see also Colgan's 'Acta Sanctorum,' p. 422, n. 14). In A.D. 848, we read that Cinaedh, son of Conaing, Lord of Cianachta-Breagh, in Meath, went with a strong force of foreigners, and plundered the Ui-Neill from the Sionainn (the Shannon) to the sea; 'and he plundered the island of Loch Gabhor, and afterwards burned it, so that it was level with the ground.' And in the old translation of the 'Annals of Ulster,' Codex Clarendensis, the passage is thus rendered:--"And brake down the island of Loch Gavar to the very bottom.' Again, in A.D. 933, the same authority informs us that--'The island of Loch-Gavar [was] pulled down by Aulaiv O'Hivair,' and the cave of Knowth, on the Boyne, plundered during one of the Scandinavian marauding expeditions with which the kingdom was then troubled. Thus we have evidence that Lagore crannoge was occupied upwards of one thousand years ago." (B. 18, p. 229.)

DISCOVERY OF OTHER CRANNOGS.

Sir W. Wilde states that a few months after the discovery of Lagore, an island "artificially formed of timber and peat" was brought to light upon lowering the water of Roughan Lake, near Dungannon, on which "numerous fragments of ancient pottery and bones, a few bronze spear-heads," and an upper ornamental quern stone, were discovered. Other discoveries of a similar character are successively noted as having been made in various other localities. An island became exposed on the lowering of the waters of Lough Gur, county of Limerick, from which it is said a vast collection of bones and a great number of antiquities have from time to time been obtained. Among the latter is a most interesting stone mould (=Fig. 107=) for bronze spear-heads.[72] In 1845, Mr. Shirley, in his "account of the kingdom of Farney" (B. 8, p. 94), describes another crannog which was brought to light two years previously, as constituting "The island Ever Mac Cooley's house." "The foundations," writes Mr. Shirley, "of this ancient residence were discovered in the autumn of 1843, seven feet below the present surface of the earth, in the little island at Lisanisk, and two feet below the present water level of the lake a double row of piles were found sunk in the mud; they were formed of young trees, from 6 to 12 inches in diameter, with the bark on. The area enclosed by these piles, from which we may judge of the size of the house, was 60 feet in length by 42 feet in breadth." In the following year the same writer describes two other lake-dwellings in the same district, one in Lake Monalty and the other in Lough-na-Glack, on and around which the following relics were said to have been found:--

"Three bronze celts with loops on the sides, and the remains of the stick were found in one of them; a very perfect small dagger of bronze, one foot in length; two bronze arrow-heads, double pointed; a bronze gouge or chisel, rarely found in Ireland; the head of a bronze hunting-spear; part of a bronze sword or dagger; a bronze cap, apparently the end of a wooden hilt of some weapon; the bronze handle of a javelin or spear, with loop attached; the boss of a shield of bronze; a bronze knife which appears to have been gilt; a bronze knife or dagger, measuring 10½ inches in length; a smaller one 7 inches in length; a bronze bolt, with loop, measuring 16½ inches in length--this was found sticking in the mud, close to the island on Lough-na-Glack; another, 12 inches in length, has been since found in the island itself. Of bronze ornaments found on these islands there are the following: Several bronze rings of different sizes, two of them with transverse spring openings, others hollow, and probably parts of armour or horse trappings; two bronze needles, one of them with the eye entire; a bronze pin, the head hollowed like a cup, and bearing a striking resemblance to the ends of the golden ornaments often found in Ireland; several bronze pins like modern shirt pins; parts of several bronze fibulæ or brooches, with fragments of several bronze instruments, rivets, etc.; a small circular bronze bell, like a sheep-bell; three harp keys of bronze of different sizes. Of other ornaments found on the island on Lough-na-Glack I may particularly mention several amber and blue glass beads, three bone pins, and a comb apparently of ivory. Of iron instruments, an iron dagger, measuring with the hilt 15 inches; several iron coulters of ploughs of very primitive form, 7 inches in length; parts of iron instruments the use of which it is impossible to determine; a long gun-barrel, 3 feet 8 inches in length, of that sort, I believe, formerly called a calliver; part of the lock of a pistol; many large bullets of lead were also found. I may add to this list a pair of quern stones, found on the Monalty Island; some burnt corn; remains of coarse broken earthenware vessels, and bits of thick dark glass; an earthen pot, shaped like a hat; another of Dutch manufacture, with the figure of a man's head below the spout, used in Ireland during the seventeenth century, and called grey-beards; some small Dutch tobacco pipes; cut oval stones, apparently intended for pounding in mortars; several circular stones, with holes in the centres, often found with ancient remains, and considered in Ireland to belong to the ancient spinning wheels; also several stones, or hones, of different shapes and sizes, for sharpening weapons and tools; a brass token, nearly defaced, probably of the reign of Charles II." (B. 9, p. 44.)

In 1845, when the lake of Corcreevy, county of Tyrone, was drained, its crannog was examined by Mr. Burnside, when the following articles were recovered from among its remains:--A pair of bronze and iron manacles, an ornamental comb of bone, parts of a musical instrument, an arrow-head, a spear-head, and a hammer-stone.[73]

BALLINDERRY.

About the same time the crannog in Ballinderry Lough, near Moate, county of Meath, became known, and appears to have yielded a large quantity of bones and antiquities, together with one or two canoes. From the number of objects now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, and in private collections, said to be found on this crannog, it must have been an unusually rich repository of lake-dwelling relics; yet, singular to relate, Sir W. Wilde dismisses the subject by stating that he was indebted to Mr. Hayes, of Moate, for a description of the find, together with a plan and map of the locality. On this crannog Mr. Graves, writing as late as 1883, makes the following remarks:--

"There was a great crannog in this lakelet, surrounded by a stockade of oak piles. Around this and on the crannog was found an immense quantity of the antlers of the red deer, and the bones of deer, oxen, sheep, and other animals, which were sold as manure. A great and varied mass of objects of an archæological nature were also found on, in, and around the crannog, some of which found their way to the hands of various collectors, and some, I believe, are in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy (=Figs. 108= and =112=), but unhappily no record or connected account of that great crannog or its finds has been preserved. Amongst the articles of wood which Mr. Browne secured was a portion of an ancient harp. The pins and amulets exhibited on the occasion referred to have since been engraved, and I now describe them, beginning with the amulets (=Fig. 109=), which are here engraved from photographs full size." (B. 391, p. 196.)

It is suggested by Mr. Graves that the curious scorings on these pins are of the nature of Ogham and Runic writing (=Figs. 110= and =111=), but special authorities who have examined them do not support this theory. Moreover, I doubt the genuineness of both the pins and amulets.

LOUGH FAUGHAN.

Rev. Charles Archbold, writing of a crannog in Lough Faughan, county Down, says:--

"I found that the island was in a great measure, if not altogether, artificial. There were large stakes driven into the ground, and completely enclosing the space within, but not rising above the surface, so as to form a palisade, but evidently for the purpose of keeping in the soil from the encroachment of the water. The tradition respecting it is, that there had been a castle on the shore opposite, the chieftain of which caused this island to be made as a place of refuge from the sudden onslaughts of the O'Neills; and to render this retreat more secure he would never allow more than one boat or canoe on the lake. During the drainage of the lake some years ago, a canoe formed out of a solid piece of oak was found near the island." A jug of excellent workmanship was found on this crannog (Fig. 113). (B. 18, p. 224.)

DISCOVERIES BY BOARD OF WORKS.

But the greatest discoveries were due to the workings of the Commission for the Arterial Drainage and Inland Navigation of Ireland, which brought no less than twenty-two additional crannogs to light in the counties of Roscommon, Leitrim, Cavan, and Monaghan. Reports of these crannogs by the engineers of the Board of Works, with plans, maps, and sections of the more important (=Figs. 114= and =115=), as well as the relics collected on them, were given to the Royal Irish Academy. Unfortunately these relics are now indiscriminately mixed with other Irish antiquities, and are virtually beyond identification.

Mr. Mulvany, Commissioner of Public Works, makes the following remarks on the general features of construction of the crannogs encountered by them during these drainage operations prior to the year 1852:--

"1. They are surrounded by stakes, driven generally in a circle from 60 to 80 feet in diameter; but in some cases the inclosure is larger, and of an oval shape, as, for instance, that in Loughtown Lake, which is 120 feet from east to west and 100 feet from north to south; and one of those in Lough Mac Hugh, which measures 118 feet in one direction and 74 feet in another.

"2. These outside stakes are generally of oak from 4 to 9 inches in diameter; sometimes driven in a single row, sometimes double, and in some cases, as that of island No. 1 in Drumaleague Lake, the stakes are found in a single row in parts of the island, and in double or treble rows, or clusters, in other parts. The island in Loughtown Lake differs from the others in being surrounded by a mass of stakes upwards of 15 feet wide, and rather inclined towards the centre of the island.

"3. The portions of the stakes remaining in the ground are evidently the lower ends of young trees, or of branches of large trees, which were stuck down just as they grew in the wood; the thicker end downwards, and bearing the marks of the hatchet by which they were felled. A considerable length of these stakes must, therefore, have projected over the ground; and they may probably have been joined together by horizontal branches, interlaced so as to form a screen, well calculated to serve for shelter or defence. All the portions of the stakes which were above ground have been destroyed by time; but the portions remaining below ground, particularly where the stratum is pure peat, are generally very sound at heart, and have become as black as the oak usually found in bogs.

"4. The surface within the staked inclosure is usually covered over with a layer or two of round logs, cut into lengths of from 4 to 6 feet, over which are found more or less stones, clay, and gravel. In some cases where the foundation is very soft, as in island No. 2 of Drumaleague Lake, the layers of timber are very deep. In other cases, where the ground is naturally firm, the platform of timber is confined to a portion of the island.

"5. In almost every case a collection of flat stones has been found near the centre of the inclosure, having marks of fire on them, and apparently having served as a hearth. In the island No. 2 of Drumaleague Lake there were three of these hearths found in different parts of the enclosure.

"6. Considerable quantities of bones are generally found upon or around the island, being apparently those of deer, black cattle, and hogs; the skulls of the cows being long and narrow, with very short horns.

"7. In almost every case one or more pairs of quern stones have been found within the enclosure.

"8. In many cases pieces of oak-framing have been found, with mortices and cheeks cut in them. Some of these, such as what were found on island No. 2 of Drumaleague, appear to have been portions of an ordinary door-frame; but others, such as those found on the island of Lough Scur and in Loughtown Lake, are portions of a heavy frame, the use of which does not appear so evident." (B. 13, Ap., p. 44.)

STROKESTOWN CRANNOGS.

Adjacent to the ancient palace of the Kings of Connaught are three lakes, viz. Cloonfree, Cloonfinlough, and Ardakillen, in each of which one or two crannogs became exposed during the drainage operations of the Board of Works.

The following antiquities found in the lake of Cloonfree were presented to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, by Alonzo Lawder, Esq. (B. 11_a_, p. 219):--

"A horseshoe, made of iron; a fragment of iron, probably the hilt of a sword; an iron spike, for butt-end of a spear; a bone spear-head; a bone pin; two amber beads; a bronze tweezer; ditto, broken, but of different matter; a bronze pin with ornamented head, having a cross and arrow-shaped device carved on two sides of it; a very long bronze pin, with ornamented spike, head, and ring (a peculiarly fine specimen); a small iron pin, with head bound with bronze wire, and small circular disc pendant; a boar's tusk; and a buckle."

The crannog of Cloonfinlough was no less than 130 feet in diameter, and is thus described by Mr. Dennis H. Kelly (B. 11, p. 208):--

"It is constructed on oak piles (many of them showing the action of fire), driven into the soft marl at regular distances, and tied together by horizontal stretchers, so as to form a triple stockade round it, with an interval of about five feet between each stockade. Outside of this, to the north-westward, are a number of irregularly placed piles, stretching a short distance from the islet, and it was adjoining to them the great deposit of bones was found. The centre of these stockades was laid with trunks of smallish oak trees, placed flat on the marl, and all pointing to a common centre, thus forming a platform whereon the island itself was constructed. When it was first observed, there was, jutting out from the island to the lake, towards the west, a kind of jetty or pier, formed of a double row of piles and stretchers running parallel, about 8 feet asunder, and on which logs of timber were closely laid horizontally.

"Of this gangway, and of the stockades, there are now but very imperfect remains, so much has been broken up and removed by the peasantry.

"The deposit of bones, etc., close to this island, consisted of bones of cattle, deer, horses, swine, sheep, fowl, dogs, deer, both fallow and red, a few specimens (in general much broken) of the horns of the Irish elk, and one or two specimens of human remains, and amongst them a quantity of articles of a most miscellaneous description, some of apparently very great antiquity, and others of a much more recent date. Amongst these are spear-heads, bronze pins, some of exquisite workmanship, and scarcely any two of exactly the same form. A brass bowl, hammered out of the solid; two brass vessels, made of small pieces most curiously riveted together; a brooch of handsome workmanship; a variety of bone pins and implements; deer-horn combs, of very great artistic merit; horn discs, like backgammon men; knives, hooks, and hatchets of iron; swords and spear-heads; an iron implement, like what a baker uses for putting his loaves in the oven, made of sheet iron, curiously riveted together, and having in the centre a circular ornament, with a cross in it, that has evidently once had an arabesque pattern on it; sundry miniature frying-pans, and a small whetstone; single and double bronze rings; one coin of the Emperor Hadrian; one bulla, Pope Paul V.; sundry silver coins, most of them Edwards, and one so late as James, 1690, and one silver coin, unfigured in any collection that I have seen.

"Between the island and the ruined church were found two canoes, hollowed out of single oak trees, but neither of them much more than two feet wide; the stern of one of them was perforated with numerous auger holes, about one inch each in diameter.

"On examining the structure of the island itself, which was effected by cutting a trench 20 feet long by 5 wide, as near the centre as possible, there was found, at about eight inches under the surface, which was covered with rank grass growing in a rich mould, a very close-laid pavement of irregular-sized boulder stones. When this was removed, a stratum of black earth was exposed, with occasional fragments of bones through it of swine, fowl, sheep, cattle, and deer; and about six inches beneath this, a considerable layer of burned earth, with several inches of unburned clay under it. Then came a second very closely-laid pavement of large-sized, flat-surfaced stones, beneath which were alternate layers of black earth and burned clay and marl, reaching down to the log platform, and interspersed, like the one above it, with occasional bones and fragments of bones; some few human remains, viz. one skull, and portions of some more were got on the exterior edge. No coffin-stone, chest, or other sepulchral remains.

"Amongst these relics are knives, some of which have failed in the forging; combs in an incomplete state of manufacture, deer-horns sawn in sunder, and shavings as if left after a turner. From these I am led to think that, whatever may have been its original occupants, in later times the little island resounded to the busy hum of industry, and that the smith, the brazier, the comb-maker, and the turner, there drove a brisk trade, and sometimes solaced their leisure in the construction of pretty toys, like the tiny plate-bucket in the possession of the post-mistress of Strokestown, and whose neatness of finish would do no discredit to our best modern cabinet-makers. It is turned in oak, and hooped with brass, four and a half inches high, and four inches diameter. There was originally a pair, but one was unfortunately broken."

From Cloonfinlough only the following relics went to the Museum of the Irish Academy:--

"Small brass bowl (probably =Fig. 116=), iron bill-hook, long iron spear-head, iron shears, large tooth, portion of a hone stone, bronze pin with ornamented head and ring, bronze pin with ring, small bronze pin with perforated head, small bronze pin and piece of thick wire, bone needle and pin." (Proc. R. I. A., vol. v., Ap., p. 61.)

A considerable collection from the same place has, however, found a safe resting place in the British Museum, of which the more interesting objects are here illustrated (=Fig. 117=).

In regard to the Ardakillen crannog Mr. Kelly writes:--"Near this was found a boat 40 feet in length and 4 feet across the bow, hollowed out of a single oak; and in which were a skull, a bronze pin, and a spear, which, by the liberality of Mr. R. Kelly, I am permitted to present to the Academy. The skull is perforated in the forehead, and has the mark of no less than twenty sword-cuts on it, showing the murderous conflict in which its owner must have been engaged; and near to it were found a neck-piece of iron and 20 feet of rude chain attached, that would do credit to the dungeons of Naples, and by which its unhappy victim was made fast." (B. 11, p. 214.)

On this crannog about fifty tons of bones are said to have been collected by the peasants and sold at two shillings per cwt. Of the industrial remains of its occupiers the following relics were given to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy:--

"Large ornamented bronze pin with ring, bronze pin with solid ornamented head, five small bronze pins, bronze or brass harp pin, bronze hook, two bone needles, two bone spears, large tooth, spud of deer's horn, piece of hone stone, piece of stone ring, small piece of round stick, small silver ornament, iron hatchet and handle, iron gouge, iron knife-blade, part of iron hinge and large spike nail, wooden hoop and scoop, together with a parcel containing portion of wooden hoop, ashes of different kinds, a fragment of cinerary urns, bones and teeth of animals, old iron nails, knife-blades, etc." (Proc. R.I.A., vol. v., Ap., p. 61.)

Among the relics from these crannogs illustrated in Wilde's catalogue I find the following in addition to those already given. A bone with carved devices of interlaced work (=Fig. 118=), somewhat similar to those on a bone from Lagore already noticed. Portion of a handsome bone comb, 10 inches in length, with a frame back riveted together with iron nails. The engraving shows the comb restored (=Fig. 119=). From Ardakillen there is a beautiful bronze brooch with late Celtic ornamentation (=Fig. 120=), and from Lough Scur a stone mould for casting bronze axes (=Fig. 121=).

LOUGH RAVEL NEAR RANDALSTOWN.

In addition to Sir W. R. Wilde's notes on the great crannog near Randalstown (B. 24), some very interesting observations on the antiquities found on it are given in the Ulster Journal of Archæology, vol. vii., supplementary to Troyon's account of the Swiss Lake-dwellings. (B. 27.) The most complete account, however, is that of the late Mr. Ed. Benn, from which I take the following extract:--

"The island near Randalstown," writes Mr. Benn, "was a very large and important one, said to have been occupied by a member of the O'Neil family. The lake on which it stood has been long since drained, and a peat moss now occupies the place, which has been yielding antiquities for the last twenty or thirty years, and still produces some annually. A good idea of the importance of this island may be formed from the number of tools and appliances for carrying on the ordinary trades which have been discovered on it, as the tongs and anvil of the smith, which latter is a rough lump of iron somewhat smoothed on one side, and weighing fifty or sixty pounds. Its use as an anvil is only conjecture; but it is thought a highly probable one, and, if correct, it shows the difficulty of procuring in those rude times a piece of iron large and heavy enough for such a purpose. Then there were found also the crucibles of the brass-founder, one unused, and several greatly worn and burned out. The perfect one is very neat and good, and about the size of a small hen's egg. Then we have next the scissors and two needles of the tailor; one of the needles is about the size of what is called a darning-needle; the other long and strong resembling a packing-needle, such as is used for sewing sackcloth: both are made of brass, and well formed. There was also found the awl of the shoemaker, a very curious article, and apparently older than the other things; the blade of this awl is of brass, and the handle of stone. Several axes or hatchets of the carpenter have turned up, very like those of the present day; also a pair of small shears, such as are used by weavers. Connected with agriculture were found a very small sock of a plough, a curious spade, very light, about four feet long, all of wood, but neatly tipped with iron on the edge; and a pair of very large shears, for clipping sheep. There was also a netting-needle of iron; but few warlike weapons of any kind. None of the latter, indeed, came within my observation but an iron sword and a very good battle-axe, such as was used by the galloglasses; it is shaped like the axe used by coopers, and is very interesting from its rarity." The further objects described by Mr. Benn are pins of brass, iron, bone, and wood, generally from 3 to 5 inches long; a large glass bead and a small crescent-shaped piece of glass; a button with two eyes; a horseshoe; a few fragments of pottery; a wooden scoop; a brass dish 15 inches across, including the rim, which is an inch and a half broad: it is rather more than 2 inches deep; some knives; a comb, neatly made of bone and riveted with iron nails. "Besides the things here enumerated, the bog around the Randalstown crannog has already yielded several boats and parts of boats; these were all hollowed out of large trees and were very well formed. One of large size, and quite perfect, has been taken out lately from beneath sixteen feet of moss. It has been stated, when first raised, it retained its original form entire, but soon became warped and out of shape. In the bottom of this boat lay a very neatly made oak paddle, about three feet and a half long, and a wooden bowl capable of holding nearly a quart. It was very thick and rude-looking, not made by turning, but by hollowing out of a solid piece, like the boat itself." (B. 29, p. 86.)

Some of the relics from the Randalstown crannog I have been able to identify in the Belfast Museum, and a few others from the same place I found in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin. These, together with a silver brooch copied from the Journal of the Royal Historical and Archæological Association of Ireland (B. 215), and three bronze brooches from the Ulster Journal of Archæology, vols. iv. p. 269, and vi. p. 103, are illustrated on =Fig. 122=.

TONYMORE.

The next important lacustrine discoveries were made in the loch of Tonymore, county Cavan. It appears that this small lake was celebrated for its pike-fishing, and contained a dry mound or island about 50 yards in diameter, which was much resorted to by sportsmen. That this island was a crannog was never suspected till a considerable time after it had been drained in consequence of the railway having to pass through it. Though wooden piles and some relics were then found, the real nature of the discovery was not understood till the publication of Sir W. R. Wilde's catalogue of the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy in 1857, which gave an account of several similar stations. Among the relics then collected at Tonymore were several querns, sharpening stones, a yew bow, and (in the lake mud) two elks' heads.

In 1862 Lord Farnham caused further examination of the mound to be made under Dr. Malcomson, of Cavan, from whose report the following facts are derived (B. 60, p. 274):--

"The piles or stakes were arranged in two circles, one within the other; the diameter of the greater one being 120 feet, that of the other about ninety feet. The piles in the outer circle were very numerous; and, in some instances, driven in close proximity to each other. A few, having withstood the ravages of time, appeared about three feet above the surface, and, upon being withdrawn and examined, were found to have been carefully pointed. The stakes in the inner row were not so numerous, nor were they altogether composed of oak, some of them being of sallow or other soft wood.

"Within the stockades were observed two small mounds (upon which the grass was much more verdant than upon any other part of the island), one at the north and the other at the south. Corresponding with the depression between these, and 3 feet under the soil, we found, during the excavation, a flat stone, about four feet square and 3 inches thick, resting on a number of upright blocks of decayed oak. This, no doubt, was a hearthstone. Besides the wooden stakes entering into the formation of the circles, others appear to have been laid horizontally, their beam-like ends showing at that part of the enclosure which was disturbed by the passage of the railway. When the excavation had been carried to the centre, the cut surface presented, from above downwards, the following section: 1st, clay; 2nd, black and grey ashes with small stones and sand; 3rd, bones and ashes, with lumps of blue and yellow clay; 4th, a quantity of grey ashes; and 5th, the horizontal sleepers or stretchers, and hazel branches resting on the peat bottom.

"On the same marsh, and about one hundred yards' distance from the island, but nearer to Tonymore Castle, are two other stockaded forts, on a raised plateau. They do not appear to have been islands, as an elevated causeway leads from them to the mainland; but otherwise they resemble the crannoge in their stockaded and mound-like appearance."

The antiquities collected on the crannog were presented to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, among which were the following, thus described by Sir W. R. Wilde:--

"A very perfect quern, 17 inches in diameter, with the upper surface of the top stone highly decorated; found at the bottom and near the centre of the crannog. Several pieces of iron slag; a barrel-shaped piece of wood 3¼ inches long, hollow throughout, and perforated with six holes; three flat circular stone discs or quoits, averaging 3¼ inches in diameter, and half an inch thick; a most perfect and highly decorated mortar, 8 inches high by 17½ wide, decorated at the corners with four grotesque figures; a stone mould; a four-sided whetstone 20 inches by 3, and eleven fragments of smaller sharpening stones, of which two are perforated.

"A large oval and five globular stones; a flat red touchstone of jasper and a stone shot 3 inches in diameter; two weapon-sharpeners of remarkably hard stone.

"Two large bone beads; a variegated enamel bead; a large irregularly shaped amber bead; a smaller one of enamel paste, showing a mixture of red, yellow, and blue colours; and also a small blue glass bead.

"Two imperfect bone combs, like those already figured in the catalogue at p. 272 (=Figs. 105=, =108=, and =119=).

"A bone ferrule 2½ inches long, solid at one end.

"Fourteen portions of pottery, some rudely glazed, others burned, and some only backed; and consisting of fragments of various vessels used either in the arts or for domestic and culinary purposes, such as crucibles, pitchers, and bowls. Among these is a fragment of a bowl or urn, of unglazed pottery, highly decorated with deeply grooved lines on the outside, and slight indentations on the everted lip. It is of great antiquity; composed of very black clay, darkened still more by the long-continued action of the bog, and mixed with a quantity of particles of white quartz or feldspar, which was probably added to give it stability. A similar description of art may be remarked in some of our oldest mortuary urns. When we consider that, except the urns which must be referred to the Pagan period, we have scarcely any examples of ancient Irish pottery, these specimens possess a peculiar interest for the investigators of fictile ware.

"Fragments of Kimmerage coal rings; probably part of a bracelet, which seems to have been jointed at one end.

"The bowls of two small pipes, similar to those in the Museum, and usually but erroneously denominated 'Danish tobacco pipes.'

"An enclosed ring of bronze, 3¼ inches in diameter; a large decorated bronze pin, 7½ inches long; and a smaller one, 3 inches in length.

"An iron knife-blade, with perforated haft, 8½ inches long: this article looks as if it had been attached to a long handle; a smaller blade, with tang for haft, 2¾ inches in length; a globular piece of iron 2¾ inches in diameter, like a crotal, with an aperture on one side; the head of a small iron hammer; three portions of rings, and eleven other iron fragments, the uses of which have not been determined.

"A small perforated stone, like a whorl or distaff weight." (Ibid., p. 290.)

FURTHER DISCOVERIES.

Mr. G. H. Kinahan's observations on the Irish crannogs, which now (1863) began to appear, have greatly contributed to the dissemination of a correct knowledge of their structure and geographical distribution. His notes on the crannogs of Lough Rea (B. 58), Ballinlough (B. 70a), Lough Nahinch (B. 70b), and Lough Naneevin (B. 118), which successively appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, were followed in 1872 by an article on "Lake Stone-dwellings in Connaught" (B. 214), in which he shows that in some cases dry stones were substituted for the ordinary wooden structures and rubbish of which the artificial islands were usually constructed--a fact which finds many parallel illustrations in Scotland.

Mr. Kinahan says that Reed's Island, Shore Island, Ash Island, and Island M'Coo, in Loughrea, are crannogs; while Blake's Island may also be one. From Shore Island 300 tons of bone were procured, among which was the head of a Megaceros Hibernicus which measured 13 feet from tip to tip of its horns. Amongst many relics found here made of stone, horn, and wood were a few metal objects, as iron shears, a brass pin, a crozier made of brass, a battle-axe, a cast for a coin, and a hammered iron vessel.

The only other writer on Irish crannogs to whom I find it necessary to allude in a special manner is Mr. W. F. Wakeman. Personally acquainted with Petrie and Wilde, and probably deriving inspiration from their enthusiastic devotion to archæology, and an eye-witness of the first great crannog find at Dunshaughlin, Mr. Wakeman has ever since been a careful observer of the antiquities of his country. His special attention to crannogology dates only from 1870, but since then scarcely a year has passed without his pen and pencil being in requisition to record some fresh discovery in this field of research.

In early times no district in Ireland presented more favourable conditions for aquatic retreats than the county of Fermanagh, with its countless lakes and bogs, interspersed and embosomed in the primeval forests which were then extant. These advantages would appear to have been fully recognised by the crannog-builders, as we find more remains of these lacustrine abodes here than in any other part of the island. The number of crannogs now recorded in this county amounts to about 40, but of course this is by no means the full quota that might be disclosed by the adoption of a general system of exploration. Such exhaustive methods of research have not as yet, however, taken deep root in Ireland, so that the few reliable data of this character that have come to light we cannot afford to pass over, even in this brief sketch. The following extracts from Mr. Wakeman's reports are selected for the purpose of illustrating the structure of these remains in this part of Ireland, and the general character of the relics left on them by their inhabitants.

BALLYDOOLOUGH.

Ballydoolough ("town of the dark loch") is a small sheet of water some five miles from Enniskillen, in which there is a small island which, in 1870, was recognised as a crannog, and subsequently investigated.

"It contained, in wonderful preservation, three-fourths of the foundation of its original log-house, the beams of which were mortised together, and further fastened with pegs of oak. The antiquities here discovered were very interesting, and consisted of stone, wood, bronze, iron, a mixed metal, probably findruine, and pottery of which I have given examples in this and former papers. The most curious relic noticed here was an Ogham stone, which has been pronounced the most northern monument of its class yet discovered in Ireland. The pieces of pottery were very numerous, and usually exhibited ornamentation of an extremely early kind, amongst which chevron patterns similar to those found upon 'sepulchral urns' were conspicuous. The bronze articles were a thin plate of genuine antique bronze, supposed to be part of a vessel; a looped pin about 4¾ inches in length; a thin ribbon, and an article apparently belonging to horse-furniture. Two iron knives, one of which had traces of bronze-mounting, were also picked up: these resembled like articles found in barrows in England. A brooch, partly composed of a white metal, probably findruine, also occurred, as well as a portion of a shoe of a small horse or ass. There were quern stones, whetstones, a crucible, and numerous pieces of iron slag. All the portions of vases found were composed of earth and sand, fire-hardened. There was no glazing or trace of the use of the wheel. Many of the specimens were furnished with handles or ears. A solitary vessel of wood, probably yew, was discovered entire, but reduced almost to a state of pulp. Among other relics were so-called sling-stones, immense quantities of hazel-nuts, three canoes, each formed of a single piece of oak, and a small oaken vessel formed of staves." (B. 217, p. 314.)

"THE MIRACLES."

At another locality bearing the singular name of "The Miracles," situated near Monea, and now a bog, but formerly a lake, a crannog was revealed by the turf-cutters.

"Amongst the stone articles were the usual class of whetstones, and two circular grinding-stones, the only specimens of their kind I have ever heard of as having occurred in a crannog. The larger measures 8 inches across; the smaller is now in the Museum of our (Kilkenny) Association, it having been presented by Mr. Plunket. The material of both is close, yellow sandstone. The bones here were numerous, and of the usual crannog class. Singlepiece canoes had from time to time been found in the surrounding loch. The remains of pottery found here were unimportant; but at least one very good crucible, as well as iron slag and charcoal, were turned up." (B. 217, p. 320.)

LOUGH EYES.

Lough Eyes (anciently Tobernasoul, i.e. "the Well of the Eyes"), a small lake only two-thirds of a mile long and a quarter broad, contained a number of crannogs. The largest is 288 feet in circumference, and has a maximum height above the lowest summer level of 10 feet, and is therefore never entirely submerged. "Stockading still exists in a very interesting state of preservation. To the west and north-west the stakes are four deep, and are placed so close together as almost to touch. They are all, or nearly all, of oak, roughly worked, and sharply pointed by a metal axe or adze."

A large quantity of broken pottery, like that from Ballydoolough, and some flat pieces, apparently lids, and a club of deer-horn, were found on it. Iron slag, pottery, bones, etc., were found on all these crannogs. (B. 191, p. 553.)

DRUMDARRAGH, OR TRILLICK.

This lake is now nearly drained, and its crannog, which measured 130 feet in diameter, has recently been re-investigated by Mr. Wakeman, who thus describes the result:--

"Upon examination, the work presented the usual layers of bog, earth, and stones, mixed with small trunks and boughs of ash, alder, beech, yew, oak, and other trees. Here and there, at different levels, were masses of ferns and furze. The outer edge was strongly piled with young trees, of the description above referred to; the great majority, however, being oak. Owing to the softness of the surroundings it was impossible to completely trace the piling on the side of the island which faces the ancient loch bed; but on what may be called the land side the stakes formed six rows placed somewhat regularly, with usually a space of about two feet between each set, sometimes, however, they were close together, nearly touching. The stakes stood about thirty inches asunder, and such of their numbers as were disturbed for the purpose of examination presented sharply-pointed ends, the result evidently of powerful and well-laid strokes of a very keen metallic hatchet or adze.

"Being anxious to find whether the crannog rested upon a frame of timber, as a tradition of the place stated, and in order, if possible, to discover the internal construction of the work, I caused several trenches to be excavated in various places within the staked enclosure, and then, with a long crowbar, probed as far as that instrument would reach. The result was that we struck upon several large and solid pieces of timber, but in what position they were laid or whether in any way attached to others it was impossible to determine, owing to the influx of water, and to the spongy character of the bog-stuff, branches, etc., through which the iron pierced. Throughout the island--placed apparently without any attempt at symmetrical arrangement--were several stakes of the same kind, but larger than any found in the inclosing lines of piles. These timbers I believe to have been simply intended to act as stays or binders to the body of the crannog. They certainly did not indicate partitions. There was no trace of wattle-work, nor was there any example of timber presenting mortise-holes observable.

"During the process of excavation it became perfectly manifest that the mound of the crannog was the work of three several periods. Within a couple of feet of the present surface, near the centre of the island, were found several large red sandstone flags, still exhibiting traces of the action of fire, and surrounded by charcoal, pieces of charred wood, bones of deer, sheep, pigs, goats, and other animals, many of them evidently split for the marrow. Here also were some fragments of pottery which had, no doubt, formed portions of culinary vessels; part of an iron knife of early type; a second and much smaller knife of iron, to which a wooden handle had been attached by rivets; a piece of iron spirally twisted; a nail or pin of the same metal, and a broken whetstone of the usual crannog class. I should here observe that for many years past the mound had been subjected to rude tillage, and consequent denudation, and that quern stones of the 'pot' and more ordinary type, belonging in all probability to this layer, had been found near the hearth, and but a few inches above it. These are now preserved in a neighbouring cottage.

"The second hearth was about two and a half feet lower in the soil, and placed at a distance of a few feet south-east of the former, from which it scarcely differed, except that its vicinity was much more prolific in bones, broken pottery, charcoal, and other 'kitchen-midden' waifs.

"The third and lowest hearth, or rather fire-place, for no large stones appeared, lay about eighteen inches lower than that last described, and nearly beneath it. In connection with both, and mingled generally in the soil--above, below, and for a considerable distance around--were broken animal remains; innumerable teeth of swine, deer, etc., boar-tusks; charcoal; 'burnt stones;' a bead of jet; a bronze harp peg; an animal's head in iron, probably the leg of a pot; an article of iron resembling a small, narrow, double axe-head or pick; rude, oval-shaped hammer-stones; a well-formed knife of trap; an admirably-worked 'thumbflint;' a core of flint from which flakes had been struck; portion of a whetstone, and, finally, fragments of the sides and bottoms of fictile vessels, together with ears or handles of the same ware." (B. 441, p. 372.)

COAL-BOG, NEAR BOHO.

Mr. Plunket, who examined the remarkable find which was brought to light here in 1880, thus describes the wooden structures met with:--

"After a minute inspection, I perceived that we were standing on what was once an artificial island, oval in shape, slightly elevated in the centre, and dipping with a gentle slope on all sides, the outlines of which can still be easily traced. It is 60 yards long, and 14 yards across at its greatest width. Piles, or stakes, with rudely-sharpened ends and varying in size, are found at intervals all over this area, and rough oak planks, about the size of railway sleepers, may be seen lying in rows here and there, and generally resting on a layer of branches, the whole being covered over with a stratum of clay and stones, mingled with charcoal and ashes. It is quite manifest that this is the site of an ancient crannog, or artificial island. The surrounding depression, now filled with peat, known as the Coal-Bog, and covering some scores of acres, once formed a large sheet of water." (B. 345, p. 66.)

Here perforated posts and frameworks of what were supposed to have been wooden huts were found. In one place a wooden structure measuring 11 feet 10 inches by 6 feet 3 inches, formed of rude wooden beams, with roughly-executed mortises, was found no less than 21 feet below the surface of the peat. Two flint implements, several fragments of hand-made pottery, devoid of ornamentation, broken hazel-nut shells, and in the vicinity, at the same depth in the peat, a few wooden dishes. The stool of a huge pine tree, which, "before its decay, must have measured 14 feet in diameter," was found 2 feet above the level of the floor of the hut, which sent its roots downwards.

Subsequently Mr. Wakeman states that near this crannog lumps of "bog butter," rolled up in cow-hides, were found, and that the wood of the huge root of the tree above referred to turned out on analysis to be yew, and not pine.[74]

LISNACROGHERA.

Amongst the more recently discovered lake-dwellings were one at Lisnacroghera, near Broughshane, and two in Lough Mourne, both localities being in county Antrim. The former came into notice some six years ago in consequence of the discovery in a peat bog of some remarkable iron swords, with bronze sheaths, together with other military weapons. The bog in which these objects were found occupies the site of a former lake, which, till recently, retained so much water as to prevent the working of the peat for fuel. To remedy this the outlet was deepened, and so new or undisturbed portions of the bog were brought within reach of the peat-cutters. The antiquities were found from time to time in a circumscribed area, within a small plot belonging to one of the neighbouring farmers. When attention was first directed to the locality, and the workers questioned as to the circumstances in which the relics came to light, it appears that some kind of wooden structure was encountered, which, however, had been entirely removed before being seen by anyone competent to form an opinion as to its nature. In August, 1866, I visited the locality, and closely questioned the farmer about this woodwork, but failed to elicit any definite information. He was quite clear, however, about the existence of stakes and irregularly disposed beams and brushwood, which at the time he thought little about. From his description, and some remnants of oak beams, some showing the usual mortises, there can, I think, be little doubt that it was a crannog, but of no great dimensions. Close to where the peat had been cut there is an undisturbed structure of stones just cropping through the turf, which may yet turn out to have some relationship with the crannog. As to the relics, there is no record of their association with the crannog beyond the fact of their being found in its vicinity. Canon Grainger, who has taken much interest in this find, has secured for his private museum a large number of the relics from Lisnacroghera, but he fears that, since the crannog has become famous, he has occasionally been imposed upon by having presented to him, as coming from it, objects which in reality had been found elsewhere. This, in my opinion, partly explains the presence of such incongruous objects as are now to be seen in the Canon's collection. Among these are especially some arrow-heads and scrapers of flint which cannot be distinguished from analogous objects picked up on the neighbouring fields. Besides the weapons with bronze mountings, there is in short an assortment of remains which might be classed as belonging to all ages--a stone celt, rubbers, flint arrow-heads and scrapers, down to an iron reaping-hook, a hedge-cutter's knife, and a portion of an old gunlock.

But the special interest of the Lisnacroghera crannog lies in the remarkable series of military weapons which it has yielded, consisting of iron swords and ornamented sheaths of bronze, iron spears with long wooden handles and bronze mountings, together with a variety of other bronze objects, probably the mountings of shields. These I shall now proceed to describe.

Sword-sheaths.--Up to the present time four sheaths (=Fig. 123=, Nos. 1 to 4) have been recovered, but only one is entire, the rest being more or less in a fragmentary condition. They are all made of thin bronze riveted together at the margins, and over this there is a bead which, towards the lower third, develops into an elegant ornamentation very similar to that which we have already seen on the sword-sheaths of La Tène (See =Fig. 87.=) The perfect sheath (No. 1) is devoid of ornamentation, except that formed by the marginal bead; but the other three (of which only one side of each remains) are decorated with highly artistic designs formed by incised lines, the details of which will be readily seen from the illustrations. No. 1, which still retains the blade of an iron sword firmly adhered to it, is 17½ inches long. No. 2 is defective at the tip, besides having lost its surrounding bead; it measures, in its present condition, 19 inches in length. The illustration here is a reproduction of a rubbing reduced half size and shows only the upper half. The design which comes out in white lines is in reality incised lines and corresponds to the dark lines in the other two. No. 3, the largest of the group, measures 22 inches in length. Both ends are here represented. No. 4 is the smallest, being only 16½ inches in length. It is supposed that the incised lines, which are sharply defined and deeply cut, contained a black enamel, but no traces of it now remain. The circular cavities in the surrounding bead at the tips were also intended for the reception of enamel, probably of some brilliant colour. These designs, which belong to the so-called "late Celtic" style of ornamentation, when so treated must have had a striking effect on the bright bronze surface.

In Nos. 1 and 4 it will be observed that there is a transverse raised band, the purpose of which was, no doubt, to strengthen the sheath. Such bands were a feature in the La Tène sheaths, which in some instances were repeated several times at intervals on the body of the sheath. In Canon Grainger's collection I saw one or two broad rings compressed in the middle, which I took to be the cross-bands of other sheaths.

Swords.--The swords which belonged to these sheaths were all of iron, a fact which probably accounts for their being in a more dilapidated condition. Of four recovered up to this date only one is in a good and perfect condition (=Fig. 124=, No. 1). Its total length is 19½ inches, of which the handle takes up five inches, measuring from the extremity of the tang to the nearest part of the curved ridge which separates it from the blade. The blade has a sharply defined ridge and tapers gracefully to a point. The other swords are all fragmentary. One, as already mentioned, is still in its sheath; another, portion of a blade 14 inches long, has a sharp central ridge and otherwise corresponds exactly with the entire weapon. Of the fourth there remains merely the handle (No. 2), the blade having apparently disappeared by oxidation. So far it also closely corresponds with the entire weapon. Both handles have bronze mountings, which, though differing in some details, are so peculiar in their plan and method of execution, that we have no hesitation in recognising them as belonging to one and the same group--a group which, so far as my knowledge goes, finds its parallel only in a few examples from La Tène. (See =Fig. 87=, Nos. 7 and 8.) As to the material of which the grip was made there is no evidence. The bronze circlets and flanges on the tangs, if in their original position, involve the necessity of having the handles, whether of bone or horn, divided in several pieces. That these bronze sheaths and iron swords were counterparts of each other there can be no reasonable doubt. Their points of agreement, besides general dimensions and style of manufacture, are too remarkable to be accidental. Thus the peculiar curve at the opening of the sheaths fits that of the band of separation between the handle and blade of the swords. Also the prominent midribs in the two sword-blades have corresponding prominences in two of the sheaths (Nos. 3 and 4).

Lances.--Though there is only one spear-head in the Lisnacroghera collection, there is ample evidence to show that it was not an isolated example of this kind of weapon. Certain objects, like the brass knob of a door (Nos. 28, 29, and 30), amounting in all to seven or eight, are now known to have adorned the butt end of the wooden handles of so many spears. One of these handles, 8 feet in length, though now greatly shrunk and contorted, is still preserved by Canon Grainger and conclusively proved their use as well as that of some other objects which previously seemed equally mysterious. At the other end of the spear-shaft, close to where it entered the socket, was a ferrule of the same style of art as the sword-sheaths (Nos. 23, 24, and 25). Several of these ferrules have been found which, like the ornaments on the butt end, differ considerably in regard to size. They are all ornamented with elegant designs in incised lines which also, it is supposed, contained enamel. One is here represented with a piece of the handle and a bronze rivet (No. 23), probably that which fixed the spear more firmly in its shaft; but of the spear itself nothing remains. The only spear-head that has been found is of iron. It is a magnificent blade 16½ inches in length, with a slim socket containing two rivets (No. 3).

A curious object here represented as No. 27 consists of an oval ring, "richly decorated with bands, in which are remains of white and red enamelled designs in a chevron or wavy pattern." On one edge there are two forms like that of a bird. Mr. Wakeman considers it to be the terminal ornament or pommel to a sword or dagger. (B. 411, p. 391.)

Various Bronze Mountings.--Among the other objects which from their character and style of art belonged to the same group as we have just described are the following:--(a) Two ornaments of thin bronze in repoussé. One is a disc (No. 22), slightly impaired at the margin, bearing in the centre a triquetrum of symmetrical spirals, and surrounded by a slightly raised border. The other (No. 20) is in a more fragmentary condition, but sufficient remains to show the design to be a swastika or croix gammée, worked after the same fashion as the former and probably serving as the central ornament of a disc. (b) Three cup-shaped ornaments each having a small aperture in the centre. One (No. 18) is surrounded by a broad margin like a wide-awake hat, which is copiously ornamented with incised lines. On the supposition that this was intended to adorn the face of a wooden shield the cup must have been embedded in the wood, as it is clear that its concave side is the front, there being no ornamentation on the other. Another of the same kind is represented by No. 19, and differs from the former only by having a smaller and less decorated border. In a third specimen the ornamented border entirely disappears, and its place is taken by a marginal bead. (d) A variety of annular and penannular rings, some hollow (Nos. 6 and 7) and others solid (No. 17). Some, as Nos. 8 and 9, are ornamented with designs (one of which still retains an enamel of a vermilion tint) and were probably attached to pins and used as ring-brooches. A curious object like a doubly coiled bangle with the coils adherent and ornamented with zig-zag lines is supposed to have been the rim of an oval brooch (No. 15). (e) A plain but elegantly shaped drinking-cup of thin bronze (No. 10) has neither handle nor any marks of rivets. (f) Among minor things are a couple of bronze pins, one with a round top and the other with a small ring; also a rude finger ring (No. 16), an ornamental stud (No. 21), and a rivet with one side deeply serrated like a cog-wheel (No. 26).

In addition to the above list of objects, all of which may be considered as part of one special and indeed unique group which by some chance found their way into the Lisnacroghera crannog, there are others similar to the usual class of crannog relics; and among these I have noted the following:--

Iron.--Two large iron cauldrons in a fragmentary state; a large curved knife, like that of a hedge-cutter, still retaining its wooden handle; an axe (No. 4), also containing a portion of the handle; an adze (No. 5); a reaping hook; portion of a gunlock, together with various bits of an undefined character.

Beads.--Several coloured and variegated beads (blue, red, and white) (Nos. 11, 12, and 14). One bead is of stone, another large one is of jet, and another of amber (No. 13).

Stone.--One small stone axe of a dark colour and wedge-shaped, some elongated four-sided hones, hammer-stones, etc.; a few flint flakes, and rude arrow-points.

Pottery.--A few fragments of coarse earthenware, indicating large wide-mouthed vessels.

Miscellaneous.--A portion of "bog-butter" bearing the impression of a coarse cloth. Several pieces of wood with round and square-cut holes.

LOUGH MOURNE.

In consequence of the partial drainage of Lough Mourne during the summer of 1882, while its basin was being converted into a reservoir for the supply of water to the town of Belfast, two artificial islands became exposed which were at once recognised to be the remains of submerged lake-dwellings. Shortly after exposure I visited them in company with Mr. Robinson, the assistant engineer to the Belfast waterworks, and subsequently recorded my observations in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (B. 439), of which the following is a short abstract.

The first, which was easily accessible on foot, was very much disturbed by the repeated "howkings" of visitors. Its form, as determined by the area containing the stumps of piles, was irregularly circular, but nowhere exceeding 60 feet in diameter. Included within this area were four small separate elevations, composed of a few stones, clay, and ashes interspersed with burnt twigs and bits of charcoal. None of these elevations had as large a diameter as 10 feet, and it only required one turn over of the spade to reach the undisturbed bed of the lake. Digging on these so-called islets, and in the spaces around them, I found stumps of upright piles and fragments of burnt faggots, the latter forming a thin layer over the true lake-sediment. The piles were closely set, about one or one and a half foot apart, and uniformly occupied the whole area of the dwelling without any appearance of circular stockades; nor was there any semblance of a fascine-structure indicating an artificially constructed island. From the margin or outskirts of the area occupied by these piles a double row of stumps extended towards the shore, which, on being traced, were found to have stopped half way to the ordinary water-level mark. The conclusion which I came to was that this lacustrine dwelling was a true palafitte, over whose wooden platform two or three hearths were constructed of incombustible materials, as stone and clay. Probably these hearths would have been surrounded by some kind of huts. During the conflagration which had destroyed the entire wooden structures (of which final catastrophe there appeared little doubt from the amount of burnt faggots and beams that lay scattered over the lake bed all over the area containing piles), the materials of these hearths would ultimately drop down to the bottom of the lake, still, however, retaining their relative position, and so present the appearance of low mounds over the bed of the lake with the stumps of their supporting piles penetrating them.

Among the relics recorded from this lake-dwelling are "two small stone crucibles" (B. 320), an iron hatchet, part of a canoe, a hammer-stone, a rubbing-stone, two small urns (?), part of a large crucible, charred bones, teeth, shells of hazel-nuts. (B. 439, p. 324.) Flint flakes, scrapers, and arrow-points have been found in the vicinity along the shore, but on the crannog itself only a quantity of fine chips was discovered. Some of these relics I saw in the possession of a young man of the name of Macdonald, who lived in the neighbourhood and took an active part in searching for relics. The iron hatchet turned out to be of exceptional interest. It is a socketed celt, with a loop at one side for fixing the handle, part of which was still remaining in the socket. (=Fig. 125=, No. 1.) Bronze celts of this description are, of course, very common, but specimens made of iron are extremely rare, especially in the British Isles, and only exceptionally to be seen in the museums of Europe. This is the only one hitherto recorded from a British lake-dwelling, and, moreover, it is, as regards size and form, quite unique. It measures 6¾ inches long and 3¼ inches broad immediately above the cutting edge. The longest diameter of the socket is 2½ inches, and this breadth is continued for about two-thirds of its length, except where the loophole causes it to bulge outwards.

One of the crucibles, which I believe is now presented to the Belfast Museum, is rather peculiar in having a short projecting handle (No. 2).

It would thus appear that the inhabitants of this lake-dwelling practised the art of metallurgy, which would entail at least one fire-proof furnace, and thus partly account for the existence of so many hearths on such a small area.

The second dwelling was about 150 yards from the shore, in deep water, and lying over a great depth of quaking mud. It was a small example of the ordinary stockaded island, but owing to the softness of the mud and oozing of water no satisfactory investigation could be undertaken. Mr. Robinson calculates the extent of its submergence at 15 feet. Its entire surface was occupied by a heap of stones which gave it the appearance of a hillside cairn. Digging underneath these stones we came upon a thick bed of heather and brackens interspersed with beams and brushwood. Near the margin were to be seen a few piles and beams rudely mortised, from which one or two long beams radiated towards the centre like the spokes of a wheel.

In the first described lake-dwelling no submergence could have taken place, as the lake bottom was composed of compact sand in which the piles had a firm hold.

In different parts of the lake two single-tree canoes were found embedded in the mud, both of which are now preserved in the Belfast Museum. One is a plain trough of a rectangular shape with slightly sloping sides, measuring 12½ feet long, 2½ wide and 9 inches deep (No. 3). Its flat base is perforated with six circular holes ¾ inch in diameter. The other is pointed at both ends, and altogether much more artistic in its structure. It was originally about 13 feet long and 3½ feet wide, but the fore-part is considerably damaged. The stern portion is here figured (No. 4). It had two seats formed of neat planks of oak, seven inches broad, and supported on projecting ledges on each side cut out of the solid, as shown in the section No. 6. The seats (No. 5) were kept in position by two wooden pins at each end which penetrated into the solid supports. For the oars there were also two arrangements on each side consisting of perforated projections left out of the solid as shown on the margin of the portion here sketched. But the most remarkable feature of this canoe consists of four prominences with abrupt edges (also left in the solid) for the feet of the rowers, as seen in the illustration. The distances from the centre of the seats to their corresponding foot marks were 33 and 34 inches respectively.

LIST OF IRISH CRANNOGS ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, WITH NOTES AND REFERENCES.

Aconnick Lough, co. Cavan. B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Acrussel Lough, co. Fermanagh. B. 444, p. 187. Allen Lough, co. Leitrim. B. 9, p. 45. [75]Aghakilconnel Lough, co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Aghnamullen ("Glebe Island"), co. Monaghan. B. 93b, p. 229. [76]Annagh Lough, two crannogs, between King and Queen's County. B. 149, p. 154. Annagh, parish of Kilbarron, co. Tipperary. B. 444, p. 212. Ardakillen, four crannogs. B. 13, p. 208, and Ap. p. 48; B. 18, p. 230. [77]Ardmore Bay, submarine crannog, co. Waterford. B. 329, p. 61, and B. 330, p. 154. Arrow Lough, co. Sligo, several stone islands near the Abbey of Ballindoon. B. 444, p. 245. Aughlish, about five miles from Enniskillen, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, pp. 323. Ballaghmore, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 322. Ballinafad, co. Galway. B. 214, p. 12. [78]Ballinahinch, co. Galway. B. 214, p. 12. Ballinderry, near Moate, co. Westmeath. B. 391, p. 196. Ballinlough, four crannogs, co. Galway. B. 70a. Ballydoolough, five miles from Enniskillen, co. Fermanagh. B. 191, pp. 360 and 569, and B. 217, p. 314. Ballygawley Lake, co. Sligo. B. 444, p. 246. [79]Ballyhoe Lough, two crannogs, near Carrickmacross, co. Monaghan. B. 13, p. 417, and B. 135, p. 8. Ballykinler, co. Down. B. 29, p. 86. Ballylough Baile-an-Locha. "Annals of the Four Masters," B. 27, p. 193, and B. 438, p. 168. Ballywoolen, co. Down. B. 29, p. 86. Bohermeen, co. Meath. B. 444, p. 82. Bola Lough, co. Galway, lake stone-dwelling. B. 214, p. 11. [80]Breagho, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 322. Camlough, co. Armagh. B. 444, p. 178. [81]Cargaghoge, Barony of Farney, co. Monaghan. B. 162, p. 269, and vol. v., 4th S., p. 330. Castleforbes, co. Longford. B. 24, p. 150. Castlefore Lough, two crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. p. 43; B. 438, p. 409. Clogherny, co. Tyrone. B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 649. [82]Cloncorick Castle L., co. Leitrim. B. 440, p. 408. Cloneygonnell L. (Tonymore), three crannogs, co. Cavan. B. 60. Cloonbo L., two crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Cloonboniagh L., co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. p. 43, and B. 438, p. 408. Cloonfinnen L., co. Leitrim. Ibid., and B. 438, p. 408. Cloonfinlough, two crannogs, co. Roscommon. B. 13, p. 208, and Ap. p. 40. Cloonfree, two crannogs. Ibid., p. 219, and Ap. p. 48. Cloonturk L., two crannogs, co. Leitrim. Ibid., Ap. p. 43. [83]Cloughwater Bog, near Ballymena, co. Antrim. B. 148, p. 21. Coal Bog (Kilnamaddo), near Boho, co. Fermanagh. Jour. Arch. Association, xxxvi. p. 271; B. 345, p. 66. Coolcranoge, co. Limerick. B. 444, p. 28. Corcreevy (Loch-Laoghaire) co. Tyrone. "Annals of the Four Masters," B. 13, p. 215. Corrib L., a few lake stone-dwellings, co. Galway. B. 214, p. 11. [84]Cornagall L., co. Cavan. B. 191a, p. 461. [85]Cornaseer, co. Cavan. B. 438, p. 148. Craigywarren, co. Antrim. B. 444, p. 110. Crannagh MacKnavin, co. Leitrim. B. 18, p. 233. Crannagh Lough, co. Antrim. B. 24, p. 157. Crannog-na-n-Duini, co. Donegal. B. 18, p. 233. Crannog-boy, parish of Inishkeel, co. Donegal. B. 444, p. 28. Crannog Mac Samhradhain, co. Cavan. "Annals of the Four Masters.," B. 9, p. 45. Creenagh L., two crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 438, p. 408. Cullina, near Maryborough, Queen's County. B. 444, p. 210. [86]Currygrane L., two crannogs, co. Longford. B. 443, p. 410. Derreen L., co. Roscommon. B. 13, Ap. p. 62. Derreskit L., co. Cavan. B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Drumaleague L., two crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 18; B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Drumdarragh or Trillick, co. Fermanagh. B. 441; B. 217, p. 324. [87]Drumgay, three crannogs and one stone-island, co. Fermanagh. B. 189, p. 232, and B. 217, p. 314. [88]Drumkeery L., near Bailieborough, co. Cavan, B. 57, p. 483. [89]Drumkelin, parish of Inver, co. Donegal. B. 3, p. 361. [90]Drumlane, eight miles from Cavan, two crannogs, co. Cavan. B. 438, p. 149. Drumskimly, three crannogs, co. Fermanagh. B. 189, p. 583, and B. 217, p. 320. [91]Drumsloe, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 321. Effernan, co. Clare. B. 346, p. 336. Eyes Lough, six crannogs, co. Fermanagh. B. 189, p. 553 and B. 217, p. 317. Faughan L., co. Down. B. 24 and 25; B. 18, p. 158. Fort L., co. Donegal. B. 444, p. 181. Funshinagh L., co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Galbally, co. Tyrone, B. 217, p. 197. Glencar L., five crannogs, co. Sligo and Leitrim. B. 444, p. 243. Gortalough, co. Fermanagh. B. 346, p. 336. Grantstown, co. Queen. B. 93, p. 228. Guile L., co. Antrim. B. 148, p. 20. Gur L., co. Limerick. Evans' "Ancient Bronze Implements, etc.," p. 436; B. 18, p. 223. Hackett Lough (L. Cimbe), co. Galway. "Annals of Lough Cé," 1067; B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 654; B. 18, p. 230. Hilbert L., Goromna Island, a lake stone-dwelling, co. Galway. B. 214. Inishrush (Green Lough), co. Derry. B. 25, p. 212. Joristown, in the river Deal, co. Westmeath. B. 13, Ap. p. 55, and B. 444, p. 205. Kilglass L. B. 13, Ap., p. 48. Killynure, near Enniskillen, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 323. Kilmore L., two crannogs, co. Monaghan. B. 13, Ap. p. 43. Kilknock L., co. Antrim. B. 24, p. 153. Knockany (Lough Cend), co. Limerick. B. 444, p. 156. Lagore, or Dunshaughlin, co. Meath. B. 175, p. 462; B. 14, p. 35; B. 18; B. 4, p. 425; B. 10, p. 101. Lane L., co. Roscommon. Cal. State Papers Ireland, vol. 156, p. 374. Lankhill, near Enniskillen, co. Fermanagh. B. 441, p. 372. Leesborough L., co. Monaghan. B. 13, p. 43. Lenaghan, co. Fermanagh. B. 444, p. 188. Lisanisk, co. Monaghan. "The island Ever McCooley's house"; B. 18, p. 231; B. 9, p. 46, and B. 8, p. 94. Lisnacrogliera, near Broughshane, co. Antrim. B. 411. Lochanacrannog, co. Sligo. B. 444, p. 246. [92]Loughran's Island ("Innis-an-Lochan"), in the river Bann, near Coleraine, co. Antrim. B. 13, p. 417; B. 27, p. 192. Loughannaderriga, Achille Island, co. Mayo. B. 444, p. 230. Loughinsholin, co. Derry. B. 18, p. 233; B. 25, p. 157. Loughavarra, co. Antrim. Ulster J. Arch., vol. vii. p. 192; "Annals of the Four Masters," 1544. Loughavilly, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 321; B. 346, p. 332. [93]Lochlea, three crannogs, co. Roscommon. B. 13, Ap. pp. 48 and 61; B. 18, p. 29. Lough-na-Glack, co. Monaghan. B. 9, p. 46. Lough Cam, lake stone-dwelling, co. Galway. B. 214, p. 12. Loughmagarry, co. Antrim. B. 24, p. 156. [94]Loughtamend ("Louglitoman"), co. Antrim. Ibid., p. 155. Loughtown, co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. 43. Loughrea, four crannogs, co. Galway, B. 58, p. 412. Lough Oughter, three or more crannogs, co. Cavan. B. 438, p. 151. Lynch Lough ("Loch-Leith-innsi"), co. Antrim. B. 27, p. 193. Mac Hugh L., two crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap. p. 43, and B. 440, p. 408. Macnean L., three crannogs, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 323. Mac Nevin (Mac Cnaimhain) crannog, co. Galway. B. 70, p. 176. Manorhamilton, co. Leitrim. B. 25, p. 346, and B. 18, p. 552. Marlacoo, co. Armagh. R. H. A. A., vol. vi., 4th S., p. 432. Mask L., Hag's Castle, lake stone-dwelling. B. 214, p. 11. Melvin L. (Melge), between co. Fermanagh and Leitrim. "Annals of the Four Masters"; B. 18, p. 231, and B. 13, p. 215. Moinenoe, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 322. Monaincha, co. Tipperary. B. 444, p. 212. Monalty, half a mile from Carrickmacross, co. Monaghan. B. 8, p. 94, and B. 9, p. 46. Monea, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 318. Mongavlin, co. Donegal. "Annals of Lough Cé"; B. 444, p. 151. Monnachin L., co. Monaghan. Ibid., p. 151. Mourne L., two crannogs, co. Antrim. B. 390, pp. 194 and 371, and B. 439, p. 321. Moynagh L., co. Meath. Notes by Col. Wood-Martin. Muickeanagh L. (Lough Leisi), co. Roscommon. B. 18, p. 230. Mucknoe L., co. Monaghan. B. 444, p. 151. Muintir Eolais, co. Leitrim. "Annals of the Four Masters"; B. 18, p. 231; B. 9, p. 45. Nahinch L., Tipperary and King's County. B. 70b; Wakefield's "Ireland," vol. i. p. 94. Naneevin L., co. Galway. B. 118, p. 31. Ooney L. ("Loch-n-Uithne"), co. Monaghan. "Annals of Lough Cé"; B. 444, p. 156. Owel L., co. Westmeath. Pro. R. I. A., vol. ix. p. 210. Pad or Boat L., near Lough Eyes, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 318. Ravel L., "Derryhollow," "Aghaloughan," near Randalstown, co. Antrim. B. 24 and 25; B. 148, p. 22; B. 215, pp. 74 and 194; Kilk. A. S., 2nd S., vols. iii. p. 88, and iv. p. 36. [95]Rahan's L., near Carrickmacross, co. Monaghan. K. A. S., vol. iv., 2nd S., p. 379. Ramor L., co. Cavan. B. 438, p. 152. [96]Rinn L., three or four crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 24, p. 147; B. 440, p. 408. Ross L., near Crossmaglen, co. Armagh. J. R. H. A. As., vol. vi., 4th S., p. 432. Roughan L., near Dungannon, co. Tyrone. B. 438, p. 152. Rouskey L., co. Monaghan. B. 444, p. 151. Scur L., two crannogs, co. Leitrim. "Annals of Lough Cé," 1345, 1390, and 1580; B. 13, Ap. p. 43. B. 18, p. 223. [97]St. John's Lough, four crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 13, Ap., pp. 43 and 59. Talogh L., at Feenagh, several crannogs, co. Leitrim. B. 440, p. 408. The Miracles, co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 319, and B. 346, p. 331. Toome Bar, co. Antrim. B. 92, p. 227. [98]Tully L., three crannogs, co. Cavan. B. 438, p. 150. Tullyline, co. Cavan. B. 13, p. 215. Veagh L., co. Donegal. "Annals," B. 18, p. 231. Yoan L., co. Fermanagh. B. 217, p. 324.

II.--SCOTTISH LAKE-DWELLINGS OR CRANNOGS.

It was not till after the discoveries on the Continent had attracted universal attention that archæologists began to look for similar remains in Britain. It was then found that early historic references to island forts, and some incidental notices of the exposure of buried islands artificially constructed of wood and stone, and other remains of lacustrine abodes, during the drainage of lochs and marshes in the last and early part of this century, had been entirely overlooked. The merit of correctly interpreting these remains in Scotland, and bringing them systematically before antiquaries, belongs to the late Joseph Robertson, Esq., F.S.A., Scotland, who read a paper on the subject to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland on the 14th of December, 1857, entitled, "Notices of the Isle of the Loch of Banchory, the Isle of Loch Canmor, and other Scottish examples of the artificial or stockaded islands, called crannogs in Ireland, and Keltischen Pfahlbauten in Switzerland."

Mr. Robertson's paper, though not published, at once attracted attention, and stimulated so much further inquiry on the part of the members, that, at the very next meeting of the Society, another contribution on the subject was read by Mr. John Mackinlay, F.S.A., Scotland (B. 21), from which it appeared that as early as 1812 this gentleman had observed some remains (now surmised to be a crannog) in Dhu Loch, in the island of Bute, which were described in a letter dated the 13th February, 1813. This communication found its way to George Chalmers, Esq., author of "Caledonia," regarding which, writing on the 26th of April, 1813, he says:--"It goes directly to illustrate some of the obscurest antiquities of Scotland. I mean the wooden castles, which belong to the Scottish period when stone and lime were not much used in building. I will make proper use of this discovery of Mr. Mackinlay." In 1863, Dr. John Grigor, of Nairn, described "two ancient lake-dwellings or crannoges in the Loch of the Clans, Nairnshire." (B. 55.) The remains, however, were too imperfect to be of value in illustrating their structure, and the only relics found were a portion of a small stone cup or lamp, two whetstones, an iron axe-head, and some charcoal and bits of bone.

A more important discovery, made about the same time, was a group of artificial islands in Loch Dowalton, Wigtownshire, which were first described by his Grace the Duke of Northumberland (then Lord Lovaine) in a paper read at the Newcastle-upon-Tyne meeting of the British Association in 1863. (B. 56.) About two years later Mr. John Stuart, Secretary to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, visited Dowalton, and, owing to a greater drainage of the loch having been made in the interval, was enabled to re-examine the Dowalton islands under more favourable circumstances. The result of his labours was an elaborate paper to the Society, in which he gave a detailed account of the structure and relics of these crannogs, and also took the opportunity of incorporating into his article all the facts he could glean, so as to afford a basis for comparing the Scottish examples with those in other countries. (B. 94.)

Since the publication of Dr. Stuart's paper in 1866, little progress was made in the investigation of Scottish crannogs, though traces of them were occasionally noticed in various parts of Scotland, till the discovery and examination of the Lochlee crannog, Ayrshire, in 1878-9. The work done at Lochlee was important, not only because of the varied collection of relics secured, but also on account of the interest it had excited in archæological research, the fruit of which has already been reaped by the discovery of no less than five other lake-dwellings in the south-west of Scotland, all of which have now been carefully investigated. Full details of these investigations are given in the Collections of the Ayrshire and Galloway Archæological Association, as well as in my recent work on the "Scottish Lake-Dwellings." (B. 331, 344, 373, and 426.)

While such general indications of lake-dwellings can hardly be said to limit their geographical distribution to any given area in Scotland, it is a singular fact that, so far as the discovery of actual remains illustrative of the civilisation and social condition of their occupiers is concerned, we are almost entirely dependent on the investigations made at Dowalton, Lochlee, Lochspouts, Buston, Airrieoulland, Barhapple, and Friar's Carse, all of which are situated within the counties of Ayr, Dumfries, and Wigtown. In instituting a comparison between the relics of these respective groups their resemblance is so wonderfully alike that we have no difficulty in dispensing with the necessity of discussing the merits of each group separately; so that whatever inferences can be legitimately derived from a critical examination of any one group may be safely applied to the whole.

As a preliminary to this inquiry the following details of the investigation of lake-dwellings in Scotland will, I trust, be sufficient to give general readers a tolerably correct notion of the social conditions and environments of the people whose history, solely from an archæological standpoint, it is our object here to pourtray.

DOWALTON.

The loch of Dowalton was of an irregular form, about 1½ mile long, and about three-quarters of a mile in greatest breadth, and without any marked outfall for drainage. Sir William Maxwell effected this by making a cut, 25 feet deep, through the wall of whinstone and slate which closed it in at its south-eastern boundary. When the waters were allowed to run off in the summer of 1863 no less than five artificially constructed islands became visible. One of these had a cairn of stones on it which always remained above water, and was known as the "Miller's Cairn," from the fact of its having been used, like the Nilometer, to measure the quantity of water in the lake, and thereby to regulate its supply to neighbouring mills. "On approaching the cairn," says Dr. Stuart, "the numerous rows of piles which surrounded it first attracted notice. These piles were formed of young oak-trees. Lying on the north-east were mortised frames of beams of oak, like hurdles, and, below these, round trees laid horizontally. In some cases the vertical piles were mortised into horizontal bars. Below them were layers of hazel and birch branches, and under these were masses of ferns, the whole mixed with large boulders, and penetrated by piles. Above all was a surface of stone and soil, which was several feet under water till the recent drainage took place. The hurdle frames were neatly mortised together, and were secured by pegs in the mortise holes. On one side of the island a round space of a few feet in size appeared, on which was a layer of white clay, browned and calcined as from the action of fire, and around it were bones of animals and ashes of wood.... Lines of piles, apparently to support a causeway, led from it to the shore." (B. 94.)

The other islands were constructed in a similar manner, and of like materials. The largest and farthest from the shore measured twenty-three yards in diameter, and its surface was three feet lower than that of the others. Several canoes and bronze dishes were found in the mud in the vicinity of these islands, and in making excavations on them many relics and broken bones were collected, of which the following is a list as far as known up to the present time:--

RELICS FROM THE CRANNOGS IN LOCH DOWALTON.

Metal.--"Pot or patella of yellowish-coloured bronze (=Fig. 126=), with a handle springing from the upper edge, 7 inches in length, on which is stamped the letters P. CIPIPOLIBI. At the farther extremity is a circular opening. The bottom is ornamented with five projecting rings, and measures in diameter 6 inches; it is 8 inches in diameter across the mouth; the inside appears to be coated with tin, and has a series of incised lines at various distances. The vessel is ornamented on the outside opposite to the handle by a human face in relief, surrounded by a movable ring, which could be used in lifting the pot." (B. 94, p. 109.)

A bronze basin, measuring 10 inches in diameter and 4 inches in depth, shows several patches or mendings (=Fig. 127=). It is formed of several separate pieces of sheet-metal riveted together, and appears to have had an iron handle.

Two bronze dishes, hammered out of the solid. One measures 12 inches in diameter and 4 inches in depth. The other has the same diameter as the former, but is 1 inch less in depth, and has a turned-over rim 1 inch in breadth (=Fig. 128=).

A bronze ring, having attached to it a portion of the vessel of which it had been a handle (=Fig. 129=).

A penannular brooch and a circular ornament, with trumpet-shaped spaces, probably intended for enamel[99] (=Fig. 130=). Also a small ring, a fragment of bronze, and iron slag.

Three iron hammers or axe-hammers (=Fig. 131=).

Glass.--Two beads of earthenware of a ribbed pattern, showing traces of a green glaze; one of vitreous paste of a whitish colour, with red spots; half of another bead of white glass, streaked with blue; and a large bead, 1¼ inch in diameter, of a somewhat remarkable character. The latter has in the central perforation a tube of bronze, and the edge of both sides of the perforation is ornamented by three minute bands of twisted yellow glass, while the body is of blue glass, of a ribbed pattern (=Fig. 132=).

Several portions of armlets of glass. Half of one is of white glass, and streaked with blue. Others are of a yellowish or whitish colour (=Fig. 132=). A small portion of blue glass.

Leather.--Portion of a leather shoe, 7 inches in length, nearly covered with ornamental stamped patterns (=Fig. 133=).

Stone.--A thin flat stone, of a rectangular shape and highly polished, is supposed to have been used as a mirror; five querns, a flake of yellow flint, and several whetstones.

Wood.--Five canoes, measuring from 18 feet to 25 feet in length, and from 2 feet 7 inches to 4 feet 2 inches in breadth. Dr. Stuart describes one as being "25 feet in length, and strengthened by a projecting cross-band towards the centre, left in the solid in hollowing out the inside." A large wooden vessel, roughly cut out of the solid, and a portion of a bowl, with circular grooves made by means of a wood-turner's lathe.

Pottery.--A small fragment of Samian ware and an earthen crucible (=Fig. 134=).

Miscellaneous.--A small shale ring, unfinished, a bead of amber, and a copper coin.

LOCHLEE.

The site of the Lochlee crannog was a small lake, which formerly occupied about nineteen acres of what is now, and has been for many years, arable land, on the farm of Lochlee, near Tarbolton. Before it was artificially drained, some fifty years ago, no one appears to have surmised that a small island, which became visible in the summer-time, and formed a safe habitation for gulls and other sea-birds during their breeding season, had been formerly the residence of man; nor does it appear to have attracted the attention of the poet Burns, who lived on this farm for four years as ploughman to his father, then tenant of the place. The crannog was near the outlet, of the lake, and the nearest land, its southern bank, was about seventy-five yards distant. When the first drainage of the lake was carried out, the wrought woodwork exposed in the drains running through the island, and especially the discovery of two canoes buried in the moss, attracted some attention. It was not, however, till 1878, in consequence of some discoveries during the re-drainage of the locality, that this most important crannog was investigated.

The general appearance which it presented before the excavations were commenced, as seen in =Fig. 135=, was that of a grassy knoll, drier, firmer, and slightly more elevated than the surrounding field. Towards the margin of this mound were seen the tops of a few wooden piles, barely projecting above the grass, which at once suggested the idea that they might be portions of a stockaded island.

The diameter of the island was about one hundred feet; and its superficies was thus occupied:--In the centre was a flat circular area about sixty feet in diameter. Then followed a double line of upright piles from 2 to 3 feet apart. These were bound together by short transverse beams with a hole, generally square, at each end (=Fig. 136=), into which the tops of the uprights penetrated, while others stretched along the circumference forming a firm network. The surface of these horizontal binders was about three feet above the level of the inner area, and thus the stockade presented the appearance of a breastwork. At the north-east corner this arrangement was more perfect than elsewhere (see sketch, =Fig. 137=) and constituted what was supposed to have been a landing stage, as from it a neatly-constructed flooring of wood extended for some yards inwards. Outside the stockade on the north side there was a mass of brushwood and stakes forming a kind of trellis-work, as if intended for further protection to the island. In the centre of the inner area there was a square portion, measuring 39 feet on each side, covered with closely laid beams of split stems of trees having the appearance and size of railway sleepers, which appeared to have been the flooring of a wooden house. This log-pavement (as we called it) had been Surrounded by a wooden wall, the stumps of which then only remained, and a line of similar stumps ran across it, from east to west, thus bisecting the building into two nearly equal compartments. The sides of this wooden foundation looked towards the four cardinal points, and its corners just reached to the surrounding stockades. On the surface of the wooden pavement were found some fragments of curiously worked beams and some large broad boards. Some were grooved and had also square-cut holes, in which both transverse and upright beams could be mortised. (See sketch, =Fig. 138=.) A doorway, the stumps of the sideposts of which were readily distinguished, opened to the south; and in front, but more to the left, was an extensive refuse heap, in which many relics were found. This midden occupied the space between the south margin of the log-pavement and the surrounding stockades--some 10 or 12 feet in breadth by about double that in length.

About the middle of the northern half of the log-pavement was found a remarkable series of four hearths, or fire-places, superimposed one above the other. The lowest was placed a little above the log-pavement, and had a layer of stones, clay, and earth intervening between it and the wood. About one and a half foot higher there was a second hearth; at a similar interval, a third; and at 2½ feet still higher, a fourth. These hearths were formed of small boulders laid closely together, like a stone causeway, embedded in, and surrounded by, a layer of clay (=Fig. 139=). They were oval or circular in shape and about four feet in diameter. The corresponding layers of clay extended considerably beyond the limits of the hearths around which they appeared to form a flooring. The third hearth (counting from below upwards) had been more elaborately constructed than the others, and it was surrounded by a number of stumps of stout uprights which no doubt were the remains of a secondary building, as their lower ends did not penetrate much beyond the level of the hearth. The space underneath the clay bed corresponding to this hearth, and extending downwards to the log-pavement, was, next to the refuse heap, the most prolific in relics. In it were found, about the level of the second fire-place, nearly the entire skeletons of two animals like a goat or sheep, the skulls of which had short horn-cores attached to them.

Gangway.--Beyond the midden, outside the island, the tops of a few piles were detected, and upon making exploratory excavations, these turned out to be the remains of a gangway. As this structure was very peculiar and somewhat comparable to the wooden structures described by Virchow and others in the German Pfahlbauten, I will here quote my original description of it in extenso. (See plan and sections, facing page 416):--

"We commenced this inquiry by excavating a rectangular space, 30 feet long, 16 feet broad, and 3 to 4 feet deep, in the line of direction indicated by the piles, and exposed quite a forest of oak stakes. Other trenches were then made with exactly similar results. The stakes thus revealed did not at first appear to conform to any systematic arrangement, but by-and-by we detected, in addition to six single piles, small groups of three, four, and five, here and there at short intervals. This observation, however, conveyed little or no meaning, so that we could form no opinion as to the manner in which they were used. Up to this point no trace of mortised beams was anywhere to be seen. In all these trenches the stuff dug up was of the same character. First or uppermost was a bed of fine clay rather more than 2 feet thick, and then a soft dark substance formed of decomposed vegetable matter. The source of the latter was evident from the occurrence in its upper stratum of large quantities of leaves, some stems, branches, and the roots of stunted trees in situ. The tops of the piles in the trench next the crannog were from 2 to 3 feet below the surface of the field, but they rose gradually as we receded from the crannog, and in the trench next the shore one or two were found on a level with the grass. About 4 feet deep the stuff at the bottom of the trench was so soft that a man could scarcely stand on it without sinking ankle-deep. It was not nearly so heavy as the upper strata, but more adhesive, and of a nutty-brown colour, which, on exposure, quickly turned dark. Notwithstanding the flabbiness of this material, the piles felt quite firm, and this fact, together with the experience derived from our examination of the deeper structures of the island, led to the supposition that the piles must terminate in some more solid basis than had yet been made apparent. To remove all doubts on this point, though a long iron rod could be easily pushed downwards without meeting any resistance, we ordered a large deep shaft to be dug in the line of the piles, and the cutting nearest the crannog was selected for this purpose. This was accomplished with much difficulty, but we were amply rewarded by coming upon an elaborate system of woodwork, which I found no less difficult to comprehend than it now is to describe. The first horizontal beam was reached about 7 feet deep, and for other 3 feet we passed through a complete network of similar beams, lying in various directions. Below this--i.e. 10 feet from the surface--the workmen could find no more beams and the lake silt became harder and more friable. We then cleared a larger area, so as, if possible, to exhibit the structural arrangement of the woodwork. The reason of grouping the piles now became apparent. The groups were placed in a somewhat zig-zag fashion near the sides of the gangway, and from each there radiated a series of horizontal beams, the ends of which crossed each other and were kept in position by the uprights. One group was carefully inspected. The first or lowest beam observed was right across, the next lay lengthways and of course at right angles to the former, then three or four spread out diagonally like a fan, and terminated in other groups at the opposite side of the gangway, and lastly, one again lay lengthways. Thus each beam raised the level of the general structure the exact height of its thickness, though large lozenge-shaped spaces remained in the middle quite clear of any beams. The general breadth of the portion of this unique structure examined was about 10 feet (but an isolated pile was noticed farther out), and its thickness varied from 3 to 4 feet. A large oak plank, some 10 feet long, showing the marks of the sharp-cutting instrument by which it was formed, was found lying on edge at its west side, and beyond the line of piles, but otherwise no remains of a platform were seen. All the beams and stakes were made of oak, and so thoroughly bound together that, though not a single joint, mortise, or pin was discovered, the whole fabric was as firm as a rock. No relics were found in any of the excavations along the line of this gangway." (B. 373, pp. 99-101.)

Structure of the Island.--Having now collected the chief facts regarding the log-pavement, its surrounding structures and superincumbent materials, we determined to sink a shaft about the centre of the crannog for the purpose of ascertaining, if possible, the thickness, composition, and mode of structure, of the island itself. This shaft was rectangular in form, and large enough to allow three men to work in it together. (See plan and sections, page 416.) After removing the three or four layers of oak planks which constituted this portion of the log-pavement, we came upon a thin layer of brushwood, and then large trunks of trees laid in regular beds or layers, each layer having its logs lying parallel to each other, but transversely or sometimes obliquely to those of the layer immediately above or below it. At the west end of the trench, after removing the first and second layers of the log-pavement, we found part of a small canoe hollowed out of an oak trunk, evidently part of an old worn-out one, thus economised and used instead of a prepared log. Much progress in this kind of excavation was by no means an easy task, as it was necessary to keep two men constantly pumping the water which copiously flowed from all directions into the trench, and even then there always remained some at the bottom. As we advanced downwards we encountered layer upon layer of the trunks of trees with the branches closely chopped off, and so soft that the spade easily cut through them. Birch was the prevailing kind of wood, but, occasionally, beams of oak were found with holes at their extremities, through which pegs of oak penetrated into other holes in the logs beneath. One such peg, some three or four inches in diameter, was found to pass through no less than four beams in successive layers, and to terminate ultimately in a round trunk over thirteen inches in diameter. One of the oak beams was extracted entire, and measured 8 feet 3 inches in length and 10 inches in breadth, and the holes in it were 5 feet apart. Others had small round projecting bars, which fitted into mortised holes in adjacent beams. Down to a depth of about four feet the logs ware rudely split, but below this they were round rough trunks, with the bark still adhering to them. Their average diameter would be from six inches to one foot, and amongst them were some curiously gnarled stems occasionally displaying large knotty protuberances. Of course, in the act of digging the trench the wood was cut up into fragments, and, on being uncovered, its fibres had a natural and even fresh-like appearance, but in a few minutes after exposure to the air the freshly cut pieces became as black as ink. Amongst the débris thrown up from a depth of 6 feet below the log-pavement I picked up the larger portion of a broken hammer-stone or polisher, which, from the worn appearance presented by its fractured edges, must have been used subsequently to its breakage. After considerable labour, when indeed the probability of total discomfiture in reaching the bottom was freely talked of, our most energetic foreman at last announced, after cutting through a large flat trunk 14 inches thick, that underneath this he could find no trace of further woodwork. The substance removed from below the lowest logs consisted of a few twigs of hazel brushwood, embedded in a dark, firm, but friable and somewhat peaty soil, which we concluded to be the silt of the lake deposited before the foundations of the crannog were laid. The depth of this solid mass of woodwork, measuring from the surface of the log-pavement, was 9 feet 10 inches, or about sixteen feet from the surface of the field. Amongst the very last spadefuls pitched from this depth was found nearly one half of a well-formed and polished ring made of shale, the external and internal diameters of which were 3½ and 2 inches respectively.

RELICS FROM LOCHLEE.

Stone.--Several hammer-stones and sling-stones, etc. Five whetstones or hones of the ordinary form. They are made of hard clay-stone or sometimes fine sandstone, and vary in length from 5 to 7 inches. One 6¼ inches long has a groove running nearly its whole length (=Fig. 140=). A large oval pebble of white quartz used as an anvil. A flat circular stone, 3 inches in diameter and 1⅜ inch thick, shaped like a cheese. One stone celt made of a hard mottled greenstone (=Fig. 141=). Five upper and some bits of lower millstones or querns, mostly of granite. The former are all somewhat elongated, with a funnel-shaped hole in the centre and generally a small round hole near the margin, as seen in the accompanying illustration. Two cup-marked stones, one with two concentric circles (=Fig. 141=). One spindle-whorl of stone and three of clay (=Fig. 141=). Two flint flakes and one scraper (=Fig. 141=). Several worked portions of stones.

Bone and Horn.--Two chisels, five pointed objects, a small spoon, a needle with its eye in the middle, a small ring, and several worked bits of ribs were of bone. Of horn there were about forty worked pieces--clubs, hooks, bodkins, handles, etc. (=Fig. 142=).

Wood.--A neat trough, like a butcher's tray, cut out of the solid wood (=Fig. 143=). Five dishes turned on the lathe, bowls, plates, a ladle, etc. A piece of ashwood, 5 inches square, having a curious design carved on both sides (=Figs. 144= and =145=). Six club-like implements, a mallet, and a few things apparently intended for agricultural purposes. Five varieties of pegs from five to fourteen inches in length, with heads and sometimes perforations. One here figured is 14 inches long (=Fig. 136=). Stern-piece of a canoe, a double paddle, portion of a large oar, and three canoes. The paddle and mallet are here figured (=Fig. 146=).

Iron.--An axe-head with a piece of the handle still in the socket (=Fig. 146=); a gouge 8 inches long, and a chisel 10 inches long, both having tangs on which there is a thick ridge to prevent their insertion too far into the handle; two knives with tangs; a small punch, an awl, and other pointed implements; a crosscut saw, in three fragments, together 38 inches in length; a large iron ring; a pair of shears; and a large three-pronged implement of a remarkable character. The last two objects are illustrated on =Fig. 147=. Two spear-heads with sockets and portions of the wooden handle remaining in each. The larger, 13 inches long, has a prominent centre ridge. Five daggers, all with tangs, one of which has a bone handle and a brass ferrule.

Bronze or Brass.--A curious spatula-like object of beaten bronze (=Fig. 147=). Three fibulæ and a ring pin (=Fig. 148=). The square-shaped portion at the top of the latter has a swastika or croix gammée on one side and a cross with four equal arms on the other. A spiral finger-ring with three twists, two portions of stout wire, and an object of unknown use.

A bridle-bit having the centre-piece of iron and the side-pieces partly of iron and partly of bronze--the rings being iron and the looped portion bronze (=Fig. 149=).

Lead.--One round knob like the hilt of a handle.

Pottery.--Portion of the bottom of a dish like Samian ware, and five fragments of a whitish unglazed ware with parallel striæ, as if made on the wheel. Fragment of a small crucible.

Glass.--Two beads, one of earthenware of ribbed pattern and coated with green glaze, like those from Dowalton. (See =Fig. 132.=) The other is of green glass, smooth and shaped like dumb-bells.

Leather.--Portion of a shoe and various bits of leather, one being closely set with copper nails (=Fig. 150=).

Miscellaneous.--Three portions of plain jet bracelets; another portion of jet is like part of a button; a boar's tusk worked into a sharp point; lumps of blue and red pigment, and large quantities of the horny coverings of insects like beetles, and one or two brilliant-coloured elytra; one solitary shell (Littorina littorea).

An object which has excited considerable curiosity is an apparatus made like a fringe by plaiting together at one end the long stems of a kind of moss (=Fig. 150=). Portions of similar articles were found in three different parts of the crannog and all deeply buried. One portion of this moss was plaited in four plies and shaped like a cue or pig-tail. It measured 17 inches long and 2 broad in the middle, and tapered to a point.

LOCHSPOUTS.

Lochspouts is a small lake basin, about three miles to the south-west of Maybole, somewhat oval in shape, and ensconced at the base of hilly ground, which encompasses it, except towards the north, where a narrow trap-dike runs across and cuts it off from the open valley beyond. It is thus a natural dam, formed in the face of a declivity, which, beyond the trap-ridge, still continues to slope rapidly downwards for a few hundred yards. No outlet could therefore at any time exist, except along this barrier, and an inspection of its present condition reveals several deep gashes through which at one time the surplus water made its escape. Indeed, some of the oldest inhabitants state that the name "Lochspouts" was given to it because, in former times, during heavy floods, its waters spouted across this ridge at different points. Within the recollection of some of them an artificial cutting was made through the rocky outlet, with the view of utilising its waters for a "walk-mill," an operation which reduced the level of the lake about ten feet, and its area to about two acres. A small island must have then appeared, but, apparently, its nature was unsuspected; and so it remained till 1879, when Mr. James Macfadzean recognised it as the site of an ancient lake-dwelling. This singular and, when surrounded by primeval forests, secluded little lake is now restored to its pristine dimensions; but its water, instead of acting as a defence to an island fortress, or propelling a primitive water-wheel, forms a reservoir for the domestic supply of the town of Maybole. The necessary alterations entailed by this transformation of the home of the crannog-builders--one of which was to clear out the accumulated débris of many a jovial feast in which, judging from the osseous remnants, pigs, oxen, and sheep were no rarity-came very opportunely, as it enabled archæologists to complete an investigation which was in the first instance initiated through the liberality of Sir James Fergusson, the proprietor.

The remains of the crannog, in the form of a low circular mound overgrown with coarse grass, lay at the north side of the lake, near the middle portion of the rocky ridge, and so close to the present margin that it formed a peninsula easily approached on terra firma.

At first the only possible investigation was to remove the débris down to the level of the water, and in the course of this operation the following facts were ascertained:--

(1) Composition of the Mound.--The surface of the mound was composed of coarse grass, having tough matted roots spreading in a thin layer of soil, which overlay about a foot and a half of stones and rubbish, in which no relics were found. Below this the materials were of a very variable character; sometimes vegetable mould, stems of grasses jointed like straw, and beds of heather and moss, which could readily be separated into layers; and at other times heaps of ashes and charcoal mixed with quantities of the shells of whelks, limpets, and hazel-nuts. Intermingled with this heterogeneous mass were large and small stones, broken bones, portions of deer-horns, and various relics. Though several ash-heaps were distinctly discernible in the vicinity of the hearths, no regular refuse-heap was met with; and the broken bones and horns seemed to be dispersed over the general area of the crannog.

(2) Log-Pavement.--About five feet deep (measuring from the centre of the mound), and only a few inches above the level of the surrounding water, there was exposed a rude, imperfect, and irregularly shaped wooden pavement, formed of flattened oak-beams. It covered only the central portion of the area contained within the circle of piles, the rest being laid with branches and stems of trees. On digging beneath this log-pavement large beams and brushwood were generally encountered, but the voluminous gushing up of water prevented reliable observations from being made regarding these deeper structures. Occasionally ashes and charcoal were turned up, and in one spot near the centre, and under my own inspection, the men succeeded in digging downwards more than two feet below the log-pavement before the water oozed up, in the course of which nothing was turned out but pure ashes, bits of charcoal, and large quantities of the shells of limpets and common whelks. At the bottom of this hole were solid oak-beams, apparently flattened; but no sooner were their surfaces exposed than the water rushed in and filled the trench. These observations gave rise to the conjecture that this understratum represented the accumulated débris of another, and, of course, an older, period of human occupancy--a conjecture which also derived some support from the fact that the surface of the log-pavement was on a higher level than the tops of the encircling piles.

(3) Hearths.--Over the log-pavement, and a few yards apart from each other, were three circular hearths, each about five feet in diameter, formed of flat stones embedded in a bed of yellow clay, and raised on a sort of pedestal composed of clay and stones, to the extent of one to one-and-a-half foot. One of them, on being demolished, was found to have been built directly over a former similarly constructed hearth, with an interval of about a foot. These hearths were situated near the centre of the crannog, but on its southern half--i.e. the semicircle farthest from the shore.

(4) Gangway.--On making a few trial trenches in the space directly between the shore and the crannog in search of a gangway, we could find no indications of woodwork. One day, however, my attention was directed to a portion of the log-pavement which looked like a wooden roadway projecting to the margin of the island, and pointing in a north-western direction, towards a prominence in the trap-ridge. Observing also, that, before the lake was lowered, this prominence would be the nearest land to the crannog, it immediately struck me that, if there was a gangway at all, it would be found along this line. Hypothesis was right this time. The adhesive nature of the lake sediment prevented the water from oozing up so quickly as it did on the crannog, so that we were enabled to expose the woodwork several feet below the level of the lake. Close to the crannog the upper beams of the gangway were about three feet below the surface of the grass; but as we neared the shore with the digging they became less buried, and some of the uprights were found even projecting above the ground.

The general plan on which this gangway was constructed appeared to be identical with that adopted by the crannog-builders of Lochlee. Upright piles, singly and in groups, were placed in a zig-zag fashion, between, and from which, the horizontal beams stretched, fan-like, and so formed a sort of latticework, with empty lozenge-shaped spaces between.

From one of these holes, or meshes, some five feet below the surface of the ground, a fine granite quern-stone was extracted. The piles projected some two feet or more above the body of the gangway; but there was no appearance of a subaqueous or superaqueous platform. It would thus appear that its upper transverses were originally under water--a remark equally applicable to the analogous remains at Lochlee--but to what depth the wooden structures reached could not be ascertained.

Further Excavations.--In order to facilitate the projected operations of clearing out the bed of the lake the Engineers of the Maybole Waterworks caused the rocky outlet to be cut down to the extent of 3 feet, which thus enabled them to remove a corresponding section of the crannog. The result of this was to show, as was conjectured from the facts ascertained in the previous explorations, that there was, about 2½ feet underneath the log-pavement and its hearths already described, another habitable zone with its log-pavement, mortised beams, etc., together with various relics of human industry. It would appear that this was the original surface of the crannog, as it corresponded with the surrounding stockades, some of which were found in position. Others were seen among a heap of wood collected from the excavated débris, amongst which were a few of the ordinary transverses containing square-cut holes at their extremities. One thick beam was deeply grooved and resembled the one found at Lochlee. (See =Fig. 138.=) A few large flat planks, having a round handle-like projection some 18 inches long at one end, had only one square-cut hole, placed sometimes close to this handle, and at other times at the opposite extremity. Another stout oak beam, 6 feet long, contained a series of round holes about an inch in diameter, and from 5 to 6 inches apart. The holes, which were on the broad side of the beam, were about two inches in depth, but only penetrated half through it, and from one of them a portion of a wooden pin was extracted. This beam was in a fragmentary condition, being, like many others, partially charred.

RELICS.

Stone.--About a barrowful of hammer-stones and round pebbles from 1 to 6 inches in diameter. Polishers and whetstones also, numerous, the latter sometimes perforated for suspension. Three portions of sandstone had each a circular perforation funnel-shaped on both sides. Twelve quern stones, nearly all made of granite, of which nine or ten are the upper stones. One spindle-whorl 1¾ inch in diameter. Two polished discs, one being the segment of a circle (=Fig. 151=), are supposed to have been used as mirrors. An oval implement with two hollowed surfaces like the one represented on =Fig. 175=; its length is 3¼ inches, breadth 2⅝, and thickness 1 inch. The cup-shaped cavities are too large for mere finger-marks. It is made of a hard grey trap rock and, though well wrought all over, is not polished, nor does it exhibit any markings such as are seen on the ordinary hammer-stones. Two flint scrapers, one of which is here figured (=Fig. 151=).

Bone and Horn.--A pin, chisel (=Fig. 152=), awl, two pointers, and a knife-handle are of bone. Of horn there are also only a few objects, as a pick, club, and some pointed implements of the tines of staghorn.

Wood.--No specific object, except the stave of a vessel like that of a milk cog, was found in the earlier explorations; but from the lowest stratum there were some curious wooden implements. (See B. 373, p. 310.)

Iron.--Articles of iron were very rare and much corroded--only one retained its form sufficiently well to be recognised as a small dagger.

Bronze.--Two curious objects, a key and a spiral of bronze wire, are shown on =Fig. 153=. A small finger-ring. An armlet is said to have been also found, but unfortunately could not be procured for descriptive purposes.

Lead.--A small bead-shaped portion of lead perforated with a round hole is supposed to be a spindle-whorl.

Pottery.--Several fragments of Samian ware, one ornamented (=Fig. 154=). Another kind of earthenware was of light colour, and showed handles and well-formed rims (=Fig. 155=).

Glass.--Two ribbed beads covered with a greenish glaze like those from Loch Dowalton (=Fig. 132=), one of an amber tint beautifully variegated (=Fig. 156=), and another of yellow vitreous paste.

Rock-Crystal.--A conical piece of rock-crystal, polished and evidently ground to its present form, is here shown in outline (=Fig. 156=).

Jet or Lignite.--Several bits showing workmanship; a polished ring 1¼ inch in diameter (=Fig. 156=), and portions of two larger ones, probably bracelets; and a remarkable pendant in the form of an encircled cross (=Fig. 156=). The arms of the cross as well as the surrounding circle are adorned with a succession of incised circles alternating with short lines which are supposed to have been intended for the reception of some kind of enamel.

BUSTON.

About half-way between Stewarton and Kilmaurs there is a shallow basin of meadow-land which formerly, according to Blaeu's Atlas, was the bed of a lake of considerable size called Loch Buston. Within the recollection of the present generation this area was a mossy bog in summer and a sheet of water in winter; and about fifty years ago, when the present tenant, Mr. Robert Hay, came to reside on the farm, there was a small mound situated about its centre known as the Swan Knowe, on account of the number of wild swans that formerly used to frequent it. When subsequently engaged in reclaiming the bog, Mr. Hay states that as many as thirteen cart-loads of timber were removed from the "Knowe," and he distinctly remembers that, in consequence of the difficulty of detaching some of the mortised beams, his father made the remark, "there maun hae been dwellers here at ae time." He also states that until the land was thoroughly redrained, a few years ago, there was still a considerable mound to be seen; but at the beginning of December, 1880, when I first visited the locality, there was hardly any elevation to distinguish it from the surrounding field.

Notwithstanding the havoc committed on the woodwork of the crannog by a long exposure to atmospheric agencies before it finally sank under the protective influence of the muddy water, and subsequently, by the ruthless hands of the agriculturist, there still remained sufficient materials to give one not only a general, but particular and instructive notion of the mechanical principles on which the island and its superincumbent structures were constructed. The general results of the investigation may be categorically summed up as follows:--

1. The island was composed of a succession of layers of the trunks and branches of trees, intermingled in some places with stones, turf, etc.; and the whole mass was firmly knit together by means of upright piles and horizontal beams arranged in three, and in one part four, concentric circles.

2. The outer circle was intended more for protection than for giving stability to the island, and in some parts, as at the east side of the refuse-heap, the piles were closely set with their tops fixed into a transverse beam after the manner of a stair-railing; while those of the inner ones not only penetrated deeply and gave stability to the island, but also were used as part of the wall of the central building.

3. The area enclosed by the stockades was slightly oval in shape, measuring 61 feet by 56, and rudely paved with wooden beams, many of which were firmly fixed to the lower woodwork by stout wooden pegs as well as to the encircling stockades, thus affording here and there, as it were, points d'appui.

4. While there was one general hearth situated near the centre, evidence of one or two fire-places elsewhere was quite conclusive. One of these appeared to have been a smelting-furnace, as it contained flat stones much stained with fire-marks and several masses of heavy slag.

5. The entrance to the central area, which was determined by the stumps of two massive door-posts, had a south-easterly aspect, and in front of it there was a well-constructed wooden platform, made of large oak planks supported on solid layers of wood, to which they were pinned down.

6. Beyond this platform, and separated from it by a massive wooden railing which was continuous with the inner circle of stockades, was the refuse-heap; and to the right a wooden pathway, also protected on its outer side, led downwards and westwards to the outer circle, where there appeared to have been a landing-stage. (See =Figs. 157= and =158=.) About twelve yards in advance of this stage, and 4 feet from the surface of the field, a canoe was found buried in the ancient mud of the lake (=Fig. 159=).

This canoe was 22 feet long, 3 feet 6 inches broad at the stern, widening to about four feet in the middle, and 1 foot 10 inches deep. It is remarkable as showing evidence of having been repaired in two places by neatly fitting pieces of oak planking, which were kept in position by transverse ribs and wooden pins. The stern-piece was movable and fitted into a groove in the sides of the boat. In the mud removed from its interior were a few stones and portion of the skull of an ox.

The refuse-heap occupied an oblong position immediately in front of the southern entrance. It measured some 30 feet long by 15 or 20 broad, and 5 feet deep alongside the above-mentioned railing. Here nearly all the relics and some massive bones were found. These bones were abundantly impregnated with the mineral vivianite, both in its amorphous and crystalline condition, but the specimens of crystals here were much inferior to those from Lochlee. The position of the refuse-heap is seen in the immediate foreground of =Fig. 157=, after the removal of its contents, as a pit partially occupied with water.

The crannog was about one hundred and fifty yards from the nearest shore, and there was no trace of a gangway observed.

LIST OF RELICS.

Stone.--Hammer-stones, polishers, and whetstones were comparatively rare, only some half dozen being found. Among the latter are fragments of a circular grindstone of fine red sandstone, showing a diameter of about fifteen inches, and a large oblong smooth stone perforated at one end.

Two blocks of sandstone with irregularly shaped cavities in each; a third has a large cup-shaped cavity 5½ inches in diameter and 2½ inches deep, and on it are the marks of sharpening tools; hence the cup is supposed to have been for holding water for facilitating the operation of sharpening. Another small fragment has a neatly formed cup-shaped cavity. Two querns, both upper stones; one is of the usual form, but the other is flat and more like a modern millstone. It measures 18 inches across and the central hole is 3 inches in diameter, but not funnel-shaped. For the insertion of a handle there is a square-cut hole near the margin.

Two spindle-whorls, one of which was of cannel coal. Three crucibles, one having particles of gold in its crevices and another the remains of a yellowish slag (=Fig. 160=). One flint knife (=Fig. 160=), two scrapers, two cores, and a few chips.

Bone.--Twenty pins, of which only one was ornamented with a check pattern (=Fig. 161=). One darning-needle (=Fig. 161=). Three round knobs and one curiously worked object. One of the knobs is ornamented with circular lines. Three nearly perfect toilet combs and fragments of others (=Fig. 162=).

Horn.--A polished dagger 7½ inches long, another roughly cut, and a few handles.

Wood.--Fragments of a wooden bowl, ornamented with three incised lines parallel to the rim, which must have been made on a wood-turners lathe; one small fragment had a clasp of thin brass over it as if it had been mended. Portions of an oar, a canoe, a board pierced with holes, and some large pins like those found at Lochlee.

Iron.--Axe-head (=Fig. 163=), a gouge, six knife-blades, all with tangs, a punch, and three awls. Socketed spear-head, ornamented with two groups of circular lines on the socket portion (=Fig. 164=). Three large arrow-points or tips of the crossbow bolt; portion of an ancient kind of padlock;[100] two spiral objects, and a small instrument bifurcated at the point (=Fig. 164=).

Bronze.--A circular brooch (=Fig. 164=), two pins, one with an ornamented stone and a blue bead setting in the top of the head (=Fig. 161=), and several little bits of brass-foil.

Gold.--Two spiral finger-rings, and a small coin, doubled up when found (=Fig. 165=). Regarding this coin, Dr. Evans reports as follows:--

"The two plates of gold seem originally to have formed the shell of an early forgery of a coin, the oxidised core of which forms the contents of the small tube. I thought at first that the substance might be resinous, but I think it is some salt of copper. Some chemist could readily try this [this has since been proved to be a salt of copper]. The coin itself belongs to a class of trientes which have been found almost exclusively in England, and are probably of Saxon origin. See Smith's "Coll. Ant.," vol. i. Pl. xxii. 9. Others were in the Bagshot Heath or Crondale find. See Num. Chron., vi. These probably belong to the sixth or seventh century. The find is of value as helping to assign a date to the crannog." (B. 373, p. 231.)

Glass.--A cylindrically-shaped bead, variegated with three different colours, red and yellow predominating over patches of transparent glass (=Fig. 165=); a tiny bead of yellow paste; a round object of the size of a marble, made of variegated paste, but without any aperture; a flattened drop of a whitish paste about the size of a shilling; one or two bits of dark slag; three fragments of bright-green glass.

Several strips of leather.

Jet.--Fragments of three armlets, and a small ornament like the terminal link of an antique necklace.

Pottery.--Fragment of Samian ware, and fragments of dishes of other pottery.

One portion is here figured showing a curious aperture like the spout of a jug and a neatly formed rim (=Fig. 166=).

AIRRIEOULLAND.

"This crannog," writes Sir H. Maxwell, "is situated in the centre of a peat moss, formerly a lake, and still in most summers and all winters a quaking morass. Towards the centre of this moss, which is about sixty acres in area, there is a circular enclosure 54 feet in diameter, surrounded by a low wall. This is marked in the Ordnance Survey maps as a fort; but no fort, in the ordinary acceptation, could exist in the centre of what had been, at no very great distance of time, a lake. Although no timbers were visible at the time of our visit, the whole surface of the enclosure being green with grass, and the surrounding moss covered with heather and bog plants, its situation and character indicated its true nature to those experienced in lake-dwellings, and a very slight excavation at once confirmed this view. Beginning in the centre, the diggers exposed beneath the shallow layer of vegetable soil the familiar features of a fascine-dwelling. The only novel and most interesting feature in this crannog is the surrounding fence, which, doubtless, was the usual mode of protecting the huts or wigwams of the interior, but which in most crannogs hitherto examined has been reduced by the action of the waves to a shapeless mound or beach of small boulders. Here, however, owing to flat flags having been used, the structure is perfect, surrounding the entire islet to a height of about three feet. The depth of the structure from the surface to the alluvial bed of the lake was 4 feet. The lake bottom, into which the piles were driven, was soft peat, 7 feet deep. The moss around the island had grown since the structure was made to the level of the island; but no deductions could be made from that fact as to the age of the crannog, owing to the varying rate of the growth of moss, and to the uncertainty as to when the lake became filled up and moss ceased to grow. In the wonderfully accurate and laborious map of Timothy Pont, published in 1672, the present moss appears as a lake. Three days' labour sufficed to clear out the greater part of the contents of the enclosure. The chief relics disclosed, besides great quantities of bones of the usual kind, including those of the goat and the roe-deer, were 17 small beads of scarlet vitreous slag (=Fig. 167=), forming a portion of a necklace; a rough shale ring, several excellent hammer and grinding-stones, many quartz pebbles, which had been brought for some unknown reason [sling-stones?] from the seashore, distant about a mile; two broken crucibles (=Fig. 168=), a spinning-whorl of bone or horn. From a depth of three feet, flint flakes, a small jet ring, a portion of a perforated jet ornament, and a remarkable button-like object of bronze (=Fig. 168=)." (B. 426, p. 113.)

BARHAPPLE.

Barhapple ("horse hill") Loch is a small lake some 500 yards long and 300 broad. Here, in 1880, in consequence of drainage operations, a crannog became visible; but, owing to the sponginess of its surface, no effective examination could be carried out. The Earl of Stair, finding that during the summer of 1884 the island had become much drier and harder, made arrangements to have it thoroughly investigated. That the increased firmness and consolidation of the island was due to shrinkage was manifest from the fact that the upright piles, which, when discovered, barely showed above the mud, now projected 2 or 3 feet, and presented the appearance of a decayed forest, with its stunted trunks still standing. It was also observed that this shrinkage extended to all parts of the mossy lake-bed; and, as a consequence of this, two double lines of piles became visible in the long grass, one commencing at the north and the other at the east shore of the lake. Both lines were directed to the crannog, but stopped short of it by some 20 or 30 yards. As to the structure of the crannog, it was remarked that not only the uprights, but the horizontal beams were more methodically arranged, and of a stronger character towards the margin. Here the uprights, many of which were made of young trees of oak and ash, were firmly supported, especially in the outer circle, by the intertwining among them of horizontal timbers. On the north side, in a line with the piles of one of the gangways, a distinct roadway, made of round beams, was traced, running from the margin of the island to the dwelling-house, which was situated on the east side, directly facing the other gangway. In this building two fire-places were recognised, one a little north of the other, and around them was a layer of charcoal from 5 to 12 inches thick, containing the fag-ends of burnt beams, heather, and brushwood. From among these embers some large prepared beams, also partially burnt, were disinterred, two of which terminated in round tenons, having at a little distance from their extremities a raised head or flange. From these and other appearances it was inferred that the crannog had been destroyed by a conflagration during a strong north-west gale, and as there was no evidence of much accumulated débris, it was supposed that this catastrophe occurred shortly after its erection. On making a trench through the island it was found that below the burnt layer there were beds of brushwood, ferns, etc., to a depth of 2 or 3 feet. Beneath this lay the peaty substance of the lake-bottom, through which an iron rod could be readily plunged to the extent of 4 feet, when it struck some hard material, probably rock or silt of the original glacial bottom.

Although this was the largest crannog hitherto found in Scotland, being 157 yards in circumference, it was extremely poor in relics, a fact which may be accounted for by the shortness of its duration. The list of relics includes three shale rings (=Fig. 169=), two of which were only fragments; half a canoe; a broken paddle, and some worked pieces of wood.

WHITE LOCH OF RAVENSTONE.

This small loch, which is within a few minutes' walk of Ravenstone Castle, is surrounded by a broad fringe of marsh and tall reeds. Within this marshy area, and just skirting the water's edge on its western side, there is a flat mound, some 80 feet square and 6 or 7 feet high, having on its surface the ruins of dry stone buildings. These ruins consist of the foundations of walls, a foot or so high, which clearly define the outline of a superstructure divided into five rectangular compartments. This building did not occupy the whole surface of the island, measuring only 55 feet by 47. The mound was composed of large flags and boulders, on the top of which a few trees found a suitable habitat, and no less than four of the compartments were occupied each by the trunk of a venerable looking ash. Upon investigating the base of the mound, piles and the projecting ends of transverse beams were discovered in several places, and the conjectured opinion that the entire mound was built over a substratum of woodwork was conclusively proved by digging a central pit through the only vacant compartment in the stone building. The result of this was to reveal, at a depth of eight feet, a network of beams lying transversely to each other, but to an undetermined depth.

The north or land side of the island showed signs of having been roughly built up with large undressed flags, but the rest of its stony perimeter was quite dilapidated. That the wooden island was inhabited as a crannog, before its level was raised to its present height by the addition of the enormous mass of stones and earth underlying its final buildings, an idea suggested by the discovery of charcoal and the shells of hazel-nuts over the woodwork, is a hypothesis that requires further proofs before it can be accepted as well founded in fact. (B. 426, p. 121.)

FRIAR'S CARSE.

The site of the crannog at Friar's Carse was a small pear-shaped basin situated behind a wooded knoll, close to the Parliamentary road to Dumfries, and in the midst of a well-cultivated but singularly undulating district. By deepening the outlet of this lake to the extent of two feet, a partial drainage was effected, which reduced its area from 10 to 3 acres. It was only then (1878) that it became generally known that a small bushy island near the middle of the loch had been artificially constructed of oak-planks and trunks of trees. As the weather was dry for some weeks previous to our visit, and the water particularly low, we readily stepped on to the island, over what appeared to have been the old bed of the lake, then presenting a hard, crisp, and dried-up surface of aquatic plants. The island was nearly circular in shape, measuring 80 by 70 feet, strongly built, and surrounded by piles, some of which, however, were only visible through the water. The log-pavement, which by this time had been completely bared, was composed of parallel beams of oak, arranged in groups, lying in various directions, and firmly united together by the overlapping and sometimes mortising of their ends. At the margin of the island there was a large quantity of stones, especially on its north side--i.e. the side towards the deepest portion of the lake.

Through these stones, which shelved under the water, a few heads of the surrounding piles projected, some above and some below the water. Mortised holes were here and there to be seen in the horizontal beams, but there was no appearance of a breastwork surrounding the wooden pavement--thus differing from the Lochlee crannog. In the centre were a few ends of uprights, in rectangular rows, seemingly the remains of partitions, one of which I traced for 40 feet in a straight line.

Upon inquiring where the rubbish removed from the island was located, we were informed that it had been wheeled to the west side of the crannog, and heaped up close to where we had stepped on to the island. Here it lay for some days; but one morning, to the great astonishment of the workmen, it was nowhere to be seen. Upon examination, it turned out that the apparently dry bed of the lake was a matted crust of mud and the roots of aquatic plants, which, virtually floating over the water, suddenly gave way under the accumulated weight and so the entire mass of the crannog rubbish disappeared in the water beneath. With this singular, but unfortunate, catastrophe terminated all prospects of finding any more relics. It appears that there was not a great depth of débris on the island, its maximum thickness being only 2 to 3 feet in the centre, where it formed a heap of ashes, charcoal, and some broken bones. Here a few fragments of pottery were found.

A circular portion of the log-pavement, near its centre, was covered with small stones, as if to protect it from fire; some remains of clay-flooring were observed in other parts of the island.

Regarding the deeper structures little can be said. Mr. Nelson attempted to cut a hole through the timber, and, as far as the water allowed the men to penetrate, he saw nothing but layer upon layer of oak-beams lying transversely to each other. Judging, however, from the solidity and firmness of the island, the great size of some of the logs, and the depth of the surrounding water (still about twelve feet a little to the west of the island), the total thickness of this mass of timber cannot be less than 12 or 16 feet.

In Grose's "Antiquities of Scotland"[101] the following reference to this island occurs:--

"Here was a cell dependent on the rich abbey of Melrose, which, at the Reformation, was granted by the Commendator to the Laird of Elliesland, a cadet of the Kirkpatricks of Closeburne. From whom it passed to the Maxwells of Tinwald, and from them to the Barncleugh family, also cadets of the Lords of Maxwell. From whom it went to the Riddells, of Glenriddell, the present possessors. The old refectory, or dining-room, had walls 8 feet thick, and the chimney was 12 feet wide. This old building having become ruinous, was pulled down in 1773, to make way for the present house.

"Near the house was the Lough, which was the fishpond of the friary. In the middle of which is a very curious artificial island, founded upon large piles and planks of oak, where the monks lodged their valuable effects when the English made an inroad into Strathnith."

The relics collected during the operations above recorded are very few. A canoe 22 feet long, and a ponderous axe-hammer head of whinstone (=Fig. 170=) were found at some distance from the crannog. Two handles of jars with traces of a yellowish glaze, some fragments of pottery ornamented with rows of pitted impressions (=Fig. 171=), a circular stone polisher, and an oval-shaped mass of vitreous paste, are all that were found on the crannog itself.

STONE LAKE-DWELLINGS AND OTHER ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS.

But besides the wooden islands there are others, still extant in several of our Scottish lakes, which appear to be composed entirely of stones and earth irregularly heaped together. In the absence of any historical knowledge as to their age there is no prima facie reason why some of these should not be contemporary with the former, as it cannot be assumed that the crannog-builders made wood a sine quâ non in the structure of islands. There were, no doubt, certain stagnant marshes and small lochs in which a wooden foundation was essential for the construction of an island, owing to the softness and yielding nature of the mud; but, on the other hand, there were others with compact rocky or gravelly beds, in which any solid materials, as stones, earth, turf, etc., would be equally applicable. The outlets of the larger lakes, more especially such as were formed in glacial and rock-cut basins, were more adapted for the latter, and as far as my observations have enabled me to form an opinion, these are the very situations in which the lake stone-dwellings abound. Some of them are mere shapeless cairns, without any indications of having been formerly inhabited, while on others some remains of stone buildings are to be seen. As to wooden huts or houses, had such structures ever been erected on them, it is not likely that they could, for any length of time, have resisted the decaying tendencies of atmospheric agencies, so that all traces of them would have disappeared long ago.

The social or military exigencies that led people to construct artificial islands would also lead them to take advantage of such natural ones as would be found most suitable, and we may reasonably infer that it is in the absence of the latter that the former would be resorted to. The great and primary object of the island-builder was the protection afforded by the surrounding lake or morass, the securing of which has continued to be the ruling principle in the erection of defensive works down to the Middle Ages, long after the wooden islands ceased to be constructed. The transition from the crannog to the massive mediæval castle, with its moat and drawbridge, is but a stage in the progressive march of civilisation.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SCOTTISH LAKE-DWELLINGS.

To these remarks on the structural details of a few typical crannogs, as disclosed by systematic research, I subjoin a tabulated list of all the sites hitherto recognised in Scotland, comprising not only the artificial islands, whether of wood or other materials, but also some natural ones known to have been artificially strengthened, as well as a few examples of castles, etc., now or formerly located in bogs or drained marshes.

LIST OF SCOTTISH CRANNOGS ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, WITH NOTES AND REFERENCES.

N.B.--An obelisk (†) before a name in this text indicates that the island is, in whole or in part, constructed of wood. N.S.A. or O.S.A. stand for New or Old Statistical Account of Scotland.

†Achilty L., co. Ross. N. S. A., vol. xiv. p. 238. Achray L., co. Perth. B. 94, pp. 172-7. †Airrieoulland, co. Wigtown. B. 426. Ard L., co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. x. p. 130. [102]†Arisaig L., co. Inverness. B. 150, p. 576. †Banchory (L. of the Leys), co. Aberdeen. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. i. p. 26; vol. vi. p. 126. †Barean L., co. Kirkcudbright. B. 373, p. 37, and Dumf. and G. N. H. Soc., 1865. †Barhapple L., co. Wigtown. "Ayr and Wig. Col.," vols. iii. and v.; B. 373; B. 192. [103]†Barlockhart L., co. Wigtown. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xi. p. 583; vol. xv. p. 267. †Barnsallzie L., co. Wigtown. Ibid., vol. ix. p. 377. Battleknowes, co. Berwick. N. S. A., vol. ii. p. 171. [104]†Black Cairn, Beauly Firth, co. Ross. "Hill Forts and Stone Circles of Scotland," p. 89; N. S. A., vol. xvii. p. 350. †Boghall (Beith), co. Ayr. N. S. A., vol. v. p. 580. Borgue, co. Kirkcudbright. N. S. A., vol. iv. p. 54. Brora L., co. Sutherland. O. S. A., vol. x. p. 303; N. S. A., vol. xv. p. 151. [105]†Bruich L. (Beauly), co. Ross. B. 442. †Buston, co. Ayr. "Ayr and Wig. Col.," vol. iii.; B. 373. †Canmor (Kinord) L., co. Aberdeen. B. 94, pp. 167-71. [106]†Carlingwark L., two crannogs, co. Kirkcudbright. O. S. A., vol. viii. p. 304; B. 94, p. 126; Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. vii. p. 7, and x. p. 286. †Castle Loch, co. Wigtown. Rev. G. Wilson's "Notes." Castletown, co. Roxburgh. N. S. A., vol. iii. p. 164.

Closeburn, co. Dumfries. Phil. Trans., 1756, p. 521; Grose, "Ant. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 150. Clunie L., co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. ix. p. 231. Collessie, co. Fife. O. S. A., vol. ii. p. 418. †Corncockle (Applegarth), co. Dumfries. B. 94, p. 163. †Cot L., co. Linlithgow. Ibid., p. 159. [107]†Croy, co. Inverness. N. S. A., vol. xiv. p. 448. †Dhu Loch, co. Bute. B. 21, p. 43. Dolay L., co. Sutherland. B. 94, pp. 172-7. Doon L., co. Ayr. N. S. A., vol. v. p. 337. †Dowalton, five crannogs, co. Wigtown. B. 56, 94, 373, and 426. Earn L., co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. xi. p. 180. Eldrig L., three crannogs, co. Wigtown. Rev. G. Wilson's "Notes." [108]†Eriska, co. Argyll. B. 427, p. 192. Fasnacloich (Appin), co. Argyll. B. 94, p. 175. Federatt, co. Aberdeen. O. S. A., vol. ix. p. 191. Fell L., co. Wigtown. B. 192, vol. ix. p. 378. [109]Fergus L., co. Kirkcudbright. O. S. A., vol. xi. p. 25. †Flemington, L., co. Nairn. B. 55, p. 118. Forfar, Loch of, co. Forfar. B. 1; O. S. A., vol. vi. p. 528; B. 94, p. 125; B. 216, p. 31. Freuchie L., co. Perth. B. 94, p. 173. †Friar's Carse, co. Dumfries. B. 373, p. 152, and B. 374, p. 73. Fullah L., co. Perth. B. 94, p. 172. Glass L., co. Ross. O. S. A., vol. i. p. 282. Granech L., co. Perth. B. 94, p. 177. †Green Knowe, co. Lanark. N. S. A., vol. vi. p. 346; Proc. S. A. S., vol. vi. p. 160, and vol. viii. p. 19. Gynag L., co. Inverness. N. S. A., vol. xiv. p. 65. Heron L., two islands, co. Wigtown. B. 192, vol. ix. p. 378. Hogsetter L., Shetland. Proc. S. A. Scot. vol. xv. p. 303. [110]†Kielziebar L., co. Argyll. B. 134, pp. 332 and 516. †Kilbirnie L., co. Ayr. B. 268, p. 284. Kilchonan, co. Argyll. O. S. A., vol. xi. p. 281. [111]†Kinder L., co. Kirkcudbright. Old. S. A., vol. ii. p. 139. †Kinellan L., co. Ross. N. S. A., vol. xiv. p. 238; B. 94, p. 126. Laggan L., co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. xviii. p. 327. [112]†Ledaig, co. Argyll. B. 190. [113]†Leven L., co. Kinross. B. 460, p. 118. †Loch-of-the-Clans, two crannogs, co. Nairn. B. 55, pp. 116 and 332. †Loch-in-Dunty, co. Nairn. B. 55, p. 118. [114]†Loch-inch-Cryndil, co. Wigtown. B. 212, pp. 381 and 388.

†Lochindorb, co. Moray. O. S. A., vol. vii. p. 259. †Lochlee, co. Ayr. "Ayr and Wig. Col.," vol. ii.; B. 331 and 373. †Lochmaben, co. Dumfries. B. 94, p. 160; Arch. Scot., vol. iii. p. 77. †Loch-na-Mial, Island of Mull. B. 172, p. 465. †Lochnell, co. Argyll. B. 190, vol. ix. p. 105. †Lochore, co. Fife. B. 94, p. 160. †Lochrutton, co. Kirkcudbright. O. S. A., vol. ii. p. 37. †Lochspouts, co. Ayr. "Ayr and Wig. Col.," vol. iii. p. 18; iv. p. 9; B. 373, pp. 158 and 305. Lochwood, co. Dumfries. O. S. A., vol. iv. p. 224. [115]†Lochy L., co. Inverness. B. 94, p. 160. [116]†Lomond L., co. Sterling. Ibid., p. 131. †Lotus L., co. Kirkcudbright. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xi. p. 21. [117] Machermore L., several crannogs, co. Wigtown. B. 192. †Merton L., co. Wigtown. B. 94, p. 123. Mochrum L., co. Wigtown. B. 192. Monivaird L., co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. viii. p. 570. Morall L., co. Perth. B. 94, p. 176.

Morton, co. Dumfries. N. S. A., vol. iv. p. 96. Moulin L., drained, co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. v. p. 69. Mountblairy, co. Moray. O. S. A., vol. iv. p. 399. †Moy L., Ellan-na-Glack, co. Inverness. N. S. A., vol. xiv. p. 100; B. 94, p. 129. [118]†Oban (Lochavoullin), co. Argyll. Orr L., co. Dumfries. O. S. A., vol. ii. p. 342. Peel Bog, co. Aberdeen. N. S. A., vol. xii. p. 1089. †Quien Loch, co. Bute. B. 21, p. 45. †Rannoch L., co. Perth. N. S. A., vol. x. p. 539; B. 94, p. 129. †Ravenstone L., co. Wigtown. B. 426, p. 121. Rescobie L., co. Forfar. B. 94, p. 176. †Rothiemurchus, Loch-an-Eilan, co. Moray. N. S. A., vol. xiii. p. 137; B. 94, p. 145.

[119]†Sanquhar, Black Loch of, co. Dumfries. _Proc. Dumf. and Gal. N. H. Soc._, 1863-4, p. 12, and B. 373, p. 36. Shin L., co. Sutherland. B. 94, pp. 172-7. †Spinie L., co. Moray. O. S. A., vol. x. p. 625. Stravithy, co. Fife. N. S. A., vol. ix. p. 365. †Sunonness L., co. Wigtown. B. 192, p. 738. Tay L., co. Perth. B. 94, p. 173; O. S. A., vol. xvii. p. 465; N. S. A., vol. x. p. 465. †Tolsta, Lewis, co. Ross. Proc. S. A. S., vol. x. p. 741. Torlundie, drained loch at, co. Inverness. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. vii. p. 519. †Tullah L., co. Perth. B. 94, p. 172. Tummell L., co. Perth. O. S. A., vol. ii. p. 475; B. 94, p. 129. Urr L., co. Dumfries. B. 94, p. 160. Vennachar L., co. Dumfries. B. 94, p. 177. Weyoch L., co. Wigtown. B. 192. Yetholm L., co. Rosburgh. N. S. A., vol. iii. p. 164.

CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF RELICS.

The great value, however, of the investigations of the lake-dwellings, especially in the south-west of Scotland, depends on the quantity and variety of the remains of human industry discovered in and around their sites. It is from such fragmentary remains as food refuse, stray ornaments, broken weapons, useless and worn-out implements, and such-like waifs and strays of human occupancy, that archæologists attempt to reconstruct the outlines of the social life and organisation of the prehistoric past. To those who may wish to occupy themselves with this problem these explorations have furnished, as we have just seen, a vast collection of objects made of stone, bone, horn, wood, bronze, iron, and gold.

Among the stone objects are--querns, hammer-stones, whetstones, so-called sling-stones, a few cup-marked stones (one surrounded by concentric circles), spindle-whorls, flint flakes, and scrapers, a polished celt, a perforated axe-hammer head, portions of two polished circular discs, and some oval implements with a wrought hollowed surface on each side.

Bones and horns of deer were utilised in various ways and manufactured into pins, needles, bodkins, awls, picks, toilet-combs, knife-handles, etc. The combs are neatly formed of three or four flat pieces kept in position by two transverse slips, one on each side, and riveted together by iron rivets. They are frequently ornamented by a series of incised circles, which are sometimes connected by a running scroll, as in =Fig. 174=.

The wooden articles consist of bowls, ladles, mallets, hoes, clubs, etc., together with a variety of other objects apparently intended for agricultural purposes.

Implements and weapons of iron are numerous. Amongst the former are gouges, chisels, knives, shears, saws, hatchets, awls, hammers, a bridle-bit, the bolt of a padlock, and other objects of unknown use. The weapons consist of leaf-shaped spear-heads, both socketed and tanged, daggers, and arrow-heads resembling those of the crossbow bolt.

The objects made of bronze are mostly of an ornamental character, comprising:--harp-shaped fibulæ, circular and penannular brooches, finger-rings, a spiral ornament, ornamented pins, one with a ring top and another with a glass setting, a small key, and some other articles of an indeterminate character. From Dowalton there are basins or cauldrons of beaten bronze, some clouted and riveted; one, presumably a Roman saucepan, has the name of the maker on the handle.

On the Buston crannog were found two handsome and massive spiral finger-rings made of gold. One is plain with five and a half twists; the other, besides an additional twist, has both ends ornamented by a series of circular grooves. From the same place there is a curious gold coin, of Saxon origin, and a forgery of the sixth or seventh century.

Pottery is represented by numerous fragments, some of which are of so-called Samian ware, but the most of them are of vessels of a glazed ware, while a few are of an archaic type. Several neatly formed crucibles, containing traces of gold and slag, are also in the collection.

Among miscellaneous objects are bracelets and beads made of coloured and of variegated glass or vitreous paste; also some jet ornaments, one of which is a handsome pendant in the form of an equal-armed cross, inscribed in a circle and having one surface ornamented by a series of incised circles which contained the remains of a yellow enamel. Dr. Joseph Anderson considers this a Christian relic of a very early type. A smooth and flat piece of ashwood, with peculiar spiral carvings on both sides, and a fringe-like apparatus made of the long stems of a moss, are among the objects which have excited the greatest curiosity. Regarding a finely polished conical object made of rock-crystal found at Lochspouts, a reviewer in the Academy, October 14th, writes:--"Is it a charm or can it have formed the centre knob or boss in the binding of some richly decorated breviary or gospel book? Crystals very similar, but oblong in form--like a Brazil nut--may be seen in some of the rich covers of books of early date, and a few that have been detached are preserved in collections. One such object forms part of a crystal necklace in the Ashmolean Museum, and another in private hands was employed, not so very many years ago, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, for the purpose of seeing spirits. If this relic be, indeed, a book-boss, it makes it probable that the crannog was at one time inhabited, or at least visited, by Christian missionaries." Dr. Joseph Anderson has also pointed out that this object is extremely like a "large circular rock crystal which forms the central ornament on the inferior surface of the foot of the famous silver chalice, dug up at the Rath of Reerasta, near Ardagh, county Limerick, Ireland, in 1868, and now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. According to the Earl of Dunraven, this most beautiful example of our ancient art was executed either in the ninth or tenth century." (See Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., December 4th, 1882.)

From the respective reports of Professors Owen, Rolleston, and Cleland, on a selection of osseous remains taken from the lake-dwellings at Dowalton, Lochlee, and Buston, we can form a fair idea of the food of the occupiers. The Celtic shorthorn ox, the so-called goat-horned sheep, and a domestic breed of pigs were largely consumed. The horse was only scantily used. The number of bones and horns of the red-deer and roebuck showed that venison was by no means a rare addition to the list of their dietary. Among birds, only the goose has been identified, but this is no criterion of the extent of their encroachment on the feathered tribe, as only the larger bones were collected and reported on. To this bill of fare the occupiers of Lochspouts crannog, being comparatively near the sea, added several kinds of shell-fish. In all the lake-dwellings that have come under my own observation the broken shells of hazel-nuts were in profuse abundance.

From the number of querns, and the great preponderance of the bones of domestic over those of wild animals, it may be inferred that, for subsistence, they depended more on the cultivation of the soil and the rearing of cattle, sheep, and pigs, than on the ordinary produce of the chase.

Proofs of a prolonged but occasionally interrupted occupancy are also manifested by the great accumulation of débris over the wooden pavements, the size and contents of the kitchen-middens, and the superimposed hearths.

Let us now look at the remarkable series of implements, weapons, ornaments, and nondescript objects here presented to us, with the view of abstracting from them some scraps of information regarding their original owners. The fragments of Samian ware, bronze dishes, harp-shaped fibulæ, and the large assortment of beads, bronze and bone pins, bone combs, jet ornaments, etc., are so similar to the class of remains found on the excavated sites of Romano-British towns, that there can hardly be any doubt that Roman civilisation had come in contact with the lake-dwellers. The Celtic element is, however, strongly developed, not only in the general character of many of the industrial implements of stone, bone, and iron, but also in the style of art manifested in some of the ornamental objects included in the collection. Thus the piece of ashwood with its carved spiral patterns (=Figs. 144= and =145=), the combs, especially the one showing a series of concentric circles connected by a running scroll design (=Fig. 174=), and some of the bronze brooches and ornaments (=Fig. 130=) present a style of ornamentation which is considered peculiar to Celtic art. The spiral finger-rings seem also to have been of native origin, and the probability is that they were manufactured where they were found, as several crucibles are amongst the relics from the same lake-dwelling, one of which, from the fact that it still contains particles of gold, proves that it had been used in melting this metal. (B. 373, p. 236.)

On the other hand, the forged gold coin is the only relic that can with certainty be said to have emanated from a Saxon source--at least, that cannot otherwise be accounted for.

But if from internal evidence a presumptive case is made out in favour of the Celtic origin and occupation of these lake-dwellings, it is greatly strengthened when we consider that the neighbouring Celtic races, especially in Ireland, were in the habit of erecting similar island abodes, while there is not a particle of evidence in favour of the idea that such structures originated with the Roman conquerors of Britain or its Saxon invaders.

The resemblance between the remains found in the Scottish and Irish lake-dwellings, as well as other antiquarian finds of Celtic character, must also not be overlooked. Combs, similar in structure and ornamentation to those from Buston, have been found in several of the Irish crannogs, in the brochs and other antiquities of the north of Scotland, and in many of the ruins of the Romano-British towns in England. (See =Figs. 105=, =108=, and =176=.) Iron knives and shears, variegated beads of impure glass with grooves and spiral marks, ornaments of jet and bronze, implements of stone, bone, and horn, besides querns, whetstones, etc., are all common to Celtic antiquities, wherever found.

That many of these relics were the products of a refined civilisation is not more remarkable than the unexpected and strangely discordant circumstances in which they have been found. For this reason it might be supposed that the crannogs were the headquarters of thieves and robbers, where the proceeds of their marauding excursions among the surrounding Roman provincials were stored up. The inferences derived from a careful consideration of all the facts do not appear to me to support this view, nor do they uphold another view, sometimes propounded, viz. that they were fortified islands occupied by the guardian soldiers of the people. Indeed, amongst the relics military remains are only feebly represented by a few iron daggers and spear-heads, one or two doubtful arrow-points, and a quantity of round pebbles and so-called sling-stones. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the articles consists of querns, implements and tools, crucibles, various domestic utensils, etc., from which, not to mention the great variety of ornaments, there can be no ambiguity as to the testimony they afford of the peaceful prosecution of various arts and industries by the lake-dwellers.

There is, in my opinion, only one hypothesis that can satisfactorily account for all the facts and phenomena here adduced, viz. that the lake-dwellings in the south-west of Scotland were resorted to by the Celtic inhabitants as a means of protecting their lives and movable property when, upon the frequent withdrawal of the Roman soldiers from the district, they were left, single-handed, to contend against the Angles on the east and the Picts and Scots on the north. It is not likely that these provincials, so long accustomed to the luxury and comforts of Roman civilisation, or their descendants in the subsequent kingdom of Strathclyde, would become the assailants of such fierce and lawless enemies, from whom, even if conquered, they could derive no benefit. Hence their military tactics and operations would assume more the character of defence than aggression, and in order to defeat the object of the frequent and sudden inroads of the northern tribes, which was to plunder the inhabitants rather than to conquer the country, experience taught them the necessity of being prepared for emergencies by having certain places of more than ordinary security where they could deposit their wealth, or to which they could retire as a last resource when hard pressed. These retreats might be caves, fortified camps, or inaccessible islands, but in localities where no such natural strongholds existed the military genius of the Celtic inhabitants, prompted perhaps by inherited notions, led them to construct these wooden islands. From the final departure of the Romans to the conquest of the kingdom of Strathclyde by the Northumbrian Angles, a period of several centuries, this unfortunate people had few intervals of peace, and with their complete subjugation ended the special functions of the lake-dwellings as a national system of protection. No doubt some of them, as well as caves and such hiding-places, would continue to afford refuge to straggling remnants of natives, rendered desperate by the relentless persecution of their enemies; but ultimately all of them would fall into the hands of their Saxon conquerors, when henceforth they would be allowed to subside into mud or crumble into decay.

III.--ENGLISH LAKE-DWELLINGS.

The discovery of lacustrine abodes south of the Scottish border, though the examples are by no means so numerous or so prolific in industrial remains as those of Scotland and Ireland, is, nevertheless, of special interest on account of the intermediary position in which England stands geographically to the areas of their earliest and latest development in Europe. It will be noticed that some of the recorded observations here reproduced were actually made before antiquaries realised the importance of the subject; otherwise it is impossible to conceive how such highly suggestive facts did not at once lead to more definite information.

THE MERES OF NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK.

WRETHAM MERE.--Sir Charles F. Bunbury, as early as 1856, noticed some appearances in a drained mere near Wretham Hall which clearly point to being the remains of a lake-dwelling. In a communication on the subject to the Geological Society he says:--

"Wretham Hall, the seat of W. Birch, Esq., is situated about six miles north of Thetford, in that extensive tract of open sandy plains which may be called upland in comparison with the fens, but of very moderate elevation above the sea-level as is shown by the slow course of the streams flowing from it. About Wretham there are several meres or small natural sheets of water without any outlet. The one to which my attention was particularly directed by Mr. Birch occupied about forty-eight acres, and was situated in a slight natural depression, the ground sloping gently to it from all sides. The water has been drawn off by machinery, for the purpose of making use, as manure, of the black peaty mud which formed the bottom. This black mud, which is in parts above twenty feet deep, is nothing else than a soft, rotten, unconsolidated peat; or perhaps it should be described as vegetable matter in a more complete state of decomposition than ordinary peat, showing no distinct trace of vegetable structure. Numerous horns of red deer have been found in this peaty mud, generally (as I was informed) at 5 or 6 feet below the surface, seldom deeper; many attached to the skull, others separate, and with the appearance of having been shed naturally. What is most remarkable, several of those which were found with the skulls attached had been sawn off just above the brow antlers--not broken, but cut off clean and smoothly, evidently by human agency. Some of the horns are of large size, measuring 9 inches round immediately below the brow antler....

"Numerous posts of oak-wood, shaped and pointed by human art, were found standing erect, entirely buried in the peat."

It appears that in 1851 a more remarkable "find" became visible on draining another mere on this same estate, though the events remained unrecorded till the years 1858 and 1862. The following notice is compiled mainly and almost verbatim from Mr. Newton's observations, which he states were directly obtained from Mr. Birch, the proprietor:--

In this mere (West Mere) there was ordinarily about four feet of water, and beneath it, about eight feet of soft black mud, partly held in suspension and requiring to be removed in scoops. Near the centre of the mere, lying below the black mud, was found a ring or circular bank of fine white earth, sufficiently solid to allow Mr. Birch to ride upon it without yielding to the weight of his pony. Outside this ring the bottom of the mere was so soft and deep as to be almost impassable until the mud was cleared away. The ring was some twenty or thirty feet across, a foot wide at the top, and about four feet in height. Not far from its inner circumference was a circular hole, about four feet and a half in diameter and some six feet deeper than the bottom of the mere. It was marked out by a circle of stout stakes or small piles, apparently of alder, and it bore traces of having been wattled. Between these two circles were the remains of a wall, about two feet high and consequently lower than the top of the ring, composed of flints packed together with marl or soft chalk. In the same place was some earth of a bright blue colour, which, when dried, crumbled to powder, and was not preserved, though traces were still to be seen on the bones. In this interspace a still greater number of bones was found, and also the remains of a much decayed ladder, the sides and rounds of which were 15 inches apart. The stakes were about four inches in diameter, very hard, as heavy as stone, and of a dark grey colour. The fragments of the ladder, on the contrary, were very rotten and light, but the remains of both, after being kept some time, exfoliated and crumbled entirely to dust. In and around this ring there lay a vast number of bones, of which no small portion were the upper parts of the skulls of Bos longifrons, with the horn cores attached, and many antlers of the red deer, either entire or in fragments. All the former, excepting one unusually large example, had a fracture the size of half-a-crown in the forehead (Babington). Of the deer's antlers, some have certainly been shed in the due course of nature; but others, on the contrary, have been separated from the head by sawing. Of the other bones found in West Mere, and I am told there were hundreds of them, most of the larger ones have been fractured at one or other extremity, doubtless in order to extract the marrow they contained. Another bone, and, as far as I can make out, the only one found which presents this peculiarity, has been polished on one side; but the reason why is not very obvious, unless it has served, as I before suggested in the case of a similar specimen, for a skate. I must add that no weapons or implements of metal which can be referred to a period at all remote were brought to light in this or any of the adjoining meres, but a great number of flint discs were found, which, according to the description I have received (for unfortunately none of them seem to have been preserved), must have closely resembled those known to the Danish antiquaries as "Sling-Stones," from the probable use made of them. (B. 46, p. 17.)

BARTON MERE.--In 1869 the Rev. Harry Jones communicated a paper to the Suffolk Institute of Archæology and Natural History "on the discovery of some supposed vestiges of a pile-dwelling in Barton Mere, near Bury St. Edmund's," of which the following is an abstract:--

Barton Mere is situated in a natural depression, about four miles east of Bury St. Edmund's, and is mainly supplied by springs, but at some seasons water flows into it from the high land on the south, west, and north. When full it consists of about ten acres, and averages 7 feet in depth. On the north side of the mere there is a marly chalk, which, indeed, forms the main bottom of the mere, being overlaid with a dark clay deposit from 1 to 5 feet deep. The bottom layer of this deposit consists of a peaty coloured clay, so tenacious as to keep its shape upon the potter's wheel. Most of the bones and some fragments of pottery were found in this lower layer, which varies in thickness from a few inches to about a foot and a half. The mere is subject to occasional droughts. It has been dry at least four times in the last forty years. About thirty-eight years ago (1830), the mere being then dry, his grandfather, Mr. Quayle, who lived at Barton Mere, dug out a quantity of stuff for the purpose of laying it on the land. His digging resulted in a hole, which on two succeeding occasions when the water was low, saved enough to keep some of the fish alive, and provide a pond for the cattle. Bones and horns of deer, and several spear-heads and rings of bronze, were reported to have been found amidst six or seven stakes of wood sticking up out of the bottom and about as thick as the thin part of a man's leg.

The excavations conducted by Mr. Jones in 1867 were made by digging several holes about three feet square. In the first two holes nothing was found, but in the third an ox skull, broken bones, portions of pointed implements of bone, and a bronze socketed spear-head were disinterred. The latter, which was only 18 inches below the surface and above the peaty clay, measured 13 inches long and two inches at its widest part. The bones were of Bos longifrons, stag, pig, sheep or goat, large dog or wolf, urus (Bos primigenius), and hare. These were all in the peaty stratum. Beside, and along with the bones, were found two or three flint flakes, cores, and rude flint implements. There were several pieces of sandstone, burnt, with the mark of fire plainly upon them, and divers calcined flints. Also a fragment of a thin hand-made vessel. Besides the bones were several stags' antlers, one or two of which were gnawed, probably by dogs, and another had marks of some small-toothed animal, such as a rat. Others were cut by human hands. One antler had a hole rudely worked in it at its broadest part. There were also divers horns of the Bos longifrons, and, curiously enough, one of the vertebræ of a Saurian. The latter was a short distance off from the chief "find," and it was suggested that it might have been used as a hammer by some of the natives who brought it to the spot.

The portion of the "find" which caused most conjecture was, however, a fabric of stake and wattle. "I found one stake 2½ inches thick, and 2 feet long, lying close over the spot where we found most of the bones, but the fabric to which I now allude occurred some twenty-eight inches below the surface of the deepest part of the mere. The soil in the neighbourhood of it had been disturbed, so I took a spud and trowel and worked the thing out with my own hand. It resulted in an oval or egg-shaped structure of wattle, 5 feet 7 inches long, and 3 feet 10 inches wide. There were 14 uprights, varying from 2 to 2¾ inches in thickness, at nearly equal distances apart. Twigs and sticks were worked in these like the side of a very rough basket. At first I thought it might have been a sunken coracle, but on scooping out the clay with which it was filled, I found that the wattle ceased about 14 inches down, and that the uprights were merely stakes, from 21 to 27 inches long, driven originally into the chalk marl. The bottom of this fabric was filled with broken flints which were also found outside the lower part of the uprights and between them. The flints must have been put in, the points and edges of the points of the stakes being so sharp and clean that they could not have been driven through the bed of flints."

"The top of the wattle was on the level of the chalk marl, on which most of the bones, fragments of pottery, etc., were strewn, and which had been covered over to a depth of from 2 to 4½ feet of dark clay. No more stakes were found, but there occurred divers holes in the chalk marl, some of them nearly in line, in which we could not help thinking they might have once stood. Yet we found no remains of wood in these holes." (B. 161, p. 31.)

Professor Boyd Dawkins, under the heading "Habitations in Britain in the Bronze Age," writes as follows:--

"Sometimes, for the sake of protection, houses were built upon piles driven into a morass or bottom of a lake, as for example in Barton Mere, near Bury St. Edmund's, where bronze spear-heads have been discovered, one 13 inches long, among piles and large blocks of stone, as in some of the lakes in Switzerland. Along with them were vast quantities of the broken bones of the stag, roe, wild boar, and hare, to which must also be added the urus, an animal proved to be wild by its large bones, with strongly-marked ridges for the attachment of muscles. The inhabitants also fed upon domestic animals--the horse, short-horned ox, and domestic hog, and in all probability the dog, the bones of the last-named animal being in the same fractured state as those of the rest. Fragments of pottery were also found. The accumulation may be inferred to belong to the late, rather than the early, Bronze Age, from the discovery of a socketed spear-head. This discovery is of considerable zoological value, since it proves that the urus was living in Britain in a wild state as late as the Bronze Age. It must, however, have been very rare, since this is the only case of its occurrence at this period in Britain with which I am acquainted." ("Early Man in Britain," p. 352.)

LAKE-DWELLINGS IN THE FENLAND.

The discovery of so many submarine dwellings in Holland and the adjacent coasts of Germany which I have already described suggests that similar remains might be found in the Fens and other low-lying districts in Britain. The only reference, however, to such dwellings with which I am acquainted is the following short notice by Mr. Skertchly:--

"I detected the remains of one (lake-dwelling) at Crowland in the year 1870, during some excavations. The piles were of sallow planted very closely together, upon these was laid brushwood, and over this a layer of gravel. Immense quantities of bones, chiefly of the Keltic shorthorn, were found, together with a few bone implements, and a curious ornament of jet. Near Ely, stakes have been found in the peat, but they do not seem to belong to a lake-dwelling." ("The Fenland Past and Present," by Miller and Skertchly. 1878.)

PILE-STRUCTURES IN LONDON.

On December 18th, 1866, Col. Lane Fox (now General Fox-Pitt-Rivers) read a paper at the Anthropological Society entitled, "A Description of certain Piles found near London Wall and Southwark, possibly the Remains of Pile-Buildings."

The author commenced by observing that his attention was directed to this locality by a short paragraph in the Times of the 20th October, stating that upwards of twenty cart-loads of bones had been dug out of the excavations which were being made for the foundations of a wool warehouse near London Wall. The excavation commenced at 40 yards south of the street pavement: therefore, in all probability, at about 70 or 80 yards from the site of the old wall. The area then excavated was of an irregular oblong form, 61 yards in length, running north and south, and 23 yards wide.

A section of the soil consisted of--

"1. Gravel similar to Thames ballast at a depth of 17 feet towards the north, inclining to 22 feet towards the south end. "2. Above this, peat of unequal thickness, varying from 7 to 9 feet. "3. Modern remains of London earth composed of the accumulated rubbish of the city."

Between the bottom of the peat and the highest spring tide water-mark, as at present existing, there is a margin of 5 feet; but, of course, this might have been different in Roman times.

Regarding the remains of piles in this locality the author makes the following observations:--

"Upon looking over the ground, my attention was at once attracted by a number of piles, the decayed tops of which appeared above the unexcavated portions of the peat, dotted here and there over the whole of the space cleared. I noted down the positions of all that were above ground at the time; and as the excavations continued during the last two months, I have marked from time to time the positions of all the others as they became exposed to view.

"Commencing on the south, a row of them ran north and south on the west side, to the right of these a curved row, as if forming part of a ring. Higher up and running obliquely across the ground was a row of piles, having a plank about an inch and a half thick and a foot broad placed along the south face, as if binding the piles together. To the left of these another row of piles ran east and west; to the north-east again were several circular clusters of piles; these were not in rings but grouped in clusters, and the piles were from eight to sixteen inches apart. To the left of this another row of piles and a plank two inches thick ran north and south. There were two other rows north of this and several detached piles, but no doubt several towards the north end had been removed before I arrived.

"The piles averaged 6 to 8 inches square; others of smaller size measured 4 inches by 3; and one or two were as much as a foot square. They appeared to be roughly cut, as if with an axe, and pointed square; there was no trace of iron-shoeing on any of them, nor was there any appearance of metal fastenings in its planks; they may have been tied to the piles, but if so, the binding material had decayed.[120] The grain of the wood was still visible in some of them, and they appear to be of oak. The planks averaged from one to two inches thick. The points of the piles were inserted from one to two feet in the gravel, and were, for the most part, well preserved, but all the tops had rotted off at about two feet above the gravel, which I conclude must have been the surface of the ground, or of the water, at the time these structures were in existence."

These relics were exclusively found in the peat or middle stratum (which varied from 7 to 9 feet in thickness), and "interspersed at different levels from top to bottom throughout it."

"Amongst the articles of human workmanship found in the peat the vast majority are undoubtedly of the Roman era. Amongst them are quantities of broken red Samian pottery, mostly plain, but some of it depicting men and animals in relief; one specimen is stamped with the name of Macrinus. All this pottery, in the opinion of Mr. Franks, to whom I showed it, is of foreign manufacture. Other samples are of the kind supposed to have been manufactured in the Upchurch Marshes in Kent, and upon the site of St. Paul's Churchyard. Bronze and copper pins, iron knives, iron and bronze stylus, tweezers, iron shears, a piece of polished metal mirror so bright that you may see your face in it (this Dr. Percy has pronounced to be of iron pyrites, white sulphuret of iron without alloy), an iron double-edged hatchet, an iron implement, apparently for dressing leather, a piece of bronze vessel, and other bronze and iron implements, which, thanks to the preserving properties of the peat, are all in excellent preservation. Amongst these were also a quantity of leather soles of shoes or sandals, some apparently much worn, and others, being thickly studded with hob-nails, may be recognised as the caliga of the Roman legions; also a piece of tile with the letters P. PR. BR. stamped upon it. Specimens of these are on the table. The coins found are those of Nerva, Vespasian, Trajan, Adrian, and Antoninus Pius....

"In addition to the Roman relics above mentioned, others of ruder construction remain to be described. They consist of what, in the absence of any evidence respecting their uses, may be called handles and points of bone. The former are composed of the metacarpal bones of the red-deer and Bos longifrons cut through in the middle, and roughly squared at the small end; the others, which are called by the workmen spear-heads, are pointed at one end and hollowed out at the other, as if to receive a shaft. Both Professor Owen and Mr. Blake concur in thinking these implements may possibly have been formed with flint, but I cannot ascertain that they were found at a lower level than the Roman remains, nor have any flint implements, to my knowledge, been found in the place. With them were also found the two bone skates on the table; they are of the metacarpal bone of a small horse or ass, one of which has been much used on the ice. Exactly similar skates also of the metacarpal of the horse or ass have been found in a tumulus of the Stone Period at Oosterend in Friesland; a drawing of them is given in Lindenschmit's Catalogue of the Museum at Mayence, etc. Others have also been found in Zeeland, at Utrecht, and in Guelderland, and there is a specimen in the Museum at Hanover. Professor Lindenschmit attributes all these to the Stone Period, but the specimens on the table are evidently of the Iron Age, the holes in the back having been formed for the insertion of an iron staple. Similar skates have been found in the Thames, but they have not hitherto been considered to date so early in England as in Roman times."

Throughout the peat were several kitchen-middens. One, deposited a foot and a half above the gravel, is thus described:--"A layer of oyster and mussel shells about a foot thick, with a filtration of carbonate of lime permeating through the moss. In this kitchen-midden, Roman pottery and a Roman caliga were found. Close by, the point of a pile, part of which is exhibited, was found upright in the peat; it had been driven in in such a manner that the point descends to the level of the kitchen-midden and no farther. Now, as a pile, in order to obtain a holding, must have been driven at least two feet in the ground, it is evident the peat must have grown at least one foot above the summit of the kitchen-midden before this pile was driven in."

A second kitchen-midden is noted at a height of 3½ feet above the gravel, "composed of oyster, cockle, and mussel shells, and periwinkles, with Roman pottery and bones of the goat and Bos longifrons, etc., split lengthwise as if to extract the marrow, with the skulls broken and the horns cut off. It is about a foot and a half thick in the centre, thinning out towards the ends as a heap of refuse would naturally do, and from 12 to 14 feet long; above this is peat for about a foot or a foot and a half, and above the peat another kitchen-midden of the same kind as the preceding. Lastly, the soles of shoes and Roman pottery of the same kind as that found lower down have been taken out at the very top of the peat."

The distinguished investigator, being anxious to obtain further evidence as to the thickness of the stratum in which the Roman remains were found, states that he determined to watch the workmen for four or five hours together during several successive days, while they dug from top to bottom, commencing with the superficial earth, and passing through the peat to the gravel below. The result was as follows:--"Roman red Samian ware is found as high as 13 feet from the surface, but very rarely, and in small quantities. At 15 feet it is frequently found, and from that depth it increases in quantity till the gravel is reached at 18 to 21 feet. The chief region of Roman remains is within two or three feet of the gravel."

Amongst the animal remains were, according to Professor Owen, those "of the horse or ass, the red deer, the wild boar, the wild goat (bouquetin), the dog, the Bos longifrons, and the roebuck. The horns of the roebuck, I afterwards ascertained, were all found at a higher level. These, and also the horse and goat, entered the superficial earth, in which glazed pottery was also found; but the remainder, including the red deer, wild boar, and Bos longifrons, appeared, so far as my observations enabled me to judge, to be confined to the peat."

Subsequently Mr. Carter Blake identified amongst these osseous remains no less than four different kinds of the genus Bos--viz. primigenius, trochoceros, longifrons, and frontosus; as also a specimen of the ibex of the Pyrenees.

Some human skulls were found in the lowest formation of the peat, or immediately over the gravel. Along with these skulls only three other human bones were found; but this, according to the author, might not be the result of an oversight, as both the Celts and the Romans were known to have practised decapitation.

The piles at the south end were identified as elm, the remainder were oak (Quercus robur).

From the above carefully observed and recorded facts it will be observed that in addition to the primary piles which were inserted into the gravel there were others which did not penetrate so deeply, one having been carefully noted which terminated in the peat a foot and a half above the gravel. Facts precisely similar have been observed in almost all pile-dwellings whether on land or in water, showing that the elevations on which the platforms and huts were reared were successively renewed. Another conclusion which we are entitled to draw from the character of the relics and the conditions in which they were found is that in the low-lying districts of London the system of pile-dwellings was known in Britain in post-Roman times. Nor can it be said that this was a solitary instance, for similar remains were found in New Southwark Street, in regard to which the author writes as follows:--

"The piles are of the same scantling, also of oak, but somewhat longer than those of London Wall; the points are driven into the gravel; the peat is three to four feet thick; large beams of the same size as the piles have been laid across them horizontally, and Roman pottery is found at all depths in the peat. Judging from the extent over which these piles have been discovered, there can be little doubt that in digging for the foundations of the many large warehouses and other buildings that are now being built within this district the remains of early habitations are constantly turning up and are destroyed without receiving attention."

As to the relics from these London pile-dwellings let me finally observe, that, to a certain extent, both in character and surrounding conditions they correspond with those from the Terp mounds in Holland and North Germany, from which it is probable the earliest Anglo-Saxon invaders hailed.

CRANNOG IN LLANGORSE LAKE, NEAR BRECON, SOUTH WALES.

Only one lake-dwelling has hitherto been recorded in Wales, viz. that of Llangorse. The partial exploration to which it has been subjected was undertaken by the Rev. Mr. Dumbleton, and the results are recorded by him in the Archæologia Cambrensis for 1870 and 1872. (B. 173.) The following extracts from these reports clearly show that the island was entirely artificial and constructed after the manner of the Scottish and Irish crannogs. Its structural features were well seen in the surrounding stockades and log-floorings, while the heaps of charcoal, remains of food-refuse, and other indications point to a prolonged period of human occupancy. Mr. Dumbleton states that until about seven years ago, when the lake was artificially lowered a foot and a half, this island was not half its present size. He then advances various evidences to show that formerly the level of the water was still lower, when, therefore, the island would have been larger than now. This opinion may be, and probably is, correct; but we must remember that another factor has to be taken into account when discussing the invariable submergence of these islands, viz. their own pressure on a yielding lake sediment, together with the decay of the brushwood and other organic materials which generally formed their under strata. It is to be regretted that no relics were found on this island, and I cannot help thinking that, in the circumstances, a more careful search would have furnished some scraps of the handiwork of its occupiers. From the description it is clear that metal tools were used in manipulating the woodwork, but otherwise, and in the absence of any historical notice, we have no means of determining either the age of this singular lacustrine abode or the social condition of its inhabitants.

"Immediately beneath the southern spurs of the Black Mountains, and in the hollow of the great geological fracture which parts that chain from the Brecknockshire Beacons, is situated a sheet of water now called the Lake of Llangorse. Its name was formerly Llyn Savathan, or the lake of the sunken land. The area of water was once far more extensive than it is now; and it has subsequently been, as I think, considerably less than at present. A circuit of five miles will now enclose it. The margin is flat and swampy, except on the north-east, where the mountain descends upon the shore-line somewhat abruptly. The depth, though by vulgar report vast and fearful, Leland has rather overstated in assigning to it thirteen fathoms."

"Within a bow-shot of the flat meadows on the north side there is an island that would appear but little above the water, were it not for some small trees and brushwood that have fastened upon it.

"Sailing by the island one day in 1867, I observed that the stones which stand out on the south and east sides were strangely new looking, and most unlike the water-worn, rounded fragments that on the main shore have been exposed to the action of the waves; neither did there seem to be any original rock-basis at all. It was, in fact, nothing less than a huge heap of stones thrown into water two or three feet in depth. Was this the key, I thought, to the old tradition of a city in the lake? In the summer of last year, my brother, then living in the neighbourhood, first discovered a row of piles or slabs; some standing a few inches above water, for the lake was very low. We have together made some investigations during the past month, the results of which I will detail.

"The island, as now above water, measures 90 yards in circumference, its form being that of a square with the corners rounded off. The highest part is nearly in the centre, and is 5 feet above the water-level. The sides most exposed to weather, where also the water is deepest, are composed of stones sloping into the water, and extending to the distance of fifteen yards from the edge. Under the water, however, they are not nearly so thickly strewn as above. It is remarkable that on the leeward or northern side, about one quarter of the island is almost destitute of stone protection with which the greater part is covered. There is simply a surface of vegetable mould, inclined towards the water. Neither in the water, which is there very shallow, are there more than a score of stones to be found on that side. I must now speak of the piles. These are of two sorts, the most obvious being either at the margin or within a few feet of it. Like the stones, they are most numerous where the action of the storm would be most felt, and upon the shallow side they disappear entirely. They have been disposed in segments of circles, the stones being heaped inside them, and thus saved from being torn away by the waves. These piles (or rather slabs) are of cleft oak, and have been pointed, as it seems, by cuts from a metal adze. We have counted about sixty. They have been driven tightly into the shell-marl, to the depth of four feet. There are also other piles, which are round, generally of soft wood, and are found outside the present edge of the island. Several are in water two feet deep, and are driven into the marl only twelve or eighteen inches. These would have been quite powerless to confine the stones, and were evidently for another purpose.... Is it not likely that the island itself was central common ground? and that the habitations were projected from its edge towards the water and were supported by these thick round piles? Something like a ring of these is found near the oak slabs before mentioned; and traces of a second set are at the distance of twelve or fifteen yards, in water about two feet deep. Between the two, small wood is found abundantly, a few inches in the marl. At about ten yards from the shore, and in two feet of water, there appear to be the actual remains of a sunken platform. Three trunks of soft wood lie nearly parallel to one another. A 6 feet stem of oak, which I cannot account for, was with them. The top of this we sawed off, as it exhibits the marks of some heavy cutting instrument where, in modern days, a saw would have been used.

"I have to add to this subject the discovery of two much more perfect platforms in a perplexing situation, namely, within the oak slabs. They were composed of eight straight trunks, about six inches in diameter, lying side by side. Their direction is from the centre to the water; their ends, towards the shore, are thrust against the slab piles; others are closed in one case by a transverse oak beam....

"The examination of the interior would, of course, unfold the process of the construction. We therefore made several perpendicular openings; and these invariably led us down to the shell-marl, showing first a stratum of large, loose stones, with vegetable mould and sand; next (about eighteen inches above the marl), peat, black and compact; and beneath this, the remains of reeds and small wood. This faggot-like wood presented itself abundantly all round the edges of the island, and in the same relative position, namely, immediately upon the soft marl; the object of it being, of course, to save the stones from sinking.

"On digging through the before-mentioned low portion of the crannog a different order of materials exhibited itself. As I said, the stones are very few; the depth is 3 feet instead of 5; 18 inches of vegetable mould; 6 inches of earth mixed thickly with charcoal; and 1 foot of peat, small wood or reeds. I may here say that this charcoal is found under water, in very frequent small fragments, on this north-eastern side; and is covered, not with marl or stones, but with sand. Bones are found in numbers amongst the stones where the water is quite shallow; every spadeful of marl, in some parts, would, as the water dripped off, show one or more small bone fragments or teeth."

The osseous remains were more or less identified by Professors Owen, Rolleston and Boyd Dawkins as belonging to Bos longifrons, horse (small and large variety), red deer, and wild boar.

LAKE-DWELLINGS IN BERKS, ETC.

In 1878, Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., communicated to Nature a short notice of "English Lake-Dwellings and Pile-Structures," in which, after drawing attention to the previously published articles of General Lane Fox and Sir Charles Bunbury, he writes as follows:--

"Since writing the above I have been informed that Mr. W. M. Wylie, F.S.A., referred to this fact in Archæologia, vol. xxxviii., in a note to his excellent memoir on lake-dwellings. I can add, however, that remains of Cervus elaphus (red deer), C. dama? (fallow deer), Ovis (sheep), Bos longifrons (small ox), Sus scrofa (hog), and Canis (dog), were found here, according to information given me by the late C. B. Rose, F.G.S., of Swaffham, who also stated in a letter dated August 11th, 1856, that in adjoining meres, or sites of ancient meres, as at Saham, Towey, Carbrook, Old Buckenham, and Hargham, cervine remains have been met with; thus at Saham and Towey, Cervus elaphus (red deer); at Buckenham, Bos (ox) and Cervus capreolus (roebuck); at Hargham, Cervus tarandus (reindeer).

"The occurrence of flint implements and flakes in great numbers on the site of a drained lake between Sandhurst and Frimley, described by Captain C. Cooper King in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, January, 1873, p. 365, etc., points also in all probability to some kind of lake-dwelling, though timbers were not discovered.

"Lastly, the late Dr. S. Palmer, F.S.A., of Newbury, reported to the Wiltshire Archæological Society in 1869 that oaken piles and planks had been dug out of boggy ground on Cold Ash Common, near Faircross Pond, not far from Hermitage, Berks." (B. 312, p. 424.)

The following is Dr. Palmer's notice of the pile-structures at Cold Ash Common above referred to:--

"Recurring to the antiquities of the peat proper, I would refer to the subject of lake-dwellings. I do not despair of finding them in our neighbourhood, for I believe traces of them have been found near Cold Ash, some such structure having been uncovered in digging bog-earth for horticultural purposes. It was circular, measuring 30 feet across, and the planks were 16 to 18 feet in length, roughly hewn, and with beams crossing from side to side, and resting on the piles. There was also a kind of causeway to it. It was on the borders of a morass, the resort of wild fowl within the memory of man. The general appearance of the valley at this place leads me to surmise that it was not long since covered with water; there is still a pond in the centre. The bog-earth had been carted away before I heard of the discovery, so that I had no chance of examining it for animal or other remains."

The editor of the Transactions of the Newbury District Field Club adds the following note to the above extract:--

"Mr. Walter Money, F.S.A., has gathered some information about this interesting relic of the past. It is situated on a part of what was Cold Ash Common ... and has long been known as 'Wild Duck Pond;' it is now an oval piece of water, not much more than 20 feet across, surrounded by arable land.

"About thirty years ago, before the Common was enclosed, the season being dry, the 'Wild Duck Pond' was cleared by Mr. Whiting, of Longlane Gate, who thought the accumulated soil or mud might be useful on the land. After the removal of the top soil, some rough timber framing was met with, lying across the centre of the pit, forming, it would seem, a rude platform. A space was cleared about ten feet deep, where a heavy log of oak was found lying across from side to side. This was not removed. The work was then abandoned; the soil taken out being found to be of no use to the land. About thirteen years ago, the excavation was repeated by Mr. Lancaster, the then tenant of this part of Col. Loyd-Lindsay's property; but the investigation was not pursued far, and the water having flowed into the digging, 'Wild Duck Pond' was again restored nearly to its former condition." (Trans. of Newbury District Field Club, vol. ii. p. 148.)

Remains suggestive of a pile-structure were also observed by Mr. Dolby in 1870 in one of the ponds at Fence Wood, near Hermitage. Here in digging they found "a sort of pyramidal dwelling beneath the ground, the roof being covered with clay about a foot thick. This roof was supported by a large piece of timber, some twenty-six feet long, which they had got out. There were causeways there also at a depth of fifteen or sixteen feet. The water had long since rushed in and filled up the excavation, so that nothing further is known of this place." (Ibid., vol. i. p. 123.)

LAKE-DWELLINGS IN HOLDERNESS, COUNTY OF YORK.

The discovery of lake-dwellings in Holderness is due to Mr. Thomas Boynton, Bridlington (lately of Ulrome Grange), whose attention was first directed to the subject in the spring of 1880. Previous to the excavation of a great drainage scheme about the beginning of the present century this district appears to have been intersected by a series of sinuous and irregularly shaped lakes, whose surplus waters partly found an outlet, not in the present artificially constructed channels which convey them directly into the German Ocean, but in quite a different direction, along a sluggish watercourse, still extant, which falls into the Humber near Hull. That this latter was in former times the natural drainage course of the entire waters of Holderness is the opinion of Mr. Boynton and other geologists with whom I had the pleasure of discussing the matter. Mr. G. W. Lamplugh believes that the Gypsey Race--a stream which now enters the sea at Bridlington--at some former period continued its course through this chain of lakes and finally debouched by the same route into the Humber. The natural causes which have effected this great change in the hydrographical conditions of Holderness are to be found in the steadily progressing encroachment of the sea on the land, which here goes on at a very rapid rate. When the sea lay many miles farther off, which undoubtedly was the case in former times, it is supposed that the intervening land stood somewhat higher, and that consequently Holderness was a complete water-basin, with its outlet towards the Humber. But as the sea advanced, gradually undermining and washing away the soft glacial deposits which here form its shores, this natural basin became, as it were, tapped in the middle and so allowed the waters of its upper reaches to escape directly into the sea--a process precisely analogous to that by which its final drainage was effected by human agencies.

Nor is this opinion based exclusively on geological considerations, as we have positive historical proofs in the early annals of the country that formerly towns existed whose sites are now far out in the sea. Thus Mr. Poulson ("History of Holderness," p. 467) states that "the writer of the chronicle of the Abbey of Meaux, in lamenting the losses which the abbey had sustained, observes that they received nearly £30 from the town of Hythe, in the parish of Skipsea, chiefly from the tithe of fish; but now, says he, 1396, the place is totally destroyed--a proof that it was gone into the sea before the commencement of the fifteenth century." The lake of Withou, which is recorded as having paid tithe for its fish in 1288 (Ibid., 468), is not only at present completely drained, but more than half of its bed is washed away, and the sea beach, which runs right across it, presents a most instructive section of its sedimentary deposits and subsequent growth of peat.

From these remarks it will be seen that, in estimating the precise physical conditions that prevailed when the lacustrine abodes I am now about to describe were constructed, we have to deal with problems of a somewhat discursive character, and which, consequently, lie beyond the scope of this work. It is clear, however, that, previous to its artificial drainage, the district was overspread with a succession of shallow lakes and marshes, pre-eminently well adapted for the construction of lake-dwellings. The lakes are now gone and instead of them we have artificial drains winding along the lowest portions of their former beds. It is along the steep banks of these sluggish water-channels that Mr. Boynton has detected, in various places, piles and transverse beams, which he justly considers to be the remains of ancient lake-dwellings. Up to the present time indications of five stations have been observed, which for facility of reference the discoverer names as follows--(1) West Furze, (2) Round Hill, (3) Barmston, (4) Gransmoor, and (5) Little Kelk.

These are situated at considerable intervals from each other, varying from half a mile to two or three miles, and as they are deeply buried their investigation entails a considerable amount of labour and expense. It is only the stations at West Furze and Round Hill that have as yet been subjected to anything like a systematic exploration. A few years ago Mr. Boynton at his own expense carried out a series of excavations at the former station by which its character has been satisfactorily determined, and subsequently he has undertaken to examine the second with a grant from the Society of Antiquaries; but these works are not yet completed, and at present they are entirely suspended owing to the volume of water in the drain.

I may state that I have on several occasions visited the locality and so became practically conversant with the general features of these discoveries. Moreover, for the special object of this work, Mr. Boynton has freely placed all the materials in his possession at my disposal and given me permission to add to my notes the accompanying illustrations of a few of the more interesting objects.

West Furze.--This was the first discovered, and the circumstances that led to the discovery are thus described by Mr. Boynton (B. 373, p. 300):--

"In the spring of the year 1880 the Commissioners of Beverley and Barmston Drainage found it necessary to deepen one of these drains (the branch called the Skipsea drain).

"A short time after this was done I was walking in one of my fields adjoining, and picked up some perforated bone implements. I shortly afterwards had the earth, which had been excavated at this place, turned over, and found more implements of the same class. Also two made from the antlers of the red-deer, and a small piece of red ochre, with several stones which bear traces of having been utilised.

"In the month of May, 1881, the water in the drain at that time being very low, and having obtained the services of half a dozen men accustomed to similar work, I had the water dammed, and dug through peat to a bed of gravel, 9 feet 6 inches from the surface.

"We found three more perforated bone implements, all in the side of the drain, and at the depth of 7 feet, also several stakes and piles with remains of brushwood. I then determined, when opportunity offered, to excavate in the field, and proceeded to do so in December last (1881). We commenced by digging a trench parallel with the drain and 60 feet in length. This trench and the drain formed two sides of a square, running north and south."

Subsequently Mr. Boynton cleared out the entire enclosure thus marked out by these primary trenches and found the whole of it to be occupied with an artificial structure of wood like the so-called fascines of Switzerland or the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland. The depth of decayed brushwood was very considerable, and it was pierced here and there with upright piles. At the margin these piles were thicker, and in one place, the south-east corner, he states that they met with great "numbers of stakes, with some brushwood, the earth being a peaty marl." Further progress from this point is thus described:--

"When clear of the slope there is a decided layer of brushwood about two feet thick, also studded with stakes, and along the inner side of the south trench we found a number of piles from 5 to 7 inches in diameter, in a line, and mostly upright. One of these we got out quite perfect. It is of oak wood, 4 feet in length, 6 inches in diameter, and has a forked top which has apparently been intended for carrying a horizontal beam or support. The piles are about 4 feet apart. One had given way and had been replaced.

"As the trench is not exactly in a line with the piles, several are now left standing and partially exposed. In this portion of the digging we found several bones of animals, a peculiar grinding-stone of whinstone or granite, almost semicircular in shape, 12 inches long by 7 broad, a flint core, a stone with the centre hollowed, a hammer-stone, and two fragments of rude pottery.

"Hazel-nuts are numerous; several I have picked out appear to have been opened by squirrels."

The drain appears to have intersected the woodwork, and as the excavations were confined to one side, the exact dimensions of the lake-dwelling cannot be stated. Its length was approximately about 70 feet, and its breadth probably one-third less. On my first inspection of the locality after these excavations had been completed I was struck with the narrowness of the lacustrine area in which the structure was reared. From the nature of the adjacent ground it was readily seen that the lake widened very considerably both above and below; but here it was so contracted that the woodwork appeared to occupy the entire breadth of the waterway--a fact which suggested to me the idea of its being a bridge or military stronghold. However, on closer inspection I saw that the accumulation of rain-wash had considerably encroached on the original bed of the lake, and I am satisfied that there would be, in former times, sufficient space for giving to the dwelling a complete insular character.

The following relics, now in the possession of Mr. Boynton, were collected in the course of the investigations:--

Horn and Bone.--The perforated bone implements (=Fig. 176=a, Nos. 1 and 2), of which not less than eighteen were collected, are the most remarkable objects. They all consist of the articulate extremities of the long bones of some large bovine animals, with the exception of two, one of which was the thick end of a scapula and the other a cervical vertebra. The latter was not manipulated, and the reason it is here classified as an implement is that a portion of a wooden handle, which had been inserted into the spinal aperture, still remained. In this manner the vertebra became a formidable weapon, which, when used as a club or skull-cracker, could scarcely be matched by any work of art. I am of opinion that all these perforated bone implements were simply warlike weapons. Three handpicks, made from the horns of the red deer--the brow antler forming the pick and the body of the horn, stripped of its antlers, the handle. Also a club, or broken pick, and several portions of worked tines.

Stone.--Three hammer-stones of natural pebbles; two anvils, one flat and circular and the other having a slight cavity on one side; six polishers, or rubbers; two flint cores, and about 50 substantial-looking flakes. One flake was a good example of a knife, and showed evidence of having been used; three other flakes were secondarily chipped and converted into neat scrapers and a saw (No. 3).

Bronze and Jet.--One bronze spear-head (No. 4), and a fragment of a jet arm-band, like those from the Ayrshire crannogs.

Pottery.--Fragments of a coarse unornamented pottery were found, out of which one vessel has been restored, having the following dimensions:--11 inches wide at mouth; 12 inches in the widest, a little below the mouth; and 7½ at base. Height, 7½ inches.

About thirty yards distant from the lake-dwelling, in a peaty hollow in the field, Mr. Boynton found pottery of a similar character. It was buried about three feet in the peat. The depth of peat over the lake-dwelling was somewhat more, being nowhere less than 4 feet.

Fauna.--No expert has as yet made a report on the osseous remains, but they are believed to represent the following animals:--Bos longifrons and primigenius, horse (a small breed), dog or wolf, beaver, ox, pig, sheep or goat, deer, otter (?), goose, and some small birds.

One well-formed human skull, with portion of an upper jaw.

ROUND HILL.--So far as the excavation of this station has been prosecuted the woodwork appears to have been precisely similar to the former, but the area occupied is of larger dimensions. Mr. Boynton thinks that the piles here belong to different periods of time, and a curious fact which he pointed out to Canon Greenwell and myself seems to support this view. He showed us the point of one pile which had penetrated and terminated in the stump of another, from which he inferred that before the former had been inserted the latter had already been in a state of decay. The decayed brushwood had also a greater thickness than at West Furze. The station has not, however, yielded many relics, the principal objects being a small stone celt, portion of a perforated stone hammer, and the half of a jet bracelet. The latter appears to be unique. It is of a flattish form, and ornamented on its outer side by five prominent ridges, running circularly. The marginal ridges are separated from the three central ones by a wider interval, in which runs a smaller ridge or bead. These ridges were evidently manipulated without the use of a turning machine, as they are not perfectly uniform, though the artists intention was to make them so.

In regard to the other three stations there are only indications of their being of a similar character, such as piles and transverse woodwork along the bottom and sides of the drain. At Barmston, a stone axe, a perforated bone implement, like those from West Furze, and bits of charcoal were found. At Gransmoor a very large quantity of broken bones lay exposed in the bottom of the drain, amidst a profusion of oak piles and beams, but among them no implements have been found.

IV.--GENERAL REMARKS ON THE LAKE-DWELLINGS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Having placed before you, with a considerable amount of fullness, certain details of the investigations of ancient lake-dwellings that have been made within the British Isles during the last half century, I proceed now to the discussion of some facts bearing on the ultimate question of their origin and development. As my conclusions are of a somewhat argumentative character, involving the consideration of some collateral phenomena as well as a critical analysis of the special materials derived from archæological research, it will be advisable, in order to secure, as far as possible, precision, at least in methods, to concentrate attention on a few definite problems--convenient foci as it were for grouping my observations. I propose accordingly to deal successively with their structural peculiarities; their range in space and time, and how far this range coincides with ethnography; and, finally, their relation to analogous remains in Europe.

Except in a very few instances, which will be afterwards more specially referred to, all the lake-dwellings hitherto examined in Great Britain and Ireland were constructed on artificial islands made generally of wood, but sometimes of stones and such other materials as might be considered suitable. Although no such instructive examples as those at Lochlee, Buston, etc., have been recorded in Ireland, there can be no doubt that those of the latter country were built on the same general principles. Indeed, few of the writers on Irish crannogs have paid much attention to the structure of the islands, and, beyond the mere statement that they were stockaded, palisaded, or surrounded by one or more circles of piles, they have supplied no explanation of the attachments and proper function of the surrounding piles. But though the purpose of the mortised beams does not appear to have been at first well understood in Ireland, it is of importance to observe that their existence has not been entirely overlooked. Dr. Reeves, writing of a crannog in the county of Antrim, says: "These piles were from 17 to 20 feet long, and from 6 to 8 inches thick, driven into the bed of the lough, and projecting above this bed about 5 or 6 feet. They were bound together at the top by horizontal oak-beams, into which they were mortised, and secured in the mortise by stout wooden pegs." (Proc. R. I. A., vol. vii. p. 155.)

Mr. G. H. Kinahan in a paper on the crannogs of Lough Rea thus incidentally alludes to the subject:--"A little north-west of the double row, in the old working, there is a part of a circle of piles; and in another, a row of piles running nearly east and west. Mr. Hemsworth of Danesfort, who spent many of his younger days boating on the lake, and knows every part of it, informs me that on the upper end of some of the upright piles there were the marks of where horizontal beams were mortised on them. These seemed now to have disappeared, as I did not remark them." (Ibid., vol. viii. p. 417.)

These are by no means isolated observations on this point, and when we consider how readily the exposed woodwork of an uninhabited crannog would be destroyed, either by the hand of man or the natural processes of decay, we need not wonder that it is only the stumps of the piles and generally submerged portions of these singular structures that remain to the present day.

The construction of a crannog must have been a gigantic operation in those days, requiring in many cases the services of the whole clan. Having fixed on a suitable locality--the topographical requirements of which seemed to be a small mossy lake, with its margin overgrown with weeds and grasses, and secluded amidst the thick meshes of the primæval forests--the next consideration was the selection of the materials for constructing the island. In a lake containing soft and yielding sediment of decomposed vegetable matter, it is manifest that any heavy substances, such as stones and earth, would be totally inadmissible, owing to their weight, so that solid logs of wood, provided there was an abundant supply at hand, would be the best and cheapest material that could be used.

The general plan adopted was to make an island of stems of trees and brushwood laid transversely, with which stones and earth were mingled. This mass was pinned together, and surrounded by a series of stockades, which were firmly united by intertwining branches, or, in the more artistically constructed crannogs, by horizontal beams with mortised holes to receive the uprights. These horizontal beams were arranged in two ways. One set ran along the circumference and bound together all the uprights in the same circle, while others took a radial direction and connected each circle together. Sometimes the latter were long enough to embrace three circles. The external ends of these radial beams were occasionally observed to be continuous with additional strengthening materials, such as wooden props and large stones, which, in some cases, appeared also to have acted as a breakwater. The mechanical skill displayed in their structure was specially directed to give stability to the island and to prevent superincumbent pressure from causing the general mass to bulge outwards.

South of the Scottish border the remains of lake-dwellings are too much decayed or imperfectly observed to furnish many reliable data bearing on this subject. So far, however, as the evidence goes it would appear that the artificial island in Llangorse and the lacustrine dwellings in Holderness were true fascines; the former, indeed, having all the appurtenances of the typical crannog.

The crannogs were made accessible by various means. Some had moles or stone causeways, the existence of which, in some instances, became known only upon the drainage of the lake. Hence it is conjectured that these approaches might have been always submerged, and so supplied, on emergencies, a secret means of communication with the shore. This idea was suggested by the tortuous direction which many of them assumed, as for example the causeway discovered in the Loch of Sanquhar which had a zig-zag direction and so could only be waded by persons intimately acquainted with its windings. Others were approached by a wooden gangway, the evidence of which now consists only of the stumps of a double row of piles. Others again were completely insulated and accessible only by boats. One feature regarding some of the wooden gangways deserves particular attention. Both at Lochlee and Lochspouts the piles were found to be tightly embraced at their lower extremities by a curiously constructed network of transverse beams. As the surface of these elaborate structures was buried from 3 to 7 feet beneath the lake-bed, my first impression was that they might have been used, like the submerged stone causeways, as a concealed means of communicating with the shore. To test this suggestion I had a special excavation made along the line of a gangway at the Miller's Cairn in Loch Dowalton. (B. 426, p. 102.) After digging through 3 feet of the consolidated and hardened mud, we came upon a stratum of fine blue clay, extremely tenacious, and little liable to displacement. The pointed stakes of the gangway, which penetrated into this clay only a few inches, here met with a firm resistance. It then occurred to me that the ingeniously arranged wooden beams at Lochlee and Lochspouts served merely the same end as the blue clay at the Millers Cairn, and that they were to be found only in localities where there was a great depth of mud incapable of affording a sufficient basis of resistance to the piles. Such difficulties have been encountered by the constructors of pile-dwellings in all countries; and it is curious to note the variety of methods by which they were overcome. The Swiss lake-dwellers sometimes surrounded the piles with heaps of stones which now go under the name of steinbergs; at other times split planks were laid on the soft mud into which the piles were mortised. The former plan was adopted on rocky shores too hard for piles to be driven in, and the latter where there was a great depth of soft mud, as at Wollishofen and other stations adjacent to the town of Zürich. In North Germany, as Persanzig, Aryssee, and other localities, the log-house principle, which greatly economised the materials, was adopted in the construction of the subaqueous foundations. It appears to me that this was the principle adopted in the structure of the great Irish crannog of Lagore, as Sir W. Wilde distinctly states that it was "divided into separate compartments by septa or divisions that intersected one another in different directions." It was in these compartments, which were filled with bones and black mud, that the antiquities were found; so that the crannog-dwellers must have used them as kitchen-middens. Originally they contained only water, but in the course of time they became filled with food refuse and other débris. House-cleaning was thus reduced to a minimum, while the laws of sanitation were not more violated than in the underground cess-pools of many of our modern dwellings. A curious statement by Wilde in regard to the disposal of bones at Lagore is that "the remains of each species of animal were placed in separate divisions, with but little intermixture with any others."

It may be also mentioned that the log-house structures described by Pigorini as lining the inside of the surrounding dyke in the terramara of Castione were perfectly analogous, only in this case the compartments were filled with clay and rubbish, so as to act better as contraforte to the clay wall.

Canoes are so invariably found associated with crannogs that their discovery in lakes and bogs has been considered by Dr. Stuart as an indication of the existence of the latter. This may be true in some cases; but in others, such as Closeburn, Lochwinnoch, and Loch Doon, three of the examples cited by him, it is more probable that the canoes were used by the occupiers of the mediæval castles in the vicinity of which they were found. From these and other instances that have come under my notice I have come to the conclusion that dug-out canoes do not indicate such great antiquity as is commonly attributed to them, nor do they therefore necessarily carry us back to prehistoric times.

There is no peculiarity in the structure or form of these dug-outs which distinguishes their age or nationality. There is a good collection of them in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Some have pointed prows and square-cut sterns; others have both ends pointed; some have cross bands, like ribs, left in the solid oak at regular intervals, as if to strengthen the vessel; while others are uniformly scooped out without any raised ridges. They vary much in size and shape. The largest is thus referred to in the small handbook to the Museum:--"Down the centre of the room extends the largest known canoe, formed of a single tree. The remains measure 42 feet in length, and the canoe was probably 45 feet long, by 4 to 5 feet wide, in its original state. It was recovered from the bottom of Loch Owel, in West Meath, and cut into eight sections for purposes of transport. There is a curious arrangement of apertures in the bottom, apparently to receive the ends of uprights supporting an elevating deck."

One of the canoes found at Lochlee, the remains of which are still preserved in the Burns' Museum at Kilmarnock, measured when disinterred 10 feet long, 2½ broad, and 1¾ deep. There were nine apertures in its bottom, arranged in two rows, four on each side, with the odd one at the apex. These holes were perfectly round, and exactly one inch in diameter; but when the boat was found they were quite unobserved, being all tightly plugged up, and it was only long afterwards that the plugs, upon drying, dropped out and so revealed their existence.

During the summer of 1874 a canoe (=Fig. 177=) was discovered in Loch Arthur, or Lotus Loch, in the stewartry of Kirkcudbright, in the vicinity of a small artificial island, which is thus described by Rev. James Gillespie:--

"When fully exposed to view by the trench which was dug around it, the canoe was seen to be of great size, ornately finished, and in a fair state of preservation. It had been hollowed out of the trunk of an oak, which must have been a patriarch of the forest, the extreme length of the canoe bring 45 feet and the breadth at the stern 5 feet. The boat gradually tapers from the stern to the prow, which ends in a remarkable prolongation resembling the outstretched neck and head of an animal. When excavated this portion of the canoe was entire. At the neck of the figurehead there is a circular hole, about 5 inches in diameter, from side to side. At the prow a small flight of steps has been carved in the solid oak from the top to the bottom of the canoe. The stern is square, and formed of a separate piece of wood, inserted in a groove about an inch and a half from the extremity of the canoe.

"Along the starboard side (which when found was in good preservation, except near the stern) there could be traced seven holes about three inches in diameter. The three front holes were nearly perfect, but at the stern the side was so broken that only the lower parts of the holes could be observed. They are about five feet apart, and the front hole is about that distance from the prow--the last being about seven feet from the stern. There are three holes pierced through the bottom at irregular intervals." (Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scot., vol. xi. p. 21.)

A curious feature presented by some of these canoes was that accidental defects had been repaired, and the method adopted in its execution is worth noticing. The canoe found close to the Buston crannog already described (page 428), showed this peculiarity in a marked degree. Another from the Loch of Canmor is thus described by the Rev. James Wattie:--

"On the 16th June, 1859, there was fished up from the bottom of the loch, near the north shore, opposite to the Prison Island, a canoe (=Fig. 178=) hollowed out of a single oak-tree, 22½ feet long, 3 feet 2 inches wide over the top at the stern, 2 feet 10 inches in the middle, and 2 feet 9 inches at 6 feet from the bow, which ended nearly in a point. The edges are thin and sharp, the depth irregular--in one place 5 inches, the greatest 9 inches. There are no seats, nor rollocks or places for oars; but there may have been seats along the sides, secured by pins through holes still in the bottom. There are two rents in the bottom, alongside of each other, about eighteen feet long each; to remedy these, five bars across had been mortised into the bottom outside, from 22 to 27 inches long and 3 inches broad, except at the ends, where they were a kind of dovetailed, and 4 inches broad. One of these bars still remains, and is of very neat workmanship, and neatly mortised in. The other bars are lost, but their places are quite distinct. They have been fastened with pins, for which there are five pairs of holes through the bottom of the canoe, at the opposite side, at a distance of from 18 to 20 inches, the bottom being flattish. There are also five pairs of larger holes through the bottom, etc." (B. 94, p. 167.)

Exact parallels to all these have been found in the Continental lake-dwellings. Of two found at Vingelz, Lake of Bienne, the largest was 43½ feet long, 4 feet 4 inches wide, and had 4 ribs left in the solid. It had iron cramps also, apparently to strengthen it, and belonged to the pre-Roman Iron Age. One at Cudrefin had also these solid cross ribs. One of the best preserved was found a few years ago at Vingrave (Lake of Bienne) covered with 2½ feet of mud, and is now deposited in the Museum of Neuveville. It is roughly made, having thick sides and a square-cut stern, with a groove for a movable stern-piece. From measurements lately taken by myself I found it to be 30½ feet long, rather less than 3 feet wide, and its greatest depth 1 foot. Its sides had four or five cuts along their margin, apparently for the use of oars. (B. 392, p. 20.)

That the crannogs in Scotland and Ireland lingered on sufficiently long to come within the borderland of history requires no great amplification here. The references to crannogs in the Irish annals are very numerous, extending over a period from the middle of the ninth to the seventeenth century.

In 1870 there was published in the Journal of the Royal Historical and Archæological Association of Ireland (B. 171_a_) an account of an unsuccessful attack on a crannog near Omagh, in the year 1566, by an English army under the command of Deputy Lord Sydney. This document, which was copied by Dr. Caulfield from despatches in the Public Record Office, London, gives a vivid description of the methods adopted in the attack and defence. A kind of pontoon was constructed on "floating barrels," which conveyed the attacking party to the island; but they found it "so bearded with stakes and other sharp wood, as it was not without extreme difficulty scaleable, and so ramparted as if the hedge had been burned--for doing whereof the fireworks failed--without a long time it was not to be digged down. Yet some scaled to the top, whereof Edward Vaughan was one, who, being pushed with a pike from the same, fell between the hedge and the bridge, and being heavily armed--albeit he could swim perfect well--was drowned, and two others hurt upon the rampart and drowned," etc.

That these island forts, however impregnable they might be considered in previous ages, had ultimately to succumb before the more modern resources of warfare, is shown by the following narrative taken from the Calendar of State Papers of Ireland, vol. 156, p. 374:--

"There was one Dualtagh O'Conner, a notorious traitor, that of all the rest continued longest as an outlaw, of power to do mischief. He had fortified himself very strongly after their manner in an island or crannoge within Lough Lane, standing within the county of Roscommon and on the borders of that country called Costelloghe. A few days ago, as opportunity and time served me, I drew a force on the sudden one night and laid siege to the island before day, and so continued seven days, restraining them from sending any forth or receiving any in, and in the meantime I had caused divers boats from Athlone and a couple of great iron pieces to be brought against the island, and on the seventh day we took the island, without hurt to any on our side, save my brother John, who got a bullet-wound in the back. When our men entered the island there was found within it 26 persons, whereof 7 were Dualtagh's sons and daughters; but himself and 18 others, seeking to save themselves by swimming, and in their cot to recover the wood next the shore, were for the most part drowned. Some report that Dualtagh was drowned, but the truth is not known. It was scarce daylight, and the weather was foggy when they betook themselves to flight. The Irishry held that place as a thing invincible."--Sir R. Bingham to Burghley, Dec. 16th, 1590.

In addition to the historical evidence we have that of the relics found on many of these crannogs, which includes iron pots, guns, leaden bullets, coins, etc. Thus associated with two crannogs in Lough Annagh were an iron cuirass, matchlock guns, pistols, antique keys, spurs, various implements of iron, a bronze ladle, bronze spear-head, etc. (B. 149, p. 156.)

To the literary researches of the late Dr. J. Robertson we are indebted for equally explicit historical notices regarding the Scottish crannogs:--"Among the more remarkable of the Scottish crannogs is that in the Loch of Forfar, which bears the name of St. Margaret, the Queen of King Malcolm Canmore, who died in 1097. It is chiefly natural, but has been strengthened by piles and stones, and the care taken to preserve this artificial barrier is attested by a record of the year 1508. Another crannoge--that of Lochindorb, in Moray--was visited by King Edward I. of England in 1303, about which time it was fortified by a castle of such mark that, in 1336, King Edward III. of England led an army to its relief through the mountain passes of Athol and Badenoch. A third crannoge--that of Loch Cannor or Kinord, in Aberdeenshire--appears in history in 1335, had King James IV. for its guest in 1506, and continued to be a place of strength until 1648, when the Estates of Parliament ordered its fortifications to be destroyed. It has an area of about an acre, and owes little or nothing to art beyond a rampart of stones and a row of piles. In the same lake there is another and much smaller crannoge, which is wholly artificial. Forty years after the dismantling of the crannoge of Loch Cannor, the crannoge of Loch-an-Eilan, in Strathspey, is spoken of as 'useful to the country in times of troubles or wars, for the people put in their goods and children here, and it is easily defended.' Canoes hollowed out of the trunks of oaks have been found, as well beside the Scotch as beside the Irish crannoges. Bronze (brass) vessels, apparently for kitchen purposes (=Fig. 179=), are also of frequent occurrence, but do not seem to be of a very ancient type. Deers' horns, boars' tusks, and the bones of domestic animals, have been discovered; and in one instance a stone-hammer, and in another what seem to be pieces for some such game as draughts or backgammon, have been dug up" (=Fig. 180=).

"Before the recent drainage of the Loch of Leys--or the Loch of Banchory, as it was called of old--the loch covered about 140 acres, but, at some earlier date, had been four or five times as large. It had one small island, long known to be artificial, oval in shape, measuring nearly 200 feet in length by about 100 in breadth, elevated about 10 feet above the bottom of the loch, and distant about 100 yards from the nearest point of the mainland. What was discovered as to the structure of this islet will be best given in the words of the gentleman, of whose estate it is a part, Sir James Horn Burnett, of Crathes. 'Digging at the Loch of Leys renewed. Took out two oak trees laid along the bottom of the lake, one 5 feet in circumference and 9 feet long; the other shorter. It is plain that the foundation of the island has been of oak and birch trees laid alternately, and filled up with earth and stones. The bark was quite fresh on the trees. The island is surrounded by oak piles which now project 2 or 3 feet above ground. They have evidently been driven in to protect the island from the action of water.' Below the surface were found the bones and antlers of a red deer of great size, kitchen vessels of bronze (brass) (=Figs. 181= and =182=), a millstone (taking the place of the quern in the Irish crannogs), a small canoe, and a rude, flat-bottomed boat about 9 feet long, made, as in Ireland and Switzerland, from one piece of oak. The surface of the crannog was occupied by a strong substantial building (=Fig. 183=). This has latterly been known by the name of the Castle of Leys, and tradition, or conjecture, speaks of it as a fortalice, from which the Wauchopes were driven during the Bruces' wars, adding that it was the seat of the Burnetts until the middle of the sixteenth century, when they built the present castle of Crathes. A grant of King Robert I. to the ancestors of the Burnetts includes lacum de Banchory cum insula ejusdem. The island again appears in record in the years 1619 and 1654 and 1664, under the name of 'The Isle of the Loch of Banchory.'"

That Scottish lake-dwellings were known by the same name, crannog, as the Irish, Dr. Robertson adduces the following extract from the Register of the Privy Council to show:--

"Instructions to Andro bischop of the Yllis, Andro lord Steuart of Vchiltrie, and James lord of Bewlie, comptroller, etc.... That the haill houssis of defence, strongholdis and cranokis in the Yllis perteining to thame and their foirsaidis sal be delyverit to his Maiestie and sic as his Heynes sall appoint to ressave the same to be vsit at his Maiesty's pleasour, etc., 14 Aprilis, 1608."

While the comparative late occupancy of the crannogs in both countries is, therefore, unquestionable, their early origin is enveloped in the deepest mystery. Was the system an indigenous invention--the result of circumscribed local exigencies--or derived from foreign sources? and when was it founded or introduced? are questions that have elicited responses of different characters. Sir W. R. Wilde, undoubtedly one of the foremost authorities on Irish crannogs, assigns them to the Iron Age. "Certainly," says he, "the evidences derived from the antiquities found in ours, and which are chiefly of iron, refer them to a much later period than the Swiss; while we do not find any flint arrows or stone celts, and but very few bronze weapons, in our crannogs. Moreover, we have positive documentary evidence of the occupation of many of these fortresses in the time of Elizabeth, and some even later." (B. 24, p. 152.) Mr. G. H. Kinahan, on the other hand, thus formulates his opinion in a short article contributed to Keller's book (B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 654):--"Of the time when the crannogs were first built there is no known record, but that they must have been inhabited at an early period is evident, as antiquities belonging to the Stone Age are found in them. Some were in use up to modern times, Crannough Macknavin, county Galway, having been destroyed in A.D. 1610, by the English, while Bally-na-huish Castle was inhabited fifty years ago. Some crannogs seem to have been continuously occupied until they were finally abandoned, while others were deserted for longer or shorter periods. In Shore Island, Lough Rea, County Galway, there is a lacustrine accumulation over 3 feet thick, marking the time that elapsed between two occupations."

That objects supposed to be typical of the Stone and Bronze Ages have been found on many of the Irish crannogs there can be no doubt at all. For example, among the remains described by Mr. Shirley from the crannogs of MacMahon's country are stone celts, arrow-heads of flint and bronze, three looped celts of bronze, etc.; but these were associated with many iron objects of comparatively modern manufacture, such as a gun-barrel, pistol-lock, ploughshares of iron, parts of harps, and spinning-wheels, etc., etc.

"The oldest article," writes Mr. Benn, "from the crannog at Randalstown found, so far as I know, was a stone hatchet, rather of a small size, but not remarkable or uncommon. The most recent, and the only piece of coin I ever heard of, discovered in such a locality, is a base coin of Philip and Mary." (B. 29, p. 88.) In the crannog of Roughan Lake, the last retreat of Sir Phelim O'Neil, some bronze spear-heads were found, along with a highly ornamented quern stone. On the lowering of Lough Gur an island became visible which is said to have been a crannog, and on it were found, among other things, a remarkably fine bronze spear-head,[121] having its socket ornamented with gold, a stone mould for spear-heads (=Fig. 107=), and some bones of the reindeer; but yet it existed as a stronghold till 1599, when it was surrendered by the English to the Earl of Desmond.[122] The sword-blades figured by Wood-Martin (B. 444, pl. xxxvii.) as coming from crannog sites at Toome Bar are undoubtedly characteristic specimens of the Bronze Age weapons; but then the evidence that they are crannog relics at all is so slender that for determinative purposes they may be considered valueless. Moreover they were associated with objects equally typical of all ages--from palæolithic flints to mediæval silver ornaments. "All these flint flakes are of the earliest type," says Mr. Day, who describes this locality, "many closely resembling those found in the 'drift' at Abbeville;" and the relics include flint cores, stone and bronze objects, a "ring brooch, enamelled bead, and a silver armlet." (B. 92, p. 227.) Similar remarks are equally applicable to all the Scottish crannogs on which objects apparently belonging to different ages have been found. A reviewer of my work on "Ancient Scottish Lake-dwellings" (B. 373), in which I gave it as my opinion that the Lochlee crannog must be assigned to post-Roman times, takes exception to this opinion on the grounds that amongst the relics are a polished stone celt of neolithic type, flint scrapers, which, he says, "may be of the Bronze Age, but could hardly be considered as post-Roman," and portions of the antlers of the reindeer, which, according to him, "can hardly have ranged as far south at any period later than the neolithic age." Had my reviewer read the remarks in my book at page 147, regarding this polished greenstone hatchet, he would hardly have selected it to prove that this crannog existed during the neolithic age. My words are: "As many of the relics, if judged independently of the rest and their surroundings, might be taken as good representatives of the three so-called Ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron, it is but natural for the reader to inquire if superposition has defined them by a corresponding relationship. On this point I offer no dubious opinion. The polished stone celt (that referred to by my reviewer) and an iron knife were found almost in juxtaposition about the level of the lowest fire-place." The iron implements on this crannog included hatchets, chisels, gouges, and a crosscut saw, and the very lowest logs bore unmistakable evidence of having been manipulated with sharp metal tools. The entire absence of cutting instruments of bronze renders it more than probable that such tools were made of iron, and were similar to those found on the crannog. As for the conclusions educed from the presence of the horns of the reindeer (hesitatingly identified by the late Professor Rolleston), it is now actually proved that this animal was not extinct in Scotland before the twelfth century. In the "Orkneyinga Saga"[123] it is stated that "every summer the Earls were wont to go over to Caithness, and up into the forests, to hunt the red deer or the reindeer." The recent discovery of its bones and horns in refuse heaps in Caithness, and in many of the brochs in the north of Scotland, amply proves that the reindeer was hunted and eaten by the Norsemen as late as the above date.

Whatever explanation may be forthcoming as to the prevalence of prehistoric relics on these crannogs, there is no possibility of denying that the vast majority of them were not only inhabited, but constructed during the Iron Age. Mr. Wakeman, in the most carefully investigated of all the crannogs in Fermanagh, viz. that at Drumdarragh, describes three periods of occupation; yet among the relics corresponding to the earliest period were several iron objects, one being "an animal's head in iron," which he considers might be the leg of a pot. Nor am I aware that superposition has defined in any clear instance the heterogeneous mixture of relics that usually turn up on crannogs.

It must also be noticed that few, if any, of them can be classified as exclusively belonging to the earlier ages, like those so numerously recorded in Central Europe. Indeed, there are only two or three which have any claim to such delimitation, viz. those in Coal-bog (Kilnamaddo), in Drumkelin bog, county Donegal, and in Holderness. On the two former sites were found the most perfect examples of log-huts that have yet come to light, and as they were both deeply buried in peat, 17 and 25 feet respectively, they undoubtedly point to some antiquity. But the relics, which include a stone axe and some flint objects, are too few to justify such a sweeping conclusion as that these dwellings were constructed at a period when metal implements were unknown in the country. At any rate, there can be no reasonable doubt that the period of greatest development of the Scottish and Irish lake-dwellings was during the Iron Age, and, at least, as far posterior to Roman civilisation as that of the Swiss Pfahlbauten was anterior to it.

In instituting an inquiry as to how far the geographical distribution of crannogs coincides with that of the various nationalities of the period, we arrive at some striking results. Thus adopting Skene's division of the four kingdoms into which Scotland was ultimately divided by the contending nationalities of Picts, Scots, Angles, and Strathclyde Britons, after the final withdrawal of the Romans, I find that of the fifty or sixty crannogs proper none are located within the territories of the Angles; ten and seven are respectively within the confines of the Picts and Scots; while all the rest are situated in the Scottish portion of the ancient kingdom of Strathclyde. That they have not been found in the south-eastern provinces of Scotland may be due to the rarity of suitable lakes, or the want of proper research on the part of antiquaries; but, as the matter actually stands, their absence suggests the theory that these districts had been occupied by a foreign element before Celtic civilisation gave such a prominence to the lake-dwellings. It will be thus seen that in the early centuries of the Christian era the distribution of crannogs in Scotland and Ireland closely coincides with a well-defined area in which the Celtic language was spoken. For proof that in those days this was the language of the south-west of Scotland, I need only point to the recent work of Sir Herbert Maxwell on the topography of Galloway.

But from an etymological analysis of the earliest topographical nomenclature of Britain, it is inferred that, during still earlier times, a much larger portion of Britain, if not the whole of it, was under the sway of the Celts. Hence it becomes interesting to inquire if, in these localities, from which Celtic influence was expelled, there exist traces of lake-dwellings. In localities where the Celtic races were never supplanted by foreigners, it would be strange indeed, and altogether at variance with archæological experience, if the habit of resorting to isolated and inaccessible islands for safety would be all at once abandoned, whenever the greater security afforded by stone buildings became known. Hence the persistence with which the island forts continued in these Celtic regions. But in this wider Celtic area, on the supposition that the Celts were the introducers or founders of the system, we ought to find some vestiges of these dwellings along the regions traversed by them before they became isolated from their Continental brethren, and cooped up in the western districts of Britain. This is precisely what the general researches into British lake-dwellings have shown in the stray remnants of them that have been found in Llangorse, Holderness, the meres of Norfolk and Suffolk, Cold Ash Common, etc. All these, with perhaps the exception of the pile-structures at London Wall, appear to be older than the majority of the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland.

Taking all these facts into account, together with the distinct statement made by Cæsar that the Britons were in the habit of making use of wooden piles and marshes in their mode of entrenchments, I am inclined to believe that we have here evidence of a widely distributed custom which underlies the subsequent great development which the lake-dwellings assumed in Scotland and Ireland. Moreover, I believe it probable that the early Celts had got this knowledge from contact with the inhabitants of the pile-villages in Central Europe. On this hypothesis it would follow that the Celts had migrated into Britain when these lacustrine abodes were in full vogue in Switzerland, and that they retained their knowledge of the art long after it had fallen into desuetude in Europe. Subsequent immigrants into Britain, such as the Belgæ, Angles, etc., would cultivate new and improved methods of defensive warfare; whilst the first Celtic invaders, still retaining their primary ideas of civilisation, when harassed by enemies and obliged to act on the defensive would have recourse to their inherited system of protection, with such variations and improvements as better implements and the topographical requirements of the country suggested to them. It is as defenders, not as conquerors, that the Celts constructed their lake-dwellings.

This hypothesis, which was first enunciated in my work on "Ancient Scottish Lake-dwellings" as a mere conjecture, has elicited a considerable diversity of opinion on the part of critics. In the Times of October 4th, 1882, it is thus referred to:--"This is pure theory, and is quite unnecessary to account for the facts: as well might one argue a connection between the pile-dwellers of New Guinea and Central Africa and those of the Swiss lakes." Sir John Lubbock (Nature, December 24th, 1882) confesses that he is disposed to doubt that there is any connection between the geographical distribution of the Scottish lake-dwellings at present known and that of the ancient Celts. On the other hand, another reviewer attempts to defend it on the ground that "in the Swiss lake-dwellings of the Iron Age there are indications, especially in the ornamentation of the sword-sheaths and other articles, of a style of art which closely corresponds to the style of decoration prevalent in the crannogs of Scotland and Ireland (Scotsman, November 22nd, 1882).

The indications above alluded to in support of this hypothesis as based on a comparison of the relics, will be more appropriately discussed in my next lecture, when I come to review the lake-dwellings of the Iron Age in Central Europe. There are, however, one or two objections urged on the other side--as, for example, the difference of structure and late occupancy of the crannogs, as compared with the Swiss lake-dwellings--that require now to be shortly considered.

As to the supposed difference in structure, I need only refer to the structural details of various fascine-dwellings, as in the lakes of Fuschl, Schussenried, Niederwyl, Inkwyl, Wauwyl, etc., as a sufficient proof of the resemblance between them and the Scottish and Irish crannogs. It is true that the pile-dwellings were more numerous on the Continent than the fascine structures, while the reverse is the case in Scotland and Ireland--if indeed the former can be said to have existed at all in these countries. That the pile system was, however, known to the crannog-builders, and occasionally acted upon, we are not devoid of some positive evidence. Mr. G. H. Kinahan says that a few of the Irish crannogs were built on piles (B. 119, 2nd ed. p. 654), and instances an example in Loch Cimbe (now Loch Hackett), county Galway, which was so frequently blown down that the occupiers were obliged to convert it into an island, which they did by adding boat-loads of stones to its site. One of the lake-dwellings in Lough Mourne I concluded to have been a pile-dwelling (see page 386), and it was connected to the shore by a wooden gangway. Mr. Burns Begg describes remains of a pile-dwelling in Loch Leven as an "oblong wooden platform, raised above the water on piles, twelve feet or upwards in height." (B. 460.)

Subsequently I had an opportunity of visiting the locality, along with Mr. Burns Begg, and I am convinced these remains could not have been an ordinary submerged crannog or artificial island. The lake bottom is not soft and compressible, but, on the contrary, very compact and quite incapable of yielding to any great extent. The structures, even in the present reduced level of the loch, are never less than 1 or 2 feet below the surface; but as formerly there would have been 9 feet more of water over them it is quite improbable that this amount of submergence could be accounted for by the usual subsidence or compression of the submerged materials.

Some of the examples of lake-dwellings recorded in England, such as those described by Sir Charles Bunbury and Dr. Palmer, would appear also to have been pile-structures.

If, therefore, both principles were known among the crannog-builders of the British Isles, why, it may be asked, did they give a preference to the fascine structures? I have already remarked that these structures on the Continent were confined to small mossy lakes, which, owing to the yielding nature of their sediments and peaty deposits, were unsuitable for pile-dwellings. In such conditions, which are generally prevalent in Scotland and Ireland, the wooden island supplied more readily, and perhaps with less labour, the requisite stability for platforms in boggy lakes and marshes intended for huts and other superstructures, especially when these platforms were small and the islands sparsely placed.

The wide chronological interval which separates the crannogs from the lake-dwellings of Central Europe is also supposed to militate against the supposition of there being any causal connection between them. But this gap is more apparent than real, as, when carefully looked into, it will be found to have been bridged over by a closer series of links than was hitherto imagined. Not only were there some lake-dwellings in Switzerland during the Iron Age, but in several instances Roman, Gallo-Roman and even Allemanish remains were found on their sites, as in the lakes of Starnberg, Ueberlingen, Zürich, etc. (See page 543.) Among the antiquities collected on the site of the dwellings in Lake Paladru were horseshoes, curry combs, and a variety of other antiquities which, in the opinion of M. G. de Mortillet and other archæologists, could not be accounted for as the products of any civilisation prior to Carlovingian times. We have also seen that in North Germany they existed at equally late times, having overlapped considerably into the Slavish period; while the Terp-mounds in Holland and other places were only superseded by the construction of the great sea-dykes. It must also be remembered that the custom of constructing lake-dwellings was not universally adopted in Europe. Their absence in Northern Europe, Spain and Portugal, and other places cannot be accounted for by a deficiency in the topographical and hydrographical requirements for such structures. They appear to have spread from the great central area of their first development in Europe in sporadic fringes, but never extending beyond the limits to which the ordinary waves of human intercourse and civilisation would likely reach.

Taking all these circumstances into consideration, I repeat that, while we are justified in ascribing the remains of lake-dwellings, so far as they are at present known within the British Isles, to a Celtic source, I see no prima facie improbability, as regards their structure and distribution in space and time, against the hypothesis that the Celts derived their knowledge of this custom from the great system of Central Europe, though founded and developed at a much earlier period.

The only exception to the general statement that the Celts were the sole constructors of lake-dwellings in Britain (without taking into account the earlier vestiges of such structures in England from which, owing to the scarcity of industrial remains, there is, as yet, no ethnological evidence either way), is the discovery at London Wall recorded by General Pitt-Rivers. I have already remarked (page 464), on the similarity of these remains to those from the Terp-mounds in Friesland. Especially interesting are the two bone skates, made from the metacarpals of the horse, recorded from the former, because such implements are common in the latter. I do not agree with Lindenschmit (page 462) in assigning all these so-called skates to the Stone period. On the contrary, they are mostly of post-Roman date. In lake-dwellings they are very rarely met with, and only one is recorded as coming from a station of the Stone Age, viz. Moosseedorf (page 75). The other localities from which examples have been recorded are Persanzig (page 315), Dabersee (page 317), Kownatken (page 328), Starnberg (B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 593), and a Terramara in Hungary (page 167).

Though the Anglo-Saxons, in coming from the mouth of the Elbe and the low-lying districts between it and the Rhine, must have been familiar with marine pile-structures, they do not appear to have cultivated the system to any great extent after immigrating into Britain. But this may be accounted for by the fact that very soon they became the conquerors of the country. It is only for defence that lake and marsh-dwellings have been resorted to.

FOOTNOTES:

[71] Journ. R. H. A. A., vol. v., 4th S., p. 325.

[72] Archæological Journal, vol. xx. p. 170.

[73] Proc. R. I. A., vol. v. p. 215.

[74] R. H. Arch. As., vol. v., 4th S., p. 330.

[75] Three iron pots were found on this crannog, one of them being of a triangular shape.

[76] Various mediæval objects collected in the mud on and near the crannog sites: iron cuirass, matchlock guns, pistols, antique keys, spurs, implements of iron, bronze ladle, bronze spear-head. The swords and gun-barrels were found sticking up in the mud from the lake-bottom.

[77] A great many piles covering an oval enclosure about 100 feet in diameter. On submarine crannogs, see Kinahan's "Manual of the Geology of Ireland," p. 264, and Note 83 (p. 443) of Scottish list of crannogs.

[78] O'Flahertie in his history mentions that the ancient castle of the O'Flaherties of Bunowen, in Ballinahinch Lake, was built on an artificial island.

[79] Two crannogs, one large and the other small. The former is only separated from the mainland by a shallow channel, and is accessible in summer by a narrow causeway. On it were found "two fine specimens of bronze pins, besides other articles of less interest in lead and iron, and a flint spear-head."

[80] A stockaded enclosure, about 35 feet in diameter, lying some 12 or 14 feet below the bog surface. "A magnificent pair of quern stones" and a large bowl-shaped vessel of oak are known to have been found on it.

[81] A curious wooden flooring, buried 14 feet in the bog. It rested on "a thick deposit of hazel and birch branches." Over it was a "collection of stone slabs, closely fitted together with a substratum of blue clay, but all laid on planks of timber forming part of the floor. On this there were quantities of ashes, proving that this was the fire-place of the ancient dwelling."

[82] "With piles round the margin and amongst the stones on its surface were found querns, some perfect, some in a broken state." A canoe became visible at a depth of 2½ to 3 feet when the water of the lake was unusually low.

[83] A small crannog discovered by turf-cutters, and "interesting from the fact of instruments made of iron and stone having been found together." Among other things were a bronze pin, fragments of crucibles, bits of anthracite coal, a socketed iron implement, two small flint knives, a stone celt, a round flat stone with an oblong-worked indentation on each side, and several bits of rude pottery.

[84] An artificial island, 30 yards in diameter, thickly planted with timber and surrounded with piles. In 1870 a canoe was found on the shore of this islet, embedded in the mud and half destroyed by fire. In the stuff lying on its floor were found some iron tools--an adze, a hammer (both with handles), a socketed chisel, two whetstones, and some fragments of iron.

[85] A small lake, scarcely a mile in circumference, and about three miles from Cavan. About a hundred yards from shore a heap of stones, surrounded by circles of stockades about fifty feet in diameter. In the moss near the lake two canoes were found 21 and 18 feet long.

[86] This lake is in the parish of Clonbroney, and contains two crannogs, called "Round Island" and "Fry's Island." The former is 18½ yards in diameter, and the "wooden piles, though in a pulpy and rotten state, are still to be seen. In the lake a small canoe, 9½ feet long, an iron spear, the nether stone of a grain-rubber, and the antlers (with eighteen points) of a deer were found embedded in the silt."

[87] This is a small lake, three and a half miles north of Enniskillen, about a mile in length and half a mile in breadth. It contains three crannogs, the largest of which is 105 feet in diameter. "Here were found querns, whetstones, worked pieces of deer-horn, some fragments of iron plated with bronze, many pieces of ornamented pottery, some of which were furnished with ears or handles; a very curious stone (apparently a tombstone), sculptured with a cross and ornamented with four human heads, and scroll work, and a large boulder, upon which a cross-like figure had been picked or punched out."

[88] A large crannog, covering about an acre, but only partly artificial. About thirty thousand piles used in strengthening the island, which had a jetty, and near this a canoe was found. The principal relics are--some stone hammers, three pieces of flint scrapers, a bead of amber and another of glass, a small stone ring the size of a finger-ring, fragments of pottery, a crucible, some articles of brass, and portions of bog-ore. The piles were cut by very sharp metal implements.

[89] In 1833 Captain W. Mudge, R.N., discovered here a wooden hut made of a framework of large oak beams mortised at the four corners. It measured 12 feet square and 9 feet high, and about half way up there was a flooring which divided the space into two storeys. The roof of this unique hut was buried in the peat 16 feet from the surface, and its base rested on a substratum of brushwood resembling a crannog. (See p. 489).

[90] Two crannogs, one large, 100 feet in diameter. An iron cauldron, found near the shore of lake, made on the same principle as the usual bronze cauldrons, of beaten iron, and riveted.

[91] Ornamented quern stone found on the crannog.

[92] "Six stone and two bronze celts, an iron spear-head and a bayonet, three fibulæ, one bridle-bit and two cheek-plates made of bronze," found on this island.

[93] From this crannog the following objects were presented to the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy:--"A piece of circular grindstone, block of flint, old iron key, two portions of blades of iron swords, and a piece of bone spike."

[94] A well-defined stockade, with horizontal beams. A canoe and the following objects recorded from this crannog:--"Two iron swords; a small anvil, very bright and clean; a pair of scales and several hammers; several gold pins; metal dishes; small axe-heads; an iron cauldron of a low dilated shape; a stone of yellowish-white colour, beautifully polished, about twelve inches long, three and a half broad, and two thick, accurately squared at the sides, having a round hole about one and a quarter inch deep and half inch in diameter at each end, the top surface and one of the sides being covered with carved devices; and a quern."

[95] "In another crannog in Rahan's Lake," says Mr. Morant, "we found five Queen Mary shillings, fused into a mass; a bronze pin; a flat spear-head, and a stone celt. We also found the hearth-stones and a quantity of ashes. The piles around the island are still visible above the water."

[96] Contained three or four crannogs. "In the one opposite Cloncahir were found several querns of different sizes and patterns (chiefly flat-shaped, ornamented with the usual cross design, varied more or less), and many of these were taken away by Mr. Kane to preserve at Mohill Castle. When the water was at a low level a slight examination was made in regard to the construction of the crannog. It was found that there were two, possibly three, concentric circles of piles of small size, enclosing an area considerably larger than that of the present island, and the space so enclosed seemed to have been filled with rough unhewn logs of wood up to about the present summer level of the water. Upon this had been deposited a stratum of stones and gravel, amongst which were found the querns already mentioned. In the same lake are three other crannogs--Man Island, Crane Island, and another."

[97] Three silver coins of the reigns of Edward I., II., and III. found on this crannog.

[98] Three crannogs in this loch, two close to each other, and are approached by a causeway which terminates about sixteen feet from the crannogs, both about twenty-five feet in diameter. On the margin of this crannog, under water, a bronze spear-head was found, 5¾ inches long, and a looped celt 4 inches long.

[99] Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xv. p. 153.

[100] Among the objects from Lagore mentioned by Lord Talbot (=Fig. 103=) is a peculiar iron pipe, described as of unknown use. It is rather remarkable that it and this bayonet-like object from Buston should be the counterparts of a kind of padlock in use in the earlier Middle Ages, which acted in the following manner:--When a spring-bolt (like that of the object from Buston) was passed through the tube upwards, the spike attached to the latter passed through the perforation in the former. Inside the tube there were two small prominences, which when the bolt was pushed sufficiently home caught the tips of its springs and prevented its return. In this state the padlock was securely locked, and it could only be opened by a key consisting of another but smaller tube, which, when passed through the other end of the larger tube and over the springs, pressed the latter close to the body of the bolt until their tips became clear of the internal catches, and so allowed the spring-bolt to be extracted.

[101] Vol. i. p. 146.

[102] This crannog is of a rectangular shape, 43 feet by 41 feet, and formed of layers of large trunks laid transversely.

[103] See Note 3, p. 447.

[104] The question of submarine crannogs is still obscure, and the few facts that have come to light leave the matter in doubt as to whether the structures were originally constructed in the water or on dry land and subsequently submerged, in consequence of changes in the relative levels of sea and land. The only remains of this character that I know of in Britain are--(1) a cairn of stones on a substratum of wood near the island of Eriska, at the mouth of Loch Crerar; (2) the Black Cairn, in the Beauly Firth; and (3) some stumps of piles in Ardmore Bay, county Waterford. The mound at Eriska, which was found on examination to be of circular shape and 60 feet in diameter, was dry at low water, but submerged at spring-tides to the extent of five feet. Some ashes and charcoal and the broken bones of sheep and small oxen were the only relics of human occupancy found. The Black Cairn is noticed in the Statistical Account of Scotland, and also by Miss Maclagan. It is about four hundred yards within flood-mark. The top is only visible at low water, and the base is said to be composed of very large wooden beams.

[105] Mr. Wallace describes the island as entirely artificial, "raised upon piles and cross-beams, about fifty yards from the shore, and 189 feet long, with an average of 112 feet wide. The water immediately surrounding it is deep, and the margin of the island rises perpendicularly from the deep water, which is about seven or eight feet deep on the north and east sides, and ten or twelve feet on the south and west. The piles and cross-beams, on which it has been raised, lie like a pavement all round it, inclining to the centre. The beams are of oak, pine, and birch. Those of pine and oak are the largest. Between the beams, and all over the island, numerous pieces of charcoal were picked up. The island rises in the centre, and, after clearing away part of the luxuriant nettles and long grass, portions of a walled structure were disclosed. No trace of lime-cement could be detected, but the stones were large and well placed together. The ruins of this building raised the island to the height of seven feet above the present water-mark." The island is noticed in the historical annals, and in 1596 gave refuge to the Earl of Arran. The occurrence of vitrified materials on the surface gives to this crannog, according to Mr. Wallace, peculiar interest. I could understand this interest had it been proved that vitrified buildings had been constructed over the crannog. In the construction of the crannog, of course, stones taken from the shore were used, and in this way the vitrified materials might be accounted for, or, what is more probable, they are the slag of a smelting furnace. The following are Mr. Wallace's words: "I visited the island in July, 1885, and scarcely had I set my foot on shore when I found a small piece of true vitrified rock; and great was my astonishment when I discovered that the whole island was covered with fragments of different sizes of the same material. It was found among the piles and cross-beams in great quantities. Several larger masses--one measuring four feet by three--were found on the western margin of the island, and deeply embedded among the stones and above the piles and cross-beams, close to the water's edge. After careful examination the vitrified material was found to differ in no way from that forming our vitrified forts. Between the crannog and the shore there is a smaller island of large stones, which is only visible when the loch is exceptionally low, as it was this season. This island, which measures 90 feet by 60 feet, appears to be entirely built of stones. The sides, like those of the larger island, are perpendicular. One piece of vitrified rock was found here. The distance between the islands is about sixty feet, and between the smaller one and the shore about twenty feet."

[106] Upon the partial drainage of Carlingwark Loch, in 1765, various kinds of artificial structures were observed, as wooden roadways, dams built of stone and clay, and a couple of islets constructed on a framework of black oak. In the mud were also found various relics, as a brass dagger, 22 inches long, mounted with gold plaiting; a brass pan; a remarkable cauldron (Fig. 172), containing bronze and iron implements; and several large stag-heads.

[107] "In draining a lake at the east end of the parish of Croy, an artificial mound appeared within a few yards of the shore, about sixty feet in circumference and five in height. It was formed of alternate strata of stones, earth, and oak; piles of oak being driven in the ground were kept strongly fixed by transverse beams of smaller size. Over these were round stones, and on the surface some inches of fine black mould. Some fragments of brass rings, pieces of pottery, and the bolt of a lock of no ordinary size, were found on the mound. At about a hundred yards distance there is a circle of large piles of oak, driven deep in the earth, apparently the commencement of a second mound; but for what purpose they were intended it is impossible to conjecture. At the same time a canoe, of most beautiful workmanship, was found, which some modern Goth has since cut down for mean and servile purposes."

[108] See note 3, p. 443.

[109] Artificial lake, with two islands, said to be seats of Fergus, Lord of Galloway.

[110] Rev. R. J. Mapleton thus sums up his observations:--"Altogether, I think that it is evident that the crannog was entirely composed of rock and walling, with the middle part filled up with smaller stones; that there existed considerable works of wood on the east, south, and west sides, at least, but whether a rampart outside or a building on the structure itself, is not quite clear; that there was a partial causeway, now under water, and the interval either filled in with brushwood or passed over in a canoe."

[111] "In Loch Kinder there is an artificial mount of stones, rising six or seven feet above the surface of the water, and resting on a frame of large oaks, which is visible when the weather is clear and calm."

[112] An oval-shaped crannog, 50 feet long by 28 feet broad, constructed of layers of young trees laid transversely. Three fire-places were exposed over the structure, and among the rubbish were found two broken combs made of wood, one of which is here figured (=Fig. 173=), and a piece of wood with a Greek cross, with crosslets burnt on it.

[113] Half a century ago Loch Leven was lowered nine feet by drainage, and at the present time the remains of the lake-dwelling are always from one to three feet under water. The mound measures 35 yards by 20 yards, and 1½ to 2 feet in height. In this area were detected the stumps of two rows of piles, twelve feet apart, and each pile was four or five feet apart. Also, in a line stretching to the shore, which is about sixty yards distant, there were one or two piles encountered, as if forming part of a gangway. The lake-bottom is here firm, and not liable to compression, so that the structure, whether ancient or modern, was really a pile-building. The only relics are a bit of carved wood, which might have been a handle, and a fragment of archaic-like pottery.

[114] The island is oval in shape, 180 feet long and 135 feet broad in the widest part. Fire-places, wooden floorings, and other woodworks were exposed, and a few relics, viz. an ornamented bone comb (=Fig. 174=), a flat loop of bronze, part of the rim of a large vessel of cast bronze 3 inches in length, and portion of an armlet of greenish glass, with a blue-and-white twisted cable ornament running round it.

[115] Dr. Stuart quotes the following account of a crannog in Loch Lochy from Mr. Robertson's notes, extracted by the latter from a MS. in the Advocate's Library, written towards the end of the seventeenth century: "Ther was of ancient ane lord in Loquhaber, called my Lord Cumming, being a cruell and tyirrant superior to the inhabitants and ancient tenants of that countrie of Loquhaber. This lord builded ane iland, or an house, on the south-east head of Loghloghae; ... and when summer is, certain yeares or dayes, one of the bigge timber jests, the quantitie of an ell thereof will be sein above the water. And sundrie men of the countrie were wont to goe and se that jest of timber which stands there as yett; and they say that a man's finger will cast it too and fro in the water, but fortie men cannot pull it up, because it lyeth in another jest below the water." B. 94, p. 160.

[116] In Maitland's "History of Scotland" the curious observation is made that Boece states that in Loch Lomond there were fish without fins, waves without wind, and a floating island. (Boet. "Scot. Reg. Descript.," fol. 7.)

[117] The relics from the Wigtownshire crannogs, besides those already mentioned, are not numerous. From Barlockhart there is a stone ring (=Fig. 175=), two querns, and a spindle-whorl of clay-slate. From one of the crannogs at Machermore Loch there is a stone implement, with circular hollows on each face (=Fig. 175=). Regarding such implements Rev. George Wilson writes thus:--"These are of two types, elongated and oval, approaching a circular form, and I wish to direct attention to them because, as yet (1879), only eight have been reported in Scotland, seven of them being from Wigtownshire" (Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xiv. p. 127). Shortly afterwards another, described at page 422, was found on the crannog of Lochspouts, in Ayrshire.

[118] Lochavoullin, situated to the east of the Oban railway station, was formerly, as the name implies, used as a dam for a water-mill, but for many years it was a marsh in the summer time, and much frequented by sportsmen on account of the number of snipes which it sheltered. It is now in the process of being utilised, partly as a green, by filling up its bed, and partly as a skating-pond; and in the course of these operations a submerged platform of wooden beams, laid in transverse layers, was detected about the centre of the marsh. I visited the locality in the spring of 1888, but beyond seeing portions of the woodwork, and determining, by probing the mud, that it extended for several yards in all directions, nothing of archæological value was discovered. So far, however, it has all the appearance of the usual crannog, an opinion which is strengthened by the physical conditions of the environment.

[119] This loch covers about two acres. At the north end there is a small island, covered with a rank vegetation and a few stunted trees of Scottish fir and birch. A rough, crooked causeway extended from it to the shore. "Round the island could be seen driven piles, to which were attached strong transverse beams, and upon making a cut six or seven feet wide into the side of the island to ascertain its structure, we found a platform of about four feet in depth, raised by transverse beams placed alternately across each other, and kept in position by driven piles. These last were generally small oak trees, but dressed and sharpened by a metal tool, some of them mortised at the heads, where a transverse rail or beam could be fixed."

[120] Towards the north the author subsequently found a "plank with several Roman nails in it; and the number of loose nails found in the soil above it showed that they must probably have belonged to some wooden superstructure which had perished."

[121] Evans, "An. Br. Implements," p. 436.

[122] Proc. R. I. A., vol. ix. p. 176; and vol. i., 2nd Ser., p. 223.

[123] See translation of O. S., edited by Dr. Joseph Anderson, p. 182; also Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. viii.

Sixth Lecture.

THE LAKE-DWELLERS OF EUROPE--THEIR CULTURE AND CIVILISATION.

I.--STONE AGE.

In the summary of the remains of lake-dwellings which I have brought under your notice in the previous lectures, you will have observed that there was often a great diversity in the character of the relics even in stations that were lying close to each other. From the study of this feature alone we must conclude that some flourished at a time when the use of metals was entirely unknown to their inhabitants, as all tools and weapons recovered from the débris were made of such materials as stone, bone, horn, etc. The substitution of bronze for these materials marks a decided change in the culture and civilisation of the lake-dwellers--a change which becomes further modified by the introduction of iron. We have thus a great variety of lake-dwellings, distinguishable from each other generally by the character of their industrial remains, according to the particular civilisation which prevailed at the period of their habitation, some dating from the pure Stone Age, others from the Bronze Age, while others again bear the imprint of various later civilisations, as Roman, Celtic, Carlovingian, Slavish, etc. In dealing, therefore, with lacustrine remains as a whole, we have to take into account not only their distribution over a wide geographical area, but also their continuance in various parts of Europe for a long period extending from the Neolithic Age to the dawn of written history.

The outlying parts of this wide field, comprising more particularly the lake-dwelling remains in North Germany and in Great Britain and Ireland, I have already sufficiently dealt with when treating of their archæological details, so that it is unnecessary to bring them again prominently forward. There remains, therefore, only the central area of Europe, where they originally developed and so extensively flourished during the Stone and Bronze Ages. To draw, from a general criticism of the mass of recovered materials which I brought before you in the first three lectures, some general notion of the culture and civilisation which characterised their occupiers is therefore the first and primary object of this lecture.

Though the famous three ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron had been established as a method of classification before lacustrine treasures became known, I question if there is in the whole range of prehistoric archæology any class of antiquities that gives greater support to this remarkable chronological sequence, or throws more light on the introduction of metals into Europe than those collected from the lake-dwellings. The period of duration of the early pile-dwellings in Central Europe entirely covers and overlaps that which witnessed the introduction of the great art of metallurgy in Europe. While the contents of graves and ceremonial burials are important in preserving special products of the technical skill of a people, we have from some of these lacustrine dwellings materials for reconstructing the entire life history of their inhabitants, giving, as it were, a complete picture of their arts, industries, luxuries, and amusements.

That many of these lake-villages, built as they were on wooden platforms and constructed of combustible materials, were liable to conflagrations, we can readily believe, and we have had conclusive evidence that many of them came to an untimely end in this manner. It is, indeed, to such catastrophes that we owe much of our information, as the sudden interruption of busy life-scenes in such a manner and especially when accompanied by circumstances that tended to preserve the ruins from decay, has been the means of supplying us, as it were, with a photographic picture of the habits, customs, and industries of the people; and it requires only a sufficient number of such instances to be able, from a comparative examination of the recovered relics, to construct a fair scale of the progressive civilisation and culture of the lake-dwellers. On the other hand, there are lacustrine villages which have existed, through various ages, such as Nidau, but the association of objects so widely separated in point of time in one place becomes misleading, especially if their relative ages cannot be tested by superposition in the relic-bed--which can rarely be the case in lacustrine investigations, as in the act of dredging the relics are all jumbled together.

Professor Desor, observing that large quantities of pottery of every description were found in certain localities, which could not belong to one family, and that many of the bronze weapons and implements were new and unused, suggested that the palafittes in Lake Neuchâtel were merely magazines or shops, and not the ordinary residences of the people. (B. 252, p. 3.) But this opinion has not been adopted by Swiss archæologists; nor indeed is it at all justified from a study of the character of the multifarious objects discovered among their débris, which undoubtedly point to village life and the exercise of social and domestic avocations on the spot. Dr. Gross, in combating Desor's opinion, so far as founded on the unused condition of many of the relics, remarks:--"Je possède dans ma seule collection les tronçons de plus de dix épées réduites à l'état fragmentaire par un long usage. Un grand nombre d'outils s'y montrent altérés et modifiés par la même cause." (B. 392, p. xii.)

The settlements of the pure Stone Age are found only in a limited area in Central Europe. Their greatest development has been in the lakes bordering on both sides of the Alps, and it is especially from the data there supplied that we become acquainted with their characteristic features. This area may be more specifically defined as including the lakes of Lombardy, Laibach, Bavaria, Switzerland, and Savoy, with the exception perhaps of Lake Bourget--whose palafittes appear to have been constructed exclusively in the Bronze Age.

One of the most striking facts, and one to which I invite special attention, is the advanced state of the culture and social organisations which prevailed amongst the earliest constructors of these singular abodes. It is beyond doubt that, from the very start, their inhabitants were acquainted with various industries, especially weaving, which they sedulously practised; that they reared the ordinary domesticated animals; and that they cultivated flax, fruits, and various kinds of grain. For example, at Wangen two varieties of wheat and the two-rowed barley were distinctly recognised both in whole ears and in the separate grain, the latter in quantities that could be measured in bushels. The stones of the grape, which Professor Heer (B. 123) somewhat hesitatingly announced among the fruits from this station, may now be accepted as genuine, as the grape (Vitis vinifera) has recently been found at Steckborn, another station of the pure Stone Age,[124] and at Haltnau. (B. 462, p. 58.) Several varieties of well-made cloth of flax, and mats of bast, were also found at Wangen. There is preserved in the Museum of Fribourg a carbonised spindle from Lake Morat, which shows fine threads still coiled round it, and Dr. Gross figures a similar object from Locras. (B. 392.) Most antiquaries are acquainted with the remarkable varieties of cloth, fringes, nets, cords, and ropes brought to light by Messikommer from the very lowest relic-bed at Robenhausen (=Fig. 25=). Even specimens of embroidery were found at the adjoining station of Irgenhausen. (B. 126, Pl. xvi.) Remains of linen cloth, thread, nets, basket-work, etc., have also been found in a great many other stations, as Vinelz, Locras, Schaffis, Lagozza, Laibach, etc. But the absence of such fragile and perishable relics from many other stations is not to be taken as evidence that their inhabitants were unacquainted with such industries; for it must be remembered that it is only when fabrics are carbonised, or deposited in circumstances exceptionally favourable to their preservation, that they are prevented from undergoing the natural process of decay. Thus, at Schussenried, though there was no actual cloth found, the impression of a well-woven fabric is clearly seen on a consolidated mass of wheat--probably that of the sack in which the grain had been stored--and at Laibach a similar impression was observed on a fragment of pottery.

One of the stations in Moosseedorfsee which became completely exposed in consequence of drainage operations, and was carefully examined by the experienced archæologists Messrs. Jahn, Morlot, and Uhlmann, yielded a large assortment of the osseous remains of animals, amongst which the following were supposed to have been in a state of domestication, viz.:--dog, sheep, goat, pig, and various kinds of oxen. A few bones and teeth of the horse were also found, but these might have belonged to the wild species, as it is not agreed, nor is there any evidence, that this animal was domesticated till the Bronze Age. The cultivated plants from this station were barley, two kinds of wheat, pea, poppy, and flax. Among an assortment of its industrial remains, now in the Bern Museum, are about a dozen celts of nephrite (one of jadeite), bits of cord, a wooden comb, a fish-hook made of a boar's tusk, flint saws in their wooden handles, and fragments of pottery, some of which are ornamented with nail-marks or perforations round the rim. One piece of dark pottery (=Fig. 184=, No. 5) has a series of triangular bits of birch bark stuck on its surface by means of asphalt. (B. 336, p. 37.) If any further evidence were required to show the skill of the early lake-dwellers in the arts of spinning and weaving, and the extent to which they followed agricultural pursuits and the rearing of domestic animals, I have only to call attention to the vast number of spindle-whorls, loom-weights, etc., which are everywhere to be met with; the corn-crushers, yokes for cattle (=Fig. 184=, No. 1), field hoes, picks, and other agricultural implements found on the sites of the earliest settlements, as Robenhausen, Schaffis, Schussenried, etc.

That the potter's art was well known to, and practised by, the early lake-dwellers hardly needs any demonstration when we look at the mass of fragments, and even whole dishes, consisting of bowls, plates, cups, jugs, spoons, and large vases, now tabulated and stored in the various museums of lacustrine objects. These dishes were made without a knowledge of the potter's wheel, and the paste generally contained coarse sand or small pebbles; but a finer kind was also used for the smaller vessels. Generally speaking they are coarsely made in the earlier stations, having perforated knobs instead of handles, yet occasional examples turn up which show that handles were not unknown. The ornamentation consists of finger and string marks, irregular scratchings with a pointed tool, raised knobs, perforations round the rim, together with dots and lines in various fantastic combinations. No two vessels exactly alike in style and ornamentation have ever been found. The only approach that I have seen is in the case of two vases, one from Bodmann (=Fig. 30=, No. 20), and the other from Schussenried (=Fig. 35=, No. 4), which certainly suggest that the vessels were made under the influence of the same artist. In Lagozza and Polada artistic patterns were made from the impressions of a small tube, probably a stiff straw or a bone instrument, alternating with panels of crossed lines. In Laibach great skill is exhibited, not only in the variety and elegance of the vessels, but also in their ornamentation, which consists of various figures, rectangles, crosses, rhombs, triangles, etc., the lines of which are flanked with small pointed impressions. In the Mondsee a similar taste for geometrical figures is displayed, and here the lines are large and deeply cut so as to admit of the insertion into them of a white substance which, on the originally black pottery, must have had a striking effect. Associated, however, with these fantastically ornamented dishes, both in Laibach and the Mondsee, are others of a much inferior type.

To the food supply derived from agriculture, the rearing of domestic animals, and the seeds and fruits of wild plants, they added the produce of hunting and fishing; and the remains of the weapons used in these pursuits are numerous. Arrow-points of flint and sometimes of other minerals, as rock crystal and jade, and of bone, are amongst the most common relics; and even a few of the bows made of yew wood, notwithstanding their liability to decay, have come to light, two from Robenhausen, and one from each of the stations of Vinelz, Sutz, and Clairvaux.

It appears that the earlier arrow-points were of the triangular type, with or without stems, and it is supposed that the addition of barbs was an evolutionary process of improvement, and of course of later date. Thus none of the arrows from Schaffis have barbs, but on the other hand Vinelz has supplied some beautiful examples (=Fig. 7=). The barbed forms are also prevalent on the palafittes of Lake Varese and Polada, but they are entirely absent from the stations in the Mondsee, Attersee, and Laibach Moor.

The discovery of some arrow-points with a portion of the wooden shaft still attached has disclosed the fact that this union was accomplished, at least in some instances, by means of an adhesive material like asphalt. In the Neuchâtel district this material might, indeed, be the natural product of this name, as it is so readily found in the neighbouring Val de Travers. It is more probable, however, that, as suggested by Dr. Dom, of Tübingen, it was the manufactured product of birch-bark--a suggestion which explains the frequency with which rolls of this material were found among the débris of so many lake-dwellings. This adhesive material was used, not only for fixing arrow-points and other implements in their handles, but also, when mixed with charcoal, to give a black gloss or varnish to pottery. Its discovery and application for such purposes in Polada, Mondsee, Schussenried, and many of the Swiss stations of the Stone Age, as St. Aubin, Locras, Moosseedorf, etc., proves that its use was prevalent over the whole lake-dwelling area of the Stone Age.

Spear-heads and daggers were manufactured from flint, and specimens of the latter have been found inserted into a wooden handle or surrounded by a withe so as to give a better grip to the weapon. There were also very effective weapons of this class made from the leg-bones of deer and other animals, as well as from the tines of staghorns, etc.

For the purpose of carrying on the ordinary avocations of domestic and social life the lake-dwellers were in possession of a varied assortment of tools and implements, the precise function of some of them, however, being difficult to determine. They had hatchets, knives, saws, scrapers, borers, etc., of flint and other hard stones. Cutting instruments were also made of horn, bone, and the tusks of the wild boar, as well as an endless variety of pointers, chisels, etc. With such tools they constructed wooden houses, scooped out canoes, and shaped wood into various kinds of dishes, clubs, and handles. The stone celt or axe-head, the most indispensable of all implements to the Stone Age people, was mounted in a variety of ways. Most frequently there was a casing of horn into which the axe was fixed, and this casing was then fitted into a wooden handle (=Fig. 185=, Nos. 8 and 10). Sometimes the horn fixing had a =V=-shaped slit in the opposite end from the hatchet (=Fig. 7=, No. 13), which fitted into a corresponding slit in a crooked handle (=Fig. 185=, Nos. 1, 13, and 14). When locked the instrument became a kind of adze, the cutting edge transverse to the axis of the handle. This method Dr. Gross thinks was more especially used in the Copper Age. At Wangen horn fixings were rarely used, the hatchet being inserted into a split cleft in a crooked branch. It is interesting to note that this method was in use among the prehistoric salt-miners at Hallein, near Salzburg,[125] and at Castione in Italy (=Fig. 185=, No. 13).[126] The smaller axes and chisels, as well as a variety of flint implements, were not infrequently inserted directly into suitable portions of deer-horn, as shown in many of the accompanying illustrations.

The perforated axe of stone or horn had simply a wooden handle firmly fixed by a wedge inserted into a split at its end in the perforation, an example of which, found at Schussenried, Mr. Frank carefully preserves. Besides these there is a variety of objects of horn and bone which might have been used as implements or weapons, but mostly, I should say, for agricultural purposes, such as picks (=Fig. 185=, Nos. 4 and 7), hammers, clubs, etc. Some of the smaller bone implements were also inserted into handles, specimens of which were particularly numerous at St. Aubin.

Flint saws were extremely abundant, and are to be found among the remains of almost all the earlier stations, many of which still retain their wooden or horn handles. Only in Polada has the compound and double-handed saw been found (=Fig. 67=, No. 12). It consists of a casing of wood with four flints cemented into a groove along one of the edges.[127]

Another curious implement supposed to be a saw was found at Vinelz, and is now in the Cantonal Museum at Berne (=Fig. 185=, No. 17). It consists of a massive handle of wood, evidently fashioned for the hand, with three worked flints stuck in a row and kept in their place by asphalt.

Among domestic utensils, in addition to pottery, are small cups and boxes made of horn (Nos. 12 and 18). There are also spoons, pins, needles, buttons, awls, knives, flax-combs, etc., of bone. Combs for the hair were generally made of wood in the usual form (=Fig. 11=, No. 7). Another most ingenious method was by binding together a series of prepared twigs with their ends folded one way, as seen in =Fig. 185=, No. 19.

Wooden dishes cut out of the solid, such as ladles, bowls, tubs, etc., have been found in many stations, but especially at Robenhausen; and there can be no doubt that similar vessels were in general use among the early lake-dwellers.

I have already noticed the finding of fishing-nets at Robenhausen and Vinelz, and a fish-hook ingeniously made from a boar's tusk. Other fish-hooks were made of bone, as seen in the illustrations from Bodmann, Wangen, and Bauschanze.

Nor were these early settlers insensible to the charms of personal ornament. Shells (both recent and fossilised), coloured pebbles, the teeth of carnivorous animals, ornamented pieces of bone and horn, stone and clay beads, and even roundlets of the human skull, were pierced for suspension, and worn either as pendants or necklaces (Nos. 9, 11, and 20 to 24).

The skill displayed in the manufacture of the perforated stone axes and hammers has often excited the astonishment of antiquaries; and many of them thought that it was hardly possible to bore perfectly round or oval holes through such hard materials without the use of metal tools. Yet this was undoubtedly done, as we find not only bored implements, but smoothly sawn portions, in the very earliest stations, as, for example, Schaffis, Moosseedorf, Wangen, Robenhausen, etc. From the former there are in the Berne Museum stone celts with a round hole and one with an oval-shaped perforation. Quite as inexplicable are the numerous fragments of stone, clearly indicating, from the parallel grooving, that they were sawn off. Some of these pieces are by no means small, and such as could be readily accounted for by the use of flint saws. In the Museum of Zürich there is a large water-rolled stone of serpentine, measuring 14 by 9 by 8 inches, which was dredged up at Wollishofen, showing a cut 11 inches long and ⅝ inch deep. One side of the cut was broken off, but the fragment was fortunately also recovered and when made to fit in its place, which it does to a nicety, the maximum breadth of the cut can be readily ascertained to be ⅜ of an inch. The sides of this cut are finely striated with parallel grooves, which are not exactly straight, but bent slightly downwards in the middle. Before the sawing was begun there are clear indications of a superficial groove having been made by chipping, evidently with the intention of guiding the saw in the initiatory stages of the process. What could this saw have been made of? I do not think that with a flint implement this cut could have been made. It is as regular as that from a modern steel instrument. It is now supposed that the sawing of stones was performed with a thin wooden board and some dry sand. The late Dr. Keller experimented with these simple means, and found that they were quite sufficient for the purpose. He also practically proved that in the same way, with a wooden tube set in rapid motion round its axis, he could easily bore a hole in the hardest stone. (B. 336, p. 49.) Anyone visiting the Museum in Zürich may practically test the efficacy of these processes for himself, and the obliging custodian delights in showing the method of working. Soft wood is found to be better than hard, as the former takes up more of the particles of the sand, which act like fine teeth in grinding the stone. That tubes of some kind were used for boring stones by the lake-dwellers is demonstrated by the finding of hundreds of round cores, the result of boring on this principle, as well as, sometimes, implements with the boring begun but incompleted, showing the round core still in the hole as shown in =Fig. 184=, No. 6. In the Zürich Museum there is also a staghorn hammer from Robenhausen with a partially bored hole having a core in its centre, thus proving that horns were also manipulated in the same way (=Fig. 24=, No. 12).

No problem has for many years puzzled archæologists more than the effort to account for the finding, from time to time in various parts of Europe, of those remarkably elegant implements made from the mineral substance commonly known as jade. Hitherto they have been generally found isolated in the soil or in graves of the Stone Age, such as the dolmens of Brittany. The favourite theory, seeing that no local habitat could be assigned to this mineral, was that these implements were imported by the original neolithic people, who were supposed to have migrated westwards from the plains of Northern India. The discovery of a large number of celts and small chisels in the lake-dwellings, together with a few other objects made of nephrite, jadeite, and chloromelanite, has reopened the problem as to their origin, with the result, however, of making the controversial flame burn brisker than ever. Independent of the lake-dwelling finds, the number of jade objects now known in Europe may be roughly stated at 200, about the half of which come from some 44 departments of France. Of the remaining 100 about 80 are from Western Germany, the rest being assigned to various localities in Italy,[128] Austria, and Greece. According to the opinions of competent mineralogists the vast majority of those from Western Europe are made of jadeite and chloromelanite, the number made of the former being slightly in excess of the latter. In the French group there is only one of nephrite, from the vicinity of Rheims, and in the German group three or four, found in Baden and Bavaria. Mr. A. B. Meyer states that, with the exception of one from Posen, all the German examples were found to the west of the Elbe.

In appearance, nephrite, jadeite, and chloromelanite closely resemble each other, and, owing to considerable variations in the colour to which they are all more or less liable, it is difficult to distinguish them by the unaided eye. Generally speaking nephrite has a somewhat soapy feel, with a lighter and more transparent tint of green than jadeite, while chloromelanite is darker and less transparent than either. According to Meyer their specific gravity is:--nephrite 2·9 to 3·2, jadeite 3·3, and chloromelanite 3·4 to 3·6. From the large number of implements, especially hatchets, small chisels, and sometimes knives (=Fig. 185=, No. 28)--rarely arrow-points and ornaments--found in almost all the lake-dwelling stations of the Stone Age, it would appear that they were greatly admired and much sought after by the inhabitants of these settlements. Dr. Gross thinks they were in greatest abundance in those stations which flourished in the period immediately preceding that of the introduction of metals, and that after this event they disappear altogether. (B. 392, p. 10.)

From Lake Constance the number of jade implements now considerably exceeds 1,000, as may be verified by an inspection of the museums in the neighbourhood. One station alone, Maurach, has supplied 349 tolerably well, and 141 badly, made implements, and no less than 154 chips and sawn portions varying from the size of a finger-nail to a few inches. (B. 378, p. 78.) Similar chips have also been occasionally met with in other stations. This at once settles one important point, viz. that the lake-dwellers were in actual possession of the raw material, which they worked on the spot. Although most of the settlements in Lake Constance have yielded more or less specimens, there is none that even approaches Maurach in point of numbers, the next highest being Unter-Uhldingen, Immenstadt, and Sipplingen, from each of which two or three score have been collected. In moving eastwards towards the Danubian valley they become much rarer. Thus Schussenried has yielded only one (jadeite), Olzenreuthe seven (all nephrite), Starnbergersee two (nephrite), Laibach one (nephrite). Only one (jadeite) is recorded from the Mondsee, and none from the Attersee. According to Fischer[129] 97 per cent. of the implements from Lake Constance are of nephrite, while the other three per cent. are nearly equally divided between jadeite and chloromelanite. In the Zürich Museum he found 28 implements of nephrite, one of jadeite, and six of chloromelanite. Of the former, 22 are from Meilen and four from Robenhausen. Out of 295 in the museums of Berne (which came from the lakes of Neuchâtel, Bienne, Morat, Inkwyl, and Moosseedorfsee), 118 are of nephrite, 124 of jadeite, and 53 of chloromelanite. From these approximate calculations we see that while nephrite was greatly in excess of jadeite in the settlements of Lake Constance and its neighbourhood, this inequality becomes gradually removed as we move westwards, till we come to France, where their relative frequency becomes actually reversed. Chloromelanite, on the other hand, though as a whole much rarer than either nephrite or jadeite, seems to have been more evenly distributed. Roundly speaking, we have in all Europe between 300 and 400 worked objects of jadeite, and about 200 of chloromelanite, while those of nephrite amount to twice these numbers combined.

These facts are very suggestive, and undoubtedly give some support to the theory that these minerals were found by the lake-dwellers somewhere in their own neighbourhood. But notwithstanding the most careful searching on the part of geologists and mineralogists not a particle of any of them has yet been found in situ in any part of Switzerland. As an inducement to country people to be on the look-out a reward of 200 francs was offered a few years ago[130] to anyone who could produce a bit of nephrite, found in situ, of the size of a man's fist, but as far as I know, the reward still lies unclaimed.

Three isolated portions have been found in Germany, one in the alluvial sands of Potsdam, another in the vicinity of Meersburg, and a third in the vicinity of Leipzig.[131] Also in somewhat similar circumstances two portions have been recorded from Styria.[132] It is said to have been found in situ in small quantities in the rocks of Silesia, as recorded by H. Traube, of Breslau, in an article entitled "Über den Nephrit von Jordansmühl in Schlesien."[133] Mr. Roediger directs attention (by a note in Antiqua, 1884, p. 150) to the fact that it was stated to have been found in the Canton Freiburg, in a work published in 1834. A few chips were found in the prehistoric caves at Mentone associated with worked flints.[134]

To these remarks on the jade question I have only to add that Dr. Arzruni[135] maintains that the nephrite and jadeite of the lake-dwellings can be microscopically shown to differ from the Asiatic mineral. It may also be interesting to note that 13 small axes or chisels of jade were found by Schliemann in the prehistoric cities of Troy (Ilios, p. 240).

As to the huts or cottages in which the lake-dwellers lived the evidence is still somewhat scanty. For a long time the only indications that huts were erected over the platforms consisted of portions of clay having the impressions of round timber (=Fig. 184=, No. 2), hearth-stones, and some stray beams and bits of thatching. Recently, however, more definite information has been brought forward by Mr. Frank, the investigator of the lake-dwelling at Schussenried. This settlement had none of the signs of having been destroyed by fire, and it is supposed that its inhabitants voluntarily abandoned it on account of the growth of the surrounding peat. In this case it is probable that the huts would be allowed to fall into natural decay, but before this happened there was a chance that some part of the buildings would become overtaken by the moss, and so become, as it were, hermetically sealed up. That something like this actually occurred is now proved by the discovery at this station of the foundations and portions of the walls of a cottage deeply buried in the moss. Upon the discovery being known Mr. Frank had the ruins at once uncovered, and before the crumbling materials disappeared there was a plan of the building taken, which by the courtesy of the investigator I had an opportunity of inspecting. The structure was of an oblong rectangular form, about 33 feet long and 23 feet wide, and was divided by a partition into two chambers. On the south side there was a door, a little over 3 feet wide, which opened into one of the chambers. The other, or inner chamber, was somewhat larger, and had no communication with the outside, except through the former by means of a door in the partition. There were no relics found in these chambers, but in the outer there was a mass of stones which showed signs of having been a fire-place. The walls were constructed of split stems set upright and their crevices plastered over with clay. The flooring in both chambers was composed of four layers of closely laid timbers separated by as many layers of clay. These repeated floorings may have been necessitated by the gradual rise of the surrounding peat which ultimately drove the inhabitants away.

Mr. Messikommer (B. 406c) in the course of his investigations at Robenhausen found, over an area of 33 yards long and 10 broad, indications of what he considered to be four separate dwellings. From a study of the peculiar grouping and distribution of the industrial remains over this area he came to the conclusion that each cottage had its own special furniture, a hearth, weaving appliances, a millstone, sharpening-stones, etc., and on this principle he determines the size of the huts. From these calculations the size of the Robenhausen cottages would be almost identical with that at Schussenried, each having an area of about 750 square feet. From observations made at Irgenhausen similar results were obtained. At Niederweil, where the limits of contiguous dwellings were clearly definable, the area assigned to each was found to be somewhat less.

Swiss archæologists pretend to see, in the remains of their lacustrine villages of the Stone Age, evidence of three distinct periods, which are thus formulated by Dr. Gross:--

"Les fouilles que j'ai faites, depuis une dizaine d'années, dans les villages lacustres de l'âge de la pierre, m'ont prouvé qu'ils n'ont pas tous été habités à la même époque, mais qu'ils remontent à trois périodes différentes bien caractérisées.

"Dans la première période, je range les stations les plus anciennes, représentées, dans le lac de Bienne, par la palafitte de Chavannes (Tschaffis), près de Neuveville. Les produits de l'industrie humaine trouvés sur ces emplacements, dénotent un art tout-à-fait primitif; les haches de pierre sont petites, à peine polies et presques toutes en minéral indigène; les haches-marteaux n'apparaissent que sous forme de grossières ébauches, et les outils en corne et en os sont mal travaillés. On ne remarque aucune trace d'ornementation, ni sur les armes et les instruments, ni sur les produits de la céramique. La poterie, du reste, est façonnée d'une argile grossière, sans l'aide du tour naturellemente, et revêt des formes qui trahissent l'enfance de l'art du potier.

"La seconde période, à la quelle appartient l'ancienne station de Locras, celle de Latrigen et en général la plus grande partie de nos établissements de l'âge de la pierre, présente déjà un notable progrès sur la précédente, en ce que les armes et les outils sont perfectionnés, les haches en pierre, quelquefois perforées pour recevoir le manche, sont fort bien travaillées, polies avec soin et revêtent parfois des dimensions colossales. On constate aussi dans ces stations une abondance relative de hachettes en néphrite, jadéïte et chloromélanite. En effet, tandis que ces objets en minéral étranger font presque entièrement défaut pendant la première et la troisième période, on les rencontré dans les stations qui nous occupent dans une proportion qui peut varier du 5 au 8% des haches en minéral indigène.

"Le métal n'apparaît pas encore dans cette période, ou du moins pas dans la couche archéologique; exceptionnellement, on trouve, ici et là, entre les pilotis, quelques lamelles de cuivre, et plus rarement de bronze.

"La poterie, faite d'une pâte plus fine et mieux façonnée, présente quelques traces d'ornementation sous forme d'éminences percées et de dents de loup.

"Enfin la troisième période comprend les stations de l'époque de transition de la pierre au bronze. C'est l'époque du cuivre, si je puis l'appeler ainsi, caractérisée par la présence dans la couche archéologique même, d'armes et d'instruments de cuivre pur (très-rarement de bronze), de haches-marteaux habilement perforées, d'outils de bois et de corne très bien façonnés, et surtout de vases de formes variées, quelques-uns munis d'anses et la plupart ornés de dessins faits avec les doigts ou au moyen de ficelle imprimée dans l'argile encore molle. Comme je l'ai déjà fait remarquer plus haut, les haches en néphrite et jadéïte sont devenues plus rares et font même presque entièrement défaut." (B. 392, p. 2.)

It will be remembered that a similar subdivision of the Stone Age was adopted by M. Borel in his essay on the lacustrine stations along the Bevaix shore. (See page 49.) In my opinion there are no archæological grounds for such a classification; but I retain its nomenclature as a matter of convenience, especially the term "Transition" period. The inhabitants of Schaffis (referred to by Dr. Gross, and acknowledged to be one of the oldest stations in Switzerland), knew and practised the art of boring and sawing stones; they possessed implements of nephrite and jadeite (=Fig. 185=, No. 29), and in the manufacture of the usual flint implements they were, according to Dr. v. Fellenberg, pre-eminent. In the assortment of objects from this station in the Cantonal Museum at Berne are to be seen some fantastically-shaped and perforated clubs of horn and bone, a large needle, and five peculiar objects of horn, similar to those found on so many of the stations of the period of transition as Sutz, Gerlafingen, etc. (Nos. 26 and 27), pieces of cloth, flax combs, a variety of clay weights, stone axe-hammers in all stages of manufacture, well-shaped daggers of flint and bone, flint saws in their wooden handles. On this station Dr. Gross also describes the finding of portions of a ladder; and Dr. Keller (B. 336, p. 48) part of a door or window containing a long bolt (No. 25). It is true that the specimens of pottery are coarse and devoid of ornamentation; but this might have been due to social causes rather than a deficiency of knowledge, as we find that in some of the other early stations, as for example Schussenried, the pottery is highly ornamented. In the struggle for existence the original founders of the lake-dwellings, surrounded by fierce aborigines and wild animals, had to pay more attention to the mere necessaries of life than to art. With the progress of time there are indications of considerable prosperity and a corresponding advancement in culture, but nothing worthy of being characterised as a separate period till the introduction of bronze, which, by facilitating all mechanical and industrial operations, produced a social revolution. But this change was only by degrees, and the overlap of the Stone and Bronze Ages is appropriately designated the period of transition. However long or short the lake-dwellers existed in the pure Stone Age (in regard to which there is not much evidence), one thing is clear, that during all that time the essential elements of their culture and civilisation underwent little or no change.

II.--TRANSITION PERIOD.

Before proceeding to describe the changes brought about in the social economy of the lake-dwellers by the introduction of the metals, there is an important problem that demands a few passing remarks, viz. the evidence as to the existence of a Copper Age in Europe. The theory of those who advocate the affirmative of this problem, among whom are notably Professor v. Pulszky, of Buda-Pesth, and Dr. Much, of Vienna, is that the prehistoric people of Europe became first acquainted with the art of extracting copper from its ore, which they fashioned both by smelting and hammering into various kinds of weapons, implements, and ornaments. In the first instance these were mere imitations of objects previously in use. Thus the flat axe or celt, almost the only form ever found in copper in Europe (except Hungary), was clearly formed on the model of the stone implements previously in use. Daggers and spear-heads are also imitations of their flint prototypes, as may be strikingly seen by a comparison of =Fig. 7=, No. 11, with =Fig. 8=, No. 2, the former being flint, and the latter copper.

As the very strongest arguments in support of a Copper Age are derived from the number and variety of objects of pure copper that have come to light through lake-dwelling researches, I will endeavour, as briefly as possible, to point out their general bearing on this problem. We have already seen that in many instances celts, daggers, beads, and other objects of copper were found on various stations, but almost invariably associated with bronze objects, as was the case, for example, at Wollishofen. There can hardly be any doubt that the transition from Stone to the most flourishing period of the Bronze Age took place during the occupation of this lacustrine settlement, but to infer that its copper objects were the products of a Copper Age would manifestly be overstepping the limits of a legitimate conclusion. From these long-lived settlements, with their promiscuous contents, we must turn to those which have come, as it were, to a premature end, just shortly after the first metal objects began to be used, but before the full development of the Bronze Age. From such stations in the lake-dwelling area I select the following seven as the most interesting, viz.:--Polada, Laibach, Mondsee, Robenhausen, Locras, Vinelz, and St. Blaise. In the following table I have tabulated all the metal objects that I can find on record, or deposited in local collections, as coming from these stations.

+------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | Name of | | | | | Station. | Copper. | Bronze. | References. | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | Polada | ---- |1 dagger, 3 flat |Dr. Rambotti's | | | | celts | Collection, | | | | | Desenzano, | | | | | Fig. 67 | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | Laibach |1 flat celt, 6 |1 winged celt, 3 | Fig. 45; B. 302 | | (crucibles)| daggers and | pins, 2 swords, | and 317 | | | cutting blades, | 1 ornamented | | | | 5 awls, | dagger, 2 plain | | | | 1 fragment | do., 2 bracelets| | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | Mondsee |14 flat celts, |1 portion of | Fig. 39; Much: | | (crucibles,| 6 daggers, 3 | dagger, 1 | Kupferzeit in | | Fig. 184, | spirals, 3 awls,| hair-pin | Europa | | No. 3) | 1 fish-hook, | | | | | 2 fragments | | | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ |Robenhausen |1 flat celt |1 flat celt | Fig. 24 | | (crucibles)| | | | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | Locras |4 daggers, 2 |1 flat-handed | Fig. 186, No. 1;| | | awls, 1 double | sword, 1 dagger,| B. 336, p. 33; | | | celt (No. 10, | 2 hair-pins | Matériaux, | | | Fig. 186), | | vols. xiv. and | | | 1 bead | | xv.; Antiqua, | | | | | 1885, p. 106 | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | Vinelz |49 beads (45 of | ---- | Fig. 7 | | | which are in | | Antiqua, 1885, | | | Bern and 4 in | | p. 107; B. 462, | | | Gross Coll.), 9 | | Pl. xv. and xvi.| | | daggers, 6 awls,| | | | | 1 flat celt, | | | | | 8 pendants, 1 | | | | | spiral, 1 tube, | | | | | 3 punches, 1 | | | | | hair-pin, 1 | | | | | chisel | | | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+ | St. Blaise |5 daggers, 2 |1 dagger with | Fig. 8; | | (crucibles)| portions of | mid-rib. | Antiqua, 1883, | | | flat celts, 3 | Anzeiger, 1882, | p. 61; Ibid., | | | knives, 3 beads,| Pl. xix. 3 | 1884, pp. 59 | | | 4 arrow-points, | | and 60; Ibid., | | | 2 earrings, | | 1885, pp. 10, | | | 1 spiral | | 108; and | | | | | Ibid., 1886, | | | | | p. 13 | +------------+------------------+------------------+-----------------+

The total number of copper objects tabulated by Mr. Forrer, in his carefully prepared "Statistick der in der Schweiz gefundenen Kupfergeräthe,"[136] amounts to 250. Of these, 107 are beads or ornaments, and of the remaining number, 37 are flat celts--the rest being chisels, knives, daggers, hammers, etc. The copper finds on the other stations, except the seven here mentioned, may be dispensed with as weakening rather than strengthening the evidence for a separate Copper Age, because there was a preponderance of bronze objects associated with them, as was the case, for example, at Lattringen and Gerlafingen.

Looking now at our seven selected stations we see, from the general character of the relics with which the metal objects were associated, that they belonged essentially to the Stone Age; and it would appear as if the use of the metals had not been sufficiently long known to alter their prevailing character. Now it will be observed that in all these seven stations, except one, viz. Vinelz, objects of bronze were also found associated with those of copper. On the other hand, Polada has yielded only a few bronze weapons, and yet there can be no doubt that this station existed during the earliest Transition period. Nor is it in this respect singular, as at Ober-Meilen there were two objects of bronze, viz. a flat celt and a bracelet, associated with relics of the Stone Age, but none of copper. Also in the transition station at Morges (Roseaux) there were no less than 18 bronze celts of the same type, together with a few other objects of this material, but none of copper. On the supposition that a Copper Age prevailed for any length of time as a preliminary to that of Bronze, it would follow that the station at Vinelz was earlier than the others. The character of its relics does not, however, bear this interpretation, as the perforated hatchets and other relics are more numerous and more elegant than anywhere else, and some of its pottery is highly ornamented and in some respects resembles that of the Bronze Age. The arrow-points and daggers of flint are exceedingly well formed, and among a variety of types of the former there are some with recurved barbs. Also this station is rich in cloth, nets, thread, bone buttons, etc., and corresponds in every respect with that of Locras, on which a sword and a dagger of bronze were found along with a few copper implements. The mere absence of bronze in Vinelz is not a sufficient reason, per se, to suppose that it existed in a pure Copper Age without a knowledge of bronze. All the copper objects from the other stations bear the same evidence of primitive workmanship as those from it.

On the other hand, the earliest bronze objects, wherever found, such as the swords and daggers, etc., from Locras, Polada, and Laibach, show a totally different and a much higher style of manufacture; but yet there is not even presumptive evidence in favour of the idea that they represent a later date than the crude copper tools and weapons of Vinelz. The contemporaneity of more or fewer bronze objects in the six other stations of the Transition period above named entirely outweighs the exceptional evidence of this one. Admitting that these copper objects were fabricated by the lake-dwellers, a supposition which is rendered highly probable by the finding of so many crucibles at Robenhausen, Mondsee, Laibach, and other places, we must also admit that their fabricators were somehow acquainted with the superior qualities of bronze implements. Consequently the manufacture of these inferior articles must be explained on some other grounds than the supposition of a Copper Age, in the sense that it preceded and gradually developed into that of Bronze. I fancy the true explanation is that the lake-dwellers became first acquainted with metal instruments in the form of imported bronze objects, especially swords and daggers, and that this suggested to them, and directly led to, the discovery of the art of reducing the pure metal from the copper ore. Local or peripatetic coppersmiths, in trying to imitate these imported implements, went on manufacturing copper objects until they learned the art of hardening it by the proper admixture of tin. This knowledge might have been originally kept a great secret. But, however this may be, it is certain that the secret was not long kept, as we soon find the lake-dwellers in full possession of the art of manufacturing all manner of bronze objects. Ignorance of the nature of the alloy or perhaps the scarcity or dearness of tin, leading to wilful deception on the part of the fabricators, may partly account for the production of some of these copper implements. It has also been suggested that the repeated melting of bronze causes the tin to disappear, and that in this way copper objects may have come about. But this explanation is inapplicable to those from the lake-dwellings, as they are all of the most primitive type, and were undoubtedly manufactured during the initiatory stages of the metallurgic art.

III.--BRONZE AGE.

The art of manufacturing cutting implements of bronze, when once known, must have come quickly into general use, owing to their vast superiority over those in previous use, whether of stone or copper. Not only was there a great impulse given to the ordinary affairs of life, but actually new industries must have been developed. In lieu of the primitive weapons and tools previously in use, we have now a splendid array of swords, daggers, lances, axes, knives, rasors, chisels, gouges, sickles, etc. The simple dagger of bone or flint, which could only be used by a thrusting blow, became not only more specialised and a more powerful weapon, but developed into a new weapon--the double-edged sword. The first form of this weapon which found its way to the lake-dwellers appears to have been that with a flat handle (=Fig. 186=, Nos. 1, 7, and 9), with a series of rivet holes for attaching plates of bone or wood, so as to give a better grip to the wielder. Subsequently the handle was cast separately of solid bronze, and the blade was then attached to it by means of rivets. One of the most elegant of these forms was that terminating at the hilt in a couple of spirals, several examples of which are illustrated on =Figs. 11=, =19=, and =186=. From Moeringen there is a very rare sword of this type, but portion of the handle is broken off. The blade is of iron and the handle of bronze ornamented with encrusted bands of iron (=Fig. 186=, No. 6).

Such sharp-edged weapons entailed the necessity of caution when carried about the person, and accordingly sheaths were used, probably in the first place made of wood and tipped with bronze. Objects supposed to be these tips have been found at various places, as Moeringen, Auvernier, Champreveyères, Luissel (=Fig. 19=, No. 4), Bourget, etc. (=Fig. 21=, No. 20).

While daggers were riveted to handles of solid bronze, horn, or other materials (=Fig. 186=, No. 8), a form which they retained during the whole Bronze Age, lance-heads were from the earliest times made with sockets. Arrow-points were subject to greater variations, as we find them tanged, socketed, or merely triangularly-shaped flat pieces. The latter had generally two or four small holes by means of which they were fastened to the stem by a wire or thread (=Fig. 21=, Nos. 22 to 26). Hatchets display a series of evolutionary improvements, the various stages of which can be readily traced. Thus the primitive stone form, which was alone adhered to in the few copper examples hitherto found, was also continued in bronze, and in this form the bronze axe spread largely over Europe. But it gradually gave way to that with flaps, or wings, with or without loops for fixing the instrument more firmly to its handle. Finally we have the socketed hatchet, which appears to have been considered the best form in use during the Bronze Age. It was only when iron superseded bronze in the use of cutting implements that the modern type, i.e. with a transverse hole for the handle, came into general use, although the principle was well known in previous ages, and, indeed, acted upon, as in the perforated stone hammers and axes. Bronze saws (=Fig. 6=, No. 7) appear to have been used to an extremely limited extent, as only some half-a-dozen examples have been found on the whole lake-dwelling area of Central Europe. Their rarity in comparison with the superabundance of flint saws in the Stone Age may be accounted for by the large number of sharp cutting instruments that were now prevalent, and which were better adapted for many of the purposes to which the saws were formerly put, such as the making of arrow-stems, wooden handles, etc. The ordinary knives of the palafittes are extremely elegant in form, the blade being always more or less curved, and frequently ornamented with parallel or wavy lines and running patterns of concentric circles and dots. They were generally hafted by means of a tang or socket, but sometimes the blade and handle were made in one solid casting. Numerous examples of all these different forms are given in our illustrations.

It is interesting to note that the socketed knives are very rare in Eastern Switzerland, not a single example being recorded from the great find at Wollishofen, while, as we move westward, they increase relatively, till in Lake Bourget they become the rule and not the exception.

The blades which go under the name of razors, though of diversified forms, may be divided into two kinds, according as they are single-or double-bladed. The former have a ridged back, which generally projects at one end, so as to become a short handle, often assuming the form of a terminal ring, as shown in =Fig. 20=, Nos. 22 and 23. One in the Gross collection has a handle of staghorn. The latter, or double-bladed, have the handle placed intermediately between the blades, and are common in the terremare and the palatfitte of Peschiera (=Fig. 63=), but they do not occur in Lake Bourget. The small pincers supposed to be for epilation, so common in La Tène and in Gallo-Roman times, appear to have come into use towards the close of the Bronze Age, as they are extremely rare in the palafittes of Central Switzerland, but more common in those of Lake Bourget. One is figured by Dr. Gross, from Moeringen, similar to the one here represented from Lake Bourget (=Fig. 20=, No. 24).

Sickles were also widely distributed over the lake-dwelling area of the Bronze Age, including the terremare. They are flat on the under side, but on the upper side they have two or more ridges running lengthways, the object of which was to strengthen the implement. By means of a raised knob, or rivet-hole, and sometimes a projecting spur, it was firmly fixed into a wooden handle, as seen in =Fig. 187=. That represented here was found at Moeringen, and is adroitly fashioned by hollows and rounding ridges, adapted for the right hand. That this was the normal condition of these handles is probable from the fact that other two similar objects were found at Corcelettes, which are now preserved in the Museum at Lausanne.

As regards hammers, chisels, gouges, punches, awls, needles, hooks, and spears for fishing, etc., it is unnecessary to add to the descriptive details already given, and their general characters are sufficiently patent from the illustrations.

In the category of objects used for the toilet and personal ornament we have a large assortment of new and fanciful forms, such as bracelets, pendants, necklaces, fibulæ, pins, combs, belt-clasps, finger-rings, buttons, studs, earrings, chains, as well as a few ornaments of gold, amber, and glass.

First in importance are the armlets or anklets, which greatly differ as regards size, form, and ornamentation (=Fig. 188=, etc.). They are closed or open. The former are solid or hollow rings, and either plain or ornamented with the usual geometrical figures of incised lines, circles, and dots variously combined. The open bracelets are more numerous, and have a wider range of style and pattern. Some consist of a stout wire, spirally grooved, in single or double ply (=Fig. 3=, No. 15), or a flat band with a terminal hook and eye for fastening when worn over the arm. Others are penannular, with flat expansions at each end, and the more massive are hollowed in the centre so as to reduce their weight. These latter are peculiar to the palafittes of Western Switzerland, having their greatest development in the lakes of Neuchâtel, Bienne, and Morat. They occur in Lake Bourget, but not to the same extent as the solid forms. Jet bracelets are rare, only one or two being recorded from the Swiss palafittes (=Fig. 11=, No. 14); but they are more numerous in Lake Bourget. One is of tin (=Fig. 188=, No. 3).

Pendants and such like ornaments affect so many different forms that it would be idle here to attempt to classify them. They have all one common element, viz. a perforation or ring at the top for suspension, and it is probable that many of them are merely individual parts of a compound ornament, like that found at Auvernier, and figured by Dr. Gross (B. 392, Pl. xxiii. 33), in which there are no less than fourteen different pendants hanging from a central wheel. But no doubt many of them, especially the larger forms, such as those found on the palafitte at Onens (=Fig. 189=, Nos. 1 to 3), must have been used as single decorations.

Necklaces formed by stringing together beads of various materials, such as that represented on =Fig. 11=, No. 1, were probably a common method of personal adornment; but of course they are seldom met with except as individual beads. Solid rings for the neck, or torques, are extremely rare, their entire number recorded from the lake-dwellings of the Bronze Age being less than half-a-dozen. They are all of one type, and similar to the two illustrations given in =Fig. 10=, No. 3, from Cortaillod, and =Fig. 63=, No. 19, from Peschiera.

Fibulæ were not quite so rare as the torques, and they appear to have been pretty equally distributed over the lake-dwelling area, both north and south of the Alps. Though well represented at Peschiera, their existence in the true terramara deposits is still a matter of contention among archæologists. From a glance at the various examples given in our illustrations (=Fig. 3=, No. 20; =Fig. 6=, Nos. 4, 9, and 10; =Fig. 12=, Nos. 4, 12, 14, and 26), etc., it will be seen that they occupy an intermediate place between the straight pin and the more highly developed and elaborate forms found among relics of later ages.

Pins are the most common objects among the industrial remains of the lake-dwellings, the total number found in the Swiss stations alone being approximately over 10,000. Their principal function was to adorn the hair, but no doubt some were used for other purposes, such as the fastening of garments, and so they took the place of the fibulæ. They are extremely varied in size and style of manufacture, being of all grades from an inch up to 30 inches in length, and from the simple unadorned stem with a mere knob for a head up to the highly decorated examples so numerously represented in our illustrations, such for example as those with massive heads in the form of a hollow globe (=Fig. 13=, No. 12), or cup (=Fig. 3=, No. 9), or expanded disc (=Fig. 10=, No. 24). Some had a loose ring for a head, to which in some instances bits of chains were attached (=Fig. 3=, No. 6). In Lake Bourget a few were found with flat wheel-shaped heads (=Fig. 189=, Nos. 4 and 5).

Bronze combs are fairly well represented both in the terremare and the lacustrine dwellings. They are almost invariably small, with a single or double row of teeth. Clasps for girdles like the one figured from Bourget (=Fig. 20=, No. 25) are in the Gross collection, as well as a few others of a slightly different form. Buttons, studs, chains, finger-rings of single or more coils, earrings, glass and amber beads are also so numerous and widely spread as to show that they were not merely exceptional objects among the lake-dwellers.

Several bronze dishes, not exceeding a dozen in all, have been found on several of the Swiss stations. They are in the form of small wide-mouthed cups of beaten bronze, with or without handles, and often ornamented with slightly raised knobs of repoussé work (=Fig. 10=, No. 20), or like small jars of cast bronze (=Fig. 3=, No. 22, and =Fig. 6=, No. 2). Fragments of larger dishes, like the Etruscan situlæ made of thin sheets riveted together, with massive handles also attached by rivets, have been found at Wollishofen (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 17 and 22).

Gold is only sparingly met with, and the objects are generally small or fragmentary. In this condition specimens of the precious metal are among the relics from Nidau, Moeringen (=Fig. 189=, No. 8), Auvernier, Concise, Cortaillod, Montilier, Wollishofen, and Lake Bourget, etc. A few objects are of tin, the most frequently met with being small wheels with four, five, or eight spokes, which are recorded from several stations, portion of a ring and a bracelet from Montilier (=Fig. 188=, No. 3), a small bar pierced with 16 holes from Corcelettes (=Fig. 189=, No. 12), and a pendant from Auvernier (No. 7), a small cross from Lake Garda (=Fig. 64=, No. 26), etc. Tin is also represented in small ingots and, as we shall afterwards more particularly notice, it was used to decorate the inside of various dishes of earthenware.

To these industrial objects, many of which had their prototypes in the Stone Age, we have to add a variety of appliances for carrying on the metallurgical art. Stone anvils gave place to bronze ones, and of these the most remarkable is that from Wollishofen (=Fig. 4=, No. 21). Moulds were generally made of sandstone or hardened clay, the former being the most numerous, and specimens may be seen in all the collections from the stations both north and south of the Alps. It will be recollected that the two valves of a mould for a winged celt made of bronze were found at Morges at a very early stage in lacustrine investigations (=Fig. 17=, No. 8). For many years this apparatus remained as a solitary and unique example of this kind of mould, but now three other valves, similar to those from Morges, have been found, one on each of the stations of Auvernier, Corcelettes, and Estavayer (=Fig. 9=, No. 22). Crucibles are abundantly represented. They are of various shapes and sizes, sometimes with a solid handle, as those from Rohenhausen and St. Blaise, and at other times with a short projection having a perforation through which a wooden stick could be inserted as a handle (=Fig. 184=, No. 3, and =Fig. 45=, No. 14). As further evidence that the founder practised his art in situ we have various records of the finding of ingots of copper, tin, and lead; also slag, defective castings, scoriæ and refuse of smelting furnaces. In the Gross collection there is a circular cake of tin with a small ring for suspension similar to a leaden cake figured from Wollishofen (=Fig. 4=, No. 23). The huge mass of copper in the form of a double celt (=Fig. 186=, No. 10) was probably for the same end, and not intended as an implement at all.

In Dr. Evan's collection there is a remarkable bronze knife (=Fig. 190=) from Bourget, having the handle and blade made of one solid casting, which appears as if it had just been freshly extracted from the mould. It has evidently undergone no subsequent polish, and still retains a thin irregular rim all round, corresponding with the junction of the two halves of the stone mould.

It is not, however, to be supposed that I claim all the multifarious objects found in the débris of the lake-dwellings as products of native art; on the contrary, I believe there are many objects, especially the more complicated and ornamental, which can be traced to foreign sources. But on the other hand the mere inspection of the extensive assortment of foundry materials, especially the variety of moulds which include swords (B. 282, Pl. liv. Fig 2, and B. 392, Pl. xxix. Fig. 11), daggers, spears, knives, sickles, all kinds of celts and chisels, bracelets, buckles, pins, rings, wheels, etc., leaves no doubt that the home industry in the manufacture of bronze was extensive and skilfully conducted. Indeed, the skill and ingenuity displayed in casting such a variety of objects can only excite our astonishment. How the series of involved and massive rings of cast bronze represented on =Fig. 10=, No. 1, was produced, is really a mystery. A model of such an object made of wax if embedded in soft clay, and subsequently hardened by exposure to heat so as to melt the wax and thus allow it to escape, might supply the founder with the requisite mould. But that this was the method adopted by the lacustrian founder is, of course, a mere conjecture.

That the horse was now domesticated and under the control of the lake-dwellers we have very circumstantial evidence in the discovery of bridle-bits, various ornaments for harness, and even a wheel and other mountings of a chariot or biga. For many years some curious and highly polished portions of horn from 4 to 7 inches in length, and perforated with three or more holes, one in the centre and the other at the extremities, were among the unexplained relics of the Bronze Age stations (=Fig. 191=, Nos. 3 and 4). The holes in these objects had a worn appearance, and it was noticed that the direction of the central aperture was always at right angles to those at the extremities. Their use however, remained a complete puzzle till the year 1872, when a remarkably fine and well preserved horse-bit of bronze was discovered at Moeringen (No. 7). The similarity of these horn objects to the side pieces of the bronze bit led to the conjecture that they were the analogous parts of horse-bits made of horn. The subsequent discovery of several other bronze bits, all of the same type, gradually strengthened this opinion; but whatever doubt might remain as to their function is now dispelled by the discovery at Corcelettes, in 1888, of a complete specimen made of two tines of staghorn with a transverse mouthpiece of bone (No. 1). Of the bronze bridle-bits found up to this time only three are entire, but there are several isolated side and centre pieces from the stations of Nidau, Moeringen, Auvernier, Corcelettes, and Estavayer (Nos. 5, 6, and 9). It will be observed that all the examples here figured (which include the most diverse forms), though differing in some details, are of the same type. The only marked difference in the two entire specimens is that one (No. 7) has the mouthpiece divided in the middle, whereas the other (No. 8) is one solid piece. This latter was found at Corcelettes and is now in the Lausanne Museum. The third entire specimen, which was also found at Corcelettes, appears from its illustration (B. 462) to be identical with No. 8.

According to Dr. Gross, No. 7 was made in one casting, thus proving the perfection to which bronze working was carried. All these specimens of horse-bits, so far as can be judged from the breadth of the mouthpiece, indicate very small horses, No 7 being 3½ inches between the side pieces, and No. 8 rather less than 4 inches.

The entire bridle-bit of horn is even still smaller, being only 2¾ inches wide. It is thus described by Dr. Brière (B. 461):--

"Cette intéressante pièce, en parfait état de conservation, se compose de 2 branches en bois de cerf, percées chacune de 3 trous evidées à la partie supérieure sur un profondeur de 3 centimètres et mesurant 18 centimètres de longeur, reliées entre' elles par la barre du mors qui est en os et mesure exactement 7 centimètres entre les 2 branches. Cette barre en os est creuse et pour assujettir la pièce aux branches, on a enfoncé de petits coins en corne de cerf pour combler le vide et pour la rendre solide."--Antiqua, 1888, p. 37.

Judging from the frequency with which the isolated side-pieces of bridle-bits made of horn have been found on almost all the bronze stations, no less than 12 being now preserved in the Munich Museum from Starnberg, and 14 in the Lausanne Museum from Corcelettes, the horse must have been common among the lake-dwellers. It will also be remembered that similar objects have been found in the terremare, and Dr. Carlo Boni thinks that a piece of rope was used instead of the stiff mouthpiece in the manner shown in No. 2.

There are various other objects which are supposed to have been used as ornaments for horse harness, such as the phaleræ or bronze discs, rings, knobs, etc. The former (Nos. 11 to 13) are often slightly convex on one side and decorated with circles or small knobs formed in repoussé work, and on the other side there is a small loop for fastening it. Several horn and bone discs, especially those from Starnberg (=Fig. 36=, Nos. 24 and 30) suggest a similar usage.

Two curious bronze objects (=Fig. 191=, No. 10) found on the eastern shore of Lake Neuchâtel, one at Chevroux and the other at Estavayer, together with portion of a hollow tube of a similar style of ornamentation, remained for a long time unexplained. However, coupled with the bronze wheel found at Cortaillod (=Fig. 10=, No. 17) Dr. Keller showed that they were the handles and part of the top railing of an Etruscan biga or war chariot. (B. 336.)

The use of the long pins of brass with sword-like handles (Säbelnadeln) found on the stations of Wollishofen (=Fig. 4=, Nos. 9 and 10), Grosser Hafner (=Fig. 2=, No. 32), and the Grand City of Morges, is not yet sufficiently understood. In 1886 Major v. Tröltsch,[137] in a note to the Society of Anthropology in Berlin, directed attention to the fact that an object of the same kind was preserved in the Museum at Donaueschingen, which had been found in a Burgwall (Lagerplatz) on the Hohenhöwen, "einem der vulkanischen Bergkegel des Hegau's bei Singen." The object thus described by Major v. Tröltsch is precisely similar to that here figured from the Grosser Hafner (=Fig. 2=, No. 32). Its total length is 16½ inches, of which the pin takes up 13 inches and the terminal ring 1⅜ inch. The stem presents a square section, and in this respect it agrees with the examples found at Zürich and Morges. Subsequently Dr. L. v. Rau,[138] Mr. R Forrer,[139] and Mr. Heierli[140] contributed to the Society some further notes on these singular implements, but without coming to any agreement as to their function.

In addition to these bronze relics so numerously described and illustrated in the previous pages, there are many objects which cannot be classified under any of the previous headings, as their use is unknown. Fragments of small hollow globes are supposed to have been used as children's rattles. Examples of these have been found at Moeringen made of pottery, two of which, now in the Museum at Berne, are still perfect (=Fig. 193=, No. 9). Both objects are ornamented, and contain inside a piece of hardened clay which, when shaken, makes a jingling noise. In the Museum at Zürich there is, also from Moeringen, a small pendant like a bell now used on horse harness (=Fig. 189=, No. 17). Dr. Gross (B. 392, p. 75) describes a similar object found at Auvernier (=Fig. 189=, No. 18) as a perfume-box (cassolette). Among the more recent finds is the object represented on =Fig. 192=, which is supposed to be part of a mirror similar to those so frequently met with among Etruscan and Roman remains. (B. 420, p. 167.) We have already observed that on several of the Scottish crannogs there were found some thin stones, highly polished and circular or square, which are supposed to have been used for the same purpose. These stones, when moistened with water and looked at in certain conditions as regards light, are by no means a bad substitute for the more perfect reflecting mirrors of the present day.

These great innovations following in the wake of the metals could hardly fail to influence such a plastic art as that of the potter. Accordingly we find a better quality of paste, greater variety and elegance of form, and some approach to systematic decoration. There is one new form quite characteristic of this age which, were it not for the extreme elegance and harmony of all its parts, one would suppose indicated a retrograde movement. This was a small water-bottle-shaped vase, which, having a conical base, could not be made to sit upright upon a flat surface without some kind of support. This support is supposed to be a clay ring (=Fig. 2=, Nos. 2, 5, and 31), great numbers of which have been found in the Bronze Age stations. Ultimately colouring materials were introduced which considerably enhanced the effect of ornamentation on the dishes. Besides systematic patterns of recurring geometrical figures formed by lines in the soft clay, we sometimes find similar patterns traced on the surface of the vessels by means of thin strips of tin-foil made to adhere by means of a kind of gum or asphalt. The vessels thus manipulated were of extremely elegant forms, and made of a fine paste with a smooth black surface. This custom was particularly prevalent in Lake Bourget, but specimens have been found in some of the other lakes, as at Nidau, Hauterive, Cortaillod, Montilier, Estavayer, etc., but it is extremely rare in Eastern Switzerland. On =Fig. 193= I have shown a few additional specimens of pottery. No. 1 is the quarter of a dish shaped like a milk plate having a small flat base. It is perforated with groups of holes arranged systematically as shown in the illustration, and the inside is ornamented with a few incised circles. This dish, or rather percolator, was found in Lake Bourget, and formed part of Mr. Rabut's collection now in the British Museum. Another percolator, of similar shape and size, differently ornamented, and having a slight variation in the disposition of the grouped perforations, was found at Montilier, and is figured by Keller. (B. 126, Pl. v. 26.) No. 2 represents the quarter of a dish of the same form as the above, but without perforations. Its interior is adorned with strips of tin-foil (here represented in white) producing a wonderfully complicated design. This dish was found at Cortaillod, and is now in the Schwab Museum, along with an extremely handsome wide-mouthed vase, also from Cortaillod, the outside of which is similarly ornamented. In the latter case the upper part of the vessel is surrounded by small panels all having different designs made of circles, lines, and crosses. (See B. 126, Pl. xvi. 1.) No. 6 is a vase with conical base, from Hauterive, also adorned in the same fashion. In looking at these vessels ornamented with tin it is difficult to make out the designs, as the tin is now even blacker than the pottery. Hence, in Nos. 4 and 5, both of which are from Lake Bourget, the tin is represented by the dark lines. No. 3 represents a fragment of pottery, now preserved in the Museum at Aix-les-Bains, which shows how a broken dish had been mended by passing two or three plies of a tough grass or rush through a perforation on each side of the crack. After the fragments were thus brought together one of the rushes was twisted in a spiral manner round the others, evidently for protecting them from wear and tear. The remaining Nos. (7 to 10) illustrate some toy dishes and children's playthings from Moeringen and Auvernier.

The spindle-whorls of the Bronze Age are generally made of earthenware, and often highly ornamented, thus showing the improved taste of the people.

Among the more notable objects peculiar to the Bronze Age are certain polished stones, in the form of circular or oval discs with a marginal groove (=Fig. 194=). These stones were formerly reckoned to be sling-stones, but now they are generally recognised as potters' implements, used probably for fashioning the bases of the dishes.

There are many problems worthy of careful consideration suggested by the facts disclosed in these pages, but in this rapid sketch I can only refer to one or two in a cursory manner. First of all we have to inquire if the lake-dwellers practised religious rites. In support of the affirmative to this inquiry there are some indications, and the few objects capable of such an interpretation are illustrated on =Fig. 195=. In this category I include the following:--

(1) The highly ornamented wooden sticks or bâtons de commandement, from Castione (Nos. 1 and 2), and from Moeringen (No. 3). The only perfect example (No. 1) is rather less than sixteen inches in length, and the others do not appear to have been larger.

(2) The four remarkable bronze tubes with ring appendages from Lake Bourget (Gresine). These, though differing in size and some other respects, are all of one type, and were clearly conceived and wrought out on a uniform plan, and for some specific purpose. The most perfect of these objects (see page 102) appears to be complete, and consists of an ornamental tube, surrounded by three rows of fixed loops, three in each row, placed at regular distances, and to each loop there are three loose rings appended, as shown in the illustration (No. 4). The two previously illustrated (=Fig. 21=, Nos. 1 and 2) have only one ring in each of the nine loops, and it does not appear that there had been any more. The fourth, now preserved in the Museum at Chambery, is nearly as large as the perfect one; but it is greatly worn, and retains now only a few rings, some of the loops being broken or worn through. It is illustrated by Perrin. (B. 282, Pl. lxiv. 1.)

(3) The ornamental reniform rings (Schwurring) from Morges and Thonon (=Fig. 17=, Nos. 2 and 3), could not have been used as bracelets, and Dr. Forel suggests that they are analogous to the armilla sacra on which the ancient Germans were wont to place their hands when about to swear a solemn oath. (B. 286, p. 46.)

In the Museum at Brunswick, in Germany, I noticed three of these rings, one of which is almost identical with the one from Morges, differing from it only in the details of the ornamentation; but of their history and origin nothing seems to have been known. Another is in the Museo Civico, at Turin, as well as a large circular ring like that from the lacustrine station at Wollishofen (=Fig. 188=, No. 2), both of which have been figured by Gastaldi. (B. 294, Pl. xii.) I believe it more probable that these large circular rings, though generally considered to be bracelets, were used for the same purpose as the reniform rings. Among the objects in the prehistoric and Roman collection of antiquities in St. Ulric, at Regensberg (Ratisbon), there is a large hollow ring of bronze, ornamented with three lines of concentric circles, which measures six inches in external and three inches in internal diameter, thus leaving one and a half inch for the thickness of the ring. It was found, along with several other things, in a pre-Roman grave (Hügel-grab) near Velburg.

(4) The clay images of animals found on several stations in different parts of the lake-dwelling area, as well as those of the terremare (=Fig. 84=, Nos. 23 and 24), and more especially the human images from Laibach, are probably idols. On =Fig. 195=, along with four clay figures from the lakes of Neuchâtel and Bourget (Nos. 9, 10, 13, and 14), I represent two of bronze (Nos. 15 and 16), which I noticed in a collection from Bodmann, in the Steinhaus Museum, at Überlingen. One of these was evidently used as a pendant, and the other appears to have been intended for a human being. The clay figures from Laibach (Nos. 5 to 8), though fragmentary, are undoubtedly representations of the human body. Nos. 5 and 6 represent the back and front view of the trunk of a female, while No. 7 shows a human body with a prominent nose. These two figures are hollow in the interior, and richly ornamented exteriorly with designs which are supposed to be imitations of embroidered garments. Another of these human figures from Laibach, as well as the image of a small animal, is represented on =Fig. 42=, Nos. 11, 23 and 24.

The extraordinary number of implements and chips of nephrite found at Maurach, and the equal predominance of flint refuse and implements in all stages of manufacture at some of the other stations, as Wallhausen, Nussdorf, etc., suggest the idea that the various industries prosecuted by the inhabitants of the lake-villages had already developed to such an extent as to become localised in certain centres. Again, the localisation of certain industries, as comestibles in one place, flax in its various preparatory stages in another, the complete kit of foundry tools in a third, etc., all point to the knowledge and practice of the principles of the division of labour.

That the lake-dwellers kept up commercial relations with foreign countries is proved by their possessing materials, not only peculiar to distant or limited areas, such as amber, jade, flint, etc., but also certain objects having such peculiarities in form or style of ornamentation as have enabled experienced archæologists to trace them to their original areas of evolution. Thus at Corcelettes were found an ornamental bronze dish, and portion of a fibula (=Fig. 189=, Nos. 19 and 20), which, when seen by Montelius in the Museum at Lausanne, were at once recognised by him as of northern origin. (B. 348.) Dr. Keller has also shown, as already stated, that certain bronze objects found in the Lake of Neuchâtel, which for a long time remained a puzzle to archæologists, belonged to an Etruscan carriage or biga. The few fibulæ found in the Swiss lake-dwellings have also been traced to their native habitats in Northern Italy.[141] The half-moon-shaped flint knives, so characteristic of Scandinavia and Northern Germany, have been found as far south as the Mondsee, and one solitary representative (=Fig. 34=, No. 20), now in the Museum of Natural History at Stuttgart, is said to have come from Schussenried station.

One notable fact about the distribution of lake-dwellings is that their relics conform in style, ornamentation, and general characteristics, to contemporary antiquities in the surrounding districts; and I find no special characters in their industrial remains that bind the lake-dwellers together as one clannish people. The relics from the lake-dwellings of the Stone Age in Northern Germany are readily seen to be closely related with those of the Scandinavian archæological area. Whatever the original resemblances and points of agreement of the founders may have been, they were soon modified and adapted to the physical conditions and requirements of their environments.

That continued attention was paid to the rearing and breeding of domesticated animals during the Bronze Age is attested by their osseous remains, which have been critically examined by such competent authorities as Rütimeyer (B. 42), Studer (B. 404), Uhlmann (B. 336), and others. While the lake-dwellers of the earlier Stone Age had only as domestic animals one small species of dog, a small ox, a horned sheep, and the goat, we find that towards the end of this period and during the succeeding Bronze Age not only new and large breeds were developed, but another was added to the list, viz. the horse. From the remains of the domestic horse found at Moeringen and elsewhere it appears to have been a small and slender-limbed animal with small hoofs, and altogether much inferior to the wild horse as hunted and eaten by the cave men of palæolithic times, from which it is supposed to have been a direct descendant. When the Aar canal was being excavated the bones of the smaller or domestic horse were found associated with bronze objects in no less than nine different localities, all of which agree with the above characteristics. (B. 404.) The horse of the terremare, according to Professor Strobel, presents the same characters as that of the Swiss lake-dwellings, and as we have already seen from the bridle-bits and other horse trappings, there can be no doubt it was also in a state of domestication. I may also mention that a skull found at Auvernier was believed by Rütimeyer, after most careful deliberation, to be that of the ass. Professor Strobel has also recognised the osseous remains of the ass in the terremare. (B. 389b.) The sheep diverged considerably from its earlier form, and lost much of its goat-like appearance, being now larger, and developed into various breeds. Still more varied were the breeds of cattle, especially in the vicinity of the lakes of Bienne and Neuchâtel. The Bos primigenius appears to have been tamed and crossed with the earlier type, giving rise to a variety of breeds, such as trococeros and frontosus, one of which had wide branching horns, as is proved from its remains found at Concise, Chevroux, Locras, etc. The small dog of the Stone Age (Canis domesticus palustris, Rüt.) gave place to a much larger kind, somewhat resembling our modern greyhound. The domestic pig also appears to have passed through various evolutionary phases; but the wild boar still retained its individuality intact. Dr. Uhlmann in his report on the osseous remains from the Grosser Hafner, at Zürich (B. 336), describes three varieties of the pig, as well as three of cattle.

With the exception of the domestic fowl and the tame cat, the domestic animals reared by the lake-dwellers were similar to those now extant. Nor is there much change as regards the wild animals and birds then prevalent. The animals that now frequent the higher Alps, such as the marmot, chamois, and wild goat, are very scarce in the lake-dwellings, showing that already nature had consigned them to the zone of their present habitation. Altogether, with the more improved weapons of the Bronze Age, there ensued, according to Rütimeyer, a marked diminution in the relative proportion of the ordinary wild animals of the chase, and a corresponding increase in those of the domestic breeds. The great wild oxen, the urus and bison, disappeared from the neighbourhood altogether.

Such progressive strides in agricultural pursuits are, however, not discernible in the vegetable remains, notwithstanding the minute investigations of Professor Heer. (B. 123.) From the very commencement the lake-dwelling colonists cultivated flax, two or three varieties of barley and wheat, millet and peas. The only addition that appears to have been made in the Bronze Age were the oat (Avena sativa), and the dwarf field bean (Faba vulgaris) of a strikingly small size. On the other hand we have to note the absence of winter wheat, rye, hemp, and most of the culinary and garden vegetables. Fruits and berries were largely used as food, but there is no evidence to show that they were cultivated. Among these the following have been identified:--apples, pears, plums, sloes, one or two species of cherry, raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries, hazel and beech nuts, water-chestnuts, poppies, etc. Grape-stones from Wangen were hesitatingly included in Professor Heer's list of fruits from the lake-dwellings; but, as already mentioned, this doubt is now diminished by the finding of grape-stones at Steckborn, another station of the Stone Age. Stones of the grape were early recognised among the débris of the palafittes of Lake Garda, and quite recently Mr. A. Goiran has identified those of the olive (Oleo europæa) and peach.[142]

Bread was made only of wheat and millet, that of the latter generally containing some grains of wheat and linseed. Cakes made of the seeds of the poppy were also found at Robenhausen.

Various portions of the osseous remains of man, comprising the skull and other portions of the skeleton, have been found in several stations, as Meilen, Wollishofen, Grosser Hafner, Schaffis, Sutz, Locras, Vinelz, Nidau, Wauwyl, Bevaix, Insel Weerd, etc. All these remains have been more or less critically examined and reported on by Virchow (B. 305 and 433), Studer (B. 419 and 432), and Kollmann (B. 420), but notwithstanding a number of minute measurements and learned disquisitions, contradictory opinions are held by these scientists as to the race or races of men that inhabited the lake-dwellings. Dr. Studer advocates the theory of Troyon, that with the introduction of bronze there was also a new race of people, and this opinion he bases on the fact that at Sutz and Vinelz two kinds of human skulls were found, viz. brachycephalic and dolichocephalic, whereas in the pure Stone Age stations only brachycephalic skulls were met with. Segments of the upper parts of human skulls supposed to have been used as drinking cups were found at Gerlafingen (B. 392, p. 107), Sutz, Schaffis, and Locras, and from the latter there was also a skull having a circular portion of it cut out, as if trepanning had been performed. (B. 336, p. 31.)

Although it is now pretty well established that in these prehistoric times trepanning was practised as far back as the Stone Age,[143] it does not appear that this skull from Locras (B. 336, Pl. v. 28) had been operated on during the lifetime of the individual. Roundlets, cut out of skulls, are supposed to have been used as charms, and they are frequently met with in the graves of the period. From the lake-dwellings two of these objects have been recorded; one from Concise (=Fig. 185=, No. 20)[144] has two small perforations for suspension, and another, with one hole, is figured by Dr. Gross. (B. 392, Pl. xxiii. 65.) On the Trajan column a Dacian village is represented having human skulls set on poles before the walls. (B. 164.) The finding of skulls of a different race in the lake-dwellings might therefore be accounted for on the supposition that they were trophies of their enemies and not those of the occupiers of the lake-dwellings. Anatomical deductions from the few long bones of skeletons that have come to light indicate, so far as the evidence goes, that the Bronze Age men were of small stature--a conclusion which is also supported by the small size of the handles of the swords and other weapons of the period.

Professor Virchow in a long review of the craniology of the Swiss lake-dwellers comes to the following conclusions (B. 433, p. 300):--

(1) In the stations of the pure Stone Age, brachycephalic skulls only are known to a certainty to have existed.

(2) In the Transition period, both brachycephalic and dolichocephalic are known.

(3) In the full Bronze period the skulls are more inclined to the dolichocephalic type.

(4) The people of La Tène were of a highly mixed character, among whom, however, brachycephalic types predominated.

The eminent Berlin anthropologist thinks that during the Bronze Age a new people joined the original lake-dwellers by degrees, but not as one great immigration subverting the previous order of things. This opinion seems to be greatly strengthened by collateral circumstances. We have already seen how gradually bronze was introduced among the lake-dwellers. No violent disturbance of the previous conditions of life is anywhere to be detected. The original system of constructing lake-villages is continued exactly the same, and the only changes are such as can be accounted for by the use of better implements. The lake-dwellings of the Bronze Age are built in deeper water, and consequently farther from the shore than those of the Stone Age, and the piles are more slender, often stems split into two or four. The steinbergs appear to have been discontinued, or were only used over a hard and stony shore into which piles could not be easily driven. The sites of the latest villages are on the same ground as, or in close proximity to, those of the earliest ones. Remains of cottages are still the same, viz. bits of plaster, with marks of round timbers, and some hearth-stones. From Lake Bourget there are portions of clay plaster of this character, ornamented with incised lines and the impressions of groups of concentric circles (=Fig. 21=, No. 15) or the swastika (=Fig. 195=, No. 12). Also from the same place there are bits of clay tubes, the interiors of which are blackened with soot, supposed to have been small chimneys (=Fig. 184=, No. 8).

In Eastern Switzerland and the Danubian valley the number of stations greatly decreased during the Bronze Age, while in the Lake of Geneva they rather increased, and in Lake Bourget its eight stations belonged almost exclusively to this period.

The stations at Laibach, the Mondsee, Attersee, and Schussenried came to an end in the Transition period, and to the east of Lake Constance only one, viz. that in the Starnbergersee, continued during the Bronze Age. In the lakes of Constance, Zürich, Neuchâtel, Morat, and Bienne, they were also greatly reduced in numbers; but, on the other hand, they occupied larger areas, and show a greater concentration to selected localities, often the outlets of the lakes.

It was not till 1876 that any sepulchral remains bearing on the question--how the lake-dwellers disposed of their dead--came to light. In this year some workmen engaged in digging the foundation for a house in the vicinity of the site of the lake-dwelling at Auvernier, and some 50 yards from the shore, came upon a large flagstone measuring 5¼ by 4¼ feet, which turned out to be the covering of a stone coffin containing the remains of 15 or 20 skeletons. The grave was constructed in the usual way by setting four large flags on edge, which formed its sides, and over them a fifth was laid as a covering. These upright flags were of granite and gneiss, and the largest measured 6¼ feet long, 6 feet wide, and 11 inches thick. The rectangular space thus enclosed measured 5 feet 3 inches long, 3 feet 8 inches wide, and 5 feet 10 inches deep. Dr. Gross, who superintended the clearing out of its contents, states that the bodies had been placed in a sitting posture round the grave, with the heads to the walls and the feet directed towards the centre. External to this cist, on two of its sides, there was another series of upright flags, which formed two smaller chambers, and in one of them there were also human bones.

The relics associated with this burial consisted of some perforated teeth (boar, bear, and wolf); a small polished bone disc, perforated (=Fig. 196=, No. 3); two small stone celts--one with a perforation for suspension in the end opposite the cutting edge. Of bronze objects, found actually in the grave, there were only three, viz. a plain pin 6¼ inches long (No. 1), a small ring (No. 6), and a bead which looked like copper (No. 2).

Six feet to the east of this tomb, and about the same depth, the workmen subsequently came upon the skeleton of a child buried simply in the earth without any stone coffin, and near it were found the following objects:--Two pairs of small oval bracelets (Nos. 4 and 5), a curious pendant like a stud (No. 7), and an amber bead.

Two of the human skulls were sent to Rütimeyer, who pronounced them to be of the Type de Sion, and identical with those he had already examined from several lake-dwellings at Nidau, Meilen, Robenhausen, and Wauwyl.

From these data it would appear that the tomb of Auvernier belonged to the Transition period. (B. 286.)

In 1876 and 1877 several interments were found near the quay at Montreux, some with, and some without, stone cists, and along with them were associated various relics, as bracelets (Nos. 10 and 11), hair-pins (Nos. 12 and 13), some pottery ornamented with geometrical figures (No. 14), flint knives, a small stone crescent, and a horse's tooth much smaller than those of our modern horse. (B. 336.) Again, in 1884, some more tombs were discovered near the same place which yielded objects of the Bronze Age, viz. a bronze pin, six bronze bracelets (Nos. 8 and 9), and two or three urns (Antiqua, 1884, p. 101).

Dr. F. A. Forel (B. 286, p. 48) describes "cimetières de l'époque lacustre" in the vicinity of Morges and St. Prex. In the former group some skeletons were found in stone cists, one of which had two bracelets still adhering to the bones. "Ces bracelets," says Dr. Forel, "qui sont actuellement au musée cantonal de Lausanne, et à la bibliothèque de Morges, appartiennent incontestablement par leur beau travail et leur ornamentation riche et très-caractéristique à la belle époque du Bronze, à l'époque de la grande cité de Morges." In the cemetery near St. Prex were found some thirty skeletons deposited in free earth, and associated with them were some bronze ornaments (une vingtaine de bracelets, épingles à cheveux, anneaux, etc.), which, according to Dr. Forel, incontestably belonged to the bel Age du Bronze. Moreover, in the very same place, and almost alternating regularly with the free burials, there were urns containing ashes and charcoal. One of these urns (still preserved at the date of Dr. Forel's description, 1876), which measured 6¼ inches in diameter and 5 inches in height, presented all the characters of the pottery of the lake-dwellings of the Bronze Age.

It is interesting to note here the association of the two modes of burial in the same cemetery. That both systems were prevalent in Switzerland, at least as far back as the Transition period, has recently been shown by Mr. Heierli in his description of "Eine Gruppe prähistorischer Gräber," and "Vorrömische Gräben im Kanton Zürich." As the result of these investigations he proves that burnt bodies were deposited under mounds, associated with clay vessels which were ornamented with dots, lines, and string marks, precisely similar to those on the vessels found at Vinelz.

As a further contribution to the subject, we have the prehistoric graves at Chamblandes, near Pully, which, according to the late Morel-Fatio, who describes them (B. 377),[145] belonged to the lake-dwellers of the Stone Age. It appears that a cultivator, while digging the foundations of a house, came upon a series of ancient graves, at a depth of six or seven feet, formed of four flags set on edge, with a fifth as a covering. Along with each skeleton were found 40 flakes of the tusks of the wild boar, pierced at each extremity. In one a marine shell, also pierced by two holes, was noted. In the following year further discoveries of similar graves were made in the same place, and this time their contents were more carefully examined. The sides were formed of four flags set on edge with an additional one as a covering. On the average these cists measured a mètre in length, and half this in breadth and depth, but one or two of smaller dimensions were noted. When a single skeleton was found it always lay with the feet towards the east. One, however, contained four skeletons, and in this case the heads were in the four corners. About the position of the breast some 40 doubly-perforated boar's teeth were found, which must have been attached to the garments. Besides these there were some perforated shells and two portions of colouring matter, one yellow and the other red. Another tomb contained a complete skeleton, and on the neck lay five doubly-perforated marine shells, while near the head were four pieces of yellow and red colouring matter, and two amulets of human skulls. Dispersed in this grave were beads which looked like amber, but, according to some, were coral. One grave contained a spherical hammer-stone, slightly flattened; another had a perforated and beautifully made axe of serpentine, 6½ inches long; and a third, that of a child (27 inches by 13), had three small, flat, and circular pebbles, like unperforated spindle-whorls, placed in the form of a triangle, and at one of the corners of the grave were some charcoal and fragments of burnt bones.

According to Mr. Morel-Fatio everything found in these graves had their exact analogues in the early lake-dwellings such as Chevroux. Not far off, at Pierra-Portay and Châtelard sur Lutry, other burials of the Stone Age were discovered, which also, in his opinion, belonged to the Lake-dwellers (Lacustres).

IV.--IRON AGE.

In reviewing the salient features of the Iron Age we have still more complicated problems to deal with. There are, in reality, no lake-dwellings of the early Iron Age in Central Europe, showing a Transition period, as we have seen to have been the case between the Stone and Bronze Ages; nor, indeed, any which can be said to have a continued sequence to the great system of pile-dwellings which prevailed so extensively in earlier times. No doubt iron shows itself in a few objects characteristic of the Bronze Age, such as a few swords and bracelets encrusted with ornamental bands of this material, but there are no tools or weapons made of iron at all analogous to those which characterise the Bronze Age. No Transition period such as we find in the relics from the graves at Hallstadt, where iron is seen, as it were, competing with bronze. On the contrary, in the Swiss lake-dwellings iron-working appears in a state of great perfection. The few objects found on their sites are mostly of the La Tène type, which we have seen to be entirely different in character, manufacture, and style of ornamentation, from anything known in the previous ages. In some stations we find not only La Tène types, but Roman tiles, pottery, and coins, and even objects of a still later period, such as Gallo-Roman, Allemanisch, and Merovingian remains. Thus, at Starnberg, we have of iron, two spear-heads, a horseshoe, and a remarkable kind of knife (=Fig. 37=, No. 1). In the investigations conducted during the winter of 1864-5 in the Überlingersee, Dr. Lachmann records the following iron objects from the bronze station of Unter-Uhldingen:--one lance-head, five arrow-points, one axe, two chisels, 12 knife-blades, two sickle-like objects, one dagger-knife, one ring, one triangular plate with attached ring, one fibula, one pin, part of a two-edged sword, a short sword with a wooden handle, a fork, a stamp, a pair of pincers, etc.--in all 40 objects. Also at Sipplingen there were three arrow-heads, two sickles, one lance-head, a one-edged sword, and a Roman key. In the Museum at Friedrichshafen are several objects of iron taken from Uhldingen, viz. two knives like pruning-hooks (hippen), a hammer-hatchet, a fibula (La Tène) 9 inches long, two harpoons, several arrow-heads, six horseshoes, one dagger, and a girdle-hook. Still more interesting are fragments of fine glass found on both these stations, as well as at the Rauenegg in the Bay of Constance. One bit of this glass, of a grey greenish colour, had been ornamented with gold enamel. According to the opinion of Mr. Hofrath Klemm, of Dresden, this glass belongs to the sixth or seventh century. (B. 378.)

In Lake Zürich on the station of Grosser Hafner were found an iron spear-head like those from La Tène, Roman tiles, and pottery of the kind known as terra sigillata, and coins of the time of Augustus, Tiberias, and Vespasian, etc., thus bringing the station down to the end of the first century of the Christian era. From Nidau and Sutz there are some curious iron spear-heads, and from Chevroux a three-pronged harpoon identical with analogous objects from La Tène (=Fig. 13=, No. 15). Moeringen has yielded an iron horse-bit, an iron sword (La Tène), a curious iron fork, etc. On the south side of St. Peter's Island, in the Lake of Bienne, Colonel Schwab found among some piles objects of the stone, bronze, and Gallo-Roman periods, together with 40 Roman coins. From the same place there is in the Berne Museum an iron hatchet with a wooden handle of the La Tène type (=Fig. 197=). On several stations in Lake Neuchâtel similar objects have occasionally turned up. In Lake Morat iron objects and Roman remains were found at Greing, Faoug, Guevaux, and Motier. Also a knife, the blade of which was partly of iron and partly of bronze (=Fig. 14=, No. 1).

Iron objects have also been occasionally found on a few stations in the Lake of Geneva, as at Plongeon and Morges; from the latter of which Dr. Forel records a number of sickles of various forms, some of which were like those of La Tène. In Lake Bourget a knife with a bronze handle and an iron blade (International Congress, Paris, p. 266), and a piece of pottery with the name Severinus stamped on it. (B. 176, p. 24.) In the Museum of Chambery there is a large spear-head of iron encrusted with broad lines of copper or bronze from this lake (=Fig. 198=) which is very similar to one found near the Pont de la Thiele.

But in all these instances the occurrence of iron is so exceptional that only probable deductions can be founded on them. Most of the iron objects have undoubtedly the same origin as those of La Tène. The rare bronze objects with encrusted iron bands, such as a few bracelets (Moeringen, Auvernier, Cortaillod, and Corcelettes), and one or two swords (Moeringen), need not cause surprise when we remember the extent to which commercial intercourse seems to have been carried on by the lake-dwellers with eastern nations; and that both iron and bronze were in use in Greece at least 1,200 years before the Christian era, while in Egypt and Central Asia these metals were known some 1,500 years earlier. Between those objects in which iron is used as an ornament (all of which are of the same style as the bronze objects), and the La Tène weapons, there is a wide gap which is not bridged over by any relics found in the lake-dwellings. In short, the evolutionary stage between the smelting of bronze and the forging of iron is here represented by a corresponding hiatus between the styles of art of the two periods more striking than that which distinguishes the neolithic from palæolithic industrial remains.

So far as I have looked into these matters I can only conclude that, with the introduction of iron into general use in Switzerland, we have a new people who conquered and subjugated the lake-dwellers and gave the death-blow to their system of lake-villages. Henceforth these villages fell into decay, and in the general destruction which ensued these La Tène implements might have been introduced by the invaders. In Roman times there remained only the ruins of a few stations. One thing is clearly established, that the conquerors of the lake-dwellers had a full knowledge of the working of iron in all its phases. The important point here is not the date of the discovery of this metal, but that of its application to the manufacture of all weapons and cutting implements. It is not likely that an art so complicated and requiring so much metallurgical and technical skill as that of the smelting and forging of iron had a sudden origin; and consequently we must look for its birthplace and evolutionary stages elsewhere. The remarkable collection of weapons, implements, and ornaments found at La Tène, to which I specially directed attention in a previous lecture, gives us a striking picture of the metallurgical skill to which their owners had attained prior to any influences from Roman art. So important are these antiquities considered by archæologists that the name La Tène has now become a generic expression, and represents a special group which, both in form and style of ornamentation, cannot be confounded with any other, either Greek, Roman, Etruscan or Phoenician. Who were these new comers into Switzerland who so suddenly intruded themselves on the peaceful lake-dwellers? To this question there is no response from the skulls and other portions of human skeletons found at La Tène. Out of ten skulls submitted to Professor Virchow he found that five were brachycephalic and two dolichocephalic, while the other three had intermediate cranial indices. We must therefore fall back on the character of the antiquities; and for this purpose I place before you some typical examples of this remarkable group (=Fig. 199=) culled from various sources for the purpose of showing their complete identity with those from the oppidum La Tène. Having satisfied ourselves on this point I proceed to glance rapidly over the geographical area in which such objects are found, with the view of showing to what people they belonged.

In the course of making the high-road from Berne to the bridge of Tiefenau in 1849-50 the workmen came upon a large quantity of weapons and implements of iron which, though very much rusted and decayed, can be clearly identified as belonging to the La Tène group. These objects, now preserved in the Museum at Berne, consist of the débris of arms, coats of mail, chariots, bridle-bits, bones of horses, pottery fine and coarse, some thirty pieces of money (massaliotes et celtiques), glass beads, iron and bronze buttons, sickles, knives, hatchets, etc. These objects, which were all mixed together in a miscellaneous manner, some two or three feet below the surface, had no appearance of ordinary burial, and are therefore considered to be the huddled up débris of a battle-field. The objects, so far as they can be made out, are described and figured by Baron de Bonstetten in his "Supplément au Recueil d'Antiquités Suisses, 1860," and "Notice sur les Armes et Chariots de Guerre découverts à Tiefenau, 1851."

During the excavations for the "Correction des Eaux du Jura," some remarkable discoveries were made, especially while deepening and rectifying the lower Thielle between Nidau and Meyenried. Immediately below the village of Port the débris of a pile-village was encountered, to which I have already alluded. Above this village the dredgers came in contact with a row of piles which Dr. v. Fellenberg concluded to have been the supports of a bridge. These piles were from 8 to 12 inches thick, and near them were collected over 100 weapons of the La Tène types, including swords, spears, etc. Another locality was a little below Brügg, where traces of two bridges were encountered, one of the Gallo-Roman period and the other supposed to be of later date. Near the former a large collection of antiquities was made, including objects, not only of the La Tène type, but also others of Etruscan and Roman origin. Amongst the La Tène objects collected during these operations are swords and sheaths (one of the latter being of bronze), spear-heads, axes, sickles, etc., which are identical with those figured from La Tène. One of the spear-heads is ornamented with incised lines producing two designs, one on the right side of each surface, as shown in Fig. 199, No. 7.

In France similar antiquities have been collected on the Helvetico-Romano battle-fields, such as Alise St. Renne (Alesia of Cæsar), and Mont Beuvray (Bibracte), as well as in some graves in northern France, particularly in the valleys of the Marne and the Aube. Some of these graves were evidently the final resting place of Gaulish chiefs, and contained in addition to the body a complete suite of military equipments. For comparison I have given here some illustrations of these discoveries. No. 1 represents the famous bronze helmet known as the Casque de Berru, described by Bertrand, which is particularly interesting on account of the ornamental designs which it displays.[146] No. 2 is a similar helmet ornamented with a kind of fretwork, and along with it in the same grave were a great many objects, weapons, ornaments, the bronze mountings of horses' harness, and the débris of a chariot.[147] A few of these are here illustrated, viz. an iron spear (No. 8), a sword and its sheath both of iron (No. 16), two bronze fibulæ (Nos. 10 and 11), a gold bracelet (No. 13), a bronze horse-bit (No. 12), and some specimens of mountings for a chariot (Nos. 14 and 15), and harness (No. 9).

Characteristic finds of this period have also been found in Savoy, the Alpine Passes, and North Italy. In the Museums of Bologna, Este, Milan, Turin, etc., are deposited the contents of numerous warrior-graves, which show unmistakable examples of the characteristic swords and scabbards and other objects of La Tène civilisation. Its central home, however, appears to have been the middle and upper Rhine districts, Baden, Bavaria, and eastwards to Bohemia and Laibach. Northwards sporadic examples are found as far as the Baltic.

One of the most important finds of this character in Europe was discovered, investigated, and described some ten years ago.[148] Near the village Stradonic in Bohemia there is a truncated eminence known under the name "der Berg Hradischt," which, owing to the precipitous nature of its slopes, is only accessible on one side. By nature this rocky eminence is admirably adapted for a military camping place, and that it was occupied in such a capacity in prehistoric times is evident from the mass of industrial remains of all ages found at various depths on its summit. Among these, however, by far the largest number were of the La Tène type, including a large quantity of money precisely similar to that found on La Tène. Gold pieces were particularly numerous, some 200 being found in one place. Others were of silver and potin, some imitating the coins of Philip of Macedon, and others bearing impressions of the fantastic horse with the long tail and horn (=Fig. 92=, Nos. 5 to 8). Roman coins were also present, but very sparingly. Among industrial and ornamental remains were fragments of glass bracelets of a yellow, blue, or red colour (Nos. 3 and 4), pincers, torques, grotesque figures of animal heads, iron axes, bridle-bits, etc. Upwards of 100 dice pieces of bone (Nos. 17 and 18). The characteristic fibulæ were of iron and bronze, the former, however, predominating. I have here placed side by side two bronze fibulæ precisely alike except in dimensions, one (No. 5) being from La Tène and the other (No. 6) from Hradischt. The former is after Vouga (B. 428, Pl. xvi. 17), who describes it as of the Hallstadt type, and probably of an older date than the ordinary La Tène objects. The presence of two objects so similar in style and ornamentation in such distant localities not only proves that they are forms of fibulæ then prevalent, but also becomes a striking confirmation of the contemporaneity of oppidum La Tène and the occupation of the camp on Hradischt. That they were the same people who occupied both places there can be little doubt.

The repeated incursions of the Gauls into North Italy, prior to its conquest by the Romans, so often referred to in classical writers, have been strikingly confirmed by recent archæological researches. In the cemeteries of Benacci, Villanova, and Marzabotto, in the vicinity of Bologna, the Gallic element has been for some time recognised by many of the most competent archæologists. During the excavations at Benacci three series of graves were observed, at different depths, the contents of which clearly prove that they were the cemeteries of different races. The first, or uppermost, were burials of the Roman period. Underneath them was a group of twelve graves which, from the long iron swords and characteristic fibulæ found along with the bodies, are now universally accepted as Celtic or Gaulish. Below these, again, was a third group which in every respect corresponded with the Etruscan cemetery of Villanova.[149] Helbig assigns the date of the Celtic graves at Marzabotto to the end of the fifth or beginning of the fourth century B.C. (B. 335, p. 35.)

In 1878 Castelfranco investigated a cemetery at Soldo, in the Brianza district, in which, among other things, he found the following relics:--A bronze fibula and an iron knife, precisely similar to those here figured from the Starnberg lake-dwelling (=Fig. 36=, No. 22, and =Fig. 37=, No. 1); an iron shears like those from La Tène: a Celtic silver coin; a vase with the word VITILIOS scratched on it in rude graffiti, which Fabretti ascribes to a Celtic source ("La direi celtica per la desinenza, come pure per la forma del T"). See B. 343, pp. 6 to 28, and Pl. i.

More recently (1886) the same author described several groups of cemeteries scattered over Lombardy, particularly on the left side of the Po, in which he found characteristic examples of the La Tène civilisation--swords, spears, knives, fibulæ, saws, shears, nodulated rings, etc.[150]

During the earlier discoveries of objects of this peculiar phase of art there was considerable diversity of opinion as to the people and period to which they should be referred. The Tiefenau "find" was assigned by Mr. Albert Jahn to the old Helvetians ("Canton Bern"), while Baron de Bonstetten referred it to the German races who invaded Helvetia in the fourth century. M. Veschère de Reffye, in describing the discoveries at the ancient fortress of Alesia, assigned the weapons found in the trenches, which turned out to be of the same character as those of La Tène, to the Helvetians.[151] Acting on this suggestion, Desor expressed the opinion that the La Tène iron weapons and other implements were introduced into Switzerland by the Helvetians, who hailed from Germany, and entered the country as conquerors. Dr. Keller, apparently prejudiced by his preconceived notion that the lake-dwellings of the Stone and Bronze Ages were due to the Celts, had a difficulty in believing that the advanced civilisation of La Tène was a direct evolutionary product of the Bronze Age; but yet he would not agree with the opinion that these civilisations indicated different races.

But perhaps the most important contribution to the subject was by Mr. Franks,[152] who demonstrated by an analysis of the style of ornamentation, together with an array of historical references bearing on the customs of the ancient Celtic races, that to them alone must be assigned the remarkable remains now in question. The few additional notices of later discoveries here introduced only strengthen this opinion. In my investigations of the British lake-dwellings, almost the only instance in which analogous remains have come to light is the "find" at Lisnacroghera; but the prevalence of such antiquities in Britain from about the second century B.C. till the introduction of Christianity, when the spiral and trumpet-shaped ornamentation became modified, and to a considerable extent superseded, by the addition of interlacements, has been so fully established by Mr. Franks that on this point nothing remains to be said.

From these remarks you see that we are among the class of antiquities (described and illustrated in "Horæ Ferales") to which Mr. Franks has given the name "Late Celtic." The owners of these La Tène weapons in Switzerland were the Helvetians, of Roman celebrity, who, according to Cæsar, were a branch of the great Celtic family who so long dominated over the rest of the Aryan races, and whose civilisation is only now in its death struggle in the outlying districts of Western Europe. Who these Celts were is a question which still puzzles historians, philologists, and archæologists. The term "Late Celtic" is sufficiently clear, and, as we have seen, accurately defines a most remarkable group of antiquities; but it necessarily involves a counterpart, viz. an "Early Celtic" period, in regard to which no archæologist has offered any opinion beyond mere conjecture. Before my rambles among the ruins and relics of the lacustrine villages I had no reason to doubt the correctness of the opinion advanced and promulgated by the late Dr. Keller, viz. that the early lake-dwellers belonged to the Celtic race. I do not think that archæology supports this opinion. If the "Late Celtic" relics correctly represent the Celts of that period they must have been a large-bodied race, wielding great swords with massive grips, totally out of keeping with the small-handed weapons of the Bronze Age as found on the sites of the lake-dwellings. The few indications derived from the data supplied by lake-dwelling research suggest the idea that the evolution of the Celts in Europe coincides with the substitution of iron for bronze in the manufacture of the more important cutting implements and weapons, and that the earlier stages of this transition are to be found considerably to the east of the Rhine districts--as, for example, at Hallstadt.

In hazarding an opinion as to the original founders of the lake-dwellings in Central Europe I would say that they were part of the first neolithic immigrants who entered the country by the regions surrounding the Black Sea and the shore of the Mediterranean, and spread westwards along the Danube and its tributaries till they reached the great central lakes. Here they founded that remarkable system of lake-villages whose ruins and relics are now being disinterred as it were from another or forgotten world. Those following the Drave and the Save entered Styria, where they established their settlements on what was then a great lake at Laibach. From this they crossed the mountains to the Po valley, where they founded not only the pile-villages, but subsequently the terremare. The Danubian wanderers having reached the upper sources of the Danube, crossed the uplands by way of Schussenried, and arrived on the shores of Lake Constance, from which they quickly spread over the low-lying districts of Switzerland. From Lake Neuchâtel, still continuing a westward course, they reached the Rhone valley by way of Morges, where they erected one of their earliest and largest settlements. From the Lake of Geneva they had easy access to the lakes of Annecy and Bourget.

It is worthy of note that almost the only historical notices of the habit of constructing lake-dwellings which have come down to us refer to districts along this supposed route. The following quotation from Herodotus (v. 16) gives a vivid description of a lake-village which flourished some 500 years before Christ. The Lake Prasias here referred to is situated in the south of Roumelia, not far from the mouth of the river Strymon, and the rather remarkable fact which is here recorded shows that its lake-dwellers were so powerful as to successfully defy the resources of a Persian army.

"They, on the other hand, who dwelt about Mount Pangæum and in the country of the Doberes, the Agrianians and the Odomantians, and they likewise who inhabited Lake Prasias, were not conquered by Megabazus. He sought, indeed, to subdue the dwellers upon the lake, but could not effect his purpose. Their manner of living is the following:--Platforms supported upon tall piles stand in the middle of the lake, which are approached from the land by a single narrow bridge. At the first the piles which bear up the platforms were fixed in their places by the whole body of the citizens; but since that time the custom which prevails about fixing them is this: they are brought from a hill called Orbelus, and every man drives in three for each wife that he marries. Now the men have all many wives apiece, and this is the way in which they live. Each has his own hut, wherein he dwells, upon one of the platforms; and each has also a trap door giving access to the lake beneath; and their wont is to tie their baby children by the foot with a string, to save them from rolling into the water. They feed their horses and their other beasts on fish, which abound in the lake to such a degree that a man has only to open his trap-door and to let down a basket by a rope into the water, and then to wait a very short time, when up he draws it quite full of them."

Another reference to lake-dwellings occurs in a passage by Hippocrates ("De Æribus," etc., xxxvii.), and the locality to which the remarks were applied lies to the east of the Black Sea.

"Concerning the people of the Phasis, that region is marshy and hot, and full of water, and woody; and at every season frequent and violent rains fall there. The inhabitants live in the marshes, and have houses of timber and of reeds constructed in the midst of the waters; and they seldom go out to the city or the market, but sail up and down in boats made out of a single tree-trunk, for there are numerous canals in that region. The water they drink is hot and stagnant, putrefied by the sun, and swollen by the rainfall, and the Phasis itself is the most stagnant and quiet-flowing of all rivers."

In the works of recent travellers I find statements corroborating the opinion already published by Dr. Keller (B. 119, 2nd ed., p. 666), that the remains of lake-dwellings have been detected in Asia Minor, more especially in the Caucasus and the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian. As early as 1849 Bayern discovered palafittes in Lake Gok-chai and in Lake Paleostrum, not far from the embouchure of the Rion (Phasis). Mr. Chantre states that on the lowering of Lake Toporovan, near the village of Choucha at the embouchure of the Koura, and in some other lakes on the coast of the Black Sea, indications of their existence have been observed.[153] None of these have, however, been sufficiently explored to be of archæological value.

While the lake-dwellers of Switzerland were quietly living in the peculiar habitations which the hydrographical conditions of the country enabled them to develop so largely, great and progressive changes were going on elsewhere among the neolithic settlers in Europe. Probably other immigrants soon found their way to the far west, and brought with them a knowledge of bronze. As time rolled on, considerable divergences from the primitive civilisation took place, partly the outcome of geographical and climatal conditions, and partly the result of innovations by freer intercourse with the inhabitants of the shores of the Mediterranean. Then were laid gradually the germs of the historical nationalities of Europe. Just at the dawn of history we find the Celts, not in the sunshine of their power, but with faded strength and departed glory, confined to a limited area in Europe. After the collapse of the great lake-villages it is not singular to find that a knowledge of the system remained among the surrounding nationalities which subsequently germinated into activity in various sporadic corners, and produced not only the Scottish and Irish crannogs, but the analogous remains in Friesland, North Germany, Paladru, etc. As the great extinct mammals are known to have lingered in the recesses of mountain ranges and other secluded localities, so the artificial islands or crannogs and other lake-habitations of the Iron Age are but the deteriorated remnants of a doomed system which, like every dying art before final extinction, passed through a stage of decay and degeneration.

FOOTNOTES:

[124] Antiqua, 1883, p. 15.

[125] Matériaux, etc., vol. xvi. p. 215.

[126] Bulletino Palet. It., An. i. p. 7.

[127] While visiting Mr. Flinders Petrie's collection of antiquities from Egypt lately exhibited in London, I was much interested in seeing a well-shaped wooden sickle with a groove in which a flint saw was still cemented in its place. The groove is adapted for three such saws, but only one remained in its place. The wooden portion of this unique instrument is shaped like a modern corn-hook, with the exception that the handle turns downwards at a right angle to the cutting plane, and the opposite end runs out into a long sharp point. It measures 12½ inches from tip to tip, and 17 from the point to the most bulging part of the body. From the same place were various other flint implements and some semilunar knives or saws, precisely similar to those so common in the Scandinavian archæological area. Mr. Petrie also pointed out some flint objects which were undoubtedly an imitation of implements of copper and bronze with which they were associated. The tombs of Hawara in which these relics were discovered are said to be of the 12th dynasty, dating some 2,600 years B.C.

[128] B. 423, pp. 80, 90; Bul. Palet. Ital., An. xii. p. 80.

[129] Archiv für Anthropologie, vol. xvi.

[130] Antiqua. 1883, p. 89.

[131] Corr.-blatt, 1882, 1883, and B. 401.

[132] Mitt. der Anth. Ges. Wien, B. xiii. pp. 213 and 216.

[133] Neues Jahrb. für Mineralogie, B. iii., 1884.

[134] Archæological Journal, vol. xxxvi., 1880.

[135] Zeit. für Ethn., bd. xv. pp. 163-190.

[136] Antiqua, 1885, p. 138.

[137] Zeit. für Ethn., vol. xviii., Verhand., p. 83.

[138] Ibid., p. 411.

[139] Ibid., vol. xix. p. 97.

[140] Ibid., p. 140.

[141] Castelfranco: Bul. Palet. Ital., Anno iv. p. 50.

[142] Nuovo Giornale Bot. Ital., vol. xxii., N. 1, 1890.

[143] An excellent summary of the evidence establishing this fact is given by Baron de Baye in his recent work "Archæologie Prehistorique," chap. vi.

[144] Zeit. für Ethn., vol. xviii., Verhand., p. 368.

[145] See also Anzeiger, 1880, p. 46; and 1882, p. 221.

[146] Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise, p. 368.

[147] Double Sépulture Gauloise de la Gorge-Meillet (Marne). By Ed. Fourdrignier. Paris, 1878.

[148] W. Osborne, Zur Beurtheilung des prähistorischen Fundes auf dem Hradischt bei Stradonic in Böhmen. Mitt. der Anth. Ges. Wien, vol. x.

[149] Bull. dell' Inst., 1875, pp. 50 and 178, and 1877, p. 74.

[150] Bull. Palet. It., anno xii., p. 194, etc., with six plates.

[151] Revue Archéologique, 1864.

[152] "Horæ Ferales," pp. 172 to 189.

[153] "Recherches Anthropologiques dans le Caucase," vol i. p. 70.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF LAKE-DWELLING RESEARCHES IN EUROPE.

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