I. SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP
1. The right pertaining to citizenship, to vote for such officers as are elected by the people, is called suffrage. When that right is acquired with respect to one class of officers it always extends to the whole, from petty town or city officials, to high officers of the State and United States government—all, in short, who obtain office directly from the people.
2. The Constitution defines who shall be regarded as citizens of the United States, and all such are declared by it to be also citizens of the State in which they reside. It declares “all persons, born, or naturalized in the United States, and subject to its jurisdiction” to be citizens. Indian tribes are mostly regarded as foreign nations, and have such rights as treaties give them, but are not taxed and do not vote; therefore they are not regarded as citizens.
3. Yet suffrage does not belong to all citizens. The special regulation of the voting prerogative was not assumed by the Constitution, nor delegated to Congress, and it is generally conceded that it belongs to the State governments. The regulations in the States are not uniform, but in no State do women or minors vote. This cuts off a large part of the citizens, nearly three-fourths belonging to these classes. Minors are supposed, however, to be represented, as to their interests, by their guardians, and females by husbands or brothers. Some of the States make minor restrictions as to length of residence in the State, and require a certain amount of property to constitute a voter, and in some naturalization is not required—so that the range of the right of suffrage varies within small limits, in different States. Whatever rule is adopted by the States has been accepted as the basis of suffrage for that State by the general government, when members of Congress and President and Vice-President are voted for.
4. It seems to be a loose point in the regulations, otherwise so admirable, since it may work a considerable inequality under given circumstances; and, in some cases, might change the policy of the government. It is a question worthy of consideration whether there should not be an amendment to the Constitution establishing uniformity of suffrage in all the States. This point has caused much discussion in the State governments and various changes have been, from time to time, made in many of them. These have been, usually, in the direction of liberality—tending to enlarge the scope of suffrage. The property qualification, quite common in earlier times, is now rare. The fifteenth amendment, recently adopted, has largely increased the number of voters.
5. The experience of the Republic, thus far, has been in favor of the doctrine that it is safe to trust the people with their own interests, and that the responsibilities of self-government, when they are laid on them under the favorable circumstances that exist among us, tend to improvement instead of disorganization. Whether this will always be the case it may not be safe to assume, and a prudent regard to possibilities should not be neglected; but we should not forget that those who founded American liberty ran great risks of anarchy in the eyes of their contemporaries. We ought to be able safely to continue a policy of suffrage which they introduced with results so fortunate.
6. Education needs to be encouraged, and this has always received much attention. It is probable that but for the very liberal provision made in this respect, the fate of our government would have been very different. Many foreigners who had no early education, have been naturalized, and the colored people born in the country have been made citizens. If the remainder of the people had not been intelligent, it would no doubt have been extremely dangerous. It has led to some serious local interruptions of order and prosperity, but they have been, so far, temporary; and the general effect has been to awaken ambition for education; the children of new-made citizens have enjoyed the same facilities as others to acquire intelligence necessary to a citizen; and the right of suffrage, when extended to the ignorant and degraded has seemed to produce the general effect of destroying a dangerous class by raising them gradually to intelligence and self-respect and respect for the laws, by making them the political equals of those who are socially and intellectually far above them.
7. As we grow in numbers all influences like this take a wider range, and acquire more power, and sometimes produce different results, when they become extensive, from what was the case when more limited, from the difference of influence in modifying causes; and there has always been fear of trouble from the extension of suffrage to too many ignorant persons. It is well to be cautious; but we ought to venture as far as possible for the sake of improving and elevating all classes of our people.
8. It is also a question worthy of attention if women who own property that is taxed ought not to possess the right of suffrage. The war that made us a Nation was begun because we refused to be taxed unless we could be represented, and have a vote in the body laying the taxes. The principle appears to be precisely the same; and what we fought for then should not be denied now.
II. OUR CITIZENS OF FOREIGN BIRTH
Whatever fault we may sometimes find with the conduct of our government; however much self-seeking to the neglect of the public good there may be among officials; however many weaknesses, errors, and violations of law may call for our severest reprobation, and, in moments of depression, lead us to look gloomily and doubtfully toward the future; yet it is not to be denied that the Home of real Freedom is with us. Mismanagement is but temporary, or limited, and easily admits of remedy, with time and care; our advantages are permanent and extensive. In eighty years the population has become nearly twelve times as numerous as at the beginning of that period, and this rapid growth in numbers has been made up largely from the disposition of foreigners to make a permanent home among us. Those who are oppressed, who suffer restraint in their interests or belief, or wish for a wider career for themselves or their families—who want a free field for business enterprise, for mental and moral development, or full play for their abilities to influence their fellow men, come to us. Here they find fair opportunity for what may be lacking elsewhere. They come here by millions; the poor, by industry, become rich; the oppressed leave persecutions and galling burdens behind them; and genius finds full play for its aspirations in whatever direction its energies may be turned.
At the time of the last Census there were 5,566,546 persons in the Union, and forming part of our population, of foreign birth. A large part of these have become citizens by Naturalization. The remainder, or their descendants, if they remain here, will become citizens by that process, or by lapse of time.
After they have become familiar with our institution, ideas, and habits, they are incorporated with the body of our citizens and are a part of the Nation. The naturalized citizen may become, in time, a State officer, or member of Congress, if he can make himself acceptable to his fellow citizens; or he may possibly live to see his son President of the United States.
Congress alone has power, under the Constitution, to enact naturalization laws. Suffrage, or the right of voting, is left to the regulation of the States, within certain limits; but every citizen, made such by law of the General Government, is also a citizen of the State in which he resides, and will acquire, within such times as State regulations shall determine, the right to vote.
State laws regarding suffrage vary. Some States even admit aliens who are not citizens of the United States to the right of suffrage and to other privileges; and most require any citizen to reside a prescribed length of time in the State before he can vote. A uniform regulation in all the States would be desirable.
HOW TO BECOME A CITIZEN.
Any alien, having arrived in the United States after the age of eighteen years, may be admitted to the rights of citizenship, after a declaration, upon his part, or oath or affirmation, before the Supreme, Superior, District, or Circuit Court of, or any court of record having common law jurisdiction in, any of the United States, or of the territories thereto belonging, or before a Circuit or District Court of the United States, or the Clerk or Prothonotary of any of the aforesaid courts, two years at least before his admission, that it is his bona fide intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, State or sovereignty whatever, and particularly by name, the prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty, whereof such alien may at any time have been a citizen or subject; if such alien has borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobility in the kingdom or State from which he came, he must, moreover, expressly renounce his title or order of nobility, in the court in which his application is made, which renunciation is to be recorded in such county; and the court admitting such alien must also be satisfied that he has continuously resided in the United States for five years, at least, immediately preceding his naturalization, and also within the State or Territory wherein such court is at the time held, at least one year immediately previous to such naturalization; and that during such five years he has been of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same; the oath of at least two citizens of the United States is requisite to prove the fact of such residence; and, at the time of his application to be admitted to citizenship, he must make, upon oath or affirmation, the same declaration of renunciation and abjuration of allegiance to any foreign power, and also make oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of the United States; all of which proceedings are to be recorded by the Clerk or Prothonotary of the proper court.
If any alien, having legally filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen and taken the necessary oath or affirmation, die before he is actually naturalized, his widow and children are entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizens, upon taking the required oaths or affirmations.
Any alien arriving in the United States under the age of eighteen years, and continuously residing therein until the time of his application for citizenship, may, after reaching the age of twenty-one years, and having been a resident within the United States for five years, including the three years of his minority, be admitted a citizen, without making the formal declaration of intention required in other cases; but at the time of his admission he must make such declaration, and further satisfy the court, upon oath or affirmation, that, for the three years immediately preceding, it had been his bona fide intention to become such citizen, and in all other respects must comply with the naturalization laws of the United States.
Severe penalties for counterfeiting any evidence of citizenship, or disposing of a certificate of naturalization to any person other than the one for whom it was issued, are imposed by act of Congress.
III. ELECTIONS
1. A pure democracy is a government in which all the people who have the proper qualifications for voting personally take part—or have the right to do so—in the discussion of public measures, and enactment of the laws. This is not practicable unless the State consist of a small number of persons; and a representative democracy is substituted, in which the masses of the people exercise the voting and ruling prerogative by appointing a small number of substitutes to act in their place and represent them. This appointment of representatives is for the most part the only direct way in which the people of this country are able to take part in the government. Though the theory is that the people alone are sovereign, this is the only way in which sovereignty can exert itself. Even if present in a legislative assembly, they cannot discuss or vote unless they are Representatives, duly elected.
2. Elections, then, are of the highest importance. If a citizen would exert his sovereign authority, as one of the depositaries of power, he must take part in them. Representatives elected to make laws are expected to express the will of the majority of the people whom they represent. They are pledged, expressly or tacitly, to do so. If they disobey the will of their constituents, there is no immediate redress. They can be displaced only at the close of the term for which they were elected. There is some inconvenience and danger attending this method; though the fear of the displeasure of their constituents is usually sufficient to secure faithfulness. Where the people are numerous, (there are now more than 135,000 persons to each representative,) it becomes a matter of much interest to know what is their will. It is ascertained by the elections. The people vote for a candidate, or nominee, known to hold certain political principles. As men do not often see or think alike there is generally more than one principle, or system of views, regarding public measures, involved in every election, and therefore more than one candidate. The result of the vote shows the will of the majority. The same question generally occupies the attention of the whole country, and the elections to Congress determine the policy of the government, so far as legislation is concerned.
3. The same remarks apply to the election of the President and the members of the State governments. The choice of men for the State legislatures determines the policy and political principles of the State government, and as the majority in State legislatures appoint the Senators, the character of Congress and its measures are influenced by State elections. The choice of the President is not, in theory, made directly, since Electors are chosen, who afterwards vote for the President; but it is understood that they will vote for a certain man; and it has been so invariably their custom to do so, that the result is considered as settled by the direct vote of the people. Should the Electors do otherwise the people would be very much surprised and displeased, and those Electors would have little prospect of appointment to office again. Very few men in office are willing to seriously offend their constituents, so that practically, the people vote directly for the President and Vice-President they prefer.
4. Of all our elections none is considered of so much importance as the Presidential. These come every four years, because the Constitution provides that the term for which a President is chosen, shall be four years. Our elections, both for the general and State governments, are by ballot, instead of viva voce, (the living voice,) as in some countries.
The ballot is a small piece of paper, with the name of the candidate or candidates printed or written upon it, and then folded in such a manner as to hide them, so that no one but the voter can tell what names are on his ballot. A vote by viva voce, is when the voter, in the presence of the inspectors of the election, audibly and clearly calls out the name of the candidate for whom he votes, and thus proclaims in the hearing of all present how he votes. But the ballot enables the voter to vote secretly if he chooses to do so.
IV. RATIO OF REPRESENTATION
1. The ratio of representation simply means the ratio between the whole population of the United States, and the whole number of their Representatives in Congress; and this of course includes the ratio between the people of any individual State, and the Representatives it is entitled to; both being estimated upon the same basis, and determined by the same rule.
2. The distinctive characteristic of our government is, that it is a popular government. Its power is vested in the people. They elect their rulers, who are the servants of the people, and these rulers are expected to carry out the people’s wishes. Upon such a system, it is a matter of the first importance, to distribute this power equally among all the people, and after having fixed upon the ratio between the whole population and the whole number of Representatives; or, in other words, after having determined how many members shall compose the lower House of Congress, the next step is to apportion these members among all the States in the ratio of their population. If one State has twice the number of inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to twice the number of Representatives in Congress. If one has ten times the inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to ten times the number of Representatives, and so on; with this one exception, which is, that by a provision in the Constitution, every State, without regard to its population, is entitled to one Representative in the lower House.
3. The adjustment of this matter is all provided for in the Constitution, that is, in its general features; but it devolves upon Congress in every tenth year to re-adjust and re-apportion the Representatives among the several States, according to the population of each State as shown by the last census, which is taken every tenth year; and when the apportionment is once made, it remains the same for the next ten years, when the census is taken again, and a new apportionment is made.
4. Up to the present time (1874,) this has been done nine times. It was done the first time by the convention which formed the Constitution. That apportionment is found in the Constitution, and is as follows:
To New Hampshire, 3 Massachusetts, 8 Pennsylvania, 8 Delaware, 1 Rhode Island, 1 Connecticut, 5 New York, 6 New Jersey, 4 Maryland, 6 Virginia, 10 North Carolina, 5 South Carolina, 5 Georgia, 3
By this it will be seen that the first Congress consisted of but 65 members.
The Constitution also provided that Representatives should not exceed one to every 30,000 people. The next year after the government went into operation, (1790,) the first census was taken, and as soon as the result was known, a new apportionment was made. This was done in 1792, and was made upon the ratio of one Representative to every 33,000 of representative[4] population.
[4] The Representative population includes all free persons, white or black; to which (according to the provisions of the Constitution), three-fifths of all the slaves were to be added. But this proviso, now that slavery is abolished, has become a nullity.
5. In 1800, the second census was taken; and when Congress made the apportionment, which was done in 1803, it did not change the ratio, but left it at one Representative to every 33,000 of the representative population.
In 1810, the third census was taken, and in 1811 the ratio was fixed at one Representative for every 35,000 of the population.
In 1820, the fourth census was taken, and in 1822 Congress fixed the ratio at one Representative for every 47,000 of the population.
In 1830, the fifth census was taken, and in 1832 the ratio was fixed at one Representative to every 47,000 of the population.
In 1840, the sixth census was taken, and in 1842 Congress again declared that the ratio should be one Representative to every 70,000 of the population.
6. In 1850, the seventh census was taken, and in conformity with the law passed this year, the number of members was for the first time limited; the limit being 233; and the Secretary of the Interior was ordered to take the census returns, and divide the whole representative population by the number 233, and to make the quotient the ratio between the Representatives and the people.
7. We have never seen the result of the Secretary’s estimate, but, taking the population of 1850 and dividing it by 233, would produce a quotient of nearly 94,000; and this we take as the ratio, after the time when it was done, 1852; that is, one Representative to every 94,000 of the population.
8. The eighth census was taken in 1860, and on it an apportionment was based, which allowed one Representative for every 127,000 of the population.
In 1850 Congress adopted the principle of permanently fixing the number of members of Congress, to save the trouble of doing it as heretofore, every ten years. An act was passed limiting it to 233; but notwithstanding this limitation, it was provided that if any new State came in, it should have its member, which would add to the number. But this increase was to continue no longer than until the next apportionment, when the number was to fall back again to the old figure.
In 1862 the law was modified to make the whole number of members consist of 241 after the 3d of March, 1863. In 1870 the ninth census was taken, and in 1872 Congress decided that after March 3d, 1873, the Representatives should comprise 292 members, being one Representative for every 135,239 of the population and apportioned them among the several States as follows:
Alabama, 8 Arkansas, 4 California, 4 Connecticut, 4 Delaware, 1 Florida, 2 Georgia, 9 Mississippi, 6 Missouri, 13 Nebraska, 1 Nevada, 1 New Hampshire, 3 New Jersey, 7 New York, 33 North Carolina, 8 Ohio, 20 Illinois, 19 Indiana, 13 Iowa, 9 Kansas, 3 Kentucky, 10 Louisiana, 6 Maine, 5 Maryland, 6 Massachusetts, 11 Michigan, 9 Minnesota, 3 Oregon, 1 Pennsylvania, 27 Rhode Island, 2 South Carolina, 5 Tennessee, 10 Texas, 6 Vermont, 3 Virginia, 9 West Virginia, 3 Wisconsin, 8
9. But it must be borne in mind that Congress has the power to alter all this, and to enact that Congress shall consist of any other number of members, although it is not probable that this will be done soon.
10. The foregoing statements will show the general plan upon which the House of Representatives is constituted, and how the several States are constantly changing the number of their Representatives, and their relative power and influence in Congress. This can be readily understood by remembering the fact that new States come into the Union every few years, and that the population increases much more rapidly in the Western States than in the Eastern, and that, consequently, the West is rapidly gaining power in Congress, while the Atlantic States are losing it.
11. In the apportionment no regard is had to the Territories or to their population. In this adjustment, the States and their population only are regarded, and the number of members is all given to the States. Every Representative from a Territory is an addition to that number, but it must be remembered that a Territorial member has no right to vote on any question, but has only the right to debate; and for this reason he is not, in the fullest sense, a member, and is not counted in adjusting the number of which the House is made to consist.
V. OATHS AND BONDS
1. An oath is an appeal to God, by him who makes it, that what he has said, or what he shall say, is the truth. It is the most solemn form under which one can assert or pronounce anything. To utter a falsehood while under oath is perjury, a crime of the darkest hue. One which God has declared he will punish, and one which is made infamous, and punishable by fine and imprisonment by the laws of the land.
2. The Constitution (Art. 6, Sec. 3) requires that Senators and Representatives, and members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support the Constitution. Then in the second article, section eight, the form of the oath required of the President before he enters upon his duties, is given in these words:
“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”
3. This is all the Constitution says about oaths; but it is enough to show that no man (unless he commit perjury,) can accept office, either under the United States or any State government, unless he in good faith will support the Constitution.
But in the laws enacted by Congress, we find that not only official oaths are required; but in a great variety of other cases, men who transact business with the government are required to verify their accounts and statements with an oath. This is particularly the case with those who do business with the custom house; such as merchants, shipowners, and masters of vessels. Many oaths must be put in the form of affidavits; that is, the oath must be written and signed by the deponent, that the statements made may be preserved.
4. The form of official oaths varies according to the nature of the duties to be performed by the deponent. The oath must be taken before the officer enters upon his duties. Should he neglect or refuse to do this, his acts will be illegal, and he would make himself liable to punishment.
After the late civil war broke out, Congress for the purpose of preventing those who had voluntarily taken part in the rebellion, from holding thereafter any office under the government, passed an act requiring every one before he could accept any office, either in the civil, military, or naval departments, to take an oath in the following form:
5. “I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States, since I have been a citizen thereof; that I have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel or encouragement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have neither sought, nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions of any office whatever, under any authority or pretended authority in hostility to the United States; that I have not yielded a voluntary support to any pretended government, authority, power or Constitution, within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto. And I do further swear (or affirm) that to the best of my knowledge and ability, I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States, against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.”
So strong and comprehensive an oath as this was never before required from any officer of the government. It answers the requirements of the Constitution, and substantially comprehends all contained in any other forms heretofore used. It is at once an oath of allegiance, an oath of support of the Constitution, and an oath to discharge faithfully the duties of the office taken. This goes by the name of the TEST oath, and frequently “The Iron-clad Oath.”
6. The object of the test oath was, during the Civil War, to prevent the entrance into any office of a person who might be secretly unfriendly to the government, and use his position to the advantage of its enemies. So comprehensive and minute an oath would allow no chance of mental evasion to a conscientious person, and would lay the offender under the liability of severe punishment. It is evidently proper to bind all officers of the general and State governments under the strongest and most solemn obligation to a faithful and honest discharge of their duties.
7. Whoever receives an office in the United States, which is connected with the revenue in any way, so that public money passes through his hands, is required to give a bond as security for such money. These bonds give the government a claim on their property if the money is not accounted for according to the directions of the law. They are signed by one or more persons who must show that they have the means to pay the amount for which they become security. The amount of security required depends on the sums of money that are to pass through the hands of the official, or which is likely at any time to accumulate in his possession. The government takes all the care it can that there shall be no risk of loss of the public property, and the bond is designed to afford adequate security for all that any officer may have charge of.
8. By this means two important ends are gained. No person can get an office who has no friends and no reputation for uprightness sufficient to induce those that know him to risk their own property on his honesty and faithfulness. It was designed to be a sure means for the government of finding out who were to be trusted. If he has not property himself, so that he can secure his bondsmen to their satisfaction, he must have so high a character for integrity that they are willing to risk their money in his hands, or he cannot obtain an office. Security for public funds, and a high degree of personal worth are both expected to be gained by this requirement.
On the whole, this works very well indeed, in both respects, but there seems no security, that is quite infallible, against roguery, unless it be in the extreme care of the people, and their constant watchfulness over all the affairs of the country and all the men who represent them. It is difficult to make a house so strong that a thief cannot get into it by force or stratagem, and rogues who wish to steal from the public funds may band together and help one another to get into office and then divide what spoil they can secure; or unforeseen events may bring more money than was properly secured into an officer’s hands, or those whose duty it is to see that he disburses the funds at the right times may be careless or dishonest.
9. The only sure way is to take care that none but men of proved integrity get into office, and to take all pains to cultivate honesty in the community at large. The money lost by the government is probably much less in proportion than in the private business of the country. Great watchfulness is really exercised, and when such a case occurs it is immediately known through the whole country. Not many men are willing to run so much risk of punishment and public reprobation. Too much care, however, cannot be taken to prevent corruption in public life. It destroys the purity and soundness of character on which our institutions are founded. A republic cannot exist without a high standard of virtue.
10. Every official is required to take an oath, or make a solemn affirmation to discharge the duties of his office faithfully. Though we cannot expect to be quite secure against the trickery and insincerity of false and corrupt men, yet we have reason, on the whole, to congratulate ourselves on the general security of public property, and the watchfulness of the people over their servants in places of trust.
VI. GOVERNMENT PRISONS
1. The United States government has always endeavored to continue, as it commenced, to rule with vigor, and to preserve a wholesome respect for its own authority and the rights of all its citizens, while it has, beyond all other governments, probably, that have ever existed sought to avoid arbitrariness and severity; keeping in mind the principle lying at the foundation of its institutions that it exists, not for itself, but for the good of the people. It has assumed that the people generally would not require coercion to submit to its regulations, and has not, therefore, made that ample provision for punishment and intimidation that is usual among governments.
In confirmation of this we call attention to the fact that the general government does not own, and has never built, prisons for the confinement of offenders against its laws. Imprisonment, as the mildest form of punishment, has, indeed, very often been inflicted, more often than any other form of punishment. How does this occur when they own no prisons? The answer is that they use the prisons of the States wherever they will allow it. This arrangement between the general and State governments has been made in nearly if not all the States; the United States paying for the support of their prisoners.
2. But in case any State should refuse to make such an agreement, the United States marshal of any district where a prisoner is to be confined, is authorized to procure some building where the prisoners may be safely confined in the district where they have been tried and convicted, or where they have been arrested and are held for trial.
This is a far more economical plan than it would be for the United States to build prisons all over the country, and then to employ keepers of them. It exemplifies the friendly relations existing between the States and the general government.
VII. PROCLAMATIONS
1. A Proclamation is an official notice published by one high in authority, for the purpose of giving reliable and authoritative information to the people that something has been done, or will soon be done, which is important for them to know, that they may act, or refrain from acting according to the information contained in the proclamation. These proclamations are made known to the country through the most extensive channels of information that can be used for conveying intelligence to everybody in the Republic. In our day, and in our country, the newspapers are the best means that can be used for this purpose. But in ancient times, and before the art of printing was known, swift riders or runners were dispatched to every part of the kingdom or country over which the proclamation was to be made known. These messengers carried it with them, and proclaimed it in the ears of all the people.
2. These documents are official acts brought before the people in due form and solemnity. Sometimes they are only recommendations; at others they have all the force of organic law, or the acts of Congress.
It has, for some years, been the custom of the Executive to designate some day toward the close of the year as a day of thanksgiving, recommending the day to be observed in a religious manner. Important changes in the commercial affairs between us and some foreign country are made known by the same method.
3. A memorable proclamation was made by President Lincoln, in 1862, by which he made known to the country, and especially to the Southern States, that if they continued their war against the United States for one hundred days after its issuance, he would then, in virtue of his authority as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, liberate the slaves in all the seceded States. At the expiration of the time, which was on the first of January, 1863, he issued another proclamation, in and by which he did emancipate all the slaves in every State which had warred against the United States government.
The blockading of our ports at the commencement of the civil war, and the imposition of an embargo upon our shipping, previous to the last war with England, were both subjects which brought out proclamations from the President who then filled the Executive chair.
4. The above examples show the character of the cases which cause proclamations to be issued. In some instances they have the authority of law; in others they are merely recommendations; and in others only communicate important intelligence in regard to our public affairs at home or abroad.
VIII. COMMISSIONERS
1. As it is one purpose of this work to give a clear and complete account of the mode of conducting the affairs of the general government, we have thought it best to call attention to the class of officers named at the head of this chapter; and especially since persons acting under this title are assigned to a variety of duties, sometimes permanent and sometimes temporary. In the first place, they act as heads of bureaus in the various departments. These commissioners are permanent officials of the government, established and provided for by law; such are the commissioners of the land office, patent office, pension office, &c.
2. Another class of commissioners can hardly be considered officers, but rather temporary or special agents. In the multifarious duties devolving upon Congress, the President, and all the departments, it not unfrequently happens that it is impracticable for them to do certain things necessary to be done. The business to be transacted may be at a great distance from the capital, even in a foreign country. In these cases commissioners are appointed to do such business. They have been appointed to negotiate a peace, to make treaties of various kinds between us and other powers, and to negotiate with the Indians for the purchase of their lands. The United States courts appoint them to take bail, or to take testimony to be used on trials, and do various other things necessary in trials and proceedings before them.
3. Congress frequently appoints commissioners to obtain information, or to investigate some matter on which they expect to legislate. In all cases they must report their proceedings, either to Congress, to the President, or to the head of the department under whose instruction they act. Permanent commissioners report once a year, or oftener if required, that Congress may know the condition of affairs in their respective bureaus. Special commissioners, after they have performed the work assigned, make their report; after which their duties cease, and their commission comes to an end.
4. The lowest grade of diplomatic agents are called commissioners. We are thus represented at the present time in the Republics of Hayti and Liberia.
5. By recent acts of Congress, the powers of commissioners in some cases have been enlarged. They now examine persons charged with crimes against the laws of the United States; hold them to bail, discharge them, or commit them to prison; and do other magisterial acts, preliminary to the trial of the accused. When acting in such cases, they are clothed with some of the powers of a court.
IX. OFFICIAL REGISTER
1. Congress, in 1816, passed an act authorizing and requiring the Secretary of State, once in two years, to print and publish a book called “the official register,” in which he was ordered to register the name of every officer and agent of the government, in the civil, military and naval departments, including cadets and midshipmen, together with the compensation received by each; the names of the State and county where born; and the name of the place where employed, whether at home or abroad.
To the list of persons employed in the Navy Department, the Secretary of the Navy is required to subjoin the names, force and condition of all the ships and vessels belonging to the United States, and when and where built.
This work has been published and distributed, as the law directs, ever since the passage of the act, and is sometimes denominated “the blue book.” It is a very convenient and useful publication, as it shows in compact form the whole official force of the government in each department, together with the cost of maintaining it.
As it contains only names and dates and facts relating to persons, comparatively few would take the pains to read it, and but a small number is published. It can be found in the Congressional library at Washington, where twenty-five copies of each edition are deposited.
X. THE STARS AND STRIPES
A nation’s Flag represents its sovereignty. It is adopted by its supreme authority as a symbol or sign of itself, and wherever it waves the fact of the substantial control of that authority, at that point, is thereby asserted. If there is a struggle between two powers for control, the presence of the flag proves that the authority it represents still maintains itself, and its subjugation is declared by lowering its flag and by the substitution of another in its place.
The flag is, therefore, an expression to the eye of the condition of things; and attracts the sympathies and antipathies, the joys and sorrows, the hopes and fears of those interested in the sovereignty it represents. It is the rallying point of sentiment and of energy. The affection and reverence bestowed on our country will light up into a patriotic flame at sight of its flag. It is associated with all the heroic deeds and achievements that adorn our national history, and with the loss of all those we honored and loved who followed and fought for it, and gave their lives in its defense. Our “Star Spangled Banner” has been a thousand times baptized in blood dearer to us than our own, and the sight of it recalls all these sacrifices so cheerfully made to establish or to preserve our institutions. The flag of the United States may well call forth more enthusiastic affection, pride, and hope than any other in the world; for it symbolizes not only home, country, and associations dear to Americans, but the justice, liberty, and right of self government that are dear to all mankind. Humanity at large has a deep interest in it.
Its history is this: Soon after the Declaration of Independence the Continental Congress appointed a committee to confer with Gen. Washington and “design a suitable flag for the nation.” After the painful and depressing defeat on Long Island, the retreat through the Jerseys and across the Delaware, when everything seemed lost for the new government, Washington suddenly struck the vigorous blows at Trenton and Princeton that confounded the enemy and drove him back to Staten Island. Congress and the country were cheered with a hope and a resolution that never afterwards failed them; for in the next campaign occurred the capture of Burgoyne, followed by the treaty with France; and the close of the war in our favor was henceforth only a question of time.
In the month of May or early June, 1777, following the staggering blow Washington had given the British army in Jersey, the committee referred to above, and Washington, completed the design for a flag. This was accomplished and the first flag made at the house of a Mrs. Ross, in Arch St., Philadelphia. The house is still standing—No. 239. She had a shop where she followed the “upholder” trade, as it was then called—the same as our upholstering. One day the Commander-in-chief, Hon. Geo. Ross, a relative of hers, and certain members of Congress, called on her, with a design for a flag—thirteen red and white stripes, alternate with thirteen six pointed stars—and requested her to make the flag. She consented but suggested that the stars would be more symmetrical and more pleasing to the eye if made with five points, and folded a sheet of paper and produced the pattern by a single cut. This was approved and she finished a flag the next day. Mrs. Ross was given the position of manufacturer of flags for the government, which descended to her children.
This was the flag that led our armies to victory during the remainder of the war, waved over the crestfallen soldiers of Burgoyne and Cornwallis, and at the mast head of John Paul Jones on the English coast. In 1794 this flag was changed, though its chief features were retained. Congress then ordered that the flag should consist of fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and fifteen stars, white on a blue field. There were then fifteen States. The stars and stripes were equal, and a stripe and a star were added with the advent of each new State. This was changed in 1818, as the States increased and the flag threatened to become too large, by reducing the stripes to thirteen, representing the original Union, and the stars were made equal to the number of States. No change has since been made except to add a star whenever the union increased by the admission of a State.
“The Star Spangled Banner,” a stirring patriotic song which is to Americans what the “Marseillaise” is to the French, was composed by the author during the cannonade of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore, by the British fleet co-operating with an army which was to attack it, simultaneously with the fall of the fort, by land, Sept. 13th, 1814. The poet had gone on board the fleet under a flag of truce before the attack began, to negotiate about some prisoners, and was obliged to remain until the next day, the cannonade continuing during the night. If the fort surrendered Baltimore would be taken; and the fate of Washington, pillaged and burned a few days before, filled the people with the anxiety which is expressed by the poet, to know if the flag still waved in the morning “over the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave.” The joy of all America may be conceived when Admiral Cockrane drew off his fleet and took the British army on board, while the “Stars and Stripes” continued to float gaily on the breeze over Fort McHenry.
XI. THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES
1. The use of seals to give authority to documents, and to establish their genuineness, comes down to us from a remote antiquity. It is much easier to counterfeit a signature alone, than the impression of a seal, and when both occur on a document it is considered fairly safe to be relied on as a sign of authority.
They are usually emblematic of some event, or sentiment attaching to the history or prevailing tendency and feeling of a country. They are used on documents or papers issued by the government. Some of the Departments have a special seal for their own use, in cases where the signature of the President is not required. If it is not affixed to the proper papers they fail to become legal and have no authority.
2. The usual mode of affixing the seal formerly was by placing melted wax on the paper and pressing the seal on it giving a fac simile or perfect representation of it. As this required time and business increased with the growth of the country, Congress passed an act making it lawful to affix the seal by making the impression directly on paper.
The custody of the Great Seal is with the Secretary of State, whose duty it is to affix it to all civil commissions issued to officers of the United States appointed by the President and Senate, or by the President alone. But it is forbidden to be affixed before the President has signed it. The seal alone without the signature has no value. It is used to show the genuineness of the President’s signature.
3. The Secretary of State and all the other secretaries of the great departments, each have a seal of office which is affixed to commissions, and to other instruments emanating from their respective offices.
Several of the most important bureaus are required by law to have seals of office; for example, the Land Office and the Patent Office. When the United States gives a patent (title) to land, it must be sealed by the Land Office seal. A patent right must be issued under the seal of the Patent Office.
4. One of the most common and important uses of seals arises from the necessity people are often under to have copies of records, maps, and various other papers, the originals of which are in some of the departments at Washington, to be used as evidence in courts, where trials and other legal proceedings are pending. In order to provide for this necessity, Congress has enacted that copies of such records, maps and papers belonging to any of the government offices, under the signature of the head of such office, or of its chief clerk, with the seal affixed, shall be as competent evidence in all cases as their originals would be.
HISTORY OF THE GREAT SEAL.
1. Soon after the formal establishment of the Republic by the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were appointed a committee to prepare a seal. They employed an artist and furnished various devices; Jefferson combining them all at the request of the others. The paper still exists in the office of the Secretary of State at Washington. They reported Aug. 10th, 1776, but for some unknown reason, probably neglect, it was not acted on.
In 1779 another committee was appointed, to make a device. They reported May 10th, 1780. It was not acceptable, and was recommitted, being again reported a year afterwards, but not adopted. In 1782 a third committee was appointed, but could not satisfy Congress in their report. It was then referred to the Secretary of Congress, Charles Thomson, who procured various devices that were unsatisfactory.
After vainly striving to perfect a seal which should meet the approval of Congress, Thomson finally received from John Adams, then in London, an exceedingly simple and appropriate device, suggested by Sir John Prestwitch, a baronet of the West of England, who was a warm friend of America, and an accomplished antiquarian. It consisted of an escutcheon bearing thirteen perpendicular stripes, white and red, with the chief blue, and spangled with thirteen stars; and, to give it greater consequence, he proposed to place it on the breast of an American eagle, displayed, without supporters, as emblematic of self-reliance. It met with general approbation, in and out of Congress, and was adopted in June, 1782; so it is manifest, although the fact is not extensively known, that we are indebted for our national arms to a titled aristocrat of the country with which we were then at war. Eschewing all heraldic technicalities, it may be thus described in plain English: Thirteen perpendicular pieces, white and red; a blue field; the escutcheon on the breast of the American eagle displayed, holding in his right talon an olive-branch, and in his left a bundle of thirteen arrows, and in his beak a scroll, inscribed with the motto E Pluribus Unum. For the crest, over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a golden glory breaking through a cloud, and surrounding thirteen stars, forming a constellation of white stars on a blue field.
Reverse.—A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith, an eye in a triangle, surrounded with a glory. Over the eye, the words Annuit Cœptis—“God has favored the undertaking.” On the base of the pyramid, are the numeral Roman letters MDCCLXXVI; and underneath the motto, Novus Ordo Seculorum—“A New Series of Ages”—denoting that a new order of things had commenced in the Western hemisphere. Thus, after many fruitless efforts, for nearly six years, a very simple seal was adopted, and yet remains the arms of the United States.
XII. THE ORIGIN OF LAW
1. The origin of law varies with the character or class of the government under which it is made. Where all authority is concentrated in the hands of one man his will becomes law whenever expressed, or when expressed in some regular and formal way. More generally laws are originated, in our days, in civilized countries where there is a monarchial government, by the ruler in conjunction with representatives of the people or some classes of them. In point of fact, rulers are always obliged to regard the habits, traditions, and feelings of the people more or less, or they may be obliged by a revolution, or the intrigues of the ambitious founded on their discontent, to retire to private life. The real prominence of the people in their governments is constantly becoming greater in all civilized lands, and it seems highly probable that, before many generations have passed, all governments not founded on an acknowledgment of the Sovereignty of the People will be incapable of maintaining themselves.
2. In the United States of America the source of all authority, and the origin of all law, is in the people alone. The fact that laws are made by Representatives does not alter the principle at all. They are simply the substitutes or agents of the people. Where there are many people any other than a Representative Democracy is impossible. These are chosen from among their equals, and when their term of office has expired return to the common level. If they are ambitious of more than one term of office they must take special care not to offend the majority that first elected them.
3. The first signal exercise of the law making power by the people was in the adoption of the Constitution as the Fundamental Law. This established the character of the government, prescribed the duties and limits of the legislative and executive branches, and organized a third branch to watch over the action of the other two and keep it in harmony with the Constitution. This Instrument then became the source or foundation of all special law. It is a comprehensive statement of the will of the people, but it may be changed or enlarged in a prescribed way. It is binding on all legislators and executives. Whatever may be enacted or done by them not in accord with it is null and void; the Supreme Court being bound so to announce when the fact shall be proved before it. The Constitution is the Law of the Land. Any laws enacted by Congress, or by State Legislatures, not contrary to it, are valid and binding; but any attempt to set aside any of its provisions, or disregard its true intent, would be usurpation and a violation of the rights of the people. The term State Sovereignty can, consequently, be true only in a limited and secondary sense, this being a higher Sovereignty still.
4. The larger part of the general laws by which we are governed are made by Congress, that body having been instituted to that special end. It is composed of a popular House, or one chosen directly by the people, and one more select, chosen by the State Legislatures to represent their States as a whole. If the Legislature represents the will of the people of the State accurately, as it always does unless some change in popular opinion takes place suddenly after it has been elected, the Senators as well as Representatives will embody the views of the people in their respective States. So we see that the people are Sovereign and law really originates with them. Laws, indeed, may be made by their agents that do not suit them; but, if they cannot induce them to repeal such laws by petition, remonstrance, or otherwise, at once, by waiting a little until the terms of such members expire they can replace them by others pledged to carry out their views. Thus the general policy of the government is determined by the people at the general elections. They give the law to the law makers, and appoint the executives who will administer them in the spirit they approve. The whole matter is within their control as a point of power, and still more so from the natural deference the Representatives of the people feel toward the wishes of those on whose favor they depend. The deep indignation or contempt of their fellow men will seldom be incurred, even if they have no ambition for further electoral honors.
5. The treaties made by the President, which require to be ratified by the Senate to become binding, and the approval of the House of Representatives if money is required to carry them into effect—since only that branch can dispose of the property of the country, or originate laws for raising money—have also the force of general laws. The whole country is bound to act in conformity with their provisions. We have, then, three kinds of law, or laws from three different sources that are alike binding on the whole country: the Constitution, which is unchangeable except by vote of the Legislatures or conventions of three-fourths of the States; the laws of Congress, which may be made and repealed at their pleasure; and treaty law, which involves the consent of a foreign State, but requires the assent of the President and one or both bodies of Congress, and which may be abrogated or modified at the united pleasure of all the parties concerned in making it.
6. There is a fourth species of law more general still and more or less of which is often involved in treaties with foreign governments. This is the Law of Nations, or the principles acknowledged by all civilized nations as binding on them in their intercourse with each other. The only binding force it possesses is in the general practice of mankind, and the authority of public opinion. This is commonly effective, since all law depends really on the approval of the people for its efficacy, or at least on their silent submission if they disapprove.
7. In every State in the Union the people elect a Legislative body which makes such local laws as the people wish to be governed by, and as their special circumstances require; but they are not permitted to legislate on general questions, to make any law contrary to the Constitution, or to the laws of Congress, nor are its laws binding on any but the citizens of the State in which they are made, or such others as may be residing there. Each State has a Constitution which determines the special organization of its government, and limits and defines the powers of its different branches; but it is required to be in harmony with the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution, Legislature and officers of a State are determined by vote of its people.
8. After this examination we reach this conclusion: That there is no institution in the United States that has not been virtually established by the people, its fundamental law was adopted by them of their own free will and may be changed when they see fit; and that if all the laws, of whatever kind, that are binding on them, are not such as they prefer, they are, at least, originally responsible for them, and have in their hands the means of changing them within a reasonably short period. In fact their demand or the zeal of their Representatives for their interests usually originates whatever laws are made. The constant general prosperity of the country since the establishment of the present government, the increase of intelligence and self respect among the people, and the beneficial influence exerted by the United States on the world tend to confirm and settle its principles and laws on a permanent foundation.
XIII. THE LAW OF NATIONS
1. The laws of any nation are the rules by which it is governed, a violation of which renders the offender liable to the infliction of certain penalties. These laws, in many nations, are carefully and systematically arranged in the beginning, as in the United States; in others, as in England, they are gradually produced, the course taken in dealing with the first of a class of similar cases furnishing a precedent that is equal in force to a general law.
2. From very early times the different nations who had intercourse with each other began to follow certain rules, which commonly originated in the mode last mentioned above; and many of them became generally recognized as the proper guide in international intercourse. These customs came, at length, to be called the Law of Nations. Writers of eminence carefully investigated them, and studied the principles on which they were founded. These writers are held to be authorities as to this law, and the principles they have laid down are generally acknowledged, by civilized nations in modern times, as the standard of International Law.
3. There is no possibility, in the present state of the world, of organizing a tribunal with authority to impose penalties for violations of this law by individual nations; though it is to be hoped that may some time be the case. The only representative of such a tribunal is the general opinion of the civilized world; and nations must, themselves, act as supreme judges and executors of the law as it applies (or as they choose to hold it as applying) to their disputes. When they cannot come to an agreement with their adversaries, they commonly Declare War, and endeavor to right themselves by force.
4. This is not, by any means, an equitable or satisfactory way of avenging wrongs. The aggressor may be the strongest; and the offense, in that case, will be greatly increased. It causes the penalty, in any case, to fall very heavily on many innocent heads, and produces lamentable and wide-spread desolation. Yet it is sometimes better than tame submission; and the right to make war when grievous wrong has been suffered, or indignity offered to the national honor, is recognized by the Law of Nations; and certain rules are applied by it as a guide in honorable warfare. There is nothing but self-respect, and respect for the opinions of the civilized world, to keep belligerent nations within the limits of these rules. They are, however, continually becoming better defined, and Public Opinion has more and more weight in each succeeding generation.
5. Some of the more important features of International Law (or the Law of Nations) are, that every nation has the right to regulate her own internal affairs without interference from others, unless some of these regulations may seriously affect the interests of a foreign power; that national boundaries are to be respected; that bodies of water lying within a national territory, and the seacoast for three miles from the shore, are under its exclusive jurisdiction; and that a nation may take measures to protect its own citizens who may be traveling or doing business in other countries, unless they violate its laws; and then it may first examine the case before the accused is given up for trial and punishment to a foreign court. There are many other rules. These will serve as examples.
6. One class of these laws requires special mention, because they are often more carefully defined than most other international customs. These are Neutrality Laws. Those now in force in the United States were enacted in 1818. They are only a formal recognition by our highest legislative authority—Congress—of the Law of Nations as generally accepted by other governments. The leading regulations are, that our citizens shall not interfere, but at their own risk and peril, in contests between other nations; that no armament shall be fitted out in our territory for the purpose of making war on any power with which we are at peace; and making it unlawful for an American vessel to carry “Contraband of War” (or war material) to either of two warring nations. It forbids granting to one nation rights not allowed to the other with which it is at war. Neutrality Laws are designed to avoid causes of unfriendly feeling, and to prevent the improper interference of our citizens in the quarrels of other nations.
7. Our government believed itself wronged in the course of the recent Civil War by England. It claimed that the English government had not been at proper pains to preserve a neutral attitude; and complaint being made, the two governments agreed to appoint a Commission to examine and arbitrate the case—the decision, whatever it might be, to be accepted by both parties. This was done, at Geneva, in Switzerland; and probably prevented a war between the two countries. It is to be hoped that all national disputes may hereafter be settled in this reasonable and Christian way.
8. Treaties are international laws binding on the two or more parties making the contract; and our Foreign Representatives (as ambassadors, ministers resident, etc.) deal with International Law as arranged by treaties and the Laws of Nations.
XIV. RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO RELIGION
1. Religion has always exerted so much influence on men that it has been customary for governments to assume more or less control over it; and, as the leaders of religious systems have commonly been glad to get the support of governments, there has usually existed what is called a “Union of Church and State,” the government endorsing the views of some special religious system, and giving more or less support to its officials; sometimes, even refusing to tolerate any other; or, if tolerated, reserving its special recognition and favors, and whatever material support it chose to give to religious establishments to that termed National, alone; that church returning the favor by using its great influence with the people to support the measures of the government.
It is very distasteful to many men who differ from the views of the favored system to be required to support it, and to be frowned upon by the government if they do not feel inclined to connect themselves with it.
2. The Founders of our government were wise enough to leave the people to arrange religious questions according to their pleasure. They were not unbelievers in religion, but thought, as most of our citizens now think, that entire liberty should be left to all to act in religious matters as they felt able and inclined. All religious systems are equally tolerated—no government support is given specially to any. Some people do not approve of religious oaths (an affirmation in the name of God, or calling God to witness that what is said is true,) and from such persons a solemn affirmation or statement, answers the purposes of the law.
Although neither the Constitution, nor Congress in its laws, prescribe a religious profession of any kind, and the Constitution prohibits Congress from making laws respecting the establishment of a State religion, or interfering with the free exercise of it, and declares that “no religious test shall ever be required, as a qualification to any office or public trust, under the United States,” neither do they discourage religion. Respect is shown, in many ways, to religion. Congress usually appoints a chaplain, now of one denomination, and now of another; it allows chaplains in the army and navy, and provides them a salary; and, of late years, the President recommends a day of National thanksgiving to God once a year, for the blessings we enjoy, and sometimes proclaims a day of fasting and prayer. It shows all due respect to the religious beliefs among the people, but leaves all free to practice any form of it, or to reject them all.
3. Entire religious liberty is a rarity in the world, and is much more favorable to the purity and weighty influence of religious teachings than a State religion. Many of the colonies that afterwards became States, were founded by persons who fled from religious persecution in the countries of the Old World, and multitudes have emigrated here to secure freedom in the enjoyment of their religious views and practices, or even entire freedom to reject all religion if they could not believe in any, though that is seldom the case.
Our example has been much approved and is having much influence on other nations.
TOLERATION OF OPINIONS,
4. Is characteristic of the American Government. Liberty of the Press, or freedom to state any views a man may entertain, is as complete as liberty in religious matters. Very severe things are sometimes written and published of the government, and sometimes things that would do much harm if they were generally believed, and no notice is taken of it, unless some one sees fit to contradict it or prove it to be incorrect.
If a man injures another’s character by writing things that are false, he can be tried, and, if convicted, punished by the courts. Vile and indecent writings are prohibited; but otherwise there is entire freedom. Falsehood and error are left to be destroyed in a natural way by the truth.
This is a great gain to the truth since error has often been protected, in other countries, by government authority, on the conviction that it was the truth, to the great prejudice of truth itself.
5. Although, during the Civil War, there was some restraint put upon the freedom of publishing things that might be hurtful to the government, the instances were not very numerous, and, at the close of the war the spirit of toleration was shown in a way very creditable to our people, and very praiseworthy in our government, which left the way open to a speedier reunion of sentiment and sympathy in the sections that had fought each other so bravely.
The brave and resolute can afford to be just to each other, and to allow entire freedom of opinion to all. In this respect we have fairly earned the right to call ourselves a nation of freemen.
XV. CHAPLAINS
1. Regard to the religious habits of a large number of the people has led Congress to appoint, or permit the appointment, of chaplains to supply such religious instruction and services in the army and navy as might be felt desirable by those concerned.
Though chaplains are not properly officers of the government, they are employees of it, for they are appointed by its authority, and paid from its treasury. Those in the army receive the same pay and emoluments as a major of infantry; or this was the compensation allowed by act of Congress in 1812. But by an act of 1862, it was fixed at $100 per month, and two rations per day, for those in the army or hospitals. By the act of 1812, one chaplain was allowed to every brigade; but by an act of 1861 (during the civil war,) one for every regiment was allowed.
Navy chaplains, in 1835, received $1,200 per year. But in 1860 this was raised to a lieutenant’s pay; and this in 1862 was $1,800 per annum.
Chaplains in Congress receive $750 per annum.
2. The United States also employ a chaplain in the military academy at West Point.
From the foregoing it will be seen that in time of war, with one chaplain for every regiment, and one for every ship of war, and others in hospitals and military posts, quite a large number of clergymen are employed by the government.
This provision for the religious instruction of those who cannot, from their peculiar position, attend the preaching of the Gospel, or other religious services, is certainly an indication that our government respects religion, and looks after the spiritual as well as the temporal interests of its army and navy.
3. In the appointment of chaplains, the government pursues a liberal course. No particular preference is given to any denomination, but they are appointed from almost every religious sect, and allowed to conduct religious services after the forms of the church to which they respectively belong.
Every body knows what the duties of a chaplain are. So we need not explain them here, and will only add that a faithful chaplain in the army in time of war has much to do besides preaching and holding regular services. The wounded, the sick, and the dying, should be the particular objects of his attention. He should not only minister religious instruction and consolation to them, but look after their physical comforts. Many of these clergymen, during the late most unfortunate civil war, distinguished themselves by their exertions to promote the bodily comforts of those unfortunate men, as well as to give them religious instruction, not refusing to nurse the sick and wounded wherever they could relieve their pains or mitigate their sufferings.
XVI. COMPROMISES
1. In a large and prosperous country there are very likely to arise antagonisms of interest and sentiment which will require the strong pressure of some common and more imperative interest to overawe and reconcile by a process of mutual concession, called Compromise.
The States of the two sections—North and South—were unlike in several general respects; but it was in nothing so marked as in regard to Slavery. This system was introduced in Virginia in the same year that the Plymouth colony was founded in Massachusetts, and spread to all the colonies, in time; but never was much practiced north of Maryland. In all the Southern colonies it took deep root from the first. It formed the subject of the most difficult
COMPROMISE OF THE CONSTITUTION.
2. This compromise consisted of concessions made by each section. The North conceded the return of fugitives from their Southern masters, when escaped to the north, and an enumeration of three-fifths of the slave population in computing the representation in Congress. This was a great sacrifice for that section to make, for its people were, at heart, deeply hostile to Slavery. Both their interests and sentiments made it important to exclude it from the new States where they were likely to settle in considerable numbers. But a close and strong union of the States was a vital point with them. Commerce, trade, and manufactures, to which they were largely given, required resources and vigor in the central government, to maintain the public credit at home, and secure respect and safety abroad. The South conceded the final close of the Slave Trade at a given time (1808). Outside of the Constitution it, at the same time, conceded the “Ordinance of 1787,” by which Slavery was excluded from the territory north of the Ohio river. Thus the North and South divided the country between them.
3. This was, however, a very troublesome subject, and affected so many legislative questions as to be constantly coming up for debate. The sentiments of the Northern people grew more hostile to the institution, and the South stood on guard with growing apprehension and anger, as this state of feeling developed in the North; and, at the same time, it became evident that the more rapid growth of the northern population gave them an increasing preponderance in Congressional representation. They jealously watched over the rights of the State governments from their fear of Congressional or executive interference, and industriously sought means to extend their area and increase the number of Slave States. They were always much assisted by a large party in the north of those who cherished the Union and were fearful of its dissolution. They were ever pouring oil on the troubled waters, and mediating between the two extremes.
THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE.
4. The arrangement of the Slavery question so termed was made in 1820, and took effect as to the State of Missouri in 1821. In the five years that followed the close of the last war with England there was great activity in settlement of the unoccupied territory, and the country gave indications of the power of rapid development that has so strongly characterized it since. The South foresaw the loss of its balance of power if too many of the new States were organized as free. Missouri had included a clause in her Constitution, presented for the approval of Congress, prohibiting slavery. This clause the South demanded should be stricken out. It produced great excitement and hot discussion throughout the country, and seemed to threaten the stability of the Union. Both sections were resolute in maintaining their principle, but both appreciated the necessity of strength in the government and harmony between the sections, and each made a sacrifice for the sake of these. Missouri was required to admit slavery, and the condition was annexed that no more Slave States should be formed north of its southern line. This was a concession trying to both sides. The North became a party to the extension of Slavery, and the South gave definite limits to her power of expansion. Each, however, gained something: the South a State above the limits before virtually fixed, and the North a definite and final limit to the extension of a hated institution. This was quite generally satisfactory, and for many years set that question at rest.
5. “Mason and Dixon’s Line” was the term applied to the boundary between the Free and Slave States. This name originated in colonial times. The royal grants to colonial proprietors or companies were often very carelessly made, and those to Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland, and William Penn, the proprietor of Pennsylvania, were specially indefinite, giving rise to adverse claims that nearly produced war along the border. Commissioners were at length appointed, who employed Mason and Dixon, eminent English astronomers and surveyors, to establish the boundary, which they did satisfactorily. The importance of the question settled, and the reputation of the surveyors for scientific accuracy, attached their name to the boundary permanently. It acquired political significance afterwards, as the boundary between Maryland, the most northern of the slave States, and Pennsylvania, the most southern of the original free States. When new States were formed, with the Ohio river as a boundary from its point of departure out of Pennsylvania, that name was extended in its application to the whole dividing line between the free and slave States—south or north of Mason and Dixon’s Line meaning, in slave or free territory.
6. After some years the southern statesmen began again to feel apprehensive of a loss of their equality of power in the general government, so rapidly did the northern territories fill up. They began to look for more territory, and favored the settlement, independence, and annexation of Texas. Though long resisted, they succeeded in the election of 1844, with this annexation and a probable war with Mexico as test questions, and added not only Texas but New Mexico and California to the territory wherein slavery, by the Missouri Compromise, would be admissible.
7. Their satisfaction was not very durable. The discovery of gold in California filled it with inhabitants so soon, and these so largely from the free States, that in two years from its definite acquisition it petitioned for admission into the Union with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting Slavery. This was very exasperating to the South, and after a long and violent contest could be carried by the North only by the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law—a re-enactment of a part of the Compromise of the Constitution with provisions so vigorous and effective, could they have been enforced, as to be, in the highest degree, offensive to a considerable part of the northern people. Utah was given a Territorial government as a concession to the South, and the Slave Trade was abolished in the District of Columbia as her corresponding concession to the North. These were the four compromise measures of 1850, the result of a discussion lasting nearly a year, engendering great bitterness on both sides, and failing to satisfy either.
8. The attempt to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law proved ineffectual, in the end; the rooted aversion of the Northern people to Slavery, kept in abeyance before by less offensive compromises, being fully aroused. This produced in the Southern people a bitter indignation as showing a disposition to rebel against a constitutional provision in their favor. They procured, in 1854, the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the famous “Kansas and Nebraska Bill,” and sought to introduce Slavery into Kansas. A civil war in that Territory followed, which resulted in the triumph of the Northern party. The extinction of Slavery was now apparently but a question of time, the hostility to it in the North becoming so out-spoken and averse to Compromises acceptable to the South, that they began to look forward to separation, which they endeavored to accomplish from 1860-5. A civil war, such as only Americans could wage, was carried on during these years. The resolution, bravery, and military talents of either side were never excelled; but the resources of the North seemed inexhaustible. Her numbers, activity, and the inventive genius of her skilled artisans gave her an immense superiority. This war is a cause at once of pride and grief to every true American. In the contest Slavery, the cause of it, disappeared, the Constitution was amended, and the necessity of Compromises on this question forever ceased.
XVII. TREASON
1. This is an offense aiming at the existence of the government; and in all other governments it has ever been customary to punish it with extreme severity. Many things are considered to be of the nature of treason, and, as such, severely punished in most countries. The Constitution defines treason to be “levying war against the United States, or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort;” so that the highest or capital crime alone may be pursued with its penalties. This is another evidence of the extreme moderation of the founders of the government, which we have had occasion to notice so often in our examination.
2. An act of Congress passed April 30th, 1790, defines it in the same sense and orders that the convicted offender shall be hung.
By another act passed 17th July, 1862, it was made discretionary with the court trying the case to put the offender to death, or to imprison him for not less than five years, and to fine him for a sum not less than ten thousand dollars. The penalty for this crime, even in its mildest form, is very severe; thus showing how atrocious this offense is considered.
3. None but a person owing allegiance to the United States can commit treason against them. The same acts which would be treason in a citizen would not be treason if perpetrated by a foreigner.
“Misprision of treason” is the concealment of it by a person who knows it has been committed. This also is a grave offense, and is punishable by a seven years’ imprisonment, and a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars.
4. Any person tried for treason, must be indicted by a grand jury, and tried by a petit jury in the Circuit Court of the United States within three years after the crime has been committed; otherwise it is barred by limitation—or, in other words, outlawed.
XVIII. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES
1. Geography proper describes the general character of a country, as its rivers, bays, gulfs, plains, mountains and natural divisions. Leaving this to other works we confine ourselves to those divisions made by the government for convenience in administering its affairs.
Formerly there was a separation into North and South, by “Mason and Dixon’s Line,” between which there existed a marked difference of governmental, social, and industrial policy. The States south of that line might hold slaves, while in those north of it that institution was illegal. That difference was abolished by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, as a result of the Civil War. The next largest—and these exist now—are those made by the
CIRCUIT COURTS.
2. These often comprise several States and are changed, by act of Congress, when the convenience of the Associate Judges of the Supreme Court, who preside over them requires it. The next largest political divisions are
THE STATES.
3. These exercise sovereign powers in all matters where control has not been expressly delegated by the Constitution to the National Congress. The other political boundaries are ever liable to change, to meet the requirements of changing circumstances. These are definitely fixed, any change being very rare and unlikely after they are duly organized and admitted into the Union as States. Each of the original thirteen colonies became States, with the boundaries they had as colonies at the time of the Revolutionary War. The others received such boundaries as suited the convenience and wishes of the people when they were admitted. Their object is to prevent the centralization of too much power in the general government, and to render legislation on local affairs and interests more convenient, and more satisfactory to the people of each State. The State having the least number of inhabitants numbers between 40,000 and 50,000; the one having the largest number contains between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000. The number of the States determines the number of Senators in Congress, two being allotted to each; so that a State may be considered as a Senatorial District.
DISTRICT COURTS
4. Produce another class of political divisions. These attend to legal differences involving the laws of the general government, but of a secondary class. They are more numerous than the Circuit Courts. In some States there is but one, and some have several, according to size and population.
COLLECTION DISTRICTS.
5. Another class of districts has been formed, for the purpose of collecting the duties on imported goods. These are called “collection districts.” They extend along, and embrace the whole sea coast and the shores of navigable lakes and rivers. In a few instances they are located inland, at points where goods may be brought into the United States by land. Each collection district has a port of entry, and very often several ports of delivery; also a collector of customs, and generally a custom house.
6. Another class of collection districts was formed during the late civil war. They grew out of the war, and were established for the collection of the tax termed the “internal revenue,” which had to be levied to pay the war expenses. These districts differ entirely, both in their objects and in the territory embraced within them, from those established for the purpose of collecting duties on imports, and correspond as far as practicable with the Congressional districts in each State.
LAND DISTRICTS.
7. Land districts may also be noticed among these divisions. In every State and Territory where there are public lands for sale, after they are surveyed and mapped, they are divided into districts—two, three or four, in each State and Territory—as convenience and economy may dictate. In each district a land office is established for the sale of the lands in said district.
LIGHT HOUSE DISTRICTS.
8. Again, the whole of our sea coasts, both on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, together with the shores of the navigable lakes and rivers, are divided into twelve light house districts (or their number must not exceed that,) for the purpose of building, repairing, illuminating and superintending the light houses on all the coasts and shores wherever located. These are the principal divisions we have to notice. It is important to have a knowledge of them, for with such knowledge we can better understand how government affairs are conducted.
XIX. CHRONOLOGY OF THE U. S. FROM 1783 TO 1812
1783.
Washington’s army had lain in camp at Newburg, N. Y., since the surrender of Cornwallis. The Preliminary treaty of peace was signed Jan. 20th, at Paris; but it was not officially announced in the camp at Newburg, until April 19th; just eight years from the Battle of Lexington that commenced it!
July—Congress prepared to disband the army, and Washington to resign his commission as Commander-in-Chief.
” 21—The great difficulty Congress had to contend with was raising money to pay the troops. Congress had no authority, under the Confederation, to lay taxes or impose duties. It exhausted its own credit in the issue of paper money which soon became of little value. It made some foreign loans, and persuaded the States, which alone could lay taxes, to raise a small sum. But this did not suffice to pay the army at last. There was much suffering and discontent.
On this day a body of soldiers, in large part new recruits, who had comparatively little to complain of, without muskets, but wearing side arms, beset the doors of Congress in Philadelphia, for three hours. No violence was offered. Congress adjourned to Princeton, N. J.
Sept. 3—The final and definite Treaty of Peace between England, France, and the United States, in which the independence of the latter was acknowledged, its boundaries defined, and various matters of interest arranged to the profit of the United States, was signed at Paris.
Nov. 2—A proclamation is issued by Congress for disbanding the army.
” 25—The British troops evacuate New York, and it is occupied by American troops under Gen. Knox.
Dec. 4—Long Island and Staten Island abandoned by the British. Washington takes leave of his officers, at New York.
” 25—He resigns his commission to Congress, in a public audience, given him at Annapolis, Md., where Congress was then sitting, and goes home to Mt. Vernon.
Cæsar Rodney, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.
1784.
The want of public credit was very much felt. There was no authority sufficient to raise money to meet the interest, even, on the debt; and this produced great distress.
Nov. 1—The Continental Congress meets at Trenton, N. J. Richard Henry Lee, of Va., is chosen President.
Oct. 4—A treaty with the Six Nations, who had sided with the British during the war, was made at Ft. Schuyler (formerly Ft. Stanwix—now Utica, N. Y.).
Commerce begins to revive. Reciprocity treaties were made, and trade with eastern Asia commenced this year by a voyage to China, from New York.
1785.
Jan.—Congress adjourns to New York, where it continued to hold its sessions for some years.
Mar. 10—Thomas Jefferson appointed to fill the place of Franklin, as Minister to France; Franklin wishes to return home. He had been there nine years.
July—Commercial treaties negotiated with Prussia, Denmark, Portugal, and Tuscany.
The treaty with Prussia stipulated that, in case of war between that country and the United States, there should be no privateering.
” 13—Stephen Hopkins, of R. I., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
” 28—Wm. Whipple, of N. H., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
” ”—Treaties made with the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws.
1786.
Financial troubles were now approaching a crisis. In 1784-5 the importations from England had amounted to $30,000,000. The exportations to only $9,000,000. Paper money was depreciated so much as to be of little value. Debt oppressed government and people; want of vigorous authority was everywhere felt; and many disorders in Tennessee, Kentucky and elsewhere, begin to threaten the internal peace of the country.
June 19—Gen. Nathaniel Greene, an able commander in the Revolutionary armies, died. He manouvered against Cornwallis in North and South Carolina with great ability.
Dec. 5—Shay’s Rebellion broke out in Mass. That State wished to raise money to aid Congress in paying the interest on the federal debt. The people felt unable to pay it. They mobbed the courts but were dispersed by troops under Gen. Lincoln. Three were killed and one wounded, in an attack the insurgents made on an arsenal. There was little other fighting. Fourteen persons were tried and condemned to death but afterwards pardoned.
1787.
These and other events convinced the people that an important change in the government was necessary. It became clear that a vigorous central authority, alone, could answer the purpose. The States were nearly independent of each other; but this produced conflicts and want of harmony, which nearly ruined them all.
A congress of deputies to consider commercial questions, called by Va. had, in Sept., 1786, recommended a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation.
Feb. 2—The Continental Congress assembled, electing Gen. St. Clair, President.
” 12—Congress approves the call for a Constitutional Convention.
May 25—The convention assembled in Philadelphia, and elected Gen. Geo. Washington, President.
July 11—The Continental Congress organize the Northwest Territory—north of the Ohio river. Preparations were immediately made for settling it.
Sept. 28—The Constitution, as signed by the members of the convention, laid before Congress, which sends it to the State Legislatures for approval.
Arthur Middleton of S. C., and Thomas Stone of Md., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died, Jan. 1st and Oct. 5th, respectively.
Dec. 7—Delaware ratifies the Constitution.
” 12—Pennsylvania accepts the Constitution.
1788.
July 4—The anniversary of Independence is kept with great display, in Philadelphia, in special honor of the adoption of the new Constitution.
By the close of July nine more States had ratified the Constitution, and it went into operation.
Sept. 13—Congress selects the first Wednesday of Jan. (1789) for the appointment of Presidential electors; the first Wednesday in February for their appointment of President and Vice-President; and March 4th (the first Wednesday that month) for the new government to go into operation.
1789.
Jan. 4—Thomas Nelson, of Va., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
Feb. 13—Ethan Allen, of Revolutionary fame, died.
April 30—Washington inaugurated as first President.
May 12—A Tariff Bill for raising a revenue reported in Congress. This became a law, and went into effect Aug. 1st, 1789.
” 20—The Department of Foreign Affairs (afterwards called State Department,) organized.
The Treasury Department is next established, followed by the War Department, to which the Navy was joined for the present.
The Judiciary was then constituted. Salaries, and the rules for parliamentary procedure were determined. The Postmaster general had long been an officer of the government, and required less change than most of the others. This made a very busy session. Congress also passed a resolution to add ten amendments to the Constitution—which were submitted to the States and afterward ratified. Congress adjourned the last of September.
The democratic tone of the government, and the spirit applied to the interpretation of the Constitution by the first Congress, has generally prevailed ever since. That tone and spirit were truly republican.
Nov. 8—The President made a tour through New England.
” 13—North Carolina ratified the Constitution.
Many Indian treaties were made this year.
1790.
Jan. 8—Congress reassembled. This session was scarcely inferior in interest and importance to the first from the variety of new questions required to be settled, and the more perfect development given to former ones.
Feb. 8—Provision was made for payment of the foreign debt.
Mar. 1—An act ordering a census to be taken was passed.
” 24—A naturalization law was originated.
Apr. 15—A patent law was constructed.
” 30—Treason was defined and the penalty determined on.
May 29—The Constitution ratified by Rhode Island; making up the whole number of thirteen States.
” 31—“An act to encourage learning” secured copyrights to authors.
July 16—Three very exciting debates that had occupied much of the time of Congress, had a bearing on the location of the National Capital, which was this day permanently settled. The President was authorized to determine the site on the Potomac, and have the buildings erected so as to be ready for occupation in 1800. Agreeably to this act Maryland and Virginia ceded the District of Columbia to the United States.
Gen. Putnam, a brave Revolutionary soldier, Benjamin Franklin, of Pa., Wm. Hooper, of N. C., and Francis Hopkinson, of N. J., all except Putnam signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.
The Territory South of the Ohio was organized this year. The financial system of the country was established, the slavery question debated and settled in accordance with the compromise of the Constitution, and the State debts transferred to the United States.
Aug. 12—Congress adjourned to meet next in Philadelphia and thereafter until 1800.
” 13—A treaty with the Creek Indians solemnly ratified by Washington.
Dec. 6—The Third Session of Congress commenced. The President congratulates Congress on the improvement of the finances, and the prosperity of the country.
1791.
Feb.—The United States Bank established. It was to have a capital of $10,000,000—its charter to run twenty years.
” 4—Kentucky voted admission into the Union in the next year (Jan. 1st, 1792).
” 18—Vermont having (Jan. 20th) ratified the Constitution and asked admission into the Union, it is granted this day. The immediate prosperity that followed the adoption of the Constitution of 1787, the strength, vigor, and moderation seen to be combined in its arrangement of the government, led most of the States to remodel their State Constitutions on it, in a short time.
July—The subscription to the stock of the National Bank is all taken in a few hours after the books are opened.
Aug.—Great Britain first sends a minister to the United States Government.
Sep. 17—An expedition of 2,000 troops, under Gen. St. Clair, starts from Ft. Washington against the Indians in the Northwest Territory.
Nov. 4—Gen. St. Clair is surprised and defeated by the Indians. There were 600 killed—the whole loss amounted to upward of 900. Several other smaller expeditions had been sent against the Indians in the course of the year. One, Gen. Harmer’s, had been defeated. Internal taxes on spirits were first commenced this year. Benj. Harrison, of Va., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. A voyage around the world, by way of Oregon, China, and the Cape of Good Hope, had opened wide fields to commerce. The first census was now completed. The Second Congress, assembled at Philadelphia, Oct. 24, was occupied in arranging the new ratio of Representatives. It was a very difficult matter to settle from the sectional struggles that entered into the question.
1792.
Feb. 16—A bounty for fishing vessels provided.
” 20—The Post Office Department reorganized.
Apr. 2—The establishment and regulations of the U. S. Mint are embodied in a law.
” 14—Act apportioning Representatives passed. This gave the next House of Representatives in Congress 105 members.
May 8—Laws organizing the Militia are passed.
Dec. 8—Henry Laurens, first President of the Continental Congress, died. The second presidential election this year resulted in the re-election of Washington and Adams. Washington received all the electoral votes—the anti-federalists opposing only Mr. Adams, whose electoral vote was 77, the candidate of the opposition receiving 50. Much seditious opposition was made in North Carolina and Pennsylvania to the excise law,—the tax on spirits. The President issued a proclamation against them, Sept. 29th.
1793.
Jan. 24—The proclamation of the French Republic is greeted in Boston with a celebration in its honor. The close and friendly relations of the United States with France, arising from their aid to us in the Revolutionary War, led the French minister, Genet, to a course of conduct inconsistent with the existence of our friendly relations with England. The U. S. Government decided to proclaim neutrality—the people sympathized strongly with France. Washington and his cabinet pursued a strict neutral course, in which the people finally acquiesced, and Genet’s recall was solicited and obtained.
Feb. 12—A Fugitive Slave law passed.
July 23—Roger Sherman, signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
Oct. 8—John Hancock, of Mass., the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. This year laid the foundation of the policy of neutrality or non-interference with the European wars, that became the settled policy of the United States.
The year was also distinguished by the violence of party feeling.
Dec. 2—Congress assembles at Philadelphia.
” 31—Jefferson resigns his seat in the Cabinet. He was Secretary of State.
1794.
Mar. 11—An act is passed for building four ships of war, which laid the foundation of our present navy.
Some hostile English “Orders in Council” led to arrangements for fortifying the harbors of the country.
” 22—The Slave trade is regulated by law, no American vessel being allowed to supply slaves to another nation. The importation of slaves into this country had been allowed until the year 1808, by Art. 1st, Sec. 9th, of the Constitution.
” 26—As a retaliation on the British “Orders in Council” for seizing all goods going to France in American vessels, an embargo was laid on all shipping which was continued 60 days. This stopped all commerce for the present.
June 5—A law relating to neutrality passed in Congress.
” 19—Richard Henry Lee, of Va., died; Abraham Clark, of N. J., and John Witherspoon, of N. J., later, all signers of the Declaration of Independence, died.
July 16—An insurrection breaks out against the excise law in western Pennsylvania, by an armed attack on the officers of the law. An army of 15,000 men was raised and marched into that region, the appearance of which immediately restored order.
Aug. 20—Gen. Wayne inflicts a thorough chastisement on the Indians of Ohio, on the Maumee river.
Nov. 4—Congress again assembles.
” 28—Baron Steuben, a German, who had done us great service as an officer in the Revolutionary war, died, aged 61.
1795.
This year a commercial treaty was negotiated with England, which was the cause of violent demonstrations of the two parties. Only the firmness and moderation of Washington and his supporters saved the country from war with that power.
Jan. 23—Gen. Sullivan died. He had been an able Maj. Gen. in the Revolutionary war.
” 29—A more stringent naturalization law passes.
May 19—Josiah Bartlett, of N. H., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
Aug. 3—A Treaty with the Northwestern Indians concluded, which closed the Indian war.
Sept 5—A treaty is concluded with Algiers, which closed a war with those pirates, whose attacks had been so disastrous to our commerce.
Oct 20—A treaty of boundaries, and which opened the Mississippi to navigation, is concluded with Spain.
Dec. 7—The fourth Congress meets.
1796.
March 24—The U. S. House of Representatives require the President to send them the papers relating to the British treaty. The President declines, denying that they form part of the treaty making power.
April 30—The exciting struggle on the British treaty is closed, by a provision made by the House of Representatives for carrying it into effect.
June 1—An act is passed admitting Tennessee into the Union.
” 29—A new treaty is made with the Creek Indians, and the Southern, as well as the Northern Indians, are pacified.
Sept. 19—Washington’s Farewell address is issued, to let the people know that he would not accept office again. A presidential election was held this autumn, in which John Adams was elected President. Serious difficulties began to rise with France, which took great offense at the treaty with Great Britain.
1797.
Feb. 3—Mr. Pinckney, American Minister to France, was refused a reception, by the French government, and obliged this day to leave the country. Much violence was done about this time, to American commerce, by the French.
Mar. 4—John Adams is inaugurated President of the United States.
” 25—A special session of Congress is called to consider the threatening posture of our relations with France.
June 14—Congress imposed a fine of $10,000 and ten years imprisonment on any American who should engage in privateering, in any way, against a nation with whom we were at peace.
July 3—The President transmits to Congress information of Spanish troubles on the southern and western frontier. These were afterwards discovered to have aimed at detaching the Mississippi and Ohio valleys from the United States, and erecting them into an independent power, in close alliance with Spain.
Two new envoys are sent to France. These envoys spent many months in Paris, treated with insolence and neglect.
In this year Francis L. Lee, of Va., Carter Braxton, of Va., and Oliver Wolcott, of Conn., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died.
1798.
The French government continues to labor to draw the United States into a war with them against England. Two of the three Commissioners are required to leave France.
April 3—The Mississippi Territory organized.
” 14—The navy is taken from the control of the Secretary of War, and a Navy Department with a Secretary, organized.
June 12—All commercial intercourse with France suspended. In anticipation of war the naturalization law is amended; an “Alien Act” passed; and the navy and army largely strengthened.
” 21—The President announces the failure of the Commissioners sent to France, to make peace.
July 8—A limited naval warfare with France is authorized, and several U. S. vessels of war go to sea.
” 16—An additional naval armament provided for.
” 17—Washington accepts the appointment of Commander-in-Chief of the Army, which is being raised in expectation of war.
”—About this time some 365 armed vessels had been commissioned by the U. S. government, besides the regular navy, to make war on the armed vessels of France. This armament was, however chiefly used for defense.
Lewis Morris, of N. Y., James Wilson, of Pa., and Geo. Read, of Del., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.
1799.
At the commencement of this year Congress provided for the raising of am army of 40,000 men.
Feb. 18—By invitation of the French government, the President nominates another embassy to France.
Feb. 7—The French frigate l’Insurgente captured in the West Indies by the U. S. frigate Constellation.
April—The Legislature of New York abolishes Slavery in that State.
Dec. 14—Gen. Washington’s death, in the 68th year of his age.
Wm. Paca, of Md., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.
A change in the government of France, and the vigorous action of the U. S. government in arming for war, induced the French to retreat from their unfriendly position and offer to arrange the difference. The refusal of our government to entangle themselves with European politics became a settled principle, of great value to us; though it was strongly opposed by the Anti-Federalists.
1800.
Jan. 23—Edward Rutledge, of S. C., signer of Dec. of Ind. died.
Feb. 1—The U. S. frigate Constellation beats without capturing the French frigate La Vengeance.
April 4—General bankruptcy law passed by Congress.
May 7—The Territory of Indiana organized by act of Congress.
” 10—An act authorizing the election of a Territorial Assembly in the Territory of Mississippi, organized some years before, was passed.
July—The government is moved to the new capital at Washington.
Oct. 1—The envoys to France arrange a convention, or temporary treaty, which prevents the formal outbreak of war, though it had long continued to be waged on the sea. More than 50 vessels had been captured from the French this year. The gratitude of Americans to France for her aid, formerly, made a large part of the people very unwilling to declare war; but her arrogant demands and war on our commerce had the good effect to separate the country from all close alliances in Europe.
Nov.—The fourth presidential election resulted in the defeat of the Federalist party, by the election of Thomas Jefferson as President. Its opponent, the anti-federalist, or Republican party, feared a strong central government; yet when they came into power they adopted the same policy. Any other policy would have ruined the country.
1801.
Feb. 16—The Convention with France, to remain in force eight years, ratified.
Mar. 3—The Sixth Congress terminates, and with it the administration of President Adams.
” 4—Jefferson inaugurated President. The trial of the Constitution was now past. It was permanently settled in the respect of the people, and had made the country respected by other nations. The “Sedition Laws” passed in July, 1798, became inoperative at this time, by the provision accompanying them. They had been framed for the suppression of dangerous political intrigues in time of war. Party spirit was exceedingly bitter at this time, and these laws produced much excitement, but contributed to the safety of the government.
June 10—The Basha of Tripoli declares war on the United States.
” 14—Benedict Arnold died in London.
Aug. 6—The U. S. vessel of war Experiment, captures a Tripolitan vessel in the Mediterranean sea.
Dec. 7—The Seventh Congress assembles. The reaction, at this time, in public sentiment, produced by the French Revolution, the excesses of which resulted in a military despotism under Napoleon Bonaparte, infused a spirit of moderation and caution into the politics of the United States under the new party now in power, that was highly beneficial. Extreme views were checked, and no serious change was made in the general policy of the country.
1802.
Jan. 4—The reapportionment of Representatives in Congress by the census of 1800, was made. No change in the number of inhabitants to one Representative (one to every 33,000) was introduced. The foundation of a Military Academy at West Point, N. Y., was laid at this time.
April 14—The Naturalization Laws, made very stringent in the last administration to correspond with a state of war, were liberalized.
April 30—An act authorizing the formation of a State Constitution in Ohio, preparatory to its admission into the Union, is passed.
May 3—Washington, D. C., incorporated as a city.
Oct. 16—Commerce on the Mississippi by American citizens, suspended by the Spanish authorities at New Orleans.
It became evident that the possession of the Mississippi River and territory near it was of the highest importance to the welfare of the West, and measures looking toward the acquisition of it began to be taken.
A large reduction was made this year in the public debt, and the policy of economy in public expenditure became a leading feature of the administration.
1803.
March 3—The anxiety of the people in regard to the navigation of the Mississippi leads Congress to invest the President with extraordinary authority to negotiate, or use force, in his discretion. He was authorized to call on the States to furnish 80,000 men, if need be.
April 30—A treaty is concluded with Napoleon Bonaparte for the purchase of the whole of the Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000.
Aug. 13—By a treaty with the Kaskaskia Indians a large part of Illinois is opened to settlement.
Oct. 31—The U. S. frigate Philadelphia ran on a sunken rock in the harbor of Tripoli, and was captured. The American fleet had captured or destroyed several Tripolitan vessels of war during the summer.
Dec. 20—The President takes possession of Louisiana.
1804.
Feb. 2—Geo. Walton, of Geo., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
” 15—New Jersey passes a law freeing all the slaves born in the State after the next 4th of July.
” 16—Lieut. Decatur, of the U. S. Navy, ran into the harbor of Tripoli in the night and burned the Philadelphia—captured by the Tripolitans, some time before. This done he withdrew in safety, in the sloop he had employed for the bold enterprise.
July 11—Alexander Hamilton, an eminent statesman, was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United States. He was 48 years old and his death was considered as a public calamity.
Aug. 3—Com. Preble attacks Tripoli, sinks two vessels, captures three more, and bombards the city.
The city was blockaded during the remainder of the year and through the winter.
Nov. 18—Gen. Philip Schuyler died at Albany, N. Y.
Jefferson was re-elected President in this month.
1805.
Great commercial prosperity marked this period. France and England were at war and most of the carrying trade fell to American vessels. The peaceful acquisition of Louisiana, and the prosperity of the west in consequence, contributed much to the development of the country. The grand era of progress in the United States began to dawn, though overcast by threatening difficulties with Spain and England.
March—Chief Justice Chase having been impeached by the House of Representatives, was acquitted by the Senate.
” 4—Jefferson’s second inauguration as President.
June 3—A treaty of peace made with Tripoli.
A Territorial Legislature is authorized in the Territory of Orleans, and the Territory of Louisiana organized.
June 11—The Territory of Michigan is organized. It was very thinly settled, but separated by so great a distance from the inhabited parts of Indiana Territory as to require a separate government.
July 4—Large cessions of land are obtained, by treaty and purchase, from the Indians. Most of their lands in Ohio, Indiana, and along the Ohio River were acquired in an equitable manner. Large cessions are obtained this year from the Creeks and Cherokees, who received a fair equivalent.
Sept. 12—Wm. Moultrie, a distinguished Revolutionary soldier, died.
Measures are set on foot to purchase Florida from the Spaniards. There seemed no alternative but such a purchase or a war. Difficulties with England began to increase. Several American vessels with valuable cargoes are seized by the British.
1806.
Jan. 16—Two million dollars are voted that the President may commence negotiations with Spain for Florida. The British continue to violate our flag by impressing seamen on our vessels.
March 26—A retaliatory law was enacted by Congress forbidding the importation of certain English goods, to take effect in November in order to give time for negotiation. Provision was also made for increasing the army and navy.
The summer of this year was disturbed, in the west, by rumors of a design to separate the Louisiana Territory and Western States from the Union, by the establishment of an independent government.
Apr. 10—Gen. Horatio Gates, an officer of the Revolution, died.
Dec.—The session of Congress commencing the first of this month was largely occupied with a law forbidding the slave trade after 1808. There was much violent debate but the law was enacted early in the next year.
Robt. Morris, of Pa., on the 8th of May; Geo. Wythe, of Va., on the 8th of June; James Smith, of Pa., on the 11th of July, signers of the Declaration of Independence; and Gen. Henry Knox, an officer of the Revolution, on the 25th of Oct., died. Gen. Knox was Secretary of War during Washington’s administration.
1807.
Feb. 10—An act for commencing the Coast Survey, and appropriating $50,000 for that purpose, is passed.
The English had defeated and almost annihilated the French and Spanish navies, and became very tyrannical toward neutral nations, which begins to injure our commerce. Bonaparte retaliates in the same spirit which doubles the difficulty.
Mar. 18—A treaty made by American ambassadors with England was rejected by our government because the British refused to allow that British born citizens could become American citizens by naturalization. These the English government claimed the right of impressing from our vessels, which we denied.
June 22—A British ship of war, the Leopard, fires into the American frigate Chesapeake while unprepared to resist, and took several men from her. Three Americans were killed, and eighteen wounded. It greatly exasperated the Americans.
July 2—The President ordered all English ships of war to leave American waters.
Aug. 25—Com. Preble, of the U.S. navy, died.
Sept. 15—Aaron Burr tried for treason, (he was the leader of the conspiracy believed to have endeavored to detach the Mississippi Valley from the Union,) was acquitted for want of evidence, though generally believed guilty.
Nov. 26—Oliver Ellsworth, U. S. Chief Justice, died.
Dec. 17—Bonaparte’s “Milan Decree” subjects American commercial vessels to seizure.
” 22—This and like British “Orders in Council” caused Congress to lay an embargo, forbidding any vessels to sail from our ports.
1808.
Jan. 1—The act of Congress, passed in the previous session, to carry out the provision of the Constitution to abolish the slave trade at this time, goes into effect to-day.
Apr. 17—Bonaparte orders the seizure and confiscation of all American vessels in France, or that should afterwards arrive there.
Nov. 7—The tenth Congress assembles again. Much discussion is had over the embargo, but it is finally determined to make it still more stringent and place the country in a state of defense.
”—A presidential election this month results in the choice of James Madison for the next term. He was a republican, or democrat, in politics.
1809.
Jan. 9—An act is passed “more effectually to enforce the embargo.”
Feb. 3—Illinois organized under a Territorial Government.
” 27—The embargo is partially repealed.
Mar. 3—The Tenth Congress closes, at the same time as the Administration of Jefferson. Madison was inaugurated the next day. He served two terms. A war with Great Britain was commenced in his first, and ended in his second term.
” 9—Thos. Haywood, of S. C., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
Apr. 19—An arrangement of the difficulties with England concluded with the British Minister, Erskine, and, in the expectation of permanent peace, the Embargo and Non-intercourse acts cease by proclamation of the President.
May 22—An extra session of the eleventh Congress meets.
July 20—News arrives of the rejection by the English government of the Erskine treaty.
Aug. 9—The President forbids, by proclamation, all intercourse with Great Britain and France.
Nov. 8—A new English minister having been sent, his arrogant tone causes the U. S. government to decline further intercourse with him.
1810.
Mar. 23—Bonaparte orders the sale and confiscation of 132 American vessels (detained in France by previous decree) and their cargoes, and the same confiscation is ordered of all American vessels afterward entering French ports. The 132 vessels and their cargoes were worth $8,000,000.
Aug. 5—The French government announces the revocation of their confiscation act, to take effect Nov. 1. A deadly struggle had been, for many years, going on between Napoleon Bonaparte and England. This hostility of France to American commerce was in retaliation, of the British “Orders in Council” against neutral commerce trading with France. England had nearly destroyed the French navy and considered herself mistress of the seas. She wished to reduce American commerce to the condition of colonial times, which, with impressment of seamen, was the cause of the present struggle. Our commerce was constantly growing, our people spirited, and resolved to have their rights and Flag respected.
1811.
Feb. 26—An act passed establishing naval hospitals.
May 16—The American frigate President, and the British sloop of war Little Belt, fire into each other. The Little Belt is disabled. This was a retaliation of the firing of the British ship Leopard on the American Chesapeake, four years before, and also of the capture of an American merchantman bound to France, off New York, by a British vessel about this time. Several instances of impressment, by the British, from American vessels, had lately occurred, and there was a feeling of great exasperation toward England. The English government had not yet made any atonement for the attack on the Chesapeake.
June 1—Gen. Eaton, prominent in the war with Tripoli, died.
” 19—Samuel Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died.
Aug. 2—Wm. Williams, of Conn., died. The two last were signers of the Declaration of Independence.
The relief of American commerce from outrages by the French proved delusive, and many grievous wrongs are suffered this year.
Nov. 7—Two twin brothers of the Shawanese tribe of Indians (Tecumseh and the Prophet) had been for some years engaged in forming a conspiracy among a large number of Indian tribes on the Northwestern frontier to exterminate the whites. Gen. Harrison’s army is attacked by the Indians this day, at Tippecanoe. They are defeated by Gen. Harrison.
Dec. 2—The ratio of Representation is revised on the census of 1800, and fixed at 35,000.
1812.
Jan.—Various acts are passed for putting the army and navy in a condition for war.
Apr. 4—An embargo is laid on American shipping, by act of Congress.
” 8—Louisiana admitted into the Union as a State.
” 20—Geo. Clinton, Vice-President of the United States, died.
June 4—The Territory of Missouri organized.
” 23—The British government repeal the obnoxious “Orders in Council,” but refuse to give up the right of search and impressment on American vessels. The American government refuses to be satisfied with this; besides, it had already declared war, June 18th.
XX. THE WAR OF 1812
We have stated in connection with the appropriate events, the causes of this war which had accumulated during the last five years at a rapid rate. The seizure and captures of American vessels by Great Britain amounted to 917; by France to 558. Upwards of 6,000 cases of impressments were recorded in the American Department of State; and in all these our Flag had been violated. It was estimated that about as many more had been made, of which no official information had been received. The Americans were averse to war and had long borne these injuries in the hope that a settlement might be reached by negotiation; but they insisted on the inviolability of our Flag, and the right of naturalization. On the commencement of hostilities 2,500 of these impressed sailors, claiming to be American citizens, refused to fight against America, and were imprisoned by the English government, where most of them were kept to the close of the war.
Aug. 24—The English government, however, had the magnanimity, when news arrived of the Declaration of War by the United States, to allow all American vessels then in their ports six weeks to dispose of their lading and to depart undisturbed.
The great success of the war on the American side was on the sea, where it was much more seriously detrimental and mortifying to the English than victories on the land would have been. The land forces were generally inefficiently conducted, though the close of the war was signalized by the victory of Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, which was extremely gratifying to American pride.
July 12—Gen. Hull, with 1,800 troops, invades Canada.
Aug. 8—After various mishaps, Hull retreats to Detroit.
” 9—Col. Miller defeats Tecumseh and a body of British troops at Maguaga.
” 15—Ft. Dearborn (now Chicago) was abandoned by its small garrison, by the orders of Hull. During their retreat they were attacked, and most of them massacred by the Indians.
” 16—Gen. Hull surrendered Detroit and all the military forces and stores in the territory to the British. He was afterward sentenced to death by a court-martial, but pardoned by the president, though degraded from all military command.
” 19—The U. S. frigate Constitution, Capt. Hull, does great honor to the American arms by the capture of the English frigate Guerriere. This vessel had challenged the American vessels in a contemptuous way. She had 79 killed and wounded, the Constitution only 13. There were 10 impressed American seamen on the Guerriere.
Sept. 7—The U. S. frigate Essex captures the Alert in 8 minutes.
Oct. 13—In another invasion of Canada by Gen. Van Rensselaer, though much gallantry was displayed, an unexpected British reinforcement obliged the surrender of 700 men after 160 had been killed and wounded.
” 18—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Frolic, which was the strongest vessel. The Frolic had 100 killed and wounded, the Wasp but 10. Both were captured by a British 74 pounder the same day.
” 25—Capt. Decatur, of the frigate United States, captures the Macedonian, a British frigate. British loss 104, American only 7.
Nov. 22—The U. S. brig Vixen is captured by the English frigate Southampton. Both were afterward shipwrecked.
A presidential election in this month secured the re-election of Madison.
Dec. 29—The U. S. frigate Constitution, Commodore Bainbridge, captures the British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil. American loss 44, British 151. These naval victories with so little loss produced much exultation in America, and much surprise and mortification in England. The Americans were able seamen, and had long burned to avenge the insults and contempt of the English navy. Americans are capable of extraordinary vigor when thoroughly aroused. The operations on land had been much interfered with by the strenuous and almost treasonable opposition of the anti-war party, and this continued to be an embarrassment during nearly its whole course. The general disfavor with which this violent opposition was regarded, however, and the sympathy felt for the President, so embarrassed, procured his re-election.
1813.
Military operations this year were, in part, more creditable and encouraging. The regular force amounted to about 55,000 men; an act had been passed authorizing the construction of four 74 gun ships, and six forty-fours; and for an increase of the navy on the lakes.
Jan. 22—A disastrous enterprise at Frenchtown (now Monroe, Mich.) results in the loss of nearly 900 American troops under Winchester. The wounded were left by Gen. Proctor, the British commander, to be massacred by the Indians.
” 23—Geo. Clymer, of Pa., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
” 26—An act of Congress authorizes the President to borrow $16,000,000.
” 27—He is authorized to issue Treasury notes to the amount of $5,000,000.
Feb. 24—The Hornet captures the British brig Peacock, on the coast of South America.
The Delaware and Chesapeake bays are blockaded by the British about this time.
Mar. 4—Madison is inaugurated for his second term.
” 8—The emperor of Russia having offered his services as mediator between the United States and England, the President appoints commissioners to treat for peace.
Apr. 10—The British attack Lewiston, Del., but are repulsed after having bombarded it several days.
” 27—Americans under Gen. Pike, capture York, Upper Canada, with a large quantity of stores. Gen. Pike is killed.
May 1—The British Gen. Proctor besieges Gen. Harrison in Fort Meigs.
” 5—Gen. Clay coming to his assistance Proctor retreats. Col. Dudley, making a sortie from Ft. Meigs, is drawn into an ambuscade and loses 650 men. He is himself mortally wounded.
The British Admiral Cockburn barbarously ravages the shores of Chesapeake bay.
” 27—Ft. George, at Niagara, surrenders to the Americans, and Sir Geo. Prevost is repulsed from Sacketts Harbor, N. Y., by Gen. Brown.
June 1—The U. S. frigate Chesapeake captured by the British frigate Shannon. American loss 133; British loss about half as many. Capt. Lawrence of the Chesapeake is mortally wounded.
” 6—Gens. Chandler and Winder surprised in the night by the enemy they were going to attack. The two generals are taken prisoners, but their troops repulse the enemy and retire.
” 23—Col. Boerstler, in command of an American force of 600 men, is surrounded by a superior force at Beaver Dams and compelled to surrender.
” 25—Admiral Cockburn, failing in his attack on the American forces at Craney Island, Va., lands at Hampton and commits many outrages.
July 31—American Com. Chauncy lands at York, U. C., captures and destroys stores, and the British do the same at Plattsburg, on lake Champlain.
Aug. 2—Gen. Proctor with 1,000 British and Indians attacks Col. Croghan with 160 men, at Ft. Stephenson, Lower Sandusky, O., and is repulsed with a loss of 150.
About this time the American frigate Essex, Capt. Porter, cruising in the Pacific ocean, captured 12 armed British whalers.
” 13—The American sloop-of-war Argus, cruising in the English Channel, captured 21 British merchantmen, but was herself captured by the Pelican after a severe engagement.
” 30—Tecumseh had stirred up the Creek Indians to war, and they attacked Ft. Mims, which they set on fire and captured, massacring all but 20 out of 400 men, women and children.
Sept. 3—The American brig Enterprise captures the Boxer on the coast of Maine.
” 10—Perry’s victory on Lake Erie. He captures the whole fleet (6 vessels) of the enemy. His laconic dispatch to Gen. Harrison was, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.”
Oct. 5—Battle of the Thames (Upper Canada). Gen. Harrison, commanding the Americans, defeated the British and Indians, under Gen. Proctor and Tecumseh. The latter was slain. The British lost about 600 in killed, wounded and prisoners; the Americans 17 killed and 30 wounded.
” ”—Commodore Chauncy captures 5 British vessels on Lake Ontario.
Nov. 2—Gen. Coffee attacks the Creek Indians at Tallushatches, Ala. 200 warriors are killed.
” 9—Gen. Jackson defeats the Indians at Talladega, Ala., killing 290 of them. Two other battles with the Indians occurred this month, and one in Dec. in which they were defeated with great slaughter, and little loss to the Americans. Yet so spirited and resolute were they as to require to be almost exterminated before they would make peace.
” 11—1,200 Americans, under Gen. Boyd, engage 2,000 British, under Lt. Col. Morrison, and are repulsed with a loss of 339. British loss 180.
Dec. 10—Ft. George, at Niagara, evacuated and the town of Newark burned by the Americans.
” 19—Ft. Niagara is taken by the British and Indians who massacre the garrison. Youngstown, Lewistown, the Tuscarora Indian village, and Manchester, all in N. Y., are burned, in retaliation of the destruction of Newark.
” 30—The British burn Black Rock, Buffalo, three vessels of Perry’s fleet, and large quantities of provisions. Gen. Proctor justifies it as a proper retaliation. The burning of Newark was barbarous, but was avenged tenfold. Naturalized Irishmen, taken by the British in our armies this year, were sent to England to be tried for treason. An equal number of English officers were imprisoned by the American government and notice given to the governor of Canada that they should receive the same treatment and fate as our Irish soldiers. This had its effect, and the latter remained simply prisoners of war. This claim, and corresponding action on the part of the English government, which was one of the principal causes of the war, was, from this time, practically relinquished. In December an embargo was laid by Congress on American goods and provisions, to prevent their being employed to supply the British blockading force and armies. It produced great discontent in New England, where a large part of the people were dependent on commerce, and were thrown into great distress. There was much factious, and even seditious, opposition to the government.
1814.
The army operations had been unsuccessful in Canada during the last of the campaign, owing, it was thought, to the inefficiency of the commanders, and perhaps partly to the want of experience of their subalterns. Changes, that were proved much for the better, were made, and the campaign of this year, in this quarter, showed a more honorable record. Since the commencement of the war till this year, the English government had been carrying on an immense European war, which was closed by the abdication of Bonaparte and his banishment to the island of Elba. They prepared for a more vigorous effort in America, by sending considerable armies of the veterans of Wellington, who had conquered in Europe. They had received, the impression that the opposition to the war and the republican party, would coöperate with them, and that they might re-establish their dominion over their former colonies.
But they did not comprehend American character. Party politics have always been conducted in a bitter and hostile spirit, but that hostility has not been directed against their institutions. Extreme attachment to these, and jealous care to preserve all rights guaranteed by the Constitution, has always led the opposition to a close and sharp criticism of all measures of the party in power differing from their own interpretation of Constitutional rights. When these institutions are really in danger all parties unite in a defense, the obstinacy and vigor of which carries everything before it. It stops at no obstacles, hesitates before no sacrifices, and counts no odds. This became apparent to the British during the summer, dispelled forever their dream of conquest, and led to a peace at the close of the campaign. The British sent 14,000 troops to Canada this spring, which was supported, in July and August, by a large reinforcement. A strong naval force, with a large body of troops, was sent to invade the heart of the country and capture Washington. After failing in maintaining their ground here, they were directed against the gulf coast and the Mississippi river, ending in their decisive defeat by Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, Jan. 8th, 1815, nine days before the treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, in Belgium, Dec. 24, was known in America.
Mar. 24—A loan of $25,000,000 authorized by Congress.
” 27—Gen. Jackson’s defeat of the Indians at Great Horseshoe Bend, Ala. This battle accomplished the subjection of the Creek Indians. Jackson had fought them on the 21st, 24th and 27th of Jan., when they came near defeating him, but notwithstanding their fierce and obstinate bravery, he conquered each time, and finally, nearly exterminated them.
” 28—The brilliant career of the U. S. frigate Essex, in the Pacific ocean, is terminated by its capture, at Valparaiso, Chili, by the British frigate Phebe and another sloop of war.
” 30—Gen. Wilkinson is repulsed in an advance into Canada, at La Colle, and is afterwards tried by court martial. Gen. Brown is given the command of the Niagara frontier, and Gen. Izard of northern N. Y.
April 21—The U. S. sloop of war Frolic captured by the British frigate Orpheus.
” 27—The U. S. sloop of war Peacock captures the British brig-of-war Epervier with $118,000 specie on board.
May 7—A British force captures and destroys the American fort at Oswego, N. Y., and carries off several guns.
” 29—The Americans capture a British force at Sandy Creek, N. Y.
June 9—The U. S. sloop of war Rattlesnake captured by a British 50 gun ship.
” 12—The U. S. sloop Syren captured by a British 74.
” 28—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Reindeer, in the British Channel.
July 3—Gen. Brown captures Ft. Erie, near Niagara, U. C.
” 5—Battle of Chippewa, Canada. Gens. Brown, Scott, and Ripley, with about 3,000 men, were opposed by the British Gen. Riall with an equal number of the veterans of Waterloo. Gen. Scott attacked them with such prudence and valor as to conquer a largely superior force before Gen. Ripley could come up to his aid. It was a splendid test of American mettle. Loss of the British 514, of Scott 328. The British fall back to Ft. George.
” 11—The British make a descent on the coast of Maine.
” 25—Gen. Scott engages a British force of seven times his number, and holds his ground for some hours when Gen. Ripley comes to his aid, and they drive the British from the field; but having only 1,600 men left, while the British have 5,000, they retire next day. The British lost 878, the Americans 860.
Aug. 4—Americans besieged in Ft. Erie.
” 8—First meeting of the U. S. and English commissioners to treat for peace, who arranged the terms at the close of this year. The English were very high in their demands till the failure of their much vaunted veteran troops.
” 9—The British make an unsuccessful attack on Stonington, Conn. A treaty is made with the Creek Indians.
” 15—The British repulsed from Ft. Erie with the loss of 962 men. The Americans lost 84.
” 20—A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake, marches on Washington.
” 24—The battle of Bladensburg, near Washington. The Americans, much inferior in numbers, were defeated. The British, under Gen. Ross, entered Washington the same day. They destroyed much private property, as well as public stores, buildings and documents.
Not deeming it prudent to remain, the British retreated from Washington to their vessels, leaving the people greatly exasperated at conduct unworthy of the army of a civilized nation.
” 27—Alexandria, Va., delivers up the public stores and shipping there and much merchandise as a ransom from plunder and burning.
Sept. 1—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop Avon. After taking three other prizes in European waters, she disappeared and was never again heard of—supposed to have foundered at sea. The British Gen. Prevost advances toward Plattsburg, N. Y., with 12,000 veteran troops.
” 11—The battle of Plattsburg. Com. McDonough, American, with 4 vessels, 10 gun boats and 850 men, captures the British Com. Downie’s fleet of 4 vessels, 12 gun boats and 1,000 men. A simultaneous attack by Prevost on Plattsburg miscarried by the failure of the fleet and panic of the soldiers. They return, in disorder, to Canada.
” 12—The British who had captured Washington, appear near Baltimore and land a force which repulses the Baltimore militia, and, next day advances toward the city; but the attack seems so formidable to them that they retreat in the night to their vessels and depart. The British admiral could not reduce Ft. M’Henry so as to co-operate in an attack on the city by water. The patriotic song, “The Star Spangled Banner,” was written during this bombardment of Fort M’Henry. Gen. Ross, the British commander, was killed soon after the landing of the troops.
About this time various attacks are made at different places on the coast of New England, and the British pretend, by proclamation, to take possession of all of Maine east of the Penobscot river and annex it to New Brunswick.
” 17—A sortie is made from Ft. Erie and the works of the enemy surprised and taken with a loss to him of 1,000 men in killed, wounded and prisoners.
Thus, in the midst of ravages and alarms on the coast, the destruction of our commerce, the stagnation of business, the financial difficulties of the government that almost amounted to bankruptcy, and the complaints of the peace party, (which produced much alarm by the calling of a convention of the New England States, in December of this year, at Hartford, Conn.,) the honor of the United States was preserved. The formidable armies in Canada had been baffled and defeated, the capture of Washington followed immediately by the withdrawal of the invaders, and a strong point made which had its effect in substantially gaining the cause that had brought on the war, for the Americans, in the treaty negotiations in progress. The British now turned their attention to the Mississippi river and the coast of the gulf of Mexico.
Nov. 7—Gen. Jackson takes Pensacola from the British, who were laboring to raise the Indians to war again.
Dec. 15—A British fleet captures the flotilla on Lake Borgne, La.
” 22—12,000 British troops land below New Orleans, and repulse the Americans.
” 24—The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, but is not known in America until Feb. following.
1815.
Jan. 8—Gen. Jackson, with only 6,000 men, had intrenched himself in front of the British, who now made an assault on his position. They were repulsed with great slaughter, losing their general, Packingham, and near 2,000 men. Jackson lost but 7 killed and 6 wounded. The British retreated to their vessels.
” 15—The U. S. frigate President captured by four English vessels.
Feb. 18—Ft. Bowyer, near Pensacola, Fla., invested by the British fleet. It surrenders on the 21st.
” 17—The treaty of peace which arrived at New York on the 11th by the British sloop of war Favorite, ratified by the American government and Peace proclaimed.
” 24—Congress authorizes the loan of $18,400,000, and the issue of treasury notes to the amount of $25,000,000.
” 28—The naval war was continued some time longer. The U. S. frigate Constitution captures two British vessels of war, the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, off the island of Madeira. In March the U. S. frigate Hornet captured the British brig Penguin, on the coast of Brazil.
The British government, elated by their triumph over Bonaparte, their large army accustomed to conquer in Europe, and the fleets set free from the blockade of the Continent, thought to make an easy conquest of America. But all their attempts were defeated. Had peace been made a little later the Americans might have obtained much better terms.
This war had been waged under many difficulties by the American administration. The country and its institutions, were new, and there was no such reserved fund of wealth and credit, as is always found in an old and well organized state. They depended largely on commerce, which was almost destroyed by the great naval force of Great Britain, and the embargo policy. Our navy was gallant and successful; but the government lacked the means, and the unanimous support of the people, requisite to increase it to the necessary strength. The administration did not act with the vigor and efficiency calculated to bring all sections and classes to its support, and the people had not yet the experience and knowledge of the value and strength of their own institutions needful to inspire confidence, so that they were critical and difficult to please, and this spirit impaired the efficiency of nearly all government measures. What they undertook could be only imperfectly done. The old soldiers of the Revolution were dead or unfit by age for good service, and time was necessary to train others and ascertain who had the necessary military capacity for conducting operations with success. Yet, under all these great difficulties, the United States came out of the war with the respect of the world, such as it had never before enjoyed. It became formidable to Europe as a great and vigorous power with which it was not safe to trifle.
This was still more clear when the government declared war on the Dey of Algiers, one of the pirate princes of the North of Africa, which, for hundreds of years, had made war on the commerce of all nations almost with impunity. Having violated their treaty with us, the President sent out an adequate naval force
June 17-19—which captured two Algerine vessels of war, and threatened Algiers. The Dey, intimidated, immediately made peace, giving liberty to all prisoners without ransom, and full satisfaction for the injuries done to our commerce. No European nation had before so humbled these pirates, and it at once raised the credit of our government, and gained us respect and esteem.
June 30—The last hostile act at sea took place in the Straits of Sunda, in the East Indies, where the U. S. brig of war Peacock captured the Nautilus, a British sloop of war. Thus the three American vessels at sea when the war closed, each came home crowned with laurels. The British vessels captured during the war numbered 1,750—the American 1,683. The spirit and energy of the Americans, under all their embarrassments, gave an unmistakable indication of the future greatness and power of the United States.
1816.
The last two years’ experience had taught the government and the people many important lessons by which they hastened to profit. The coast was fortified, the navy increased, manufactures and commerce encouraged, and the best measures that the wisdom of the times could suggest, employed to restore the finances. The violently factious opposition of parties was much moderated by the confidence gained to our government and institutions, and the evident folly of excessive fears. The Second U.S. Bank was chartered for 20 years, with a capital of $35,000,000.
Nov. 5—Governeur Morris, an eminent and excellent American statesman died.
Dec. 11—Indiana admitted into the Union as a State. James Monroe was, this autumn, elected President.
XXI. HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1817 TO 1846
MONROE’S ADMINISTRATION.
A new era for America commenced with this administration, or rather, reached its period of uninterrupted development; for the whole past history of the country had been a preparation for it, but especially so the late war and its results. The failure of the French revolution, and, finally, the failure of Napoleon Bonaparte and the re-establishment of the old monarchy in France, as a result of the excesses, first of the French republic, and then of the military interference of Bonaparte with the existing state of things in Europe, had an important influence in modifying the politics of the republican party in the United States; so that they came partially in Jefferson’s administration, and completely by the close of Madison’s, to follow the wise and vigorous policy pursued by Washington and the federal party; while the general government and the institutions of the country became deeply imbued with the regard to popular rights, and attention to the interests and will of the people that formed the leading idea of Jefferson and the original democrat, or, as it was then called, the republican party. Thus the two points of supreme importance, vigor in the general government, and security to the people, were happily mingled and wrought into the spirit and form of our institutions.
The leading events of Monroe’s two administrations were the attention given to internal improvements—among which may be mentioned the Erie canal in New York, and the encouragements to manufactures—the acquisition of Florida from Spain, and a definite settlement of the slavery question (for the next thirty years only, as it proved,) by the Missouri compromise. The people now began to feel and act together, as a single nation, and material progress was rapid.
1817.
Mar. 3—The observance of the neutrality laws strictly enjoined on citizens of the United States by Congress.
” 4—James Monroe, the fifth President, inaugurated. With his administration commences “the era of good feeling,” as it was called. The bitterness of party controversy ceased.
June 24—Thos. McKean, of Del., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
Dec.—Mississippi admitted into the Union, and Alabama erected into a territory.
”—A war broke out with the Seminole Indians, on the borders of Florida. It came near involving us in a war with Spain. Internal taxes are abolished by Congress.
1818.
Mar. 18—A law enacted giving pensions to indigent officers and soldiers.
April 4—The Flag of the U. S. rearranged; the stripes to represent the thirteen original States, the stars the present number of States.
” 18—Illinois is authorized to form a state constitution.
May 24—Gen. Jackson took Pensacola, Fla., from the Spaniards on account of the support given by them to the Indians.
Oct. 20—A treaty of commerce and for settling boundaries is made with England.
1819.
Feb. 23—A treaty for the session of Florida ratified by Congress, but not by the king of Spain until Oct. 20th, 1820.
Mar. 2—Arkansas organized into a territory.
Dec. 14—Alabama admitted into the Union.
In this year commenced the discussion on the balance between the north and the south in relation to slavery. Missouri and Maine both desire admission as States. The discussion resulted in a settlement of the whole question Feb. 27th, 1821, by the application of the “Missouri Compromise” to the admission of that State.
1820.
Feb. 15—Wm. Ellery, of R. I., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.
Mar. 15—Maine admitted into the Union.
Aug. 23—Com. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie, died in the West Indies.
The 4th census was taken in this year.
1821.
Mar. 4—James Monroe inaugurated on his second term.
” 22—Com. Decatur died at Washington.
Aug. 22—Gen. Jackson takes possession of Florida as its Governor. The U. S. government paid $5,000,000 for Florida. The Spanish officers were reluctant and dilatory in giving up their places, and Gen. Jackson had occasion for his remarkably decisive action in dealing with them. The governor, Don Cavalla, refusing to give up certain papers according to the treaty, he sent him to prison until all the papers were produced, and banished six other Spanish officers who interfered with him.
1822.
June—A commercial treaty is negotiated with France. Capt. Allen, of the U. S. schooner Alligator, engages a band of pirates in the West Indies, captures one of their schooners, and recaptures five American vessels. Capt. Allen is killed.
The ports of the West India islands are opened to American commerce by the English government.
Com. Truxton, a meritorious naval officer—Gen. Stark, the hero of Bennington, Vt.,—and Wm. Lowndes, a statesman of S. C., died this year.
A new arrangement of the ratio of Representation gives one member of Congress to 40,000 inhabitants.
1823.
Com. Porter makes a successful expedition against the West Indian pirates.
This year our government acknowledged the independence of the South American Republics, and ministers were appointed to Mexico, Columbia, Buenos Ayres, and Chili.
A treaty for the mutual suppression of the slave trade was made by Great Britain and the United States.
1824.
April—American and Russian commissioners settle the boundaries between the two countries.
Aug. 15—Lafayette arrives from France. He was everywhere received as the guest of the people with the utmost affection and reverence. He spent a year visiting all parts of the Union.
A presidential election this autumn does not result in a choice, and the House of Representatives made selection of John Quincy Adams, from the candidates, according to a provision of the Constitution, anticipating such a case. A protective tariff was made this year to encourage cotton manufactures.
ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.
1825.
Mar. 4—J. Q. Adams inaugurated sixth President.
” ”—An act of Congress establishes a navy yard at Pensacola, Fla.
June 11—Dan. D. Tompkins, Vice-President with Monroe, died.
Nov. 10—Com. McDonough, the hero of Lake Champlain, died.
1826.
July 4—John Adams and Thos. Jefferson, whose lives were identified with the foundation and development of our institutions, simultaneously died on this day.
Sept. 11—Wm. Morgan, an anti-mason, mysteriously disappears, and is never again heard of.
1827.
An Anti-Mason party is formed, opposing secret societies. Much “political capital” is made of it.
Jan.—The first considerable railroad was begun, and completed in May. It was nine miles long, a beginning of the wonderful transformation that was to be produced by this agent.
1828.
Feb. 11—De Witt Clinton, governor of N. Y. and originator of the Erie canal, died.
The tariff was amended and enlarged this year. This tariff was violently opposed in the South and produced the “Nullification Ordinances” of S. C., some time later.
In the fall of this year Gen. Andrew Jackson was elected President.
1829.
Feb. 29—The Virginia Legislature passes a resolution denying the right of Congress to pass a protective tariff law.
Mar. 4—Andrew Jackson inaugurated as President.
Dan. Webster makes his great speech against nullification.
JACKSON’S ADMINISTRATION.
1829.
May 19—A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with Brazil.
” ”—John Jay, ex-President of the Continental Congress, Chief Justice of the U. S., Governor of N. Y., etc., died. In purity of patriotism, moderation, and soundness of judgment, he came nearer to Washington than any of his contemporaries. He was above the reach of the violent party spirit that prevailed after Washington’s retirement from public life.
1830.
May 7—A treaty made with Turkey gives U. S. commerce the freedom of the Black sea. The vigorous dealing of our government with the Barbary States secured the respect and friendship of Turkey.
The important movement and interests of this year were connected with the progress of railroads (the first American built locomotive was made this year,) and the rapid rise of that great interest, and with the agitation produced by the nullification proceedings of South Carolina. That State claimed the right to pronounce upon, and disregard the enactments of Congress. This was subversive of the Constitution. It drew the “Key Stone” from the arch, and the whole structure of the Union would have fallen. No decisive action was reached till the year 1832.
May 29—The office of Solicitor of the Treasury created.
1831.
Jan. 10—The King of the Netherlands, being accepted as arbitrator of the northern boundary between the United States and the British Possessions, by the two governments, decides the question in our favor.
July 4—James Monroe, ex-President of the U. S., died, aged 73.
Oct. 1—A free trade convention meets at Philadelphia.
” 26—A tariff convention meets at New York. There were over 500 delegates. It was the absorbing political topic of the time.
1832.
April 1—The Black Hawk war breaks out by the attack of the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes from the west bank of the Mississippi on the settlers in Illinois, under the Indian chief, Black Hawk.
” 2—The Creek Indians sell all their lands east of the Mississippi river to the U. S.
May 5—A commercial and boundary treaty concluded with Mexico.
” 27—A new ratio of representation based on the 5th census gives one member of Congress to 47,700 inhabitants.
June 1—Gen. Sumter, a South Carolina hero of the Revolution, died.
” 9—The cholera breaks out at Quebec, Lower Canada. It swept over the country, following the lakes and rivers and routes of travel, with fearful violence.
July—The cholera breaks up Gen. Scott’s army, on the way to meet Black Hawk while in vessels on the lakes.
” 9—Congress creates the office of Commissioner of Indian affairs.
” 10—Naval hospitals established at Charlestown, Mass., Brooklyn, N. Y., and Pensacola, Fla.
” ”—The President vetoes the bill rechartering the U. S. Bank.
Aug. 27—Gen. Atkinson defeats the Indians and takes Black Hawk prisoner.
Nov. 14—Chas. Carroll, of Carrollton, Md., last surviving signer of Dec. of Ind., dies.
” 19—An anti-tariff convention in S. C. issues the famous “Nullification Ordinance.”
” 24—The Unionists of S. C. meet and protest against this ordinance.
Dec. 10—President Jackson issues a proclamation against the nullifiers. He followed word with deed, garrisoning the forts, and sending vessels of war into the harbor of Charleston. His well known vigor left the nullifiers no hope of success, and they finally submitted.
” 18—A commercial treaty concluded with Russia.
” 20—Gov. Hayne, of S. C., defies the President in a counter proclamation.
” 28—J. C. Calhoun, of S. C., the Vice-President, resigns his office. President Jackson is reëlected this fall. His anti-nullification measures made him very popular.
1833.
Feb. 12—Henry Clay introduces a bill on the tariff compromising the points at issue between the manufacturing States and the South.
Mar. 3—It becomes a law, and gives general satisfaction.
” 4—President Jackson reinaugurated on his second term.
May 20—The death of La Fayette, in France.
June 1—Oliver Wolcott, Sec. of the Treasury under Washington, dies.
July 27—Com. Bainbridge, a famous naval commander, dies.
Sept. 30—President Jackson removes his Sec. of Treas. W. J. Duane, for refusing to carry out his policy in regard to the U. S. Bank. The presence of the Indians in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, produces so much conflict and so frequent a necessity for chastising them that they are in danger of total extermination. Gen. Jackson persuades Congress and the Indians to arrange for their removal to lands west of the Mississippi. Some of the Indians quietly remove this year. Many resist, but all are finally persuaded to this course by Gen. Scott and others, except the Seminoles of Fla.
1834.
Mar. 28—Congress formally censures the President for his course in regard to the U. S. Bank.
Oct. 28—A conditional treaty made with the Seminoles at Payne’s Landing, May 9, 1832, for their removal to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi, was afterwards confirmed by the chiefs but rejected by the people. Gen. Thompson was sent, at this time, by President Jackson to insist on their carrying out the treaty.
Dec. 28—A council of the Indians, called by Gen. Thompson, seemingly accept the terms of the President.
1835.
Mar. 3—Congress establishes branch mints in La., N. C., and Ga.
May 14—A treaty with the Cherokees purchases all their lands east of the Mississippi for $5,262,251, and ample lands in exchange in the Indian Territory.
June 3—Osceola, a Seminole chief, imprisoned by Gen. Thompson.
July 6—Chief Justice Marshall dies, aged 80.
Dec. 16—A destructive fire in New York. $17,000,000 worth of property consumed.
” 28—The Seminoles killed their chief, Mathla, who had been prominent in making the obnoxious treaty, and suddenly attack a U. S. force under Maj. Dade. But one man out of 110 escaped. He was wounded and afterwards died. The same day Gen. Thompson and others were surprised and massacred.
” 31—Gen. Clinch is attacked by the Indians at Withlacoochee. He repulses them and retires.
1836.
Early in this year the Indians laid waste the whole country, burning the buildings and killing all who had not taken refuge in the forts.
Jan. 20—A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with the republic of Venezuela, South America.
Feb.—The U. S. Bank was chartered by the Legislature of Pa.
” 11—Gen. Gaines lands an army at Tampa Bay. He is surrounded by the Indians on his march toward Fort King. He repulsed them, but his army is nearly starved. While the army is held here the tribe remove their families and effects into the impenetrable swamps of the interior.
Mar. 2—The Texans proclaim their independence.
Apr. 26—Wisconsin receives a territorial government.
” 21—Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna taken prisoner.
June 15—Michigan erected into a State, conditionally.
” ”—Arkansas admitted into the Union.
” 23—A surplus revenue having accumulated it is loaned to the States.
” 28—James Madison, the ex-President, dies, aged 86.
July 4—Office of Commissioner of Patents created.
Sept. 15—Aaron Burr, an able but dishonest and disloyal statesman, formerly Vice-President, dies, aged 81.
The Creek Indians commenced hostilities in May of this year, in their usual fierce and barbarous manner. Gen. Scott and the State authorities of Geo. subdue them early in the summer.
In the presidential election this fall Martin Van Buren was elected.
Dec. 15—The General Post Office and Patent Office, with many records and articles of value, are destroyed by fire.
1837.
Jan. 16—The U. S. Senate repealed and expunged its resolution of March 24th, 1834, censuring President Jackson, as having exceeded his Constitutional powers when he ordered the public funds to be withdrawn from the U. S. Bank.
Mar. 4—Van Buren inaugurated President.
Speculation having been carried to an extreme length for some time, and somewhat arrested by the “specie circular” requiring payments for public lands to be made in coin, a revulsion, producing great distress, and suspension of payments by the banks, occurred this spring.
May 3—The merchants of New York present a memorial to the President urging him to remit the regulations of the “specie circular.” The President declines, but calls an extra session of Congress.
Aug. 4—Texas proposes annexation to the U. S. The President declines to entertain the proposition.
” 13—The banks resume specie payments.
Sept. 4—Congress assembled in extra session. A portion of the surplus revenue, which, by law of June 23d, 1836, was to be loaned to the States, is reclaimed to meet the current expenses of the government.
” 29—A treaty made with the Sioux Indians for the purchase of their lands, 5,000,000 acres, for $1,000,000.
Oct. 1—The Winnebagoes sell their lands for $1,500,000.
” 12—Congress authorizes the issue of $10,000,000 in Treasury notes.
” 21—Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 70 of his warriors, visits the camp of Gen. Jessup. They are detained, and Osceola was imprisoned in Ft. Moultrie, S. C., where, in a few months, he died.
Dec. 25—The battle of Okee-cho-bee fought with the Seminoles in the swamps of Florida, by Col. Zachary Taylor. The Indians are defeated.
The Magnetic Telegraph was patented in this year.
1838.
Jan. 5—The President issues a proclamation enjoining neutrality on American citizens, during the “Patriot war,” or insurrection in Canada.
June 12—Iowa receives a Territorial government.
Aug. 19—An Arctic exploring expedition, with six vessels, sails from Hampton Roads, Va.
The Cherokee Indians completed their emigration to the Indian Territory this year.
1839.
Gen. Macomb makes a treaty early in this year with the Seminoles, which they very imperfectly kept.
A difficulty with England in regard to our northeast boundary narrowly avoids war, but is, at length, peaceably adjusted.
Dec. 2—Congress assembles.
” 4—A Whig Convention prepares for the contest of the coming year by the nomination of Wm. H. Harrison for the Presidency. Great discontent was felt with the financial policy of Van Buren’s administration, and lively interest taken in the coming election, which made the campaign the most stirring and the noisiest ever experienced in this country.
1840.
May 5—The Democrats renominate Van Buren for the Presidency.
This year was chiefly memorable for the “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” election gatherings, and the extreme interest of the people in the elections, on financial grounds.
June 30—Congress passes the sub-treasury bill recommended by President Van Buren, in 1837, but then rejected.
Nov.—W. H. Harrison elected President, and John Tyler Vice-President.
1841.
Jan. 14—Imprisonment for debts due the U. S. abolished.
Mar. 4—Harrison inaugurated ninth President.
” 11—The steamer President sails from New York but is never again heard of. She had 109 passengers.
” 17—The President calls an extra session of Congress to consider financial questions.
Apr. 4—President Harrison died and John Tyler became acting President.
May 31—Congress convenes.
June 25—Gen. Macomb died.
July 6—The proceeds of the public lands ordered to be distributed to the States.
” 21—Congress orders a loan of $12,000,000.
Aug. 9—The Sub Treasury act repealed.
” 16—President Tyler vetoes the National Bank bill.
” 18—A general bankrupt law passed.
Sept. 9—A Second Banking Bill vetoed. This was the fourteenth time the veto power had been used; by Washington twice, Madison four times, Monroe once, Jackson five times.
Oct. 11—Failure of U. S. Bank under the Pennsylvania charter.
1842.
June 25—The new Ratio of Representation, based on the census of 1840, gives one Member of Congress for every 70,600 inhabitants.
July 23—Bunker Hill Monument finished and dedicated. The corner stone was laid by Lafayette 17 years before.
Aug. 20—The Ashburton treaty with England, settling the N. E. Boundary, ratified by the U. S. Senate.
” 28—The U. S. fiscal year ordered to commence with July 1st.
Oct. 2—The U. S. sloop of war Concord wrecked on the African coast.
” 14—The Ashburton-Webster treaty ratified in England.
1843.
Mar. 3—Congress appropriates $30,000 for building Morse’s electric telegraph from Washington to Baltimore. It was the beginning of that magnificent enterprise.
Com. Porter, minister to Turkey, dies in Constantinople.
Apr. 18—Commences “Dorr’s rebellion” in Rhode Island.
Aug. 26—The U. S. frigate Missouri burned, at Gibraltar, Spain.
1844.
Feb. 28—A large cannon on board the war steamer Princeton, bursts while the President and others are visiting the vessel, killing Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer, secretaries of war and navy, and others.
May 6—The “Know-nothing” or American excitement produces a serious riot in Philadelphia.
July 7—Jo. Smith, the originator of the Mormons, killed at Carthage, Ill.
Nov.—The Democratic party elected James K. Polk for President. The chief question entering into the election was on the annexation of Texas. It had been sought for some years but had been declined as certain to bring on a war with Mexico, which, as a sister republic, and much weaker than ourselves, had been considered to be an unworthy act. The Whigs, with Henry Clay as their candidate for President, opposed it. It was carried, in great part as a pro-slavery measure, although the bitter and barbarous conduct of the Mexicans toward Texans and American citizens had something to do with it.
1845.
Jan. 16—A treaty made with China, ratified by the U. S. Senate.
” 23—An act of Congress orders presidential elections to be held in all the States on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
Feb. 28—Congress annexes Texas to the Union, by a joint resolution of both Houses.
Mar. 3—Florida admitted into the Union.
” 4—Mr. Polk inaugurated the tenth President.
June 18—Andrew Jackson died.
The Congress of Texas accepted the conditions of the U. S. and it became a State in the American Union.
July 30—Gen. Taylor ordered to the frontier of Texas.
Sept. 10—Judge Joseph Story, of the U. S. Supreme Court, died, aged 66.
Dec. 15—A misunderstanding had long existed between the U. S. and England as to the northern boundary of Oregon. Much excitement is now produced by a speech and resolution of Mr. Cass, which seemed the prelude to war with Great Britain.
1846.
June 18—A treaty was negotiated by Mr. Packenham and Mr. Buchanan settling the northwest boundary satisfactorily.