XXII. 1878-1903

XXII. 1878-1903

[b] J. W. PROBYN, Italy from the Fall of Napoleon I in 1815 to the Year 1890.

[c] H. WICKHAM STEAD, op. cit.

[d] BOLTON KING and THOMAS OKEY, Italy To-day.

[e] RUGGIERO BONGHI, Leone XIII e il governo italiano.

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MEDIÆVAL AND MODERN ITALY

LIST OF AUTHORITIES QUOTED, CITED, OR CONSULTED; WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

=About=, Edmund, The Roman Question, New York, 1859, 1 vol.--=Ademar=, Chronicon Aquitanicum, a history of the Frankish monarchy from its beginning to 1029.--=Adomoli=, G., Da San Martino a Mentana, Milano, 1892, 8 vols.--=Anna Comnena=, Alexias.

Anna Comnena (1083-1148), daughter of the eastern emperor Alexis I, was famous for her beauty and her talent. She was carefully educated by her father, and is said to have early surpassed all her contemporaries in philosophy and eloquence. At her father’s death in 1118 she made an unsuccessful attempt to place her husband, Nicephorus Bryennius, on the throne. Her Alexias, a biography of her father, is one of the most important works of Byzantine historiography. By some critics, indeed, it is placed almost on a par with the ancient classics.

=Annales Genuenses=, edited by Pertz, Monumenta Germaniæ historica, vol. 18, and Muratori, vol. 6.

The Annales Genuenses, written largely by commission of the republic, form the most complete series of chronicles of their age. They cover a continuous period of almost two centuries (1100-1294). Caffaro, who began the series, was a citizen of distinction, having served the republic as general, consul, and ambassador. He kept a careful record of what he himself saw and what was told him by consuls and others in authority. When in 1152 he presented his book to the consuls they ordered it to be copied and preserved in the archives of the city. Pleased at this prompt appreciation, he continued his annals to 1163. He was succeeded by the chancellor Chertus, whose connection with the events he relates likewise gives value and interest to his writing. Other names connected with the annals are Ottobonus, Marchirius, Bartholomeus, and James D’Oria. The annals are characterised from first to last by impartiality and precision and a great abundance of facts, names, and dates.

=Archivio Storico Italiano=, Firenze, 1842 ff., 119 vols. to 1903.

The most valuable collection of documents and chronicles supplementary to Muratori.

=Arrivabene=, Count C., Italy under Victor Emanuel; a personal narrative, London, 1862, 2 vols.--=Azeglio=, Massimo Marchese d’, Recollections (trans. by Count Maffei), London, 1868, 2 vols.

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=Bacci=, V., Ricordi del Risorgimento Italiano, Milano, 1890.--=Balzani=, Ugo, Early Chroniclers of Italy, London, 1883.

This volume, one of the series of Early Chroniclers of Europe, contains accounts and criticisms of all the principal chroniclers of the Middle Ages from Cassiodorus to Villani. Including, as it does in many instances, brief extracts from the originals, it gives a very clear idea of the sources of the mediæval history of Italy.

=Barth=, H., Crispi, Leipsic, 1893.--=Bartholomeus Scriba=, see Annales Genuenses.--=Bartoli=, A., I primi due Secoli della Litteratura Italiana, Milano, 1880, 1 vol.--=Beaumont-Vassy=, E. F., Vicomte de, Histoire des États Européens depuis le Congrès de Vienne, Paris, 1843-1853, 6 vols. (vol. V has sub-title États Italiens).--=Bergante=, Count A., I nostri tempi, Milano, 1884.--=Bersezio=, V., Il regno di Vittorio Emanuele II, Trent’ anni di vita italiana, Torino, 1878-1893, 7 vols.--=Berti=, D., Il conte di Cavour avanti il 1848, Roma, 1886.--=Bertocci=, Giuseppe, Repertorio Bibliografico delle Opere stampate in Italia nel Secolo XIX, 1876-1887, vols. 1-3.--=Bertolini=, F., Memorio del Risorgimento Italiano, Milano, 1899; “Storia delle dominazioni Germaniche in Italia,” in Storia politica d’Italia, Milano, 1900.--=Bianchi=, N., La politica di Massimo d’Azeglio 1848-1859, Torino, 1883; La Casa di Savoia e la Monarchia italiana, Torino, 1884.--=Blanc=, J., Bibliographie italico-française, Milano, 1886.--=Blasi=, R., La Nuova Italia, Torino, 1891.--=Bonetti=, A. M., I Martiri Italiani, Modena, 1891.--=Boraschi=, G., Garibaldi nella Storia, Pinerolo, 1884.--=Bordone=, J. P. T., Garibaldi 1807-1882, Paris, 1891.--=Bosco=, G., Compendium of Italian History, London, 1881, 1 vol.--=Botta=, Carlo G. G., History of Italy during Consulate and Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte, London, 1828, 2 vols.; Storia d’Italia, Paris, 1837, 14 vols.--=Breganze=, L., A. Depretis ed i suoi Tempi, Verona, 1894.--=Breslau=, H., Handbuch der Urkundenlehre für Italien, Leipsic, 1889.--=Browning=, O., Guelphs and Ghibellines 1256-1409, London, 1893.--=Bulle=, C., Geschichte des Königreiches Italien, Berlin, 1890.--=Bulwer Lytton=, E., Rienzi.--=Burchardus=, Johannes, Diarium (incomplete) in Labarthe and Cimber’s Archives curieuses de l’histoire de France.

The diary of Johannes Burchardus (died 1506), master of ceremonies at the papal court and later Bishop of Horta, is of great importance on account of its reliability. It covers the years 1483-1506, and is concerned principally with the relations of France and England.

=Burckhardt=, J., Cultur der Renaissance in Italien, 3rd edition, Leipsic, 1877.

As Jakob Burckhardt (1818-1897) combines rare literary skill with great erudition and keen criticism of sources, his is one of the most useful of German works on the Renaissance.

=Butt=, Isaac, History of Italy from Abdication of Napoleon I, London, 1860, 2 vols.

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=Caffaro=, see Annales Genuenses.--=Callegare=, E., “Preponderanze straniere,” in Storia politica d’Italia.--=Cantù=, Cesare, Histoire des Italiens, Paris, 1859, 12 vols.

Cesare Cantù (1805-1895) was at the same time an ardent republican and a devoted churchman, and his history, owing largely to its popular character and its partisan spirit, brought its author into wide repute in his own country.

=Cappeletti=, L., Storia di Carlo Alberto, Roma, 1891; Storia di Vittorio Emanuele II e del suo regno, Roma, 1892-1893, 3 vols.--=Capponi=, Gino, Geschichte der florentinischen Republik (trans. by H. Dütschke), Leipsic, 1876, 2 vols.--=Carducci=, G., Studi Litterari, Livorno, 1874; La vita italiana nel cinquecento, Milano, 1894, 3 vols.--=Cassiodorus=, Magnus Aurelius, Letters (trans. with introduction by T. Hodgkin), Oxford, 1889.

Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus held the highest offices in the Ostrogothic kingdom from Theodoric to Vitiges. His letters, which contain the decrees of Theodoric and of his successors, are the best source of our knowledge of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy.

=Castro=, G., Piccola Storia d’Italia, Milano, 1888; Patria, Milano, 1882.--=Cellini=, Benvenuto, Memoirs (trans. by T. Roscoe), London, 1850; (trans. by J. A. Symonds), London, 1887.

Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571), certainly the most celebrated if not the greatest of goldsmiths, was also the author of one of the most famous and remarkable autobiographies ever written. Although he was born and died at Florence, a large part of his life was spent in restless wandering, for he was continually embroiled in feuds and implicated in assassinations in consequence of which he was frequently forced to sudden flight. His principal works were executed for Pope Clement VII, Francis I of France and Cosmo de’ Medici the Great. Besides his work in gold and silver Cellini also distinguished himself in die-cutting and enamelling and executed a few pieces of sculpture on a grander scale. Of these the most famous is the bronze statue of Perseus with the head of Medusa which stands in front of the old ducal palace at Florence. This is one of the most typical monuments of the Italian Renaissance, a work full of the fire of genius and of the grandeur of terrible beauty. In his autobiography he sets forth with the utmost directness and animation the history of these works, as well as his amours and hatreds and his varied adventures. He relates his homicides with devout complacency and frequently runs into extravagances that it is impossible to credit but at the same time difficult to set down as deliberate falsehoods. Cellini also wrote treatises on the goldsmith’s art, on sculpture and on design.

=Cesaresco=, Countess E. Martinengo, The Liberation of Italy, London, 1895; Cavour, London, 1898.--=Cesaroni=, E., La Tradizione unitaria in Italia, Torino, 1887.--=Chaillot=, L., L’unita Italiana, Roma, 1882.--=Chierici=, L., Carlo Alberto e il suo ideale, Roma, 1892.--=Cipolla=, C., Pubblicazioni sulla storia mediævale italiana, Venezia, 1892; “Storia delle signorie italiane,” in Storia politica d’Italia, Milano, 1900.--=Colletta=, Gen. P., History of the Kingdom of Naples 1734-1825 (trans. by S. Horner), Edinburgh, 1858, 2 vols.--=Compagni=, Dino, Istoria Fiorentina dal 1280 al 1312, Firenze, 1728 (Muratori, vol. 9).

Dino Compagni, a contemporary of Dante, was a man of strict integrity and straightforward character who held high office in Florence for many years, and after his retirement wrote his chronicle of the years during and just after his own political life. His personal share in the events he relates makes his chronicle reliable, while its simple, direct style and the spirit of passionate patriotism with which it is pervaded lend it unusual interest.

=Comyn=, Sir R., History of the Western Empire, London, 1851, 2 vols.--=Corpi=, F., Il risorgimento italiano, Biografii Storico-politichi, Milano, 1884.--=Corradino=, C., Storia d’Italia 474-1494, Torino, 1886.--=Corti=, S., Breve del risorgimento italiano, Roma, 1885.--=Cosci=, A., “L’Italia durante le Preponderanze straniere,” in Storia politica d’Italia.--=Costa de Beauregard=, A., Les dernières années du roi Charles Albert, Paris, 1890.--=Crowe=, J. A., and =Caval-Caselle=, G. B., A New History of Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century, etc., London, 1884-1866, 3 vols.; History of Painting in North Italy, etc., from the Fourteenth to the Sixteenth Century, London, 1871, 2 vols.

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=Dandolo=, Andrea, Chronicon Venetum a pontificatu S. Marci ad annum usque 1339; succedit Raph. Caresini continuatio usque ad annum 1388 nunc primum evulgata. In Muratori, vol. xii.

Andrea Dandolo’s work, written while he was doge, is the most important of Venetian chronicles. The author collected his materials with great diligence and learning, but made little effort at logical arrangement or artistic presentation. Though credulous as to fables concerning remote events, he is unusually reliable when dealing with his own period and that immediately preceding.

=Daru=, P. A., Histoire de la République de Venise, Paris, 1877-1884, 6 vols.--=Del Lungo=, I., Dino Compagni e la sua cronica, Firenze, 1879-1880, 3 vols.--=Denina=, C. G. M., Delle Rivoluzioni d’Italia, Firenze, 1820, 3 vols.--=Dennistoun=, J., Memoirs of the Dukes of Urbino, London, 1851-1853, 3 vols.--=Depping=, G. B., Histoire des Expéditions maritimes des Normands, Paris, 1826.--=Dunand-Henry=, A., Les doctrines et la politique économiques du Comte Cavour, Paris, 1902.--=Dunham=, S. A., Europe in the Middle Ages, London, 1833-1836, 4 vols.

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=Eliot=, George, Romola, London, 1863.--=Emiliani=, Gindici, Storia della litteratura Italiana, Firenze, 1855, 2 vols.--=Épinois=, H. de l’, Les Pièces du Procès de Galilée, Paris, 1877.--=Ewart=, K. D., Cosimo de’ Medici, London, 1899.

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=Falcandus=, Hugo, Historia de rebus gestis in Siciliæ regno, etc.

Gibbon said of Hugo Falcandus: “He has been styled the Tacitus of Sicily; and after a just, but immense abatement from the first to the twelfth century, from a senator to a monk, I would not strip him of his title; his narrative is rapid and perspicuous, his style bold and elegant, his observation keen. He had studied mankind, and feels like a man.” Although Falcandus was devoted to the interests of the Norman nobility in Sicily and obtained his information largely from partisan sources, his history is judicial and impartial to a considerable degree. He does not suppress nor distort facts unfavourable to his party, but contents himself with explaining them from his point of view. Moreover he had a broader view of history than as a bare narrative of facts, and to him we owe our only knowledge of a number of details respecting the political constitution of the monarchy as well as the condition of the nobility and the people.

=Fantuzzi=, M., Monumenti Ravennati de’ secoli di mezzo, Venezia, 1801-1804, 6 vols. Documents of the ninth and following centuries.--=Farini=, L. C., The Roman State from 1815 to 1830 (trans. under the direction of W. E. Gladstone), London, 1851 to 1854, 4 vols.--=Ferrari=, Giuseppe, Histoire des révolutions d’Italie; ou Guelfes et Gibelins, Paris, 1858, 4 vols.--=Filiasi=, G., Memorie storiche de Veneti primi e secondi, Venezia, 1796-1798, 8 vols.--=Flodoardus=, Annales.

The chronicle of Flodoardus or Frodoard, a Frankish bishop, covers the years 919-966.

=Freeman=, E. A., Historical Essays, First Series, London, 1871; articles on “Normans” and “Sicily” in Encyclopædia Britannica.

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=Gaffarel=, P., Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes 1796-1799, Paris, 1895.--=Galileo=, The Accusation, Condemnation, and Abjuration of, 1819.--=Gallenga=, A. (L. Mariotti), Italy, Past and Present, London, 1846, 2 vols.; The Pope and the King, London, 1879, 2 vols.--=Galluzzi=, R., Storia del Granducata de Toscana, Firenze, 1822, 11 vols.--=Garibaldi=, G., Epistolario di G. Garibaldi, Milano, 1885, 2 vols.; Autobiography (trans. by A. Werner), London, 1889, 3 vols.--=Gaudenzi=, A., Sui rapporti tra l’Italia l’Impero d’Oriente, Bologna, 1888.--=Gebhardt=, E., Les Origines de la Renaissance en Italie, Paris, 1879.--=Ghio=, H., La guerra del anno 1866 in Italia, Firenze, 1887.--=Ghiron=, J., Annali d’Italia, in continuazione al Muratori, Milano, 1888.--=Ghisleri=, A., Atlantino storico d’Italia, Bergamo, 1891.--=Giacometti=, G., La Question Italianne 1814-1816, Paris, 1893.--=Gibbon=, E., Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.--=Gilbert=, William, Lucretia Borgia, Duchess of Ferrara, London, 1869, 2 vols.--=Ginguené=, F. L., Histoire Littéraire d’Italie, Paris, 1824-1835, 9 vols.--=Godkin=, G. S., Life of Victor Emmanuel II, First King of Italy, London, 1879, 2 vols.--=Gotte=, A., La Corona di Casa Savoia, Firenze, 1887.--=Gregorovius=, F., Lucrezia Borgia, Stuttgart, 1874, 2 vols.; History of the City of Rome during the Middle Ages (trans. by Annie Hamilton), London, 1894-1902, 8 vols.

Ferdinand Gregorovius (1821-1891) devoted the better part of his life to the most extensive and minute investigations in the libraries and archives of Rome, Italy, and Germany. The result of these studies was his great work, The History of the City of Rome, which is remarkable not only for its scholarship but for its brilliant and fascinating style. It was translated into Italian under the authority of the city council of Rome and at public expense.

=Grimm=, Hermann, Life of Michael Angelo (trans. by Fanny E. Burnett), London, 1896, 2 vols.--=Guicciardini=, F., History of Italy from 1490-1532 (trans, by Austin P. Goddard), London, 1753, 10 vols.

Since the publication in 1857 of his Opere inedite, Francesco Guicciardini (1483-1540) has stood in the first rank among political philosophers, even disputing the supremacy with his friend Macchiavelli. He had a long career as diplomatist, statesman, and general in which in addition to the vices of his age he displayed such cold calculation, phlegmatic egotism and glaring discord between opinions and practice as to make him perhaps the most odious of his contemporaries. Yet it is this very want of feeling that gives excellence to his history. His style is dull and prolix and he has no sense of perspective, but as an analyst he stands without a rival. His history is of no interest to the general reader, but is of great importance for research in the period with which it deals, 1494-1532.

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=Hallam=, H., View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages.--=Hartmann=, L. M., Geschichte Italiens im Mittelalter, Gotha, 1897-1900, 2 vols.--=Hartwig=, O., Quellen und Forschungen zur ältesten Geschichte der Stadt Florenz, Halle, 1875-1880, 2 vols.--=Hawthorne=, Nathaniel, Marble Faun, 1860.--=Hazlitt=, W. C., History of the Venetian Republic, London, 1860, 4 vols.--=Hegel=, Carl, Geschichte der Städteverfassung von Italien, Leipsic, 1847, 2 vols.--=Hennegay=, F., Histoire de l’Italie depuis 1815, Paris, 1885.--=Heyd=, W. von Geschichte des Lavantehandels im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1885-1886, 2 vols.--=Hillebrand=, K., Dino Compagni: Étude Historique et Littéraire sur l’époque de Dante, Paris, 1862.--=Hodgkin=, Thomas, Italy and her Invaders, Oxford, 1880-1885, 4 vols.

Thomas Hodgkin is the first to present in English the results of modern research concerning the barbarian invasions of Italy. He gives a full description of the social organisation, and traces in detail the movements of the various Germanic and Asiatic tribes.

=Hunt=, L., Italian Poets, London, 1846, 2 vols.--=Hunt=, William, History of Italy, London and New York, 1874.

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=Jona=, G., La Rappresentanza politica, Modena, 1892.

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=Kington=, F. L., History of Frederick II, Emperor of the Romans, London, 1862, 2 vols.--=Kugler=, F. T., Handbook of Painting. The Italian Schools. Revised and remodelled from the most recent researches by Lady Eastlake, London, 1880, 2 vols.

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=Labarthe=, J., History of the Arts of the Middle Ages, London, 1855--=Leo=, H., Geschichte der italienischen Staaten, Hamburg, 1829-1832, 5 vols.; Entwickelung der Verfassung der lombardischen Städte, Hamburg, 1824.--=Locascio=, F., Fa fallita Italica, Rebellione del 1848, Palermo, 1887.--=Lozzi=, C. Biblioteca istorica della antica e nuova Italia, Palermo, 1886.--=Luise=, G. di, Storia critica delle Revoluzioni italiane, Napoli, 1887.

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=Macaulay=, T. B., Machiavelli, Essay on, London and New York.--=Machiavelli=, N., History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy, London, 1847; Works translated by Detmold, Boston, 1882, 4 vols.--=Malaspini=, Ricordano and Giacotto, L’Istoria antica dell’origine di Fiorenza sino all’anno 1281, con l’aggiunta dal detto anno per insino al 1286, Fiorenze, 1566. (Also in Muratori, vol. VIII.)

Of Ricordano and Giacotto Malaspini we possess but very meagre and uncertain information. The chronicle bearing their names was long believed to be the earliest work on Italian history written in the vernacular, but its authenticity has recently been questioned. Villani contains much of the same matter in nearly the same words. It is conjectured that the so-called Malaspini were of later date than Villani and that they either copied from him or both copied from a common source that has not come down to us. All this, however, does not detract from the picturesqueness and interest of their chronicle, nor from its reliability as to the facts narrated in it.

=Malaterra=, G., Historia Sicula, Cæsaraugusta, 1578.

Godofredus Malaterra, a Benedictine monk, has left us a very valuable history of the Normans in Sicily, written at the command of Count Roger. It ends with the year 1099.

=Manso=, F., Geschichte des ostgothischen Reiches in Italien, Breslau, 1824.--=Manucardi=, F., Reminiscenze storiche, Torino, 1890.--=Manzoni=, A., La rivoluzione francese e la rivoluzione italiana del 1859, Milano, 1889.--=Marchirius Scriba=, see Annales Genuenses.--=Marriott=, J. A. R., The Makers of Modern Italy, London, 1889.--=Masi=, E. Fra libri di storia della rivoluzione italiana, Bologna, 1887; Il segreto del Re Carlo Alberto, Bologna, 1890.--=Maulde la Clavière=, M. A. R. de, La Diplomatie au temps de Machiavel, Paris, 1892-1893, 3 vols.--=Mazade=, Charles de, Le Comte de Cavour, Paris and London, 1877.--=Mazzini=, J., Life and Writings of, London, 1864-1870, 6 vols.; Essays (trans. by T. Okey), London, 1894.--=Mignet=, F. H., Histoire de la Rivalité de François I et de Charles V, Paris, 1876, 2 vols.--=Montanelli=, G., Mémoires sur l’Italie, Paris, 1859, 2 vols.--=Montarola=, B., Bibliografia del risorgimento Italiano, Roma, 1884.--=Monumenta Germaniæ historica=, ed. by G. H. Pertz, G. Waitz, and E. Dümmler, Hanover and Berlin, 1826, etc., 35 vols.--=Müntz=, E., Les Précurseurs de la Renaissance, Paris, 1881.--=Muratori=, L. A., Italicarum rerum scriptores, Mediolani, 1723-1751, 25 vols.; Annali d’Italia, Milano, 1744-1749, 12 vols.

Ludovico Antonio Muratori (1672-1750), for many years librarian of the duke of Modena, devoted his long life to ardent and energetic labour in various fields of scholarship. His principal work, the Scriptores, is a great storehouse of contemporary documents covering the entire Middle Ages from 500 to 1500 and is the most important collection of the sort.

=Mussatus=, Albertinus, De Gestis Heinrici VII Cæsaris, Historia Augusta. De Gestis Italicorum post Mortem Heinrici VII. In Muratori, vol. X.

Albertinus Mussatus (1261-1330?) had in his lifetime a wide reputation as a writer of Latin poetry and was also a prominent political and military leader in his native city of Padua. While a friend and admirer of the emperor Henry VII, Mussatus is however quite impartial and trustworthy as a historian. His style is much more careful and polished than that of most chroniclers and part of his work is even composed in verse. His works are of the first importance among the sources for that period.

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=Napier=, H. E., Florentine History, London, 1846-1847, 6 vols.--=Narjoux=, F., Crispi, Paris, 1890.--=Norlaughi=, A., Catalogo delle opere relative alle cose italiane del periodo 1815-70, Torino, 1884.--=North American Review=, Italian Literature, 1864-1866; Origin of Italian Language, 1867.

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=Obertus Cancellarius=, see Annales Genuenses.--=O’Clery=, P. K., The Making of Italy, London, 1892.--=Oliphant=, Mrs. M., The Makers of Florence, London, 1876; The Makers of Venice, London, 1887.--=Orsi=, P., La Storia d’Italia narrata da scrittori contemporanei, Torino, 1887; Come fu fatta l’Italia, Torino, 1891.--=Ottobonus Scriba=, see Annales Genuenses.

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=Perrens=, F. T., Histoire de Florence, Paris, 1877-1884, 6 vols.--=Perrers=, D., Gli ultimi reali di Savoia ed il principe Carlo Alberto di Carignano, Torino, 1889.--=Pertz=, G. H., see Monumenta Germaniæ historica.--=Pflugk-Harttung=, J. v., Iter Italicum, Stuttgart, 1883.--=Pignotti=, L., History of Tuscany (trans. by John Bowring), London, 1823, 4 vols.--=Pio=, O., Dramma della storia italiana, Milano, 1889.--=Pöhlmann=, Robert, Die Wirthschafts-Politik der Florentiner Renaissance, Leipsic, 1878, 1 vol.--=Procopius of Cæsarea=, De bello Gothorum.--=Probyn=, J. W., Italy: from Fall of Napoleon I to 1890, London, 1891.--=Proctor=, C., History of Italy from the Fall of the Western Empire, London, 1844.--=Pucciauti=, G., Vittorio Emanuele e il risorgimento d’Italia, Paris, 1893.

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=Quinet=, Edgar, Les Révolutions d’Italie, Paris, 1868, 2 vols.

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=Ranke=, L., Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494 bis 1535, Berlin, 1824, 2 vols.; Zur venetianischen Geschichte, Leipsic, 1878; Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1896, 4 vols.--=Reinach=, J., La France et l’Italie devant l’histoire, Paris, 1893.--=Reuchlin=, H., Geschichte Italiens von der Gründung der regierenden Dynastien bis zur Gegenwart, Leipsic, 1859-1873, 4 vols.--=Reumont=, Alfred von, Bibliografia dei Lavori Pubblicati in Germania sulla Storia d’Italia, Berlin, 1863; Geschichte Toscana’s seit dem Ende des florentinischen Freistaates 1530-1859, Gotha, 1876, 2 vols.; Lorenzo de’ Medici, the Magnificent (trans. by Robert Harrison), London, 1876, 2 vols.; Characterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte Italiens, Leipsic, 1885.--=Revel=, G. di, Da Ancona a Napoli, Milano, 1892.--=Robertson=, W., History of the Reign of Charles V, London, 1856.--=Rodocanachi=, E. P., Le comte de Cavour, Paris, 1891.--=Rorai=, S. di, Il genio della Rivoluzione Periodo I, 1789-1848, Venezia, 1890.--=Rosa=, G., Genesi della colture italiana, Milano, 1889.--=Roscoe=, William, Life of Lorenzo de Medici, 8th edition, London, 1845.--=Ruskin=, J., Seven Lamps of Architecture, London, 1849.

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=Saint Maro=, C. H. L. de, Histoire d’Italie depuis la chute de l’empire d’Occident, Paris, 1761-1770, 6 vols.--=Salimbene=, Chronicon Fra Salimbene Parmensis, Parma, 1857.

A collection of stories without order or design, which gives, however, a very minute picture of the condition of Italy in the thirteenth century.

=Sanctis=, F. de, Storia della Letteratura Italiana, Napoli, 1870.--=Sansi=, A., Storia del Comune di Spoleto dal secolo XII al XVII, Foligno, 1879-1884, 2 vols.--=Sarti=, T., Il Parlamento subalpino e nazionale, Terni, 1890.--=Sassone=, F., France et Italie 1820-1886, Geneva, 1886.--=Scheffer-Boichorst=, P., Florentiner Studien, Leipsic, 1874.--=Schmidt=, D. L., Zur Geschichte der Langobarden, Leipsic, 1889.--=Sewell=, E. M., Outline History of Italy, London, 1895.--=Sheppard=, William, Life of Poggio Bracciolini, Liverpool, 1837.--=Sichirollo=, G. L. S., Compendio della storia d’Italia nel medio evo, 1890.--=Silvagni=, D., Rome, its Princes, Priests, and People, London, 1886-1887, 3 vols.--=Simonsfeld=, H., Andreas Dandolo und seine Geschichtswerke, Munich, 1876; Venetianische Studien, Munich, 1878.--=Sismondi=, J. C. L. Simonde de, History of the Italian Republics, London, 1832; Literature of the South of Europe (tr. by Roscoe), London, 1846, 2 vols.

Jean Charles Leonard Simonde de Sismondi (1773-1842) achieved much distinction through his works on history and literature, particularly his Italian Republics and his History of France. He was exceedingly laborious and for the most part free from prejudice, but was somewhat lacking in penetration and historical grasp. Of the Italian Republics Mignet says: “Sismondi has traced this history with vast learning, a noble spirit, a vigorous talent, sufficient art, and much eloquence.”

=Spalding=, William, Italy and the Italian Islands, New York, 1842, 3 vols.--=Spano=, M., Reminiscenze sulle lotte degli Italiani per la loro independenza, Roma, 1886.--=Stella=, G. and J., Annales Genuenses ab a. 1298-1435; in Muratori, vol. XXVI.

Georgius and Johannes Stella take up the history of Genua at the point where the work of Caffaro and his successors stops and bring it down to their own day (1435).

=Summonte=, G., Storia della città e regno di Napoli, Napoli, 1601-1634, 4 vols.--=Sweetser=, M. F., Titian, Boston, 1878.--=Symonds=, J. A., Renaissance in Italy, London and New York, 1875-1886, 7 vols.; Short History of the Renaissance in Italy, London, 1893; article, “Italy,” in Encyclopædia Britannica.

John Addington Symonds (1840-1893) was a man of intense ardour and sympathy who, having a passion for Italy, made the study of the Renaissance in that country the work of the greater part of his life. His writing is always brilliant and terse, though his views are sometimes not clearly defined nor unbiased.

* * * * *

=Taine=, H., Art in Italy; Italy--Florence and Venice, New York, 1869.--=Tegrimi=, N., Vita di Castruccio, in Muratori, vol. XI.--=Testa=, G. B., History of the War of Frederick I against the Communes of Lombardy, London, 1877.--=Thayer=, W. R., Dawn of Italian Independence--Italy from 1814-1849, Boston, 1893, 2 vols.--=Tiraboschi=, G., Literary History of Italy, Edinburgh, 1835.--=Tivaroni=, C., Storia del Risorgimento, Torino, 1869.--=Trolard=, E., Pèlerinage aux champs de bataille français d’Italie, Paris, 1893.--=Trollope=, T. A., History of the Commonwealth of Florence, London, 1865, 4 vols.

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=Valery=, N., Historical, Literary, and Artistical Travels in Italy (trans. by C. E. Clifton), Paris, 1842.--=Vaumicci=, A., I martiri della libertà italiana, Milano, 1885, 2 vols.--=Venosta=, F., Umberto I, Re d’Italia Milano, 1885.--=Venturi=, Mrs. E. A., J. Mazzinni, A Memoir, London, 1875.--=Viardot=, L., Wonders of Italian Art, London, 1870.--=Villani=, G., Historia Fiorentina all’anno 1348, continuata da F. Villani, Milano e Firenze, 1802-46, 12 vols.; also in Muratori, Script. Res. Ital., vols. XIII-XIV.

Giovanni Villani (1280-1348) was the greatest of all the Italian chroniclers. Those who preceded him had produced very incomplete and legendary records, generally limited to particular places and periods, but Villani includes the whole of Europe in his chronicle. He says that he conceived the idea of his history while on a pilgrimage to Rome in 1300 on the occasion of the great jubilee ordained by Pope Boniface VIII. The contemplation of Rome’s “great and ancient remains, and reading the histories and great deeds of the Romans as written by Virgil, Sallust, Lucan, Livy, Valerius, Paulus Orosius, and other masters of history” inspired him “to take form and style from them,” and on his return from Rome he “began to compile this book, in honour of God and of the blessed John, and in praise of our city of Florence.” Though prominent in both the intellectual life and the public affairs of the city he looks at the facts of its history as calmly and serenely as an outsider. His work is not only the very corner-stone of the early mediæval history of Florence, but is of the greatest value for the history of all Italy in the fourteenth century. Villani’s chronicle was continued by his brother Matteo and the latter’s son Filippo and by them brought down to the year 1364.

=Villari=, P., History of Girolamo Savonarola and of his times, London, 1863, 2 vols.; Niccolo Machiavelli and his times, London, 1878-1881, 4 vols.; The Barbarian Invasions of Italy (trans. by L. Villari), London, 1902, 2 vols.; Storia politica d’Italia scritta da una società di professori, edited by P. Villari Milano, 1900.

Pasquale Villari (1827) is not an historian of very profound insight, but he possesses great breadth of culture and sympathy, and his works embody the best results of recent research on the periods in question. While his sympathy with the aims of Savonarola has perhaps led him to an extravagant view of the great reformer, his work on Machiavelli is of the highest importance to the student of Italian history. As minister of public instruction in the cabinet of Rudini Villari contributed much to the reform of education in Italy.

=Voigt=, G., Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums, 3rd edition, edited by Lehnerdt, Berlin, 1893, 2 vols.

* * * * *

=Wallace=, H. B., Essays on Italian Art, Philadelphia, 1858.--=Weise=, J., Italien und die Langobardenherrscher 568-623, Halle, 1887.--=Whiteside=, J., Italy in the Nineteenth Century, 2nd edition, London, 1860.--=Wimpffen=, E. F. de, Crimée-Italie, Paris, 1892.--=Wrightson=, R. H., History of Modern Italy from the First French Revolution to the Year 1850, London, 1855; The Sancta Republica Romana, London, 1891.

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=Zalla=, A., Studio Storico, Firenze, 1890.--=Zanoni=, E., Speranze e sconforti d’Italia del 1815 al 1846, 1886.--=Zeller=, J. S., Abrégé de l’Histoire d’Italie depuis la Chute de l’empire Romaine, 2nd edition, Paris, 1864; Les tribuns et les révolutions en Italie, Paris, 1874.--Pie IX et Victor Emmanuel, Paris, 1879.

A CHRONOLOGICAL RÉSUMÉ OF ITALIAN HISTORY

THE NORTH ITALIAN STATES AND REPUBLICS

FROM THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE ELEVENTH CENTURY (476-1000 A.D.)

The deposition of Romulus Augustulus (476) opens a new era for the Italian people. The entire peninsula comes under the titular sway of the Eastern emperor, Odoacer the Herulian chief ruling as king of his own people, and as regent over the rest of the inhabitants. This mixed Teutonic and Roman government is continued by the Ostrogothic dynasty beginning with Theodoric, who in 493 at the commission of the emperor overthrows and replaces Odoacer. The chief strength of the Ostrogoths lies in northern Italy; they have little influence over the descendants of the Greek colonists in the south. The ties between Italy and Constantinople having become very weak, Justinian I plans the reconquest of Italy. By the efforts of Belisarius and Narses this is accomplished in 553; the Ostrogothic kingdom falls. Italy is again a real member of the Roman Empire, ruled in the emperor’s name by the exarch whose capital is at Ravenna. This state of affairs lasts but fifteen years. Narses, the first exarch, recalled to Constantinople in 565, and disaffected with his treatment by the empress, is said to have invited Alboin the Lombard chief to invade the Italian peninsula. In 568 he crosses the Alps, and in three years is master of nearly the whole of northern Italy. The political unity of the peninsula is broken, not to be repaired until the latter half of the nineteenth century. The Lombards penetrate through the middle of the peninsula. Venice, founded about 452 by families from Aquileia and Pavia fleeing from Attila, remains untouched. So does Genoa and its Riviera. Rome does not acknowledge the Lombard rule at Pavia, neither does the country east of the Apennines from the Po to Ancona where the exarch rules at Ravenna, nor the duchy of Naples, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and the southernmost province of Calabria. The duchies of Spoleto and Benevento have Lombard rulers, but they are nearly independent of Pavia. Such is the condition of Italy at the end of the sixth century.

Before the close of the next hundred years Constans II (662) makes a vain attempt to restore the empire in Italy. The protecting power of Constantinople becomes weaker and weaker, and in 713 the Venetian islands unite for the purpose of self-government. Paoluccio Anafesto, the first doge, is elected and a council of tribunes and judges chosen. This government lasts until 737 when in a popular tumult the doge Orso is killed, his ducal office abolished, and replaced by an annually elected maestro della milizia (master of the military); but in five years (742) the life-holding office of doge is restored. Meanwhile the growing Lombard power has encroached on the exarch’s dominions; the iconoclastic controversy has virtually alienated the sympathies of the Italian people from the Eastern emperor, and in 752 the Byzantine possessions in northern Italy are conquered by Aistulf the Lombard king, and the exarch flees from Ravenna. Pepin comes from France at the call of the pope, seizes Aistulf’s conquests which he hands over to Stephen (755), and from this gift arises the temporal sovereignty of the pope, which lasts until 1870. In 774 Charlemagne puts an end to the Lombard dominion in northern Italy, and his Italian kingdom extends from the Alps to Terracina. This is included in the Western Empire when it is restored in 800.

Thus the political map of Italy at the beginning of the ninth century shows Rome the head of an empire governing the greater part of the peninsula; Gaeta, Naples, Calabria, Apulia, Sicily, and Sardinia still give their allegiance to Constantinople. Venice, though quite independent, acknowledges the Eastern emperor, and the duke of Benevento pays tribute to him of the West.

In 810 the people of Venice remove the seat of government from the mainland to the present city and the building of St. Mark’s is begun.

In 827 the Saracens begin their attacks on Italy and Sicily. Their fortunes are varied, but by 890 the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty has enabled the Greeks to take many cities from the Saracens and raise a new power that comprises southern Italy as far north as Salerno. This territory ruled by a patrician or catapan remains a part of the Eastern Empire until 1043. Charlemagne does not overthrow the political system in the north, and the great lords retain their territories they have enjoyed since the days of Theodoric. With the decay of Charlemagne’s dynasty, these local rulers correspondingly increase their power, and the bishops appointed to the cities have become almost independent sovereigns. This local ascendency is never suppressed by the emperor, and to it is due the rise of the mediæval Italian republics.

At the beginning of the tenth century we find these great territorial lords and bishops the chief powers in northern Italy--among them the archbishop of Milan, the duke of Friuli, and the count of Tuscany, the latter asserting his predominance since the time of Boniface I in 823. The obedience they pay the king of Italy is merely nominal, and indeed the king is constantly at war with his great vassals. From the deposition of Charles the Fat (888) to the intrusion of Otto I into the affairs of Italy (961) the crown of that country is the bone of contention between the great lords of Friuli and Benevento. The Magyars and Saracens also repeatedly invade the land, and the defended cities rise in power and importance.

With the advent of Otto I their municipal liberty is not much curtailed. The government of the city is generally carried on by two or more consuls chosen by popular vote. In 997 the Venetians’ conquest of the Adriatic coast and islands as far as Ragusa, put themselves in a more independent attitude towards the Eastern emperor.

THE ELEVENTH CENTURY

The untimely death of Otto III (1002) is an important event in the development of the Italian cities. In the resulting dispute for the crown, Pavia upholds the Lombard nobles in their choice of Arduin. Milan crowns the German king Henry II.

1003 War between Pisa and Lucca, the first waged between the mediæval Italian cities.

1004 Henry burns Pavia. Milan and Pavia wake to independent life and action in this struggle. The Saracens capture a portion of Pisa.

1011 Second attack of the Saracens on Pisa, which now assumes the offensive.

1017 The Pisans drive the Saracens from Sardinia and take the island.

1018 Heribert becomes archbishop of Milan, and the most powerful lord in northern Italy.

1024 On death of Henry II, Heribert invites Conrad II of Germany to Italy and gives him the iron crown of Lombardy (1026).

1026 The Venetians expel their doge Ottone Orseolo, but recall him in 1031. The people of Lodi resent Heribert’s appointing their bishop, and a war ensues in which Heribert is successful.

1036 Battle of Campo Malo, between Heribert and the opponent factions. Heribert summons the emperor to his aid, but the latter, offended at the independence of the Milanese, retires to Pavia.

1037 At Diet of Roncaglia Conrad enacts decree that all fiefs shall be hereditary. This is to check the power of the ecclesiastical lords. Siege of Milan by Conrad, who has to retire on account of pestilence.

1039 Siege of Milan raised at death of Conrad. Heribert devises the carroccio.

1041 The people of Milan, headed by Lanzo, drive the nobles out of Milan.

1044 Peace restored in Milan.

1045 Death of Heribert.

1048-1055 During the pontificate of Leo IX, attempts to enforce celibacy of clergy are vigorously resisted in Milan.

1055 The countess Matilda begins her rule in Tuscany.

1063 The foundations of the cathedral at Pisa are laid.

1075 Gregory VII approves the Pisan code of laws--a revival of the Pandects of Justinian.

1077 The Norman conquests of southern Italian cities put the trade of the Mediterranean into the hands of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. For a century and a half Pisa has the largest trade.

1080 The countess Matilda’s army is defeated near Mantua.

1084 Great defeat of the Venetian fleet by Robert Guiscard.

1091 Capture of Mantua and Ravenna by Henry IV.

THE TWELFTH CENTURY

At the beginning of the twelfth century Milan and the other Lombard cities have become independent municipalities, a result achieved principally through the war of investitures.

1101 Ferrara submits to the countess Matilda, who has obtained practically the power of a queen.

1110 Peace made between Pisa and Lucca, which have been at war for six years.

1111 The Milanese attack and destroy Lodi and Como. The leadership of Milan in Lombardy is now confirmed.

1114 Revolt of Mantua, which is subdued by the countess Matilda. The Pisans descend upon the Saracens in the Balearic Isles, and return with rich booty and many prisoners.

1115 Death of the countess Matilda. Beginning of the struggle between pope and emperor for her great domain. In 1102 she deeded them to the pope. With Matilda’s death begins the rise of Florence and other Tuscan cities to independence.

1118 War breaks out between Genoa and Pisa over the supremacy of Sardinia and Corsica, a papal edict having awarded the Pisan church control in Corsica. Consecration of the Pisan cathedral.

1123 Victory of the Venetian fleet over the Egyptians off Joppa.

1124 The Venetians receive a third of the city of Tyre at its conquest by the crusaders.

1125 Capture of Samos, Andros, and Spalato by the Venetians.

1132 Peace between Genoa and Pisa. Innocent II gives the Genoese church partial supremacy in Corsica and grants to the Pisans in Sardinia and elsewhere.

1135 The Pisans proceed against the Normans in southern Italy. Naples and Amalfi attacked. Amalfi recovered by Roger I.

1137 Second attack of the Pisans in southern Italy. Roger recovers his lost possessions.

1140 The Genoese acquire Ventimiglia.

1144 War breaks out among the Italian cities. Venice against Ravenna; Verona and Vicenza against Padua and Treviso; Florence and Pisa against Lucca and Siena.

1150 The Venetians regain Dalmatia, which has been captured by pirates.

1151 Defeat of the Milanese by the Cremonese at Castelnuovo. The carroccio is captured.

1152 Election of Frederick Barbarossa as king of Germany and Italy. Building of the baptistery of Pisa begun.

1153 Frederick determines to re-establish the imperial authority in the Italian cities. Lodi and Como ask his protection against Milan.

1154 Frederick enters Italy. Diet of Roncaglia, where Frederick hears complaints against Milan and Tortona. He assumes the Lombard crown at Pavia.

1155 Frederick captures and razes Tortona. Milan prepares for war.

1156 Milan rebuilds Tortona and defeats Pavia.

1157 Establishment of the Bank of Venice.

1158 Milan again destroys Lodi. Second appearance of Frederick in Italy. Siege of Milan, which surrenders on account of famine. Diet at Roncaglia. The Bolognese jurists expound the code of Justinian to Frederick, who removes the consuls and substitutes the podesta as ruling officer in the Italian cities.

1159 The Milanese refuse to obey the podesta.

1160 Surrender of Crema to Frederick. The city is abandoned to the cruelty of Cremona. Lucca obtains its independence from Welf of Tuscany.

1162 Surrender of Milan after a nine months’ siege. It is totally destroyed. Lombardy submits to Frederick.

1163 The cities of the Veronese March, assisted by Venice, form a league against Frederick.

1167 Siege of Ancona by Frederick, who has returned to Italy the previous year. Brescia, Bergamo, Mantua, Verona, Cremona, Treviso, and other north Italian cities form the Lombard League to regain their liberties from Frederick. It begins to rebuild Milan.

1168 Frederick, with his army nearly annihilated by the plague, returns to Germany.

1169 The league builds Alessandria. The pope and Eastern emperor join the league against Frederick. Other cities enter the league. Pavia and Montferrat alone remain loyal to the empire.

1171 The Eastern emperor Manuel I seizes the Venetian possessions in his dominions. Stephen, king of Hungary, captures many Dalmatian cities from Venice. Venice recovers Zara, takes Ragusa, and attacks Negropont.

1172 Capture of Scio by the Venetians.

1173 The Venetian fleet returns from the East and infects the city with the plague. Tumults break out and the doge is slain.

1174 Fifth expedition of Frederick to Italy. The Campanile of Pisa is begun.

1175 Peace partially restored between Genoa and Pisa by Frederick’s mediation.

1176 Frederick threatens Milan. He is defeated disastrously at Legnano by the Milanese and a few allies. He opens negotiations with the pope for peace.

1177 Reconciliation between Frederick and the pope at Venice. Six years’ truce concluded with the Lombard cities. They do not ask for more than municipal autonomy, and the Italians lose their greatest opportunity of becoming a powerful nation.

1181 Bela, king of Hungary, recovers Zara and other cities from Venice.

1183 The truce with Frederick is made permanent by the peace of Constance. Venice is not included. The communes have their right to self-government by consuls and to wage warfare confirmed. These privileges are extended to the Tuscan cities, among which Florence is becoming the most powerful.

1194 Battle between the Genoese and Pisan fleets in the harbour of Messina.

1198 Establishment of the republic of Florence.

1199 General war among the Lombard cities owing to a quarrel between Parma and Piacenza.

THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

The acquisition of independence by the cities brings about constant feuds between the people and the nobles. The latter have become more or less financially dependent upon the citizens and are forced to reside a portion of the year in the cities. Here in their palaces they carry on their feuds, in defiance of all civil authority. The consuls are powerless to curb them, and from this state of affairs arises the office of podesta (the name taken from Frederick Barbarossa’s official, but having no connection with the empire). The podesta is always the citizen of another city and holds his office for one year. His function is to arbitrate and keep peace between the citizens and nobles, and the powers delegated to him pave the way for the despots of later times.

1202 The crusaders capture Zara for Venice in fulfilment of a bargain made with the doge Dandolo, who disregards Pope Innocent III’s threats of excommunication for this. The Venetians accompany the crusaders to Constantinople.

1204 In the division of the Eastern Empire after the capture of Constantinople the Venetians receive about three-eighths of the empire of Romania. Most of this they make no attempt to take possession of. Formation of Guelfic leagues in Umbria and Tuscany, looking to the pope for protection. Pisa, strongly Ghibelline, holds aloof.

1205 The Venetians exchange a portion of Thessaly with Boniface of Montferrat for Crete. Venice decides on a policy of allowing her nobles to take her acquisitions, holding these as fiefs of the republic.

1208 The Genoese are defeated in an attempt to capture Crete.

1209 The Ghibellines expel the Guelfs from Ferrara.

1215 The Buondelmonte (Guelf) and Amidei (Ghibelline) feud begins in Florence. It lasts thirty-three years.

1218 Milan forms a league to drive the Ghibellines from Lombardy. It is defeated at Ghibello; this causes great trouble between the Lombard nobles and citizens.

1221 The Milanese expel the nobles from the city.

1222 First war between Pisa and Florence. Foundation of the University of Padua.

1226 Renewal of the Lombard League for twenty-five years.

1227 Frederick II appoints Ezzelino da Romano to conduct warfare against the Guelfs in the Veronese March. They are defeated in Verona and Vicenza.

1228 Victory of Pisa over the united forces of Florence and Lucca near Barga.

1233 The cities of the Veronese March conclude the peace of Paquara through the efforts of the monk Giovanni da Vicenza. It lasts only a few days.

1234 Montferrat, Milan, Brescia, and other cities join the rebellion of Frederick’s son Henry. The Pisans renew war with the Genoese.

1236 Frederick takes the field against the Lombards. Ezzelino is in control in Verona, Vicenza, and Padua.

1237 Frederick defeats the Milanese and their allies at Cortenuova. The carroccio is captured and sent to Rome as a trophy. Tiepolo, podesta of Milan, son of the doge of Venice, put to death.

1238 The pope allies himself with Venice and Genoa against Frederick, who establishes Ghibelline supremacy in Turin, Asti, Novara, and Alessandria. Frederick unsuccessfully besieges Brescia.

1239 The Guelf fortunes begin to revive, owing to the pope’s excommunication of Frederick. Ravenna taken by the Venetians and Bolognese.

1240 The Venetians and Azzo d’Este take Ferrara. Frederick recovers Ravenna.

1241 The Pisan and Sicilian fleets capture a number of Genoese galleys, bearing the French cardinals and bishops to the pope’s council at Rome. Frederick besieges Genoa.

1243 Frederick’s son Enzio is driven from Milan.

1247 Revolt of Parma against Frederick, who besieges the town.

1248 Frederick raises the siege of Parma. Revolution in Florence places the city in Ghibelline hands.

1249 The Bolognese defeat Enzio at Fossalta. He is imprisoned for the rest of his life. Ezzelino da Romano takes Belluno and the marquisate of Este.

1250 The Florentines free themselves from Ghibelline rule. They establish the signoria. With death of Frederick, the great power of the emperors in Italy comes to an end.

1251 The Florentines recall the Guelf exiles and wage war on neighbouring cities to compel them to serve under the Guelf banner.

1252 The first florin coined at Florence.

1254 The Florentine “Year of Victories.” Many triumphs over the Tuscan cities.

1256 The marquis Azzo recovers Este and captures Padua.

1258 The Ghibelline leaders exiled from Florence.

1259 Defeat and capture of Ezzelino da Romano at the bridge of Cassano. He dies of his wounds.

1260 The Ghibellines headed by Manfred win a great victory at Montaperti. They regain Florence. The popular government is abolished. One composed of nobles swearing allegiance to Manfred is substituted.

1264 By this time the head of the Della Torre family holds the office of lord of the people in Milan, and other Lombard cities have conferred the same title upon him. The office has become hereditary, and we have the beginnings of the future duchy of Milan. The pope, jealous of the Della Torre’s growing power, appoints Otto Visconti, of a powerful local family, archbishop of Milan. The people refuse to receive him and are excommunicated by the pope. Beginning of the Della Torre-Visconti feud. The Pelavicini are now predominant in the valley of the Po and the Della Scala in the Veronese March.

1266 After Charles of Anjou’s victories in the south, the Florentines destroy their Ghibelline government.

1267 The Florentines intrust the signoria to Charles of Anjou for ten years. Their constitution is restored. The Ghibelline cities in the north go to Conradin’s assistance.

1269 Charles summons a diet of all Lombard cities at Cremona. Some confer the signoria on him; others offer him an alliance. He calls himself imperial vicar. The pope becomes jealous of Charles’ power.

1270 The Doria and Spinola families obtain control of Genoa and support the Ghibellines. War between Bologna and Venice.

1277 The pope forces Charles to resign the title of imperial vicar. The Visconti obtain the ascendency in Milan and henceforth rule the city.

1280 The count of Savoy takes up his residence in Turin. Faenza becomes subject to Bologna.

1282 War breaks out between Pisa and Genoa.

1284 Disastrous naval defeat of the Pisans by the Genoese, off the island of Meloria. The power of Pisa is broken. Ugolino della Gherardesca made captain-general of Pisa. He makes a disgraceful peace with the Guelfs.

1288 Deposition of Ugolino, who is starved to death. The marquis of Este is elected lord of Modena.

1292 Guido di Montefeltro of Pisa victorious over the Florentines.

1293 Peace between Pisa and Florence. A long war breaks out between Venice and Genoa.

1296 The Ghibellines expel the Guelfs from Genoa. The Venetians seize Genoese possessions in the Crimea.

1297 The Venetians shut out membership in the Grand Council to all but members of the noble families.

1298 The Genoese destroy the Venetian fleet off the Dalmatian coast.

1299 Peace between Venice and Genoa through mediation of Matteo Visconti. It is favourable to Genoa.

1300 Florence divided between the Neri (violent Guelfs) and Bianchi (moderate Guelfs) factions. Pope Boniface VIII invites Charles of Valois to Italy to check the Bianchi.

THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY

Civil wars begin to decline. The despots, growing out of the captains of the people, begin to grasp the free cities.

1301 The Florentines admit Charles of Valois into the city. The Neri overcome the Bianchi and drive them out. Dante is among the expelled.

1302 The Visconti are expelled from Milan and the Della Torre return.

1304 Florence is partially burned in civil riots.

1306 The Este family lose their supremacy in Modena. The Doria are expelled from Genoa.

1308 Domestic feuds in the Este family. The Venetians assist one of them to take Ferrara.

1309 The papal legate expels the Estes from Ferrara. It is governed for the pope by King Robert of Naples, the Guelf leader.

1310 Henry VII of Luxemburg enters Italy. He confers title of imperial vicar on the reigning lords of the Lombard towns. The Venetians establish the Council of Ten.

1311 Henry receives the iron crown of Lombardy. The Guelfs driven from Milan and the Visconti restored. General Guelf uprising against Henry. Unsuccessful siege of Brescia. The Genoese confer absolute authority over the city upon Henry for twenty years.

1312 Henry withdraws from an attack on Florence.

1313 Death of Henry as he is preparing to attack Robert. Henry’s visit has afforded the despots a means of consolidating their power. The Visconti rule in Milan, the Scaligeri in Verona, the Carraresi in Padua. Uguccione dà Faggiuola in Lucca. The Ghibellines keep up the struggle in Pisa, Lucca, and other places.

1315 Uguccione wins many victories over the Guelfs in Lombardy and Tuscany.

1317 The Este family is restored in Ferrara. Civil war in Genoa.

1318 Robert saves Genoa from the Ghibellines and is made ruler of the city for ten years.

1319 The Ghibellines renew attack on Genoa after Robert’s departure. Brescia accepts a governor from Robert.

1320 Unsuccessful attempt of Philip of Valois to crush the Visconti.

1321 The Ghibellines at Genoa defeat an army sent against them by Robert. Siege of Cremona by Galeazzo Visconti.

1322 Surrender of Cremona to Galeazzo. His brother Marco defeats the papal and Neapolitan army. Excommunication of the Visconti family. Frederick of Austria refuses to take part in the strife.

1323 The papal army captures Alessandria and Tortona. It is driven from Milan by the Visconti with the help of Ludwig of Bavaria, who is excommunicated for giving his assistance. Massacre of the Pisans in Sardinia by the Aragonese.

1324 Galeazzo defeats the papal and Neapolitan army at Monza. Robert refuses to make peace.

1325 Castruccio Castracani of Lucca makes himself lord of Pistoia and with the Visconti attacks Florence.

1326 The Pisans abandon Sardinia to the Aragonese. The Florentines make Charles, son of Robert, governor of the city in return for the promise of Robert’s assistance against Castracani.

1327 Ludwig IV of Germany receives the Lombard crown at Milan. He imprisons Galeazzo Visconti.

1328 Death of Castracani. Ludwig seizes Pisa and sells Lucca. Death of the Guelf leader. Carlo Luigi di Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, and assumes title of imperial vicar. Padua submits to Can Grande della Scala. Ludwig liberates Galeazzo Visconti, who dies.

1329 Treviso submits to Can Grande della Scala, who dies shortly afterward. Ludwig returns to Germany. His attempts to establish the Ghibellines in Germany have ended in failure in Italy.

1330 John, king of Bohemia, comes to Italy to assume the leadership of the Ghibellines. He receives the sovereignty of Brescia, Bergamo, Cremona, and other republics. Azzo Visconti nominally cedes to him the lordship of Milan. John reconciles the Guelf and Ghibelline factions in these cities.

1332 Jealous of John’s power the Della Scala and Visconti unite with the Guelfs of Florence against him, in consequence of which

1333 John leaves Italy. The Estes repulse an attack of the papal army on Ferrara.

1334 The papal legate loses Bologna.

1335 After many disputes the Lombard Ghibellines take possession of the cities abandoned by John. Lucca, which has been allotted to Florence, is seized by Mastino della Scala and war results, in which Florence is unsuccessful. Alliance of Florence and Venice against Mastino. The Visconti regain Como and Crema. The Doria and Spinola families again triumphant in Genoa.

1337 Padua taken from Mastino by Florence and Venice and given to the Guelf family of Carrara. The Venetians capture Treviso and other cities, their first Italian possessions beyond the Lagune. Taddeo de’ Pepoli makes himself master of Bologna.

1338 Florence and Venice make peace with Mastino della Scala who allies himself with the Ghibellines.

1339 The Genoese, disgusted with the government of their signoria, replace it by a single chief, Boccanera, who takes title of doge. First appearance of the Free Companies in Italy.

1341 Mastino attempts to sell Lucca to the Florentines. This alarms the Pisans, who raise an army and seize Lucca.

1342 The Florentines having taken a sudden fancy to Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, who is in Florence on his way to France, make him their lord for life.

1343 Disgusted with his selfish administration the Florentines expel the duke of Athens and regain their freedom. Werner forms the “Great Company.”

1344 The Genoese expel their doge and elect one from the nobility.

1345 Mediation of Lucchino Visconti in Genoa’s civil troubles.

1346 Revolt of Zara suppressed by the Venetians. Parma and Piacenza submit to Lucchino Visconti.

1347 Rienzi made tribune in Rome.

1348 The great plague in Italy.

1350 War breaks out between Venice and Genoa over the seizure of some Venetian ships by the Genoese. The Pepoli cede Bologna to Giovanni Visconti, brother and successor of Lucchino.

1351 Giovanni Visconti makes an unwarranted attack on the Tuscan cities. The Florentines drive his army back. The Genoese fleet under Paganino Doria wins many victories on the Adriatic and in Negropont.

1352 Defeat of the Venetians and Aragonese by the Genoese in the Bosporus. The Eastern emperor gives the Genoese the entire command of the Black Sea.

1353 Fra Moriale organises his free company. Genoa allies herself with Hungary. After a disastrous defeat by Venice and Aragon off the Sardinian coast, she gives up to Giovanni Visconti who refits the fleet which

1354 destroys that of Venice in the Morea. Death of Giovanni Visconti; he is succeeded by his three nephews. Charles IV of Germany arrives in Italy and refuses to join the Visconti. Rienzi returns to Rome from exile. He is made senator, abuses his power and is killed.

1355 Conspiracy of Marino Falieri, doge of Venice. He is beheaded. Charles IV received by Pisa and Siena, who pay dearly for their hospitality. Venice makes peace with Genoa. The Raspanti restored in Pisa. The Genoese take Tripoli with the help of Venice.

1356 The Genoese throw off the yoke of the Visconti. League of north Italian lords goes to war with the Visconti. The marquis of Montferrat takes Asti from them. Louis of Hungary renews struggle with Venice. Jacopo de’ Bussolari delivers Pavia from the Visconti.

1357 Zara, Spalato, and other towns lost to Louis by Venice. The league assisted by Count Lando’s Free Company defeats the Visconti on the Oglio. The Raspanti party in Pisa at instigation of the Visconti begins to annoy the Florentines.

1358 Peace between the Visconti and the league. The Venetians abandon Istria and Dalmatia to Louis. The Visconti again besiege Pavia. The Florentines defeat the Great Company.

1359 Pavia capitulates to Galeazzo Visconti. Siege of Bologna by Barnabò Visconti.

1360 Cardinal Albornoz takes Bologna and Barnabò Visconti is finally driven away. Chair of Greek literature founded at Florence.

1361 Barnabò Visconti renews the siege of Bologna. Sir John Hawkwood invited into Italy. Foundation of the University of Pavia by Galeazzo Visconti.

1363 Defeats for the Visconti in several places. Sir John Hawkwood and his company enter service of Pisa. Pisa defeats Florence.

1364 The Visconti make peace with the league. Peace between Pisa and Florence. Giovanni Agnello is made doge of Pisa.

1367 Formation of a new league against the Visconti. It includes the emperor, the king of Hungary, Padua, Ferrara, Mantua, and Naples. Barnabò threatens Venice.

1368 Charles IV enters Italy. The Visconti pay him a large sum for peace. Barnabò Visconti invades Mantua.

1369 Charles returns to Germany. Pisa receives its freedom. Barnabò makes war on Florence, which is assisted by the pope.

1370 Lucca buys its independence from the emperor. Galeazzo Visconti takes Casale. The Florentines capture San Miniato. The Eastern emperor Joannes V held in Venice for debt.

1371 Barnabò Visconti captures Reggio.

1372 War breaks out between Venice and Genoa.

1373 Venice makes war on Padua, which is compelled to accept humiliating peace. Genoa attacks Cyprus, restoring it to the house of Lusignan.

1375 Truce between the Visconti and their enemies. The papal legate sends Sir John Hawkwood against the Florentines, who vow vengeance on the holy see and the French legates. They unite with Barnabò Visconti against the church and admit Siena, Pisa, and Lucca into the league, and form the “eight of war.” Eighty cities and towns throw off the yoke of the legate.

1377 The papal forces punish Faenza and Cesena severely. The league engages Sir John Hawkwood. It begins to break up. Bologna makes peace with the pope.

1378 Barnabò makes secret negotiations to betray Florence to the pope. Florence makes peace with Rome. The Venetians besiege the Genoese in Cyprus. Defeat of the Genoese fleet off Antium. Revolt in Florence. Sedition of the ciompi. Silvestro de’ Medici chosen gonfalonier. Death of Galeazzo Visconti, succeeded by his son Gian Galeazzo.

1379 The Venetian fleet almost annihilated by the Genoese off Pola. Pietro Doria captures Chioggia and attacks Venice. Siege of Treviso by Francesco da Carrara. The town is relieved by Barnabò Visconti.

1380 The Genoese surrender to the Venetians and make treaty of peace.

1381 Venice cedes Treviso to Duke Leopold of Austria to save it from Francesco da Carrara, who has again laid siege to it. Treaty of Turin. The Albizzi assume the government of Florence.

1384 Leopold of Austria sells Treviso to Francesco da Carrara.

1385 “The Reformers” driven out of Siena. Gian Galeazzo has his uncle Barnabò put to death, and takes possession of his dominions, making many reforms. He thus becomes the most powerful ruler in Italy. The Milan cathedral is started.

1387 Gian Galeazzo, having made an alliance with Francesco da Carrara of Padua whom Antonio della Scala of Verona is attacking on behalf of the Venetians, seizes Verona and Vicenza, the latter of which he refuses to give Carrara as promised. He now offers himself to the Venetians against Padua.

1388 Galeazzo takes Padua, holds it, captures Treviso, and threatens Venice. He makes many unsuccessful attempts on the Tuscan cities. Nice joined to Savoy.

1389 Florence makes alliance with Bologna against Gian Galeazzo engaging Sir John Hawkwood.

1390 Gian Galeazzo attacks Bologna. He is resisted by Hawkwood. Francesco Novello da Carrara, assisted by the duke of Bavaria, takes Padua from Gian Galeazzo. The Florentines engage the count of Armagnac to invade Lombardy.

1391 Armagnac defeated at Alessandria.

1392 Florence makes peace with Gian Galeazzo. At instigation of Gian Galeazzo, Jacopo Appiano murders Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of Pisa, and makes himself master of the city.

1393 Civil war in Genoa.

1394 Death of Sir John Hawkwood.

1395 Gian Galeazzo purchases from the emperor Wencelaus the title of duke of Milan, and count of Pavia with the investiture of the twenty-six cities once included in the Lombard League. The title is to be hereditary.

1396 The Genoese ask the protection of France.

1397 Gian Galeazzo renews war against Florence and Mantua.

1398 The French governor of Genoa is compelled to retire on account of civil discord in the city. Ten years’ peace between Gian Galeazzo and Florence and Mantua.

1399 The son of Jacopo Appiano sells Pisa to Gian Galeazzo, reserving Piombino for himself. Gian Galeazzo receives promise of surrender from Siena.

1400 Perugia submits to Gian Galeazzo. Paolo Guinigi usurps sovereignty of Lucca and places himself under Gian Galeazzo’s protection.

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1401 Rupert of Germany enters Italy to suppress Gian Galeazzo, but is defeated. Gian Galeazzo proclaimed sovereign lord of Bologna.

1402 Gian Galeazzo dies of the plague. He divides his possessions between his two young sons Giovanni Maria (duke of Milan) and Filippo Maria (count of Pavia) under the care of their mother Caterina and the condottieri in his service. The latter place themselves at the head of various cities. The Guelfs and Ghibellines recover power in many places.

1403 The dominions of Gian Galeazzo begin to break up. Bologna and Perugia are restored to the papal states. Siena places herself under the protection of Florence. The Venetians defeat a French and Genoese fleet.

1404 Francesco Novello da Carrara seizes Verona from the Visconti. Venice takes Vicenza and leagues with Francesco di Gonzaga of Mantua to take Verona from the lord of Padua. Caterina Visconti imprisoned and poisoned.

1405 The Venetians with the lord of Mantua capture Verona and Padua. Jean Boucicault, French governor of Genoa, to whom the Pisans have given the protection of their cities, offers to sell it to Florence. The Pisans resist, and war with Florence results.

1406 Francesco da Carrara and his sons executed at Venice. Pisa surrenders to Florence.

1408 Ladislaus of Naples attacks Tuscany, ravages Arezzo and Siena, and seizes Cortona.

1409 Florence, in alarm at Ladislaus’ ambitions, calls on Louis of Anjou to prosecute his claim to Naples. Boucicault attempts to take Milan. During his absence the Genoese drive the French from their city. Louis returns to Provence.

1410 The Florentine army under Braccio da Montone occupies Rome. Ladislaus accepts offers of peace.

1411 War breaks out between Hungary and Venice.

1412 The Milanese murder the cruel Giovanni Maria Visconti. Filippo Maria seizes the city and marries the widow of Facino Cane. The Venetians drive the Hungarians from Treviso and regain part of Friuli.

1416 Amadeus VIII joins Piedmont to Savoy.

1417 Muzio Attendolo Sforza, in the pay of Naples, drives Braccio da Montone and the Florentine army from Rome.

1418 Filippo Maria has his wife executed.

1419 The Milanese general, Francesco Carmagnola, recovers Bergamo for Filippo Maria.

1420 Carmagnola recovers Parma, Cremona, and Brescia for Milan. The Venetians recover Dalmatia and Friuli from the Hungarians.

1421 Genoa submits to Carmagnola, but reserves her liberties.

1424 Filippo Maria defeats the Florentines. Disgrace of Carmagnola.

1425 Continued defeats of the Florentines. Venice unites with Florence and employs Carmagnola.

1426 Florence, Venice, Ferrara, Mantua, Siena, Savoy, and Naples unite against Filippo Maria. Francesco Sforza, son of Muzio Attendolo, enters his service. Carmagnola takes Brescia from Milan.

1427 The Venetians destroy a fleet collected by Filippo Maria to conquer Mantua and Ferrara. Carmagnola defeats badly the duke of Milan’s army near Macalo. Savoy withdraws from the league and receives territory from Filippo Maria.

1428 Peace made between Milan and the allies. The Florentines attack and take possession of Lucca.

1430 Niccolo Piccinino, the Milanese general, drives the Florentines from Lucca. Venice and Florence reunite against Milan and the war recommences.

1431 Francesco Sforza defeats Carmagnola at Soncino. The Milanese destroy the Venetian fleet. The marquis of Montferrat is defeated by Sforza. The allied fleets defeat the Genoese.

1432 The signoria of Venice suspect Carmagnola’s loyalty. They invite him to Venice and behead him. Sigismund sells the title of marquis of Mantua to Giovanni di Gonzaga.

1433 Francesco Sforza occupies the March of Ancona, which the pope cedes to him the following year. Peace of Ferrara between Milan and the allies. Treaty between Sigismund and Siena and Florence. Rinaldo degli Albizzi, head of the oligarchy of Florence, imprisons and banishes Cosmo de’ Medici, the leader of the opposition.

1434 The Florentines recall Cosmo de’ Medici and place him at the head of the government. The banished Albizzi flee to Milan and persuade the duke to make war on Florence.

1435 Filippo Maria leagues with Alfonso of Naples against the pope. The Genoese throw off the protection of Milan and restore their independent government.

1436 Renewal of the league between Florence and Venice against Milan. Genoa joins it. Francesco Sforza enters the service of the allies.

1438 Sforza returns to the duke of Milan, who has promised him his daughter in marriage.

1439 The duke of Milan fails to keep his promise and Sforza returns to the allies. He is successful against Milan.

1441 Peace made between Milan and the allies. Sforza marries Filippo Maria’s daughter. Venice acquires the principality of Ravenna.

1443 Pope Eugenius IV plots to wrest the March of Ancona from Sforza. Alfonso of Naples and the duke of Milan aid him. Sforza defeats Piccinino at Monteloro.

1444 Sforza holds out against the alliance, which presses him hard.

1446 Florence and Venice go to the aid of Sforza.

1447 Sforza loses the March of Ancona. Death of Filippo Maria. The duchy is claimed by Alfonso of Naples, the duke of Orleans, and by Sforza. Milan and other Lombard cities restore their independence, but Sforza makes himself master of Milan and captures Piacenza. Other cities submit to him.

1448 Sforza goes to war with Venice. He takes a large portion of their territory, burns their fleet, and wins a great victory at Caravaggio; then makes an alliance with Venice against Milan, which is afraid of his treachery and shuts him out of the city.

1449 The Venetians, realising Sforza’s schemes to enslave Italy, desert him and join the Milanese. Sforza besieges Milan.

1450 The Milanese finally decide to admit Sforza and recognise him as their duke.

1452 Sforza, having made alliance with Florence, Genoa, and Mantua, goes to war with Venice. Frederick III sells Borso d’Este, Reggio, and the duchy of Modena.

1454 Pope Nicholas V brings about the Peace of Lodi, signed by Milan and Venice.

1455 Alfonso of Naples signs the Peace of Lodi, and joins with the pope and the north Italian states in a league against the Turks.

1457 Genoa and Naples go to war. The Council of Ten in Naples deposes the great doge Francesco Foscari, who dies of grief.

1458 The Neapolitans besiege Genoa. Cosmo de’ Medici and Lucas Pitti plan to force despot rule upon Florence.

1461 The Genoese free themselves from Naples.

1462 The Venetians ally themselves with Matthias Corvinus against the Turks.

1463 Venice purchases Cervia from Malatesta IV.

1464 Sforza obtains control of Genoa. Death of Cosmo de’ Medici. His son Piero succeeds to the presidency of Florence.

1466 The Pitti family is defeated in its attempt to subjugate Florence. The Alberti party is banished. Death of Francesco Sforza. His son Galeazzo Maria succeeds. He misgoverns the duchy and alienates the people from him.

1469 Death of Piero de’ Medici. His sons Lorenzo and Giuliano succeed, but the governing power remains in the hands of the five citizens who exercised it under Piero.

1470 The Turks take Negropont in Eubœa from the Venetians. Florence, Modena, Milan, Naples, and the pope form a holy league against the Turks. Venice and the knights of Rhodes make alliance with the sultan of Persia for the same purpose. The conspiracy of Nardi against the Medici.

1471 The pope confers the duchy of Ferrara upon Borso d’Este.

1472 The fleet of the Holy League drives the Turks from the Grecian archipelago and ravages Smyrna.

1473 The Turks reach the borders of Friuli.

1475 The Venetians garrison the island of Cyprus. The Turks capture the Genoese ports in the Crimea.

1476 Conspiracy at Ferrara in favour of Niccolo d’Este. It fails. Assassination of Galeazzo Maria Sforza at Milan, the result of the Olgiate conspiracy. His son Giovanni Galeazzo Maria succeeds under regency of his mother.

1477 Revolt of Matteo de’ Fieschi at Genoa.

1478 The Pazzi conspiracy in Florence, aided by Sixtus IV. Giuliano is murdered. Lorenzo, wounded, escapes. The people massacre most of the conspirators, among them the archbishop of Pisa, for which deed Sixtus excommunicates Florence. The pope, and Naples, and other Italian states begin war on Florence. The Genoese restore their government.

1479 Venice makes peace with the Turks, giving up Scutari and fortresses in Illyria and the Morea. Sixtus IV induces the Swiss to declare war on Milan. They win a victory at Giornico. Defeat of the Florentines by the Neapolitans at Poggio Imperiale. The situation of Lorenzo becomes critical. The pope demands his expulsion from Florence. He goes to Naples. Lodovico Sforza (Il Moro), uncle of the young Giovanni Galeazzo Maria, undertakes the government of Milan.

1480 Lorenzo makes treaty with Ferdinand of Naples. On return to Florence he makes the yoke more oppressive. The pope in fear of the Turks, who have landed in Italy, becomes reconciled to Lorenzo and makes treaty with him.

1481 All states of Italy (Venice excepted) unite against the Turks and recover Otranto, lost the previous year. Sixtus and the Venetians attempt to seize Ferrara and divide it between them.

1482 Milan, Florence, and Naples form a league to prevent Venice and the pope from carrying out their designs.

1483 Sixtus now sides with the league and excommunicates Venice for persisting in the attack on Ferrara.

1484 Peace of Bagnolo between Ferrara and Venice; the former gives up some of her possessions.

1485 Innocent VIII begins a war upon Florence, but makes peace the following year.

1487 Lorenzo de’ Medici wrests Sarzana from the Genoese, who put themselves again under Milan’s protection.

1489 Galeotto Manfredi, lord of Faenza, stabbed by his wife as he is about to sell his principality to the Venetians. Savonarola arrives in Florence and begins to preach reform in the church.

1492 Death of Lorenzo de’ Medici. His son Piero succeeds.

1493 Lodovico il Moro, wishing to retain his power in Milan, plots to get rid of his enemy the king of Naples, and invites Charles VIII of France to revive the Angevin claim to Naples.

1494 The emperor Maximilian makes Lodovico duke of Milan. Giovanni Galeazzo Maria banished to Pavia. Alfonso II of Naples attacks Genoa but is defeated by the Swiss. Charles VIII enters Italy. Sudden and mysterious death of Giovanni Galeazzo Maria. Charles enters Tuscany. Piero surrenders Sarzana and offers to give up Pisa and other cities. The people rise and drive Piero out of Florence. Charles grants the Pisans their liberty and proceeds to Rome.

1495 Lodovico, alarmed at Charles’ success, forms a league against him, with the pope, the emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand of Spain, in Venice. Charles leaves Naples and with difficulty returns to France. Formation of the Grand Council by advice of Savonarola to govern Florence.

1496 Maximilian comes to Italy with an army, but returns to Germany after a quarrel with Venice. Florence attempts to regain Pisa.

1498 The Venetians and Florentines struggle for the possession of Pisa. Milan aids the Florentines. Execution of Savonarola. Death of Charles VIII in France. His successor, Louis XII, takes title of duke of Milan and claims the duchy.

1499 Louis makes a treaty with the Venetians for the conquest of Milan. The French army enters Italy. Flight of Lodovico il Moro to Germany. Louis XII enters Milan. The rest of Lombardy submits. Genoa comes under French protection. The Florentines tire of the war with Pisa and make peace.

1500 The Milanese tire of the oppressive French. Lodovico returns with an army. Como, Milan, Parma, and Pavia open their gates. Novara taken after a siege. Lodovico is betrayed at Novara into the hands of Louis de la Trémouille, the French general, and sent to France in captivity. Milan again subject to the French. The French army marches to Naples.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Cesare Borgia begins his conquest of the petty states of Romagna. He takes Pesaro, Rimini, Forlì, and Faenza.

1502 Cesare seizes the duchy of Urbino with the aid of Louis. He wars with the Orsini and plans to capture Pisa, and marries his sister Lucrezia to the son of the duke of Ferrara. The Florentines create the office of gonfalonier for life.

1503 At death of Pope Alexander VI the dominions of Cesare are taken from him by Julius II. Venice seizes Faenza and Rimini, which enrages the pope. The Venetians make peace with the Turks, renouncing their possessions in the Peloponnesus. Death of Piero de’ Medici with the French army in Naples. Pietro Soderini chosen gonfalonier of Florence.

1504 Louis signs treaty of Blois with Maximilian, in which they propose to divide the republic of Venice between them. Florence makes another attempt to take Pisa.

1506 Julius II attacks Perugia and Bologna.

1507 Unable to endure the yoke of the French and their own nobles, the Genoese drive out the French and restore the republic. Louis at once captures Genoa and puts the doge and other prominent citizens to death.

1508 Unsuccessful invasion of Italy by Maximilian. The Venetians defeat him and he is compelled to make truce, yielding them Trieste. The infamous League of Cambray formed by the pope, the emperor, Spain, and France against Venice. Savoy, Mantua, and Ferrara also join.

1509 France declares war on Venice. The Venetians, badly defeated at Agnadello, give up their possessions in northern Italy. The Venetians regain Padua. The Florentines capture Pisa.

1510 Julius begins to fear his foreign allies and resolves to drive the barbarians from Italy with the aid of the Swiss. He absolves the Venetians and pits the Spanish against the French. The French are attacked in Genoa, Modena, and Verona.

1511 Julius captures Mirandola; the French take Bologna from him. Julius forms the holy league with the Spaniards, English, Swiss, and Venetians against France.

1512 Gaston de Foix relieves the French, besieged in Bologna by the Spaniards; retakes Brescia, and fights a great battle at Ravenna with the pope and his allies, in which he is killed. Maximilian abandons the French. The Swiss occupy Milan and restore Massimiliano Sforza, son of Lodovico. The pope regains Bologna and Ferrara, and seizes Parma and Piacenza from the Milanese. The Medici return to Florence and resume their former position. Genoa expels the French. Italy passes from the yoke of France to that of the Swiss, Spaniards, and Germans.

1513 Giovanni de’ Medici becomes Pope Leo X. Alliance between the Venetians and the French. The latter enter the duchy of Milan, but are defeated by the Swiss mercenaries at Novara. The Spaniards attack Venice on behalf of Maximilian, and occupy Verona, Padua, and Vicenza, acting with great cruelty.

1514 The French are driven out of their last fortresses in Italy.

1515 Francis I, the new French king, asserts his claim to Milan, recovers Genoa, and badly defeats the Swiss at Marignano. He enters Milan, and the Swiss leave Italy forever, after making peace with Francis. Massimiliano Sforza abdicates. Venice captures Bergamo and Peschiera. Peace between Francis and Leo. The latter gives up Parma and Piacenza.

1516 The Venetians capture Brescia and lay siege to Verona. Treaty of Noyon between Francis and Charles I of Spain. Maximilian agrees to it. By its terms Venice recovers all the territory taken from her by the League of Cambray.

1517 Verona restored to Venice. France and Venice renew their alliance. Leo turns the duke of Urbino out of his duchy and gives it to Lorenzo de’ Medici.

1518 Treaty of peace signed between Maximilian and Venice.

1519 Death of Lorenzo. The pope annexes Urbino to his states and attempts to seize Ferrara. Charles V succeeds to the imperial title.

1521 Leo makes treaty with Charles to drive the French from Italy. The allies enter Milan; the Sforza are restored. Death of Leo stops attempts on Ferrara.

1522 The French, defeated, evacuate Lombardy, but retain Genoa, which is pillaged by the Spaniards.

1524 The French attempt to recover Lombardy. Francis besieges Pavia.

1525 Battle of Pavia. Defeat and capture of Francis. The way for Spanish dominion is opened in Italy. The marquis of Pescara betrays the Sforza party into the hands of the emperor.

1526 Francis, liberated, treats with the pope, the Venetians, and Francesco Sforza, to deliver Italy from the Spaniards. Surrender of Sforza and Milan to the Spaniards. The constable De Bourbon leads the imperial forces to Rome.

1527 Capture and sack of Rome by the Spaniards. The pope a prisoner, escapes to Orvieto. The Florentines restore their republican government and drive Alessandro de’ Medici from the city. A French army under Lautrec enters Lombardy, conquers Pavia, Genoa, and many other cities. The duke of Ferrara seizes Modena, and the Venetians Ravenna.

1528 Andrea Doria drives the French from Genoa, and re-establishes the republic.

1529 Treaty of Barcelona between Charles and the pope, restoring the Medici to Florence. Peace of Cambray between Francis and Charles, in which France relinquishes all claims on Italy to Spain. Francesco Sforza and the duke of Ferrara submit to Charles. Venice gives up Ravenna and Cervia to the pope. The republics of Lucca, Genoa, and Siena make themselves dependent on Charles. The marquis of Montferrat and the duke of Savoy join the Spanish party and the former is made duke.

1530 Charles crowned king of Italy and emperor at Bologna. Fall of Florence before the imperial army, after a brave defence by Francesco Ferrucci. End of the republic. Charles decides the papal claims on Ferrara in favour of Alfonso d’Este.

1531 Return of Alessandro de’ Medici to Florence with title of duke of Cività di Penne, obtained from the emperor. The pope relinquishes Modena to Alfonso and makes him duke of Ferrara.

1535 On death of Francesco Sforza, Charles takes possession of the duchy of Milan and makes his son Philip governor. For this act France again attempts to gain a foothold in Italy and sends an army into Savoy.

1536 Capture of Turin by the French. Sack and burning of Nice. Montferrat is given to the duke of Mantua.

1537 Assassination of Alessandro de’ Medici. Cosmo of the younger branch is made duke.

1538 League of Genoa and Venice against the Turks. Andrea Doria breaks the alliance and is defeated by the Algerine corsair Barbarossa.

1540 Peace between Venice and the Turks; all the former’s possessions in the Morea are given up. Paul III forms the Society of Jesus.

1545 Pope Paul III makes Parma and Piacenza into a duchy for his son Pier Luigi Farnese.

1546 Cosmo thwarts the plot of Francesco Burlamacchi of Lucca to restore the liberty of the Tuscan republics. Burlamacchi executed at Milan.

1547 Gian Luigi de’ Fieschi, with the aid of the French, forms a conspiracy to throw off the yoke of the Spaniards and Andrea Doria. Genoa is seized, but Fieschi is drowned and the Doria remain in control. The duke of Parma is assassinated. The imperial troops seize Piacenza; the pope seizes Parma.

1552 Pope Julius III gives Parma back to Pier Luigi’s son, Ottavio. The Sienese drive out the Spanish garrison and admit a French one.

1553 The French, aided by the Turks, capture a portion of Corsica from the Genoese, most of which Andrea Doria recovers the following year.

1554 Cosmo de’ Medici makes a sudden attack on Siena. The marquis of Marignano undertakes to reduce the city.

1555 Surrender of Siena after a siege of fifteen months. The Spaniards take possession. Pope Paul IV induces Henry II of France to break his treaty of peace with Spain. The duke of Alva invades the papal states. The duke of Guise and the pope oppose him.

1557 The duke of Alva forces the French to retreat. The pope makes peace with the Spaniards. Philip gives Cosmo full sovereignty over Siena.

1559 The French-Spanish war terminated by the peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. It leaves the king of Spain undisputed lord of Italy. Savoy and Piedmont (except a few towns) are restored to Emmanuel Philibert. The only remaining republics are Venice, Genoa, Lucca, and San Marino. Venice alone is of any importance.

1562 Turin and four other towns are restored by the French to Emmanuel Philibert. He transfers his capital to Turin, and his house becomes thoroughly Italian.

1569 Pope Pius V makes Cosmo de’ Medici grand duke of Tuscany. The emperor protests.

1570 The Turks take Cyprus from the Venetians.

1571 The combined fleets of Venice, Spain, the pope, and the knights of Malta, defeat the Turks in the Gulf of Lepanto. This victory delivers Italy from the infidel, but the allies do not follow it up.

1573 Venice is forced to make peace with the Turks. She gives up Cyprus and pays a large tribute.

1575 The emperor acknowledges the title of grand duke of Tuscany.

1576 Great devastation made by the plague in Italy.

1578 Failure of a conspiracy at Florence against the grand duke of Tuscany.

1580 Charles Emmanuel succeeds his father as duke of Savoy.

1582 Charles Emmanuel fails in an attempt to capture Genoa.

1586 Death of Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma. His son Alessandro succeeds.

1588 The duke of Savoy taking advantage of Francis’ distracted condition, conquers Saluzzo.

1589 The duke of Savoy invades Provence.

1590 The French drive Charles Emmanuel from Provence.

1597 Death of Alfonso d’Este, duke of Ferrara. Pope Clement VIII claims his dominions (Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio) from his kinsman and heir, Cesare d’Este. France sides with the pope, and Spain with the duke.

1598 Cesare gives up Ferrara to the pope and retires to Modena and Reggio, where he rules as duke.

1600 Henry IV of France proceeds against the duke of Savoy.

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1601 Peace of Lyons between Henry IV and Charles Emmanuel. The latter is allowed to keep Saluzzo, but gives up Bresse, Bugey, and the Pays de Gex, his possessions in Burgundy.

1606 Pope Paul V attempts to compel Venice to acknowledge his ecclesiastical supremacy. Hitherto the Venetians have recognised no chief above their own patriarch. They prepare for war with the pope. Henry IV mediates. The Venetians in a veiled manner admit the papal supremacy, but refuse to readmit the Jesuits, and the pope removes the interdiction.

1613 On the death of Francesco, the duke of Mantua and Montferrat, his brother Ferdinand succeeds. Charles Emmanuel invades Montferrat on behalf of his daughter, the late duke’s widow. Philip III of Spain orders him to evacuate the duchy and the duke of Savoy goes to war with Spain.

1615 The Spanish governor of Milan attacks Charles Emmanuel. Venice and the imperial party come to hostilities over the piracies of the Uscochi, subjects of the empire.

1617 Venice makes alliance with the Dutch.

1618 Conspiracy of Don Pedro de Toledo, governor of Milan, the duke of Osuna, and the marquis of Bedmar to destroy Venice. It is betrayed to the Council of Ten and thwarted.

1620 The Catholics in the Grisons revolt against the Protestant government. Philip III sends the governor of Milan to help the Catholics. He occupies the Valtelline.

1624 France, Savoy, and Venice unite against Spain in the war in the Grisons.

1625 The duke of Savoy and a French army make an attempt to capture Genoa. The Germans and Spaniards invade Savoy and the duke is obliged to abandon the siege.

1626 On the death of the last of the Della Rovere family the duchy of Urbino is annexed to the papal states.

1627 On the death of the duke of Mantua, Charles Emmanuel again seizes Montferrat.

1628 France and Venice oppose the duke of Savoy. Spain and Austria assist him. The Spaniards seize Casale. Plot of Vachero and others in Genoa to place the city under the protection of Charles Emmanuel. It is discovered and its leader executed.

1629 Treaty of Susa between France and Savoy. Spain and the emperor refuse to ratify it.

1630 Death of Charles Emmanuel, succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus I. The imperial army seizes Mantua.

1631 The Montferrat question settled by the treaty of Cherasco. Mantua and Montferrat are given to Charles, duke of Nevers. Savoy gets a small portion of Montferrat and Pinerolo is ceded to France.

1637 On death of Victor Amadeus a contest over the regency for his young son, Charles Emmanuel II, begins.

1639 Capture of Turin by Prince Thomas of Savoy in the contest for the regency.

1642 The duke’s mother Christina obtains the regency of Savoy under the protection of France. This leads to the implication of Italy in the wars of Louis XIII with Germany and Spain. Civil war breaks out in Italy. The ducal families take the side of Spain.

1645 War breaks out between Venice and the Turks. The latter seize a portion of Candia.

1651 The Venetians win a great naval victory from the Turks near Scio.

1655 The Spaniards besiege Reggio without success. Prince Thomas of Savoy and the duke of Modena with a French army fail in an attempt to capture Pavia. Naval victory of the Venetians over the Turks in the Dardanelles.

1656 Continued naval victories of the Venetians; they hire mercenaries from the pope, and admit the Jesuits into their city.

1659 The wars of Louis XIV and Spain ended by the treaty of the Pyrenees. France retains possession of Pinerolo.

1669 After a long siege the Turks take Candia from the Venetians. Crete is lost.

1670 After a long reign Ferdinand II, grand duke of Tuscany, dies, succeeded by his son Cosmo III.

1675 Death of Charles Emmanuel II of Savoy. Victor Amadeus II succeeds.

1684 The French fleet bombards Genoa, whose citizens have refused to allow Louis XIV to establish a depot at Savona. Venice, encouraged by Sobieski’s victories over the Turks, leagues with the emperor and the Poles against them.

1685 The doge of Genoa and four senators go to Paris to apologise and make terms with Louis XIV. The Venetians under Francesco Morosini take many towns in the Morea from the Turks.

1686 The duke of Savoy forbids all religions but the Catholic to exist in Savoy.

1687 The Venetians complete the conquest of the Morea. They seize Lepanto, Corinth, and Athens.

1690 Toleration of the Protestants is restored in Savoy, which joins the league against France. The French take Saluzzo and other territory from Savoy.

1691 The progress of the French in Savoy is stopped by a German army. Continued success of the Venetians in Greece.

1694 Siege of Casale by the duke of Savoy.

1695 The war with the Turks begins to turn against the Venetians.

1696 The duke of Savoy makes peace with France, which gives up Pinerolo to him.

1699 Treaty of Karlowitz between Venice and the Turks. The former is confirmed in her conquests in Greece.

THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

1701 The war of the Spanish Succession is begun in Italy. Tuscany and Mantua side with the French. Prince Eugene of Savoy defeats the French army.

1702 Prince Eugene captures Cremona and besieges Mantua. The duke of Vendôme drives him off. Victory of the French and Spaniards at Santa Vittoria.

1704 The duke of Savoy goes over to the Austrian side. The French are supreme in Savoy and Modena.

1706 Battle of Turin and great defeat of the French, who lose all their conquests in Italy. The duke of Savoy recovers his possessions and obtains Montferrat. Charles III is proclaimed king of Spain.

1708 The emperor Joseph I claims the duchy of Mantua on the death of the last duke. The pope attempts to resist, but is overcome and submits to Joseph’s claim.

1713 The Peace of Utrecht. For his services in the war of the Spanish Succession, =Victor Amadeus II= receives Sicily with the title of king and is crowned at Palermo. The emperor Charles receives Milan, Mantua, Sardinia, and Naples. Italy passes from the power of Spain to that of Austria.

1714 The pope lays claim to Sicily and issues a bull against Victor Amadeus, who ignores it. Philip V marries Elizabeth Farnese, which makes him heir to Parma and Piacenza, and a claimant of Tuscany.

1715 The Turks go to war with the Venetians and reconquer the Morea.

1716 The emperor assists the Venetians. Prince Eugene captures Temesvar. The combined fleet captures Santa Maura.

1717 In the dispute with Austria over the succession to the grand duchy of Tuscany, Philip V of Spain unexpectedly conquers Sardinia. The allied armies make headway against the Turks.

1718 The Quadruple Alliance--Great Britain, France, Austria, and the Netherlands--formed against Philip, to take Lombardy from him. War with the Turks ended by the Peace of Passarowitz. Venice gives up the struggle against the infidels after five hundred years. She is now in full decline and takes no part in the eighteenth-century wars. The Spaniards invade Sicily.

1719 The Spaniards defeated and driven off from Messina. They leave the island.

1720 Philip agrees to the terms of the Quadruple Alliance. For his adherence to Philip, Victor Amadeus is compelled to exchange Sicily for Sardinia, and his realm is henceforth called the kingdom of Sardinia. Sicily is reunited to Naples.

1723 Gian Gastone succeeds to the grand duchy of Tuscany.

1730 Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son, =Charles Emmanuel III=. The Corsicans revolt against the Genoese to rid themselves of tyranny.

1731 Death of the last duke of Parma. Don Charles of Spain succeeds. Victor Amadeus attempts to regain his crown, but is defeated by Charles Emmanuel and imprisoned in the castle of Rimini, where he dies in 1732. Charles Emmanuel destroys all temporal power of the pope in his realm.

1733 The war of the Polish Succession begins. France makes alliance with Spain and Sardinia. They plan to drive the Austrians from Italy; to establish Don Charles on the throne of the Two Sicilies and in the duchies; and to give Milan to Charles Emmanuel. The latter seizes Milan.

1734 Victory of Charles Emmanuel at Guastalla.

1735 Don Charles goes to Sicily and is crowned king.

1737 Death of Gian Gastone, grand duke of Tuscany, the last of the Medici.

1738 The Treaty of Vienna settles the disputes of the war of the Polish Succession. Duke Francis of Lorraine receives Tuscany. Parma and Piacenza are given to Austria, which keeps Milan and Mantua. Don Charles acknowledged king of the Two Sicilies. Charles Emmanuel acquires Novara, and Tortona is separated from Milan.

1740 War of the Austrian Succession begins. The Bourbon houses of Spain, France, and the Sicilies oppose the Habsburg-Lorraine party in the succession of Maria Theresa.

1741 Charles Emmanuel joins the Habsburg cause.

1742 The king of Sardinia attacks Reggio and Modena. The Spanish army invades Savoy, but is driven back.

1743 The Sardinians defeated by the French and Spaniards, who seize Parma and Milan. Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor, sends an Austrian army against them.

1745 Defeat of the French and Spaniards by the king of Sardinia and the Austrians at Piacenza. The Genoese compelled to admit the Austrians into the city, but they afterwards expel them.

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the war, and redivides Italy. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla are made into a duchy for Don Philip, brother of Charles III of the Two Sicilies. The Austrians keep Milan and Tuscany. Venice, Lucca, and San Marino remain free, so does Genoa, but, with the duchy of Modena, it is placed under the protection of France. Until the French Revolution Italy ceases to be a matter of dispute between the European nations.

1755 Pasquale Paoli takes command of the Corsicans in their continued struggle to free themselves from Genoa. He plans to establish a republic in the island.

1765 Death of the emperor Francis. Tuscany, which, since his assumption of the emperorship, has been practically an Austrian province, is given to his son Leopold and becomes a separate state once more.

1768 Genoa, wearied of the struggle with Corsica, cedes it to France.

1773 Death of Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, succeeded by his son, =Victor Amadeus III=.

1790 Leopold, succeeding to the empire, makes his son, Ferdinand III, grand duke of Tuscany.

1792 The French army captures Savoy and Nice and makes them part of the republic.

1793 Victor Amadeus joins the alliance against France.

1796 The French army under Napoleon Bonaparte crosses the Alps. Victor Amadeus surrenders his claim to Savoy and Nice, and gives up Alessandria and Tortona after Bonaparte’s many victories. The French invade the Austrian dominions and enter Milan. Bonaparte enters Bologna and founds the Cispadane Republic, with Bologna as capital. Death of Victor Amadeus, succeeded by his son, =Charles Emmanuel IV=. Defeat of the Austrians at Arcola.

1797 Defeat of the Austrians at Rivoli completes conquest of Lombardy. Mantua surrenders to Bonaparte. He declares war on Venice and enters the city. Revolt against the republican party in Genoa; Bonaparte interferes and establishes the Ligurian Republic. He forms Lombardy, Parma, Modena, the papal state of Bologna, Ferrara, Romagna, and part of Venice into the Cisalpine Republic, with capital at Milan. Treaty of Campo-Formio recognises the new republics and gives the remainder of Venice to Austria.

1798 The French army enters Rome and forms the Tiberine Republic. Pope Pius VI sent a captive to France. The French take Piedmont and Charles Emmanuel retires to Sardinia.

1799 The French garrison gives up Rome to the English. The French directory declares war against Austria and Tuscany. The allies under Kay and Suvarroff defeat the French many times in northern Italy. Milan is taken. The Austrians take Ancona and Coni.

1800 Bonaparte recovers his lost possessions in Italy. Battle of Marengo. Genoa and Tuscany given up to Bonaparte.

THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

1801 Bonaparte deposes Ferdinand III; makes Tuscany into the kingdom of Etruria, and gives it to =Louis=, son of the duke of Parma.

1802 The Cisalpine becomes the Italian Republic and Bonaparte is president. Piedmont annexed to France. Charles Emmanuel abdicates in favour of his brother =Victor Emmanuel I=.

1803 Death of Louis of Etruria. His wife, Maria Louisa, rules as regent for his young son, =Charles Louis=.

1805 The emperor =Napoleon= makes the Italian Republic into a kingdom and is crowned king; Eugène Beauharnais viceroy. The Ligurian Republic is annexed to France. Lucca is made a principality, and with the kingdom of Etruria given to Elisa Bonaparte.

1806 By the conditions of the Peace of Pressburg the Venetian possessions of Austria are added to the kingdom of Italy. Pauline Bonaparte cedes Guastalla to the kingdom.

1807 Elisa Bonaparte cedes Etruria to the kingdom of Italy.

1809 Napoleon seizes the papal states and occupies Rome. He is excommunicated by the pope.

1810 The papal states are added to the French Empire.

1814 The English capture Genoa. The pope returns to Rome by Napoleon’s permission. Fall of Napoleon. Genoa, instigated by England, makes a vain attempt to restore the Ligurian Republic.

1815 By the Treaty of Paris and Congress of Vienna, Victor Emmanuel I receives back the kingdom of Sardinia with the addition of Genoa. Venice and Milan are formed into the Lombardo-Venetian province of Austria. Lucca is given to the Parmesan Bourbons who are to recover Parma and Piacenza at the death of Maria Louisa, Napoleon’s wife, to whom they are allotted as a duchy. Ferdinand III is restored to Tuscany, and he is to receive Lucca when the Parmesan house takes possession of its own territory. Francis IV is made duke of Modena and he is to receive Lunigiana from the grand duke of Tuscany when the latter takes possession of Lucca. The papal states are restored to Pope Pius VII. San Marino remains undisturbed, the only Italian republic. Murat drives the pope from Rome, but is defeated and escapes to Corsica. All the Italian sovereigns are in strict alliance with Austria through whose influence they hold their thrones.

1821 The people of Turin and Alessandria demand constitutional governments, and war with Austria. Rather than grant any concession Victor Emmanuel abdicates in favour of his brother =Charles Felix=. The movement is suppressed by Austria.

1824 Leopold II succeeds as grand duke of Tuscany.

1825 By Charles Felix’s order the poor in his kingdom are forbidden instruction in reading and writing.

1830 Duke Francis of Modena intrigues with the liberal party, in an attempt to obtain the succession to Sardinia.

1831 Revolt of Ciro Menotti in Modena. Francis deserts the liberals. The duke of Modena and the duchess of Parma forced to flee. Republican revolt in Romagna against the pope. He calls on Austria for aid, which is given. The duke of Modena and duchess of Parma are restored; the revolt in Romagna put down. Execution of Menotti and his companions. Disappointment of the liberals in not receiving help from France. Mazzini founds the “Young Italy” party. Death of Charles Felix and the end of the elder branch. =Charles Albert= of the Savoy-Carignano line succeeds. Mazzini calls on him to defy Austria.

1832 The French, jealous of the Austrian garrisons in the papal states, seize Ancona.

1833 Mazzini makes a raid on Savoy. It fails and he flees to England.

1837 Charles Albert issues a new code for his kingdom.

1838 The French and Austrians withdraw their garrisons from the papal states.

1844 Revolt of the Bandiera at Cosenza.

1846 Cardinal Mastai Ferretti is elected pope (Pius IX). He declares himself a liberal and begins a new policy of reform. The Austrians remonstrate.

1847 Pius forms the national guard in his states. The Austrians seize Ferrara. Charles Albert turns from the Austrian party and declares for reform and the liberation of Italy. Death of the duchess of Parma. The Bourbons return from Lucca, which is added to Tuscany.

1848 Metternich refuses to grant any of the demanded reforms in Lombardo-Venetia. Following the example of Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies, the king of Sardinia, the grand duke of Tuscany, and the pope, grant their people liberal constitutions. The revolutionary troubles in Vienna and Hungary incite Lombardo-Venetia to insurrection. The Milanese drive Marshal Radetzky and the Austrian troops out of the city. Other cities join the Milanese. The duke of Modena flees. Venice rises against the Austrians. They leave the city, and a provincial form of government is set up under Daniele Manin. Charles Albert declares war on Austria. Peschiera surrenders to him and he defeats Radetzky at Goito. Lombardo-Venetia votes for annexation to Sardinia. Charles Albert is badly defeated by Radetzky at Custozza and makes armistice. The Austrians re-enter Milan. All the provinces except Venice return to Austrian rule. Insurrection in Rome. Assassination of the pope’s minister, Count Rossi. Pius flees to Gaeta.

1849 Revolt in Tuscany; the grand duke flees to Gaeta and a provincial government is set up in Florence. A republic is declared in Rome with Mazzini at the head. Gioberti retires and Rattazzi assumes the leadership of the democratic party in Piedmont. The war with Austria is renewed and Charles Albert is completely defeated by Radetzky at Novara. He abdicates in favour of his son =Victor Emmanuel II=. Genoa attempts to restore the republic, but the revolt is put down. The French, jealous of Austria’s power, send an army to restore the pope. Rome is defended by Garibaldi, but is forced to capitulate. The French garrison the city and declare for the papal government. The Florentines recall Leopold, and the duke of Modena returns. Venice surrenders to the Austrians. Treaty of peace between Sardinia and Austria. Italy’s struggle for liberty is crushed.

1850 The pope returns to Rome. His policy is now entirely against reform. The Siccardi law, abolishing ecclesiastical courts and privileges, passed in Piedmont. Reform progresses quickly under Victor Emmanuel.

1853 Count d’Azeglio resigns office of chief minister in Piedmont; succeeded by Count Cavour, who allies himself with Rattazzi and the democratic party. He begins his work for the unification of Italy.

1855 Sardinia makes alliance with England and France against Russia. A Sardinian army is sent to the Crimea.

1856 At Congress of Paris, Cavour lays the grievances of Italy before the European powers and obtains assurance of Napoleon III’s assistance.

1858 Cavour meets Napoleon at Plombières and arranges for a Franco-Italian war against Austria.

1859 Austria demands disarmament of Sardinia. France and Sardinia declare war. Napoleon declares he will free Italy. Romagna frees itself from the pope. A revolt in Tuscany causes the grand duke to flee. Battle of Magenta forces the Austrians out of Lombardy. Great victory of the allies at Solferino. Peace of Villafranca. Austria gives up western Lombardy to Sardinia. The exiled dukes are to be restored. Fear of Prussia deters Napoleon from carrying out his high purpose, and he simply agrees to an Italian confederation of which Austria, as ruler of Venice, will be a member. Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna, object to the confederation and ask for annexation to Sardinia, which decides Victor Emmanuel not to agree to Napoleon’s plan.

1860 Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and Romagna vote to become subject to Sardinia. Napoleon agrees to this in return for the cession of Savoy and Nice to France. Garibaldi liberates southern Italy. The people of the Two Sicilies vote for annexation to Sardinia. Umbria and the Marches also annexed. Only Rome and Venice remain to be liberated.

1861 First Italian parliament at Turin. Victor Emmanuel declared king of Italy. Death of Cavour.

1862 Garibaldi invades Sicily with a volunteer army. Owing to objections from France, the Italian ministry is forced to oppose him. He is defeated and wounded at Aspromonte.

1864 The September convention. Napoleon agrees to a gradual withdrawal of the French troops from Rome. Victor Emmanuel promises not to attack the pope’s territory. Florence is made the capital of Italy.

1866 The Prusso-Austrian war breaks out. Alliance of Italy and Prussia. The Italian army is defeated several times, but after the Prussian victory of Königgrätz (Sadowa) Austria cedes Venice to France. Treaty of Vienna. Venice with the Quadrilateral of fortresses (Verona, Legnago, Peschiera, and Mantua) is given to Italy. Austria keeps the Istrian and Dalmatian provinces. The withdrawal of the French troops from Rome is completed.

1867 Mazzini urges the Italian people to seize Rome. Garibaldi makes the attempt. He defeats the papal troops at Monte Rotondo. Victor Emmanuel pleads to have his agreement to the September convention respected. The French regarrison Rome. Garibaldi surrenders to the French and papal forces at Mentana, and is arrested by the Italian government.

1870 The French leave Rome at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. Mazzini incites the republicans to seize Rome. He is arrested and imprisoned at Gaeta. The fall of Napoleon III releases Victor Emmanuel from the agreement of the September convention and he enters Rome. The pope appeals in vain to the king of Prussia and retires to the Vatican. The papal territories are annexed, and the unity of Italy is complete.

1871 The capital of Italy transferred to Rome.

1874 The Jesuits are ordered to leave Italy. Garibaldi enters the chamber of deputies and takes the oath of allegiance.

1878 Death of Victor Emmanuel, succeeded by his son =Humbert=.

1882 Death of Garibaldi.

1885 Italy assumes the government of Massowah.

1887 Formation of the “Triple Alliance” between Italy, Germany, and Austria. War begins in Massowah.

1888 Italy annexes Massowah. War with the Abyssinians begins.

1891 Treaty with Great Britain concerning the boundaries of territories in East Africa. Renewal of the Triple Alliance. Commercial treaty with Austria and Germany. Dispute with the United States over the massacre of eleven Italian prisoners at New Orleans.

1892 Indemnity paid by the United States. Diplomatic relations renewed.

1893 The Aigues-Mortes riots. The bank scandals.

1895 Treaty with France respecting Tunis. Disastrous defeat of the Italians at Adowa in Abyssinia. Treaty of peace with Abyssinia recognising independence of Ethiopia.

1898 Bread riots in many places owing to rise of prices. An Italian fleet attempts to enforce payment of the award to Signor Cerruti for robbery and imprisonment by Colombia. The matter is peacefully adjusted.

1900 Assassination of Humbert. His son =Victor Emmanuel III= succeeds.

1903 Italy allied with England and Germany to enforce payment of debt by Venezuela. The matter is settled by arbitration. Death of pope Leo XIII; cardinal Sarto succeeds as Pius X.

THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES

The Hohenstaufens (1198-1266 A.D.)

1198 =Frederick II=, son of the emperor Henry VI who has conquered Sicily from the Normans, crowned king of Sicily (Frederick I of Sicily) with his mother Constanza as regent. Death of Constanza. Pope Innocent III assumes the guardianship of Frederick, aged four.

1200 Innocent sends an army to Sicily which defeats Markwald, who has claimed the guardianship of Frederick.

1201 Markwald, regent of Sicily. He dies and is succeeded by Capparone. Sicily continues to be the prey of rebellious nobles and adventurers.

1208 Frederick takes up the reins of government.

1210 The emperor Otto IV threatens to invade Sicily, which he claims as part of the empire.

1211 Innocent excommunicates Otto and offers the crown of Germany to Frederick.

1212 Frederick leaves Sicily to dispute the German crown with Otto. He is crowned king of Germany at Mainz. Civil disorders recommence in Sicily.

1215 Innocent crowns Frederick king of Germany at Aachen.

1220 Frederick crowned emperor at Rome. He returns to Sicily and transfers a large colony of Saracens from the mountains to Nocera.

1231 Frederick has a compilation made of the Norman laws and ordinances.

1233 Frederick revisits Sicily to quell the republican pretensions of the eastern cities.

1243 Saracen revolt in the mountainous districts.

1250 At Frederick’s death the crown passes to his son, =Conrad= king of the Romans. In Conrad’s absence his natural brother Manfred is regent.

1251 Innocent IV, in his attempts to further the cause of William of Holland, excommunicates Conrad, and incites rebellions in Sicily and southern Italy. Manfred puts them down.

1252 Innocent rejects offers of peace from Conrad, who then attacks the pope. Capua is captured and Naples besieged.

1253 Surrender of Naples to Conrad. Innocent offers Richard, earl of Cornwall, the crown of Sicily, but he declines it.

1254 Death of Conrad; his son =Conradin=, two years of age, succeeds him. Manfred retains the regency. He opposes the papal forces which have advanced into Apulia, and defeats them at Foggia. Manfred takes Nocera.

1255 The citizens of Messina expel the papal governor. The legate, having lost a large convoy, agrees to peace with Manfred. Pope Alexander IV, who has offered the crown of Sicily to Prince Edmund of England, refuses to ratify the peace. The English parliament will not vote funds to enable Edmund to take the Sicilian throne.

1256 Manfred drives the papal authorities from Sicily and makes himself supreme there.

1258 On false rumour of Conradin’s death =Manfred= is crowned at Palermo. He assumes the leadership of the Ghibellines in Italy.

1259 Alexander IV excommunicates Manfred.

1260 Manfred sends aid to the exiled Ghibellines of Florence, enabling them to win the battle of Montaperti.

1263 Pope Urban IV offers Sicily and Apulia to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX of France.

1264 The pope proclaims a crusade against Manfred.

1265 Charles of Anjou is crowned king of Sicily at Rome by the pope. With an army of crusaders he proceeds against Manfred.

The House of Anjou (1266-1282 A.D.)

1266 Defeat and death of Manfred at battle of Benevento. =Charles I= acknowledged king. He enters Naples in triumph. The seat of government is transferred from Palermo to Naples. Charles at once makes himself unpopular by his oppression.

1267 The pope makes Charles ruler of Tuscany and the citizens of Florence offer him the signoria for ten years. The Ghibellines induce Conradin to enter Italy and proceed against Charles.

1268 Defeat and capture of Conradin at the battle of Tagliacozzo. Conradin beheaded at Naples. This disaster crushes the hopes of the Ghibellines in Italy. Louis IX and Pope Clement IV protest against Charles’ cruelties.

1269 Charles captures Nocera and scatters the Saracen population.

1270 Charles joins Louis IX at Tunis in the last crusade. After death of Louis, Charles makes treaty with the ruler of Tunis and exacts tribute. The French and Genoese fleets, returning, are wrecked on the coast of Sicily. Charles seizes the ships and plunders them for his own benefit.

1274 The Genoese, who have united with the citizens of other Italian cities to resist the cruelties of Charles, defeat his fleet.

1275 Pedro of Aragon, husband of Manfred’s daughter Constanza, begins his attempt to gain the Sicilian throne.

1277 Charles assumes the government of the principality of Achaia. He plans to attack the Eastern Empire, but the pope forbids him to do so.

1281 The agitation in Sicily against Charles incited by Pedro of Aragon and his emissary Giovanni di Procida reaches a high pitch. The Byzantine emperor Michael also contributes to it.

1282 The Sicilian Vespers. Massacre of the French in Sicily. Charles lays siege to Messina. Pedro arrives and forces him to retire to Calabria. Pedro proclaimed king of Sicily. The pope excommunicates him. The kingdom is separated.

FIRST SEPARATION OF THE KINGDOM

Naples (House of Anjou, and the Pretenders of the Second House of Anjou) (1282-1435 A.D.)

The term “kingdom of Naples” is here used merely for convenience. It was never officially employed except by Philip, son of Charles V, and later by Joseph Bonaparte and Murat. The continental portion of the Two Sicilies was always known as “Sicily on this side the Pharos,” referring to the lighthouse at Messina; the island portion was called “Sicily beyond the Pharos.” So there were often two Sicilian kingdoms and two kings of Sicily.

1283 Capture of Reggio by Pedro.

1284 Capture of Charles’ son Charles, prince of Salerno, by the Aragonese admiral Roger de Lauria, in a sea-fight off Naples. He is sent to Aragon a prisoner.

1285 Death of Charles I. His son, =Charles II=, still a prisoner, is acknowledged king at Naples.

1287 Roger of Artois, regent of Naples, attempts to recover Sicily, but Roger de Lauria destroys his fleet.

1288 Charles is liberated by the terms of a treaty between Aragon and France. He assumes the throne of Naples but resigns that of Sicily.

1289 Charles is released by the pope from his resignation of the Sicilian crown. A two years’ truce is effected between Naples and Sicily.

1292 Defeat of the Neapolitans by Roger de Lauria in Calabria.

1296 The Sicilians invade Calabria, and take Squillace and other places.

1297 The pope invests Robert duke of Calabria with Sardinia and Corsica.

1300 Siege of Messina by Robert. Disease compels him to abandon it.

1309 Death of Charles, succeeded by his son =Robert the Wise=. He assumes the government of Ferrara as viceroy of the pope.

1312 Robert, in an attempt to prevent the coronation of Henry VII, seizes the principal fortresses of Rome.

1314 The pope makes Robert senator of Rome and viceroy of Naples. Robert fails in an attempt to capture Sicily. He makes a three years’ truce.

1317 Robert’s garrison is expelled from Ferrara.

1318 Robert relieves the Ghibelline siege of Genoa and is appointed governor for ten years.

1322 Durazzo restored to the kingdom of Naples.

1325 Robert fails in an attempt to capture Palermo.

1338 Another attempt of Robert on Sicily ends in failure.

1343 Death of Robert, succeeded by his granddaughter =Joanna I=. Her husband, Andrew of Hungary, is not crowned with her. He allows his Hungarian followers to usurp all political power.

1345 Murder of Andrew of Hungary perhaps by order of Joanna. His cousin, the duke of Durazzo, incites the Neapolitans against the queen.

1347 King Louis of Hungary invades Naples to avenge his brother’s death. Joanna flees to Avignon with her lover, Louis of Tarentum, and marries him. She resigns her claims on Sicily and makes treaty with the Sicilian king, Louis.

1348 Louis of Hungary holds Naples. He has the duke of Durazzo put to death. The plague compels Louis to return to Hungary and he takes Andrew’s son with him. Avignon is sold by Joanna to the pope who gives =Louis of Tarentum= the title of king. Joanna and Louis return to Naples. Louis takes the Free Company, headed by Werner, into his employ.

1349 Werner deserts Louis for the Hungarians.

1350 Louis of Hungary again invades Naples.

1351 Peace between Joanna and Louis of Hungary, who leaves Naples.

1353 Niccolo Acciajuoli successfully invades Sicily and captures Palermo and other towns for the kingdom of Naples.

1357 Rebellion of the duke of Durazzo. Acciajuoli returns to Naples.

1358 The duke of Durazzo’s rebellion is ended by his reconciliation with the crown.

1362 Death of Louis of Naples. Joanna marries James of Majorca, but he does not assume the title of king.

1365 Death of Niccolo Acciajuoli. The king of Sicily recovers Palermo and Messina.

1372 Peace between Naples and Sicily.

1375 Death of James of Majorca.

1376 Joanna marries Otto, duke of Brunswick, who does not assume the royal title.

1378 Joanna supports Clement VII against Urban VI.

1379 Urban proclaims a crusade against Clement and Joanna. He induces Charles of Durazzo, Joanna’s heir, to attempt conquest of Naples. To thwart him Joanna adopts Louis of Anjou, and makes him her heir.

1380 Excommunication of Joanna.

1381 Conquest of Naples by =Charles (III) of Durazzo=, who takes throne and imprisons Joanna and her husband. Clement gives Joanna’s Provençal dominions to duke Louis of Anjou.

1382 Louis of Anjou as Joanna’s heir attacks Charles, who puts Joanna to death and takes Sir John Hawkwood into his service.

1384 Death of the pretender Louis I and disbandment of his army. He leaves his claim to his son, Louis II. Excommunication of Charles, who besieges the pope in Nocera.

1386 Charles, invited to take the Hungarian throne, leaves Naples to his young son =Ladislaus=, under the regency of the latter’s mother, Margaret. Charles assassinated in Hungary. The pope gives the crown of Naples to Louis of Anjou.

1387 Contests in Naples between the supporters of Ladislaus and Louis. This struggle continues for many years, wrecks the kingdom, and destroys its influence in Italy.

1388 Urban marches upon Naples with an army to subdue the factions. He is injured and his army disbands.

1389 Louis II is crowned king of Naples by the anti-pope Clement at Avignon.

1397 Ladislaus recovers some of the territory that Louis has occupied.

1399 Ladislaus recovers the city of Naples, and Louis returns to Provence.

1408 Ladislaus takes possession of Rome.

1409 The adherents of Pope Alexander V expel Ladislaus from Rome, and invite Louis of Anjou to prosecute his claim to Naples.

1410 Louis’ fleet on the way to Naples is totally defeated by the Genoese allies of Ladislaus.

1411 Excommunication of Ladislaus by Pope John XXIII. Louis defeats Ladislaus at Roccasecca, but from want of supplies is obliged to return to Provence.

1412 Ladislaus concludes a treaty of peace with John XXIII.

1413 Ladislaus again takes possession of Rome and most of the papal states.

1414 Death of Ladislaus. He is succeeded by his sister Joanna II. The Neapolitan army leaves Rome, retaining only the castle of St. Angelo.

1415 Joanna marries Jacques de Bourbon, who takes all authority from her.

1416 Joanna regains her power. Muzio Attendolo Sforza, her constable, whom Jacques has imprisoned, is liberated and his position is restored.

1417 Sforza expels Braccio from Rome. Death of Louis II. His son Louis III succeeds as pretender.

1419 Sforza recovers Spoleto from Braccio. Jacques de Bourbon returns to France.

1420 Joanna makes Alfonso of Aragon her heir. She asks his protection against Louis III, who is urged by pope Martin to seize the throne of Naples.

1422 Alfonso threatens to recognise the anti-pope, and the pope ceases his hostilities. Sforza and Braccio unite to defend Naples.

1423 Joanna quarrels with Alfonso. She annuls the adoption and substitutes Louis of Anjou in his place. War with Aragon breaks out. The Genoese go to the assistance of Naples.

1424 The Genoese take Naples for Queen Joanna. Death of Muzio Attendolo Sforza. His son Francesco succeeds to the leadership of the Neapolitan forces. Death of Braccio.

1425 Francesco Sforza leaves the Neapolitans and enters service of the duke of Milan.

1434 Death of Louis III. Joanna adopts his brother René as her heir.

1435 Death of Joanna. =René of Anjou= succeeds, but Alfonso of Aragon and Sicily claims the kingdom. The Visconti and Genoese uphold René, who is a prisoner in the hands of the duke of Burgundy.

Sicily (House of Aragon) (1282-1435 A.D.)

1282 After Pedro III of Aragon (=Pedro I= of Sicily) drives Charles of Naples out of Sicily, a parliament at Palermo chooses him king. The pope excommunicates him and his people.

1283 Pedro obliged to return to Aragon, which the pope has given to Charles of Valois. He leaves the island to his wife Constanza and his great admiral Roger de Lauria, who prosecutes the war against Charles and wins a victory off Malta.

1284 Roger de Lauria captures the son of Charles and sends him to Aragon.

1285 Death of Pedro. Aragon and Sicily are separated. Pedro’s second son =James I= receives Sicily. Roger de Lauria captures Gallipoli and Tarentum.

1287 Roger de Lauria destroys the fleet prepared by Robert of Artois, regent of Naples, for the conquest of Sicily.

1289 Siege of Gaeta by Roger de Lauria. Two years’ truce between Naples and Sicily.

1291 James returns to Aragon to succeed his brother Alfonso as king, leaving his younger brother Frederick regent in Sicily. The Sicilians seize some territory in Calabria.

1292 Roger de Lauria defeats the Neapolitans and then invades the Eastern Empire and takes Scios.

1295 James of Aragon becomes reconciled to the pope; the French claim on Aragon is annulled, and James binds himself by the treaty of Agnani to restore Sicily to the Angevins. Frederick and Constanza prepare to prevent this.

1296 =Frederick II= crowned king of Sicily. The Sicilians are excommunicated, and invade Calabria.

1297 Roger de Lauria captures Otranto. He then deserts the Sicilians and goes over to James of Aragon, who promises the pope to make war on Frederick.

1298 Roger di Flor enters Frederick’s service.

1299 James of Aragon besieges Syracuse, and the duke of Calabria invades Sicily with some success. Great victory of the Sicilians at Falconara.

1300 The duke of Calabria besieges Messina. Disease ravages his army and he is obliged to withdraw.

1302 A treaty of peace concluded between Charles II of Naples and Frederick. The latter receives title of king of Trinacria for life, and Charles has undisputed right to that of king of Sicily. Frederick is to marry Charles’ daughter. The terms of the treaty are not meant to be carried out, and Frederick resumes the title of king of Sicily.

1303 Roger di Flor forms the Catalan Grand Company out of his Sicilian mercenaries.

1313 Alliance of Frederick with the emperor Henry VII against the pope and Robert of Naples.

1314 Sicily is attacked by Robert, who agrees to a three years’ truce.

1317 Robert again attacks Sicily and makes another truce.

1325 Robert attacks Sicily for the third time, but is obliged to return to Naples after an attempt to capture Palermo.

1337 Death of Frederick. His son =Pedro II= succeeds. The kingdom sinks into obscurity.

1338 Robert fails in a fourth attack on Sicily.

1339 Robert takes the Lipari Islands from Sicily.

1342 Death of Pedro. His son =Luis= succeeds under the regency of Pedro’s brother Juan.

1354 Niccolo Acciajuoli, grand seneschal of Naples, successfully invades Sicily on behalf of Queen Joanna. He captures Palermo and other territory.

1355 Death of Luis. His younger brother =Frederick III= succeeds, and to the duchy of Athens as well.

1357 Acciajuoli returns to Naples.

1365 Frederick recovers the territory seized by Acciajuoli on the latter’s death.

1372 Treaty of peace between Naples and Sicily.

1376 Death of Frederick, succeeded by his daughter =Maria= and her husband =Martin I=, son of Martin of Aragon.

1386 Nerio Acciajuoli, governor of Corinth, seizes the duchy of Athens.

1402 Death of Maria; Martin sole sovereign.

1409 Martin goes to Sardinia for his father to quell an insurrection. He dies. His father =Martin II= succeeds. Sicily is united to Aragon with Martin I’s second wife Blanche of Navarre as regent.

1410 Death of Martin, the last of his line. The thrones of Aragon and Sicily remain vacant until

1412 when the succession is decided in favour of =Ferdinand (I) the Just=, regent of Castile.

1416 Death of Ferdinand, succeeded by his son =Alfonso (I) the Magnanimous=. He is a man of cultivated tastes and great liberality.

1432 Alfonso arrives in Sicily with a fleet to force his claim to the succession of Naples. In 1420 Queen Joanna made him her heir, but in 1423 annulled the adoption.

1435 On death of Joanna, Alfonso besieges Gaeta. Naval battle of Ponza. Alfonso and his brother captured by the Genoese allies of René. They are sent as prisoners to Milan, where Alfonso pleads his cause so successfully that Filippo Maria Visconti, who fears the French influence, withdraws his support from René, releases Alfonso and recognises him as the successor to Joanna. Surrender of Gaeta to Alfonso’s brother Don Pedro.

SECOND UNION (1435-1458 A.D.)

1436 Alfonso is proclaimed king at Gaeta and other places.

1438 René is released by the duke of Burgundy and arrives at Naples to prosecute his claim.

1440 Alfonso, having taken Aversa, lays siege to Naples.

1442 Surrender of Naples to Alfonso. He is now acknowledged by the whole kingdom. René returns to Provence.

1443 Alfonso acknowledged by Pope Felix V. He attempts to wrest the March of Ancona for the pope from Francesco Sforza, and involves himself in a war with the Italian states. Florence and Venice side with Sforza.

1447 Alfonso claims the duchy of Milan on death of Filippo Maria Visconti.

1450 Alfonso makes peace with Florence and Venice.

1455 Alfonso joins the Holy League against the Turks.

1457 Alfonso goes to war with Genoa.

1458 Death of Alfonso. His natural son =Ferdinand I= receives Naples. Sicily, with Aragon and Sardinia, goes to Alfonso’s brother Juan, king of Navarre.

SECOND SEPARATION

Naples--the Bastard Line of Aragon (1458-1503 A.D.)

1459 Ferdinand’s cruelties cause the nobles to ask the help of John, governor of Genoa, and son of René of Anjou, against the king. The terms of the Peace of Lodi prevent Francesco Sforza from lending assistance.

1460 Defeat of Ferdinand on the Sarno. The pope and Sforza now send assistance.

1461 Scanderbeg, with a force of Albanians, comes to the assistance of Ferdinand.

1462 Ferdinand defeats John at Troja, and forces him to give up his attempt on Naples.

1470 Ferdinand joins the Holy League of the pope against the Turks.

1478 Ferdinand joins Sixtus IV in his war on the Florentines.

1479 Ferdinand makes peace with Lorenzo de’ Medici, which arouses the pope against him.

1480 The Turks capture Otranto. Sixtus and Ferdinand become reconciled.

1481 Otranto recovered from the Turks by a general league of Christian princes.

1485 Oppressed by taxation, the Neapolitan nobles revolt against Ferdinand.

1486 Innocent VIII takes the side of the Neapolitan nobles. They send for René II, duke of Lorraine, grandson of René of Anjou, with offers of the crown. René delays acceptance and the opportunity passes. Aragon, Milan, and Florence uphold Ferdinand. Lorenzo de’ Medici finally reconciles the nobles to Ferdinand, who breaks his promises and punishes them cruelly.

1492 Piero de’ Medici makes alliance with Ferdinand.

1493 Alarmed at this alliance, Lodovico (Il Moro) Sforza invites Charles VIII of France to invade Naples in the interests of the Angevin claim.

1494 Death of Ferdinand as he is preparing to resist the French invasion. His son =Alfonso II= succeeds. Charles enters Italy. The Neapolitan fleet is defeated off Genoa.

1495 Alfonso abdicates in favour of his son =Ferdinand II= and retires to a monastery. Charles enters Naples; Ferdinand flees. Lodovico now becomes alarmed at Charles’ progress and forms a league against him. Charles leaves Naples in charge of a viceroy and hurriedly returns to France. Ferdinand returns to Naples. Most of his kingdom returns to his allegiance.

1496 The viceroy dies and the French garrison leaves Naples. Venice seizes Brindisi and Otranto for debt. Death of Ferdinand, succeeded by his uncle =Frederick II=.

1501 Louis XII of France and Ferdinand of Spain and Sicily agree by Treaty of Granada to conquer Naples and divide it between them. The conquest is easily accomplished by the duke of Nemours and Gonsalvo de Cordova. Frederick surrenders his rights to the French king and is given the duchy of Anjou.

1502 France and Spain begin to quarrel over the partition of Naples.

1503 Ferdinand adds Naples to the kingdom of Sicily.

Sicily--the Royal Line of Aragon (1458-1503 A.D.)

1458 =Juan of Aragon=, hitherto known as king of Navarre, receives Sicily “beyond the Pharos,” as part of his dominions on death of his brother Alfonso. Henceforth it is ruled by viceroys.

1479 Death of Juan, succeeded by his son =Ferdinand the Catholic=.

1501 Treaty of Granada and conquest of Naples by Ferdinand and Louis XII.

1502 Quarrel of France and Spain over the division of Naples. The pope and Cesare Borgia side with France.

1503 Gonsalvo de Cordova wins several victories over the French, and finally utterly defeats them at Mola. The kingdoms of Sicily “on this side the Pharos” (Naples) and Sicily “beyond the Pharos” are united under Ferdinand, and the king is known as =Ferdinand III=.

THIRD UNION

The Royal Line of Spain (1503-1516 A.D.)

1504 Peace between France and Spain. Louis gives up all claim on Naples.

The Austro-Spanish Dynasty (1516-1700 A.D.)

1516 Death of Ferdinand. Succeeded by his grandson =Charles IV= (V of Germany). A revolt in Sicily is put down the following year. Sicily is used as a starting-point for the African wars.

1554 Charles gives his son Philip the title of king of Naples, on Philip’s marriage to Mary of England.

1556 Abdication of Charles V. =Philip I= (II of Spain) receives the Two Sicilies as part of his dominions. The kingdom becomes merely a Spanish province. Pope Paul IV wishes to drive the Spaniards from Naples and makes a league with Henry II of France for that purpose. Francis, duke of Guise, grandson of René II of Lorraine, plans to obtain the crown of Naples.

1557 The duke of Guise marches on Naples and lays siege to Civitella. The duke of Alva, Philip’s viceroy, defeats him, and he retreats northward. Henry II recalls him to France.

1565 The Inquisition is in full force throughout Philip’s dominions. Reformed opinions have spread rapidly in Naples.

1598 Death of Philip, succeeded by his son =Philip II= (III of Spain). The national assemblies are suppressed.

1618 Osuna, viceroy of Naples, plots with the governor of Milan and Spanish ambassador at Venice, to seize the throne of the Two Sicilies and destroy Venice. The Venetian Council of Ten frustrates the plot.

1621 Death of Philip, succeeded by his son =Philip III= (IV of Spain). The people are heavily taxed.

1647 Insurrection of Masaniello at Naples over a tax on fruit. The duke of Arcos, the viceroy, is driven into the castle of St. Elmo. Insurrection at Palermo. The duke of Arcos makes terms with the people. Assassination of Masaniello. The revolt subsides, but soon breaks out again. Don John of Austria sent to preserve order, but is forced to withdraw. The popular leader, Gennaro Annese, sends for the duke of Guise, who readily responds. But he ignores Annese, and the latter betrays Naples to Don John. Guise is sent a prisoner to Spain. Annese put to death.

1665 Death of Philip, succeeded by his young son =Charles V= (II of Spain) under the regency of his mother, Maria Anna of Austria.

1672 Rising in Messina against the oppressions of the Spanish governor. He is driven from the city.

1674 The people of Messina send to Louis XIV (whom Spain has taken sides against in the Dutch war) and proclaims him king of Sicily. Louis sends a fleet to Sicily. His troops occupy Messina.

1676 French naval victories over the Dutch allies of Spain off Stromboli, Catania, and Palermo.

1678 The Dutch war settled by the peace of Nimeguen. Louis withdraws his troops from Sicily. The Sicilians are now more oppressed than ever.

1693 Great earthquake in Sicily. Messina, Catania, and Syracuse nearly destroyed by a violent eruption of Mount Etna.

1694 Great earthquake at Naples.

1700 Death of Charles. End of the Austro-Spanish dynasty. The Two Sicilies acknowledge =Philip IV= (V of Spain) grandson of Louis XIV.

From the End of the Austro-Spanish Dynasty to the Peace of Utrecht (1700-1713 A.D.)

1701 The emperor Leopold claims the Two Sicilies for the archduke Charles. The war of the Spanish Succession begins.

1702 Philip arrives at Naples and marches northward.

1706 After the battle of Turin the French are driven out of Italy and =Charles VI= is proclaimed king of the Two Sicilies.

1708 Pope Clement XI invests Charles with the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

THIRD SEPARATION (1713-1720 A.D.)

1713 Peace of Utrecht. Charles VI (now emperor Charles VI) receives the dominions of Sicily on this side the Pharos (Naples) together with Milan and Sardinia. The island of Sicily is given to =Victor Amadeus= of Savoy with the title of king.

1717 Philip V takes Sardinia from the Austrians.

1718 Philip invades Sicily. Victor Amadeus sides with him, hoping to acquire Lombardy. Formation of the Quadruple Alliance against Philip.

1719 Philip is driven from Sicily by the allies and negotiates for peace.

FOURTH UNION (1720-1806 A.D.)

1720 Philip accepts the terms of the alliance. Victor Amadeus is compelled to exchange Sicily for Sardinia. Charles VI is once more king of the Two Sicilies, which becomes part of the German Empire.

1733 War of the Polish Succession begins. Philip V leagues with France and Sardinia to drive the Austrians from Italy. Philip’s son Don Charles, the duke of Parma and heir to Tuscany, is to receive the Two Sicilies.

The Bourbons (1734-1806 A.D.)

1734 Don Charles enters Naples and is proclaimed king. An army arrives from Spain to his assistance. Defeat of the Austrians at Bitonto and capture of Gaeta by Don Charles.

1735 Don Charles crosses to Italy. The island surrenders to him and he is crowned as =Charles VII=.

1738 The war is settled by the Treaty of Vienna. Charles VII acknowledged king of the Two Sicilies and gives up his claim to Tuscany and to Parma.

1740 Charles joins the alliance against Maria Theresa in the struggle for the Austrian succession.

1743-1748 The Two Sicilies compelled to remain neutral in the war of the Austrian Succession by the presence of a British fleet.

1759 Charles inherits the throne of Spain and resigns the Two Sicilies to his young son =Ferdinand IV=.

1767 The Jesuits are expelled from the kingdom.

1782 The Inquisition is abolished.

1796 Ferdinand makes a treaty of peace with the French Republic.

1798 The French army invades Neapolitan territory.

1799 Surrender of Naples. Ferdinand flees to Sicily. Naples is formed into the Parthenopæan Republic by the French. The English fleet under Nelson appears and assists a Calabrian army under Cardinal Ruffo to regain Naples and restore Ferdinand. Ruffo works a barbarous vengeance on the republicans.

1805 The emperor Napoleon makes a treaty of neutrality with Ferdinand. Terrible earthquake at Naples.

FOURTH SEPARATION

The Kingdom of Naples (1806-1815 A.D.)

1806 Napoleon forces Ferdinand to flee and makes his brother =Joseph Bonaparte= king of Naples. He makes many reforms and starts to suppress the brigands, who under the Bourbons have overrun the kingdom. Ferdinand remains ruler of Sicily. The French defeated by the British at Maida. Queen Caroline of Sicily organises an insurrection in Calabria.

1808 Joseph Bonaparte is transferred to the throne of Spain and =Joachim Murat= is made king of Naples. He calls himself king =Joachim Napoleon=. He takes Capri from the British.

1810 Murat attempts to invade Sicily, but is prevented by the British.

1811 The guerilla warfare against the brigands ends in their almost entire extermination. This makes Murat unpopular.

1813 Murat becomes offended at Napoleon during the Russian campaign and returns to Naples.

1814 Murat makes alliance with Austria and seizes the principality of Benevento.

1815 Murat declares his intention of restoring the unity of Italy. The Austrians proceed against him and he is totally defeated at Tolentino and escapes to France. After Waterloo he goes to Corsica and attempts to regain Naples, is taken prisoner in Calabria and executed.

The Kingdom of Sicily (1806-1815 A.D.)

1806-1815 Ferdinand continues to rule in Sicily.

FIFTH UNION

The Bourbon Dynasty (1815-1860 A.D.)

1815 Ferdinand re-established in the Two Sicilies by the Congress of Vienna. He now calls himself =Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies= and returns to his tyrannical rule.

1819 The Society of the Carbonari becomes powerful. General Pépé joins it.

1820 Sudden revolt of the Carbonari under Pépé. Ferdinand is compelled to grant a new constitution.

1821 At conference of Laibach, the great powers decide to suppress the revolutionary movement in Naples. An Austrian army invades the kingdom; Pépé is defeated and the constitutional government overthrown.

1825 Death of Ferdinand, succeeded by his son =Francis I=.

1828 An insurrection of the Carbonari is suppressed.

1830 Death of Francis. His son =Ferdinand II=, “=King Bomba=,” succeeds.

1840 Settlement with England of the dispute concerning the sulphur trade.

1844 Execution of the Bandiera in Calabria.

1848 Revolutionary outbreaks begin at Palermo. Ferdinand grants a constitutional government to his subjects. Violent outbreaks in Naples. The national guard is almost annihilated by the royal troops and the lazzaroni. The constitution is withdrawn. A Neapolitan army under General Pépé marches to the assistance of Charles Albert. Ferdinand bombards Messina to bring the people to terms, and earns the sobriquet of “King Bomba.”

1849 The French and English ambassadors attempt to mediate between Ferdinand and the people of Sicily; the latter reject the offered terms. Palermo surrenders. Ferdinand sends an army to assist Pius IX, but it is badly defeated by Garibaldi at Palestrina and Velletri. The liberal leaders arrested in Naples.

1850 The liberal leaders condemned to imprisonment for life.

1855 The allied powers--England, France, and Sardinia--protest in vain to Ferdinand against his misgovernment.

1856 England and France withdraw their ambassadors from the Two Sicilies. Milano attempts to assassinate the king.

1858 Amnesty granted to political offenders.

1859 Death of Ferdinand II, succeeded by his son =Francis II=. Diplomatic relations resumed.

1860 The foreign ambassadors petition France for reform. A revolutionary movement begins in Palermo, Messina, and Catania. Garibaldi arrives at Marsala with five thousand volunteers from Genoa and assumes title “Dictator of Sicily.” He takes Palermo and defeats the royal troops at Milazzo. All Sicily except Messina surrenders to him. Francis promises reforms. State of siege declared at Naples. Garibaldi refuses to obey Victor Emmanuel’s command to stop. He enters Messina, and the Neapolitans agree to evacuate. Francis restores the constitution of 1848. The count of Trani is proclaimed king by the army. Garibaldi crosses to Italy and defeats the royal army at Reggio and San Giovanni. Francis flees to Gaeta, and Garibaldi enters Naples, assumes the dictatorship, and institutes reforms. He defeats the royalists on the Volturno. Victor Emmanuel enters the Abruzzi. The kingdom votes for annexation to Piedmont. The Two Sicilies is annexed to the kingdom of Italy.

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