The Field Book: or, Sports and pastimes of the United Kingdom compiled from the best authorities, ancient and modern (part 2 of 7)

THE FIELD BOOK;

OR,

SPORTS AND PASTIMES OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS.

ABDOMEN, s. A cavity commonly called the lower venter or belly.

Wounds of the Abdomen, or Belly, may occur to horses in leaping hedges, or pales, or be inflicted by the horns of a cow. Sometimes the tendinous covering of the belly is ruptured, while the skin remains entire; the gut then protrudes and forces out the skin into a tumour. This is a rupture of the belly, and is thought incurable. I have known one very large rupture cured by cutting out a piece of the skin which covered it, and then sewing up the wound and supporting it with a bandage. In some accidents the skin also is divided, with its peritonæal covering; the gut then comes out, and the wound is of a very dangerous nature, and still more so if the gut itself is wounded. The first thing to be done is to put the gut back, taking care to remove any dirt or other matter that may be sticking to it; for which purpose, should it be found necessary, it may be washed with warm water. If the gut cannot be returned, from its being full of air, the opening in the belly may be carefully enlarged to the necessary size. After the gut is returned, the skin only should be stitched up; and a cushion of several folds of old linen and tow being placed on the wound, should be kept in its situation by means of a wide bandage rolled round the body, and carefully secured. The animal should then be copiously bled, have his bowels emptied by clysters, and his food restricted to grass or bran mashes, and that in moderate quantity.

ABERDEVINE, s. (Carduelis spinus, CUVIER).

Size of the redpole, (Fringilla linaria,) or between that and the linnet. Length rather more than five inches; bill reddish-white, tipped with blackish brown; eyes, umber-brown; head, greenish black; over each eye a pale streak of dingy primrose-yellow; neck, back, wings, and tail, oil-green, paler, and more yellow, on the lower parts of the back towards the tail coverts. The feathers of the back and wings are streaked down the middle with a tint formed of blackish-green and hair-brown; sides of the head, throat, breast, and under parts, pale wax-yellow, inclining to sulphur-yellow; middle of the parts below the breast very pale wine yellow, passing into white; across each wing are two bands of primrose yellow, and between them one of black; part of the quills and tail edged with pale gamboge-yellow: legs and feet pale flesh-red. The head of the female is of a brownish-colour, inclining to grey where the male is black; cheeks and sides of the neck siskin green or oil green; and all the rest of her plumage is of a more dingy colour than in the male.

These birds are of so mild, gentle, and docile a disposition, that they become quite tame almost immediately after they are taken. They may be taught many pretty tricks, such as to open the door of their cage, draw up their food and water, and come to the hand to be fed at the sound of a little bell or a whistle. Their food is the same as that of canaries, and they are managed in the same manner.—Montagu.

ABSCESS, s. A morbid cavity in the body.

ABSORBENTS, s. Medicines which neutralise the acid matter in the bowels or stomach. Potash, soda, magnesia, chalk, &c., are commonly employed.

ABSTERGE, v. To cleanse by wiping.

ABSTERGENT, a. Cleansing; having a cleansing quality.

ACACIA CATECHU, s. An extract from the inner wood of the acacia; a powerful tonic and astringent, and useful in diarrhœa and diabetes.

ACCIDENT, s. That which happens unforeseen; casualty, chance. (Vide GUN.)

ACCIPITER, s. A genus of the falcon family thus characterised. Bill short. Nostrils somewhat oval. Shanks elongated and smooth. Shins plated with scales, the sutures scarcely perceptible.—Vigors.

ACETATE, s. The salt formed from a combination of acetic acid with alkalies or metallic oxides. Acetates are largely used in veterinary practice, as those of ammonia, lead, &c.

ACETATE OF ALUMINE (in dyeing)

Is prepared by pouring acetate of lead into a solution of alum, on which a double decomposition takes place; the sulphuric acid combines with the lead, and the sulphate of lead precipitates in the form of an insoluble powder, while the alumine combines with the acetous acid, and remains in the liquor.

This mordant gives a richer colour than alum.

Lime is also sometimes employed as a mordant, but it does not answer so well in general, not giving so good a colour. It is used either in acetate of lime water, or as a sulphate of lime dissolved in water.

A solution of indigo in the sulphuric acid is used for dyeing wool. This is called the Saxon blue, and it gives a very beautiful colour.

To dye by the sulphate of indigo, dissolve one part of indigo in four parts of concentrated sulphuric acid; add to the solution one part of dry carbonate of potash, and dilute the whole with eight times its weight of water. Boil the wool for an hour in a solution of five parts of alum, and three of tartar, for every thirty-two parts of cloth. The wool is then to be put in a bath of sulphate of indigo, diluted according to the strength of shade required, and kept till it has acquired the desired colour. The use of the alum and tartar is not to act as mordants, but to facilitate the decomposition of the indigo; and the alkali is added to the sulphate for the same reason.

ACID, a. Sour, sharp.

ACIDS, s. In veterinary practice are divided into three classes, mineral, vegetable, and animal. Mineral are sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic. Vegetable, acetic (vinegar), and tartaric (cream of tartar). Muriatic acid is commonly called spirit of salt. Sulphuric, oil of vitriol.

ACTION, s. The accordance of the motions of the body with the words spoken. In sporting parlance, it is used to describe the movements of a horse.

ADDER, s. A serpent, a viper, a poisonous reptile.

Adders or vipers are found in many parts of Europe; but the dry, stony, and in particular the chalky countries abound with them. These animals seldom grow to a greater length than two feet; though sometimes they are found above three. The ground colour of their bellies is a dirty yellow; that of the female is deeper. The whole length of the back is marked with a series of rhomboid black spots, touching each other at the points; the sides with triangular ones; the belly entirely black. It is chiefly distinguished from the common ringed snake by the colour, which in the latter is more beautifully mottled, as well as by the head, which is thicker than the body; but particularly by the tail, which, in the viper, though it ends in a point, does not run tapering off to so great a length as in the other. When, therefore, other distinctions fail, the difference of the tail can be discerned at a single glance.

The adder differs from most other serpents in being much slower, as also in excluding its young completely formed, and bringing them forth alive. The kindness of Providence seems to be exerted not only in diminishing the speed, but also the fertility, of this dangerous creature.

The adder is capable of supporting very long abstinence, it being a well ascertained fact that some have been kept in a box six months without food; yet during the whole time their vivacity was not abated. They feed only a small part of the year, but never during their confinement; for if mice, their favourite diet, should at that time be thrown into their box, though they will kill, yet they will never eat them. When at liberty they remain torpid throughout the winter; yet, when confined, they have never been observed to take their annual repose.

They are usually taken with wooden tongs, by the end of the tail, which may be done without danger; for, while held in that position, they are unable to wind themselves up to hurt their enemy; yet, notwithstanding this precaution, the viper-catchers are often bitten by them; but, by the application of olive oil, the effect is safely obviated.

William Oliver, a viper-catcher, at Bath, was the first who discovered this admirable remedy. On the first of June, 1735, in the presence of a great number of persons, he suffered himself to be bit by an old black viper, brought by one of the company, upon the wrist, and joint of the thumb of the right hand, so that drops of blood came out of the wounds. Being willing to satisfy the company thoroughly, and trusting to the speedy effects of his remedy, which was nothing more than olive oil, he forbore to apply anything till he found himself exceedingly ill, and quite giddy; in about an hour and a quarter after the first of his being bit, a chafing dish of glowing charcoal was brought in, and his naked arm was held over it as near as he could bear, while his wife rubbed in the oil with her hand, turning his arm continually round, as if she would have roasted it over the coals; he said the poison soon abated, but the swelling did not diminish much. Most violent purgings and vomitings soon ensued; and his pulse became so low and so often interrupted, that it was thought proper to order him a repetition of cordial potions; he said he was not sensible of any great relief from these; but that a glass or two of olive oil, drank down, seemed to give him ease. Continuing in this dangerous condition, he was put to bed, where his arm was again bathed over a pan of charcoal, and rubbed with olive oil, heated in a ladle over the charcoal. From this last operation he declared that he found immediate ease, as though by some charm: he soon after fell into a profound sleep, and, after about nine hours’ sound rest, awaked about six the next morning, and found himself very well.

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In every quarter of the globe but Europe, dogs are exposed to the venomous attacks of snakes, whose bite is instantly mortal. The viper is the only animal of this kind in Britain capable of inflicting a wound attended with serious consequences, and to which dogs become exposed when hunting. In these cases, the bitten part swells enormously, and the animal expresses great distress and suffering: at length he becomes affected with torpor, or, in some cases, with convulsions, when death commonly ensues. But it is not often that these bites are fatal, particularly when proper means are resorted to for obviating the effects. These means consist in freely rubbing the bitten part with volatile alkali, or with the spirit of hartshorn mixed with oil; giving also seven, ten, or twelve drops of the volatile alkali, or otherwise forty drops to a large dog, of the spirit of hartshorn, in a teaspoonful or two of sweet oil, every hour, until the amendment is evident.

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The venomous stings of hornets, wasps, and bees, may be relieved by applying the vegetable blue used to colour linen. Laudanum also, or vinegar, or brandy, will, either of them, often remove the pain and inflammation speedily.—Buffon—Blaine.

ADHESIVE, a. Sticking, tenacious.

ADHESIVE, or STICKING PLASTER, is made with diachylon, a small portion of resin, and a still less of common turpentine—or with diachylon and galbanum. Sticking plaster is employed to keep the edges of a fresh wound together; but in horses, when the wound is extensive, this is done more effectually by suture, that is, by sewing up the wound.

AËRIE, s. A nest of hawks, or other birds of prey.

The following account of the robbery of an aërie is given by Mr. Bullock:—“On the 10th of June, 1812, they were seen in their aërie on the tremendous cliff called the West Craigs, in the Isle of Hoy, (one of the Orkneys,) the towering rocks of which rise to the perpendicular height of 1200 feet from the sea. About one third of the way down this awful abyss, a slender pointed rock projected from the cliff, like the pinnacle of a Gothic building: on the extremity of this is a hollow scarcely of a sufficient size for the purpose for which these birds had fixed on it, i. e., a place of security for rearing their young; the situation was such as almost to defy the power of man to molest their habitation; yet, with the assistance of a short slender rope, made of twisted hogs’ bristles, did the well-known adventurous climber, or rocksman, ‘Woolly Tomson,’ traverse the face of this frightful precipice, and, for a trifling remuneration, brought up the young birds.

“After a fatiguing scramble up the sides of the mountain, we arrived at the place from whence we could see the aërie beneath; the distance was so great that the young eagles appeared no larger than pigeons. After placing us in a secure situation on a projecting ledge of the rock, Tomson left us, carrying his rope in his hand, and disappeared for upwards of half an hour; when, to our great joy, we discovered him creeping on his hands and knees up the spiry fragment, on which lay the unfledged eaglets; when, knowing he was then in our sight, he knelt on the top, and looking towards us, waved his hat. At this time it was impossible to see the situation he was in without trembling for his safety; the slender point of the rock on which he knelt was at least 800 feet above the surges of the Atlantic, which, with unbroken violence, were foaming beneath him. Yet he deliberately took from his pocket a cord, and tying the wings of the young birds, who made some resistance with their bills and talons, he put them into a basket, and began to descend, and in a few minutes the overhanging masses of stone hid him from our view. The old birds were in sight during the transaction, and made no attempt to defend, but, soaring a quarter of a mile above, occasionally uttered a short shrill scream, very different from their usual barking noise. Had they attempted a rescue, the situation of the climber would have been extremely dangerous, as the slightest deviation or false step would have precipitated him into eternity, a misfortune that a few years since befel his brother on the same spot, when in his company.

“After waiting in a most painful state of suspense for near an hour, our climber suddenly made his appearance, and, laughing, presented his prize.”

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“In Doomsday Book a hawk’s aërie is returned among the most valuable articles of property; which proves the high estimation these birds were held in at the commencement of the Norman conquest.”—Bullock—Strutt.

ÆTHIOP’S-MINERAL, s. A medicine so called, from its dark colour, made of quicksilver and sulphur ground together in a marble mortar.

AGE, s.

Age of a Horse.—The age of a horse may be discovered by certain marks in the front teeth of the under jaw until he is eight years old, about which period they are generally worn out. An experienced person can, however, judge of a horse’s age pretty nearly by the countenance and general appearance of the animal, as well as by the length of the teeth and form of the tushes. Between the second and third year a colt begins to change his sucking or colt’s teeth, as they are termed, for permanent teeth, which are larger, and of a different form and colour. The sucking teeth are small, and of a delicate white colour. When a colt is three years old, or between the second and third year, he changes his two front teeth, above and below; between the third and fourth year the two next are changed; and between the fourth and fifth year the two next, or corner teeth, are changed. About the end of the fourth year, or a little later, the tushes appear. Mares have seldom any tushes. At five years old the horse has a full mouth of permanent or horse teeth, and the corner teeth are those by which the age is ascertained after that period: they have a remarkable hollow or shell-like appearance when they first come up; but by the time the horse has completed his fifth year they have acquired some size, and look more like the other teeth. There is a cavity on their upper surface, at this period, of a dark or blackish colour. At six years old the cavity is much diminished, and at seven it is still less; at eight it has entirely disappeared, or if any mark remain, it resembles rather the eye of a bean. The tushes at five years old have two concavities withinside them, converging upwards, and terminating in the point of the tooth: at six, one of these concavities is lost; that is, the one next the grinder: at seven, the other is diminished, but not quite gone: at eight, it is generally gone, but not always: afterwards the tush gradually gets more round and blunt. These are the changes by which the horse’s age is usually determined; but they are subject to variations, and the only certain method of ascertaining the age, after six, is by a reference to the breeder. The length of the teeth is no criterion whatever; nor can the countenance be depended upon until the horse becomes very old and grey. The marks in the upper teeth have been thought to indicate the age: the marks in the two front teeth disappearing at eight, in the two next at ten, and in the corner teeth at twelve.

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The general signs of age, unconnected with the animal’s teeth, are easily distinguishable. The head grows lean and fine; the features look more striking; the hollows over the eyes deeper; the eyes themselves grow irritable, and twinkle; the cheeks become lank; the gums and soft palate pale and shrunk; the sub-maxillary space is capacious; and grey hairs make their appearance in various places, more particularly over the eyes and about the face. In regard to the body generally, it also makes a more striking display of its shapes, than in any former part of life; the neck grows thin and fine; the withers grow sharp, and give an appearance of increased length and obliquity to the shoulder; the back sinks; the quarters assume a more blood-like turn, and seem to lengthen; tumors of all kinds, spavins, splents, windgalls, &c. generally become in part or wholly absorbed; the legs feel sinewy and free from puff, though they may evince instability and weakness. Now-a-days it is not often that we meet with horses thus advanced in years; still more rarely with any that have grown decrepit from age.

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The horse, if properly treated, will live to a great age. The best time of his life is considered to be betwixt that of five and ten years, although there have been instances where he has proved highly serviceable until twenty years; and it is on record, that some horses have wrought till upwards of thirty years old. Mares are said to be aged at seven years old, and horses at eight.

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The Age of Dogs.—These animals do not, like horses and cattle, present any exact criterion of their age; nevertheless, attention to the following appearances will assist us in determining the matter. At about four years, the front teeth lose their points, and each of them presents a flattened surface, which increases as the age advances; they likewise lose their whiteness. In dogs fed much on bones, and in those who “fetch and carry,” these teeth suffer very much, and are sometimes broken out while the dog is yet young. The holders, or tusks, are also blunted by the same causes. At seven or eight, the hair about the eyes becomes slightly grey. Gradually, likewise, a greyish tint extends over the face; but it is not till ten, eleven, or twelve years, that the eyes lose their lustre: when they become dim, general decay proceeds rapidly, though the life of some dogs is extended to fifteen, sixteen, or seventeen years; and I have seen a mother and son vigorous at twenty and twenty-one years old. Although such instances as the latter must be considered as rare, yet even these have been exceeded, if I might depend on my authority; for I once saw a small French dog, which I was assured had reached his twenty-fourth year, and which, at the time I saw him, was still vigorous and lively. I am not aware that much difference exists between the various breeds, as to the age they arrive at: spaniels, however, I have observed, are usually long lived; while terriers, on the contrary, I have seldom observed very old. The usual life of the dog may be considered as ranging between twelve and fifteen years: domestication has tended, in some degree, to curtail the period, but not so much as might have been expected, considering the powerful operation of artificial habits.—White—Percival—Brown—Blaine.

AGED, a. Old, stricken in years. When horses pass that period of life when their age is not discoverable by the teeth marks, they are commonly termed aged.

AGISTOR, s. Anciently an officer who attended upon the king’s woods and forest lands, to receive and take in cattle, &c. by agistment; that is to depasture within the forest, or to feed upon the pannage, &c. This officer was constituted by letters patent.

AIM, v. To endeavour to strike with a missile weapon.

AIM, s. The direction of a missile weapon; the point to which the thing thrown is directed.

AIR, v. To expose to the air; to take the air; to warm by the fire.

AIR-BLADDER, s. A bladder filled with air, and used in lake fishing to buoy the ends of night lines and mesh nets.

AIR-CELLS OF BIRDS.

The lungs of birds have several openings, communicating with corresponding air-bags or cells, which fill the whole cavity of the body from the neck downwards, and into which the air passes and re-passes in the process of breathing. This is not all: the very bones of birds are hollowed out with the design of receiving air from the lungs, from which air-pipes are conveyed to the most solid parts of the body, and even into the quills and plumelets of the feathers, which are hollow or spongy for its reception. As all these hollow parts, as well as the cells, are only open on the side communicating with the lungs, the bird requires only to take in a full breath to fill and distend its whole body with air, which, in consequence of the considerable heat of its body, is rendered much lighter than the air of the atmosphere. By forcing this air out of the body again, the weight becomes so much increased, that birds of large size can dart down from great heights in the air with astonishing velocity. The structure of insects is not a little analogous.—Ins. Trans.

AIR-GUN, s. A species of gun charged with air instead of powder.

The air-gun, although long known, has never been much used, as its slight report is the only advantage it can possess over fire-arms, while its danger and inefficiency are admitted. Fatal accidents have occurred in charging it, and every attempt to remedy the danger has been unsuccessful. In the old principle, the globe or ball which forms the receiver has frequently blown up while the air was being pumped in, and loss of life or severe injury resulted. Latterly, the attention of several experimentalists has been directed to its improvement. One of them, Mr. Laing, of the Haymarket, imagined he had overcome the great objection; and by a very ingenious alteration, in which the globe was done away with, and the air-receiver transferred to the stock of the gun, he hoped thus to have removed the danger. But in this he was sadly disappointed. While trying the improved air-gun, the receiver burst, injured him severely, and induced him to abandon any farther experiments with this dangerous instrument.

Indeed, the manifest inferiority of the air-gun to the rifle, would, independently of its danger, prevent it from coming into general use. As an instrument, it is extremely troublesome to shoot with, and liable to constant derangement. Its power is very weak, and in accuracy of aim the rifle is far superior. Even the advantage of slight report in the discharge is now comparatively done away with, in consequence of the recent introduction of the small-bore rifles for rook and rabbit shooting; which, from the trifling quantity of powder used in charging, are scarcely louder than the air-gun.

Purday, whose reputation as a rifle maker is deservedly high, has brought them to great perfection; and some beautiful guns of this description may be seen at his manufactory, which, though so small in the gage as to require bullets eighty to the pound, are perfect alike in execution and workmanship.

With respect to the Air-cane, though a more recent invention, it is only necessary to say, that it has all the disadvantages of the air-gun, with much weaker power, and a greater liability to get out of order. It is a mere toy, and, certainly, a very dangerous one.

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Formerly, poachers were in the habit of using air-guns to destroy pheasants in the preserves. The instrument made no noise, and the operator preferred the boisterous, rainy night, when the moon was nearly at the full; the wet did not in the least affect the discharge of this implement, and the keepers knew a common gun could not be effectually employed in such tempestuous weather; besides, the report caused immediate alarm, and frequent detection. Vast numbers of pheasants were carried off, before this practice was discovered.

The late Mr. Tyssen was partial to an air-gun for shooting rooks, rabbits, &c., and was using one at Donyland Park, in Essex, when the screw of the valve gave way, as the servant was pumping the air into it; the copper ball fortunately took such a direction, that no one was hurt; but, in passing through the trees, it cut off some considerable branches. This accident staggered his confidence in the security of their principle, and from the best informed persons he consulted upon the subject, he was convinced there was no certainty of their being safe, and he wisely relinquished the air-gun, with all its asserted superlative properties.—Daniel.

AIRY, a. Composed of air; relating to the air; high in air; light as air; gay, sprightly, full of mirth, lively.

ALCOHOL, s. A highly rectified spirit of wine.

ALKALI, s. Any substance which combines with an acid, and produces a salt.

Alkalies form one of the classes of saline bodies, and are of three kinds: the vegetable alkali—kali, or potash,—the mineral alkali—soda, or natron,—and the volatile alkali, or ammonia. Alkalies are distinguished by their changing blue vegetable colours to a green, and yellow to orange; by combining rapidly with acids, and forming with them neutral salts—and by rendering oils miscible with water. Vegetable and mineral alkalies, not being evaporable, except in a high degree of heat, are termed fixed: and ammonia, being evaporable in a low temperature, obtains the name of volatile alkali.—White.

ALKALINE, a. That which has the qualities of alkali.

ALLSPICE, s. Jamaica pepper, a powerful cordial and carminative; the dose from two to three or four drachms. Mr. Bracey Clarke, in a book he has published on flatulent or spasmodic colic, or gripes, strongly recommends a tincture of allspice in proof spirit, as an effectual remedy for that disorder. The dose about 4 to 6 oz. in water.

ALLURE, v. To entice to any thing.

ALOES, s. A precious wood used in the east for perfumes, of which the best sort is of higher price than gold; a tree which grows in hot countries; a medicinal juice extracted from the common aloes tree.

Aloes is the inspissated juice of a plant of the same name, and is an effectual purgative for horses. It is intensely bitter, and strong and unpleasant to the smell.

Socotrine aloes is grown in the island Socotra, and is safer in its operation than the other kinds. It is of a dark reddish or brown colour, opaque, and less disagreeable to smell than the others. It formerly sold at a high price, and was therefore liable to adulteration. Barbadoes aloes is a coarser medicine, liable to produce griping, and other unpleasant effects; but it is a safe and efficacious purgative. It is darker coloured, less brittle, and of a stronger and more disagreeable smell—more active than the Socotrine; and considered more certain in its operation. Every kind of aloes is liable to produce bad consequences if given too largely, or if the horse be treated improperly while under its effect. There is a peculiarity in the horse’s intestines which renders them more liable to be injured by purgatives than those of other domestic animals, and therefore cathartic medicines should be prepared by persons of judgment and experience.

Cape aloes is rather transparent, very brittle, easily powdered, in this state of a bright yellow colour; the odour arising from it is not so strong as the Barbadoes, but stronger and less agreeable than the Socotrine. This kind is sold at a much lower price than the others, but is so weak and uncertain in its effect, that it is seldom employed in veterinary medicine. The dose of Socotrine aloes is from five to nine, Barbadoes from four to six, and Cape from six to ten drachms.

Aloes operates more speedily when united with soap, or any of the fixed alkalies. In old books cream of tartar is prescribed with aloes, under the supposition that it prevented griping, but soap is preferable.

Aloes is sometimes given as an alterative in doses of one or two drachms. It is also an ingredient in Friar’s balsam, and compound tincture of myrrh; preparations much used by farriers.—White.

ALPINE SPANIEL (Canis Alpinus), s.

The spaniel of St. Bernard exceeds all others of the same tribe in size and beauty. He generally reaches two feet in height at the shoulders, and is upwards of five feet from the nose to the tip of the tail. His coat is much more curled than that of either the springer or the cocker, and his hair is very closely set, with short woolly fur at the roots; his feet like those of all the dogs of cold climates, are protected from the possibility of being cut by the frost, by being covered with a thick fur, which, besides, enables him to climb those almost inaccessible ridges of ice which are so numerous on the Great St. Bernard. There is a peculiarity about the corners of the eyes of this dog which is attributed to the snow, and the high Alpine regions which he inhabits.

In point of intelligence, the Alpine spaniel may be reckoned at least equal to any of the species; and he has the greatest aptitude for learning anything to which he may be trained. He is peculiarly adapted to those stormy regions, the Swiss Alps; and Providence, in the wisdom of its arrangements, seems to have placed him where he was to be most serviceable to mankind.

These dogs are kept by the monks of the monasteries of the Swiss Alps for the express purpose of searching, during heavy snow storms, for travellers who may have fallen into cavities or pits, in which situation, without timely assistance, they would soon be starved or frozen to death. The practice is to send them out in pairs, and being perfectly conversant with the nature of their employment, they traverse a great extent of the adjoining country. By marks in the snow, but principally from the scent formed from the breath of persons so situated exhaling through the drift, they discover the pit that contains the buried traveller; in which case they instantly return and give the alarm, when assistance being procured, these sagacious animals lead the benevolent monks to the relief of the unfortunate individual.

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The following anecdote appears to be well authenticated:—In crossing the mountain St. Gothard, near Airola, the Chevalier Gaspard de Brandenberg and his servant were buried by an avalanche; his dog, who escaped the heap of snow, did not quit the place where he had lost his master: this was fortunately not far from the convent; the animal howled, ran to the convent frequently, and then returned; struck by his perseverance, the next morning the people from the house followed him; he led them directly to the spot, scratched the snow, and after thirty-six hours passed beneath it, the Chevalier and his domestic were taken out safe, hearing distinctly, during their confinement, the howling of the dog, and the discourse of their deliverers. Sensible that to the sagacity and fondness of this creature he owed his life, the gentleman ordered by his will, that he should be represented on his tomb with his dog; and at Zug, in the church of St. Oswald, where he was buried in 1728, they still show the monument, and the effigy of the gentleman, with the dog lying at his feet.—Brown—Daniel.

ALTERATIVES, s. Gentle medicines which act gradually upon the constitution.

Those commonly employed are nitre, antimony, sulphur, resin, and Æthiop’s mineral, exhibited in combination. Laxative Alteratives are substituted for purgatives: diuretic are recommended for reducing or preventing swellings of the leg; and diaphoretic to increase insensible perspiration, and assist the coating of the horse.

ALUM, s. A saline body, composed of sulphuric acid, alumine, and potash.

It is used internally as an astringent, in diarrhœa, diabetes, &c., and externally as a remedy for grease. When burnt it is efficacious in cleansing ulcers, and for this purpose usually combined with red precipitate.

Alum is produced by placing a quantity of crude alum in an iron ladle, and keeping it over a slow fire until the watery particles are evaporated, and the mass becomes a light and pulverisable substance.

ALUMINOUS, a. Relating to alum, or consisting of alum.

AMAUROSIS, s. A dimness of sight, not from any visible defect in the eye, but from some distemperature in the inner parts, occasioning the representations of flies and dust floating before the eyes.

In horses, this disease is caused by a pressure of blood upon the nerve of the eye; and in the earlier stages may be relieved by bleeding, but when of long standing it is incurable.

AMBLE, v. To move upon an amble, to pace; to move easily; to walk daintily.

AMBLE, s. An easy pace.

AMBLER, s. A pacer.

AMBURY, s. A bloody wart on a horse’s body.

The removal of amburies, or warts, is commonly effected by a tight ligature of silk; but, in every case, no matter where the wart may be, the use of the knife is preferable. Some farriers touch them with arsenic, mixed with a little soft soap; but this is a dangerous method, and often produces a serious degree of inflammation and sloughing.

Farriers generally endeavour to get rid of wens by blistering, but this never answers; and sometimes they use arsenic and soap; but this is not only very dangerous, but generally ineffectual also. The knife is the safest, most expeditious, and most effectual remedy for wens, and every kind of encysted tumour. When a considerable artery is opened in cutting out a wen, the bleeding may be stopped by tying it, by means of a tenaculum or a crooked needle, or the bleeding vessel may be laid hold of by a pair of forceps and tied.

AMERICAN GAME, s.

The woodcocks are, in all respects, like those in England, except that they are only about three-fifths of the size. They breed here, and are in such numbers, that some men kill twenty brace or more in a day. Their haunts are in marshy places or woods. The shooting of them lasts from the 4th of July, till the hardish frosts come. Here are five months of this sort, and pheasants and partridges are shot from September to April.

The snipes are called English snipes, which they resemble in all respects, and are found in great abundance in the usual haunts of snipes.

The grouse is precisely like the Scotch grouse. There is only here and there a place where they are found; but they are, in those places, killed in vast quantities, in the fall of the year.

As to the wild ducks and other water-fowl, which are come at by lying in wait, and killed most frequently swimming or sitting, they are slaughtered in whole flocks. An American counts the cost of powder and shot. If he is deliberate in everything else, this habit will hardly forsake him in the act of shooting. When the sentimental flesh-eaters hear the report of his gun, they may begin to pull out their white handkerchiefs, for death follows the pull of his trigger, with perhaps even more certainty than it used to follow the lancet of Dr. Rush.

The plover is a fine bird, and is found in great numbers upon the plains and in the cultivated fields of the islands. Plovers are very shy and wary, but they have ingenious enemies to deal with. A waggon or carriage of some sort is made use of to approach them, and then they are easily killed.

Rabbits are very abundant in some places. They are killed by shooting, for all here is done with gun—no reliance is placed upon a dog.—Cobbett.

AMES-ACE, s. Two aces thrown at the same time on two dice.

AMMONIA, s. A volatile alkali, produced from bones or sal ammoniac, and other mineral substances. Carbonate of ammonia, a stimulant and cordial. Drop ammoniac, as an expectorant, is given successfully in doses of two, three, and four drachms.

AMPHIBIOUS, a. That which can live in two elements.

ANAS, s. The generic name of the duck tribe.

The Duck, a genus thus characterised. Bill middle size, strong, straight, more or less depressed, covered with a thin skin, often more raised than broad at the base, which is either furnished with a fleshy substance or quite smooth, always depressed towards the point, which is rounded, blunt, and clawed, margins of the two mandibles toothed with plates, of either a flat or a conical form. Nostrils almost at the surface of the bill, at some distance from the base, somewhat oval, half closed by the flat membrane which lines the nostril. Legs short, feathered to the knees, drawn back towards the belly; three toes before, wholly webbed; hind toe free, articulated higher up on the flank, without a membrane, or having only the rudiments thereof. Wings of middle size; the first quill either as long as the second or rather shorter.

Temminck divides the genus into four sections. 1. The Goose; 2. The Swan; 3. The Duck. A. Ducks having the hind claw naked. B. Ducks having the hind claw covered with a loose membrane.

This genus, in which ornithologists have included all the Swans, Geese, and Ducks, amounts, according to the latest enumeration, to ninety-eight species, and about fourteen varieties; thirty-three of the former, and one of the latter, are accounted British birds.

From the swan downward to the teal, they are all of a clean-plumaged, beautiful race of birds, and some of them exquisitely so. Those which have been reclaimed from a state of nature, and live dependent on man, are extremely useful to him; under his protection they breed in great abundance, and without requiring much of his time or care, lead their young to the pool almost as soon as they are hatched, where they instantly, with instinctive perception, begin to search for their food, which at first consists chiefly of weeds, worms, and insects; these they sift, as it were, from the mud, and for that purpose their bills are admirably adapted. When they are further advanced in life, they pick up the sodden scattered grain of the farm-yard; which, but for their assiduous searchings, would be lost. To them also are allotted large quantities of corn which are shaken by the winds from the over-ripened ears in the field. On this clean and simple food they soon become fat, and their flesh is accounted delicious and nourishing.

In a wild state, birds of various kinds preserve their original plumage; but when tamed they soon begin to vary, and show the effects of domestication: this is the case with the tame goose and the duck, which differ as much from the wild of their respective kinds, as they do from each other.—Bewick.

ANASARCA, s. A general dropsy, consisting of a watery fluid lodged beneath the skin.

Anasarca arises from debility or inflammation. The former occurs to old horses when turned out into poor or marshy pasture, and is indicated by general swelling of the belly, chest, and hind legs; it generally ends fatally unless strong diuretics and sudorifics are employed; and these are combined in the celebrated old drench of Markham, which has cured more horses of this disorder than any other remedy; and is considered in the low country, about Glastonbury and Wedmoor, where this disease is prevalent, an infallible remedy. It consists of a decoction of wormwood in a gallon of ale, which is boiled down to two quarts, and skimmed. In this one ounce of Castile soap is dissolved, and then there is to be stirred in six drachms of grains of paradise, powdered, and the same quantity of long pepper. The whole of this mixture is given at once, fasting. The horse to be clothed and rode about until he sweats and stales profusely, which he soon does, and is then relieved. The horse is often capable of doing some work after his recovery; but the constitution of such horses is generally too far broken to receive any permanent benefit from this or any other treatment. The other kind of dropsy, or that which depends on a high degree of general inflammation, most commonly attacks colts during the first, second, or third year, or before they begin to change their grinding teeth. At this period there is less blood formed, not only from the state of the grinding teeth, the gums, and the mouth in general, which is such as to render mastication painful and imperfect, but from the stomach sympathising with this state of the mouth. This disorder in young colts is first observed by dulness, disinclination to motion, hanging the head, and indifference in grazing. There are swellings also on the belly, chest, sheath, or udder, which are sometimes very considerable. When these symptoms are observed, the colt should be taken up and bled until he is quite faint, or drops down from faintness. Nothing more is necessary, unless it is turning him into a place where he can have but little food and sufficient exercise. Markham’s drench has been given to colts when affected with the Moor ill, as the disorder is termed, with success.

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In dogs, this complaint very seldom occurs, unless as an accompaniment of the ascites. I have, however, now and then seen it, and, in most of the cases, it was in old dogs who had laboured under some previous debility. In such instances, when any remaining stamina affords a chance for recovery, the treatment recommended for dropsy of the belly may be resorted to: very small punctures may also be made in the distended skin.—White—Blaine.

ANGLE, s. An instrument to take fish, consisting of a rod, a line and a hook.

ANGLE, v. To fish with a rod and hook.

ANGLE-ROD, s. The stick to which the fisher’s line and hook are hung.

ANGLER, s. He that fishes with an angle.

The Angler will take care, when he means to fish at bottom, to have with him different kind of lines neatly coiled up, strong single hairs, hooks untied of divers sorts, and also tied to bottom links of coarse and fine gimp of twisted and single silk worm gut, of hog’s bristles, and of white and sorrel hair; likewise to be provided with cork and quill floats, and spare caps. Shot split, and small pistol bullets to poise the floats; shoemaker’s wax in a piece of leather (if the wax be too stiff, temper it with tallow); silk of various sizes and colours; recollecting, that hooks for worm fishing, and red paste, are usually tied on with scarlet; and those for gentles, yellow paste, and grubs with straw-coloured silk; a plummet to ascertain the depth of the water when a float is used; a clearing ring to disentangle the hook, which is used by running it along and over the top of the rod, and gradually down the line (holding it by a strong twine, long enough for any such purpose) to where the hook is fast, if at a stump or other immoveable substance; but if it be hung to weeds, let the ring get below the hook, then pull the twine, and the ring will break the weeds, and thus save both line and hook; in the former case, if it does not release the hook, it will enable the line to be broken near to it, and prevent the line from being strained in any other part. A sharp pen-knife, a pair of scissors, a small whetstone about two inches long and a quarter of an inch square, are indispensible. A landing-net, the iron hoop made with joints, and a socket to contain a handle for it; some use a light hook that screws into a long staff, which not only secures the taking of a large fish out of the water, but also is a useful implement in disengaging the line from weeds or boughs of trees. A disgorger to put down the throat of a fish when he has swallowed the hook, until it is touched, when by pulling the line gently at the same time that the instrument presses down the hook, it will be freed. These may be made of a piece of split cane five or six inches long, and a quarter of an inch wide, with a notch at each end. Baits should be carried, the gentles, pastes, and natural flies, in tin boxes; for the latter, with holes punched in the top to admit air. He will likewise not be without worms of different sorts in canvass and woollen bags, and a larger one for malt or other ground bait: to hold the baits, it is far better to have something like a fish-woman’s apron, with three or four partitions (made as below), than to dangle the gentle-case or worm-bags from a button. A piece of coarse cloth, three quarters in length and breadth, doubled to within three inches at one side; which three inches must be doubled back again, and sewed all along close to the first doubling to receive a belt; the great doubling at each side is then to be sewed up, so that the foreside may allow room for the hand to go easily into the pockets, which will be ten inches deep; and when stitched in three places, will leave four divisions, each four inches broad. The fishbasket, pannier, or creel, as they are made very neat and light in wicker-work, should be large enough to admit the fish to lie at full length; they are thus better preserved, both in appearance and for use, than when bent and crushed together; some persons carry their pannier at their back, others under the left arm, having the side nearest them rather hollowed: in these baskets are sometimes a partition at the top, for holding night lines, &c.—Daniel.

ANGLING, p. The art of fishing with a rod and line.

Angling came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation, when both the secular and regular clergy, being prohibited by the common law from the amusement of hunting, hawking, and fowling, directed their attention to this recreation. The invention of printing assisted in exciting attention to this subject, and made known its importance “to cause the helthe of your body, and specyally of your soul,” as the first treatise quaintly concludes. Wynkin de Worde gave the world, in 1496, a small folio republication of the celebrated Book of St. Albans. It contained, for the first time, a curious tract, entitled the Treatyse of Fysshinge with an Angle; embellished with a wood cut of the angler. This treatise is imputed to Dame Juliana Berners, or Barnes, prioress of a nunnery near St. Albans. “The angler,” she observes, “atte the least hath his holsom walke and mery at his ease, a swete ayre of the swete savoure of the meede flowers that makyth him hungary; he hereth the melodyous armony of the fowles, he seeth the yonge swannes, heerons, duckes, cotes, and many other fowles, with their brodes, whych me seemyth better than alle the noyse of the houndys, the blast of hornys, and the scrye of fowles, that hunters, fawkeners, and fowlers, can make. And if angler take fysshe, surely thenne is there noo man merier than he is in his spyryte?” The Book of St. Albans contains “Treatises perteynynge to Hawkynge and Huntynge,” as well as “Fysshinge with an Angle;” and several editions of it were printed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; as that under the title of “The Gentleman’s Academie in 1595;” “The Jewel for Gentrie in 1674.” Mr. Haselwood, a learned biographer, has recently favoured the public with a well finished fac-simile reprint of the work, but he disputes the claim of the fair lady above mentioned to be the authoress of the above treatise on angling, and only assigns her a small portion of the treatise on hawking, the entire treatise on hunting, a list of the beasts of chase, and another of birds and fowls.

Walton’s inimitable “Discourse on Angling” was first printed in 1653, in an elegant duodecimo, with plates of the most considerable fish cut in steel. This edition, and three subsequent ones, consisted wholly of what is now called part the first of the “Complete Angler,” or Walton’s individual portion of the work. While engaged in 1676, being the eighty-third year of his age, in preparing the fifth edition, he received from his friend, Charles Cotton, Esq., a gentleman in Derbyshire, “Instructions how to angle for a Trout or Grayling in a clear Stream,” as they were first called, which afterwards became part the second of this joint publication.

Angling has been thought of sufficient importance to be protected by statute. This first occurred in the reign of Edward I., when imprisonment and treble damages were awarded against all that should trespass on the rights of authorised fishers. By the 31 Hen. VIII. c. 2, s. 2, it was enacted, “If any evil disposed persons shall fish in the day time, from six in the morning to six in the evening, in any ponds, stews, or moats, with nets, hooks, or bait, against the will of the owners, they shall, on the conviction thereof, at the suit of the king, or the party aggrieved, suffer imprisonment for the space of three months, and find security for their good behaviour.” By the 5 Eliz., c. 21, s. 2, it is enacted, “If any person shall unlawfully break or destroy any head or dam of a fish pond, or shall wrongfully fish therein, with intent to take or kill fish, he shall, on conviction at the assizes or sessions, at the suit of the king or the party injured, be imprisoned three months and pay treble damages; and after the expiration of the said three months, shall find sureties for good behaviour for seven years to come.”

By the 22 & 23 Car. II. c. 25, s. 7, it is enacted, “That if any person shall, at any time, use any casting net, drag net, shore net, or other net whatsoever; or any angle, hair, noose, troll, or spear; or shall lay any wears, pots, nets, fish-hooks, or other engines; or shall take any fish by any means whatsoever, in any river, stew, moat, pond, or other water, or shall be aiding thereunto, without the consent of the owner of the water, and be convicted thereof within one month after the offence committed, such offender shall give to the party injured such satisfaction as a justice shall appoint, not exceeding treble damages; and pay the overseers of the poor such sum, not exceeding 10_s._, as the justice shall think fit: in default of payment, the said penalties to be levied by distress; or the offender to be committed to the house of correction for a term not exceeding one month, unless he enter into a bond, with surety, in a sum not exceeding £10, never to offend in like manner.” Justices are also authorised to destroy all such articles as before recited and adapted to the taking of fish, as may be found in the possession of offenders when taken. Persons aggrieved may appeal to the quarter sessions, whose judgment shall be final.

And by the 4 & 5 William and Mary it is enacted, “That no person (except makers and sellers of nets, owners of a river or fishery, authorised fishermen and their apprentices) shall keep any net, angle, leap, pike, or rather engine, for taking of fish. The proprietor of any river or fishery, or persons by them authorised, may seize, and keep to his own use, any engine which shall be found in the custody of any person fishing in any river or fishery, without the consent of the owner or occupier. And such owner, occupier, or person authorised by either, sanctioned by the consent of any justice, in the day time, may search the houses or other places of any unqualified person, who shall be suspected of having such nets, or other engines in his possession, and the same to seize and keep to their own use, or cut in pieces and destroy.” Stealing fish in disguise is made felony of by the 9 Geo. I. c. 22. “If any person armed and disguised shall unlawfully steal, or take away, any fish out of any river or pond, (whether armed or not,) shall unlawfully and maliciously break down the head or mound of any fish pond, whereby the fish shall be lost and destroyed, or shall rescue any person in custody for any such offence, or procure any other to join him therein, he shall be guilty of felony without benefit of clergy.” This (commonly called the Black Act) is made perpetual by 31 Geo. II. c. 42.

By the 5 Geo. III. c. 14, s. 1, it is enacted, “That if any person shall enter into any park or paddock enclosed, or into any garden, orchard, or yard, belonging to, or adjoining to, any dwelling-house, wherein shall be any river, pond, moat, or other water, and, by any means whatsoever, (without the consent of the owner,) steal, kill, or destroy, any fish, bred, kept, or preserved therein, or shall be assisting therein, or shall receive or buy any such fish, knowing them to be such, shall, upon conviction, be transported for seven years. Persons making confession of such offence, and giving evidence against an accomplice, who, in pursuance thereof, shall be convicted, will be entitled to a free pardon.” And by the same act, section 3, it is provided, “That if any person shall take, kill, or destroy, or attempt to take, kill, or destroy, any fish in any river or stream, pool, pond, or any other water, (not being in any park or paddock enclosed, or in any garden, orchard, or yard, belonging or adjoining to a dwelling-house, but in any other enclosed ground, being private property,) such person being thereof convicted by confession, or the oath of one witness before a justice, shall forfeit five pounds to the owner of the fishery of such river or other water; and in default thereof shall be committed to the house of correction for a time not exceeding six months.”

By the 1 Eliz. c. 17, “All fishermen are forbidden to destroy the fry of fish, small salmon and trout, under a penalty of twenty shillings;” and by the 4 & 5 Anne, for the protection of salmon in the counties of Southampton and Wilts, no salmon shall be taken between the first of August and twelfth of November. Statutes of Geo. I. and II., forbid the same fish to be taken in the rivers Severn, Wye, Ware, Ouse, &c., under eighteen inches long.

It is held that when the lord of the manor has the soil on both sides of the river, as in the case of the Severn, the right of fishing goes with it; and he who intrudes thereon must prove his claim of a free fishery; but when the tide ebbs and flows, and the river is an arm of the sea, as in the case of the Thames, the right is presumed to be common, and he who claims a privilege must prove it.—Ency. Lon. (Vide FISH, FISHING, &c. &c.)

ANIMAL, s. A living creature.

ANIMAL, a. That belongs or relates to animals.

ANIMALCULE, s. A small animal.

ANISEED, s. A stimulant and cordial, much used in veterinary practice. The essential oil is generally preferred.

ANKLE, s. The joint which joins the foot to the leg.

ANKLE-BONE, s. The bone of the ankle.

ANODYNE, a. That which has the power of mitigating pain.

ANODYNE BALL.

No. 1. Opium from ½ dr. to 1 dr. Castile soap 2 dr. to 4 dr. Powdered ginger 1 dr. to 2 dr. Powdered aniseed ½ oz. to 1 oz. Oil of caraways ½ dr. Syrup, enough to form a ball.

ANODYNE DRAUGHT, OR DRENCH.

No. 2. Tincture of opium from ½ oz. to 1 oz. Spirit of nitrous ether 1 oz. to 2 oz. Essence of peppermint 1 to 2 dr. Water 1 pint.

ANODYNE CARMINATIVE TINCTURE.

No. 3. Best Turkey opium 1 oz. Cloves bruised 2 oz. Jamaica ginger bruised 3 oz. Old Cognac brandy 1 quart.

Keep them together in a well-corked bottle three or four weeks, frequently shaking it. The dose two or three ounces in water.

The ball may be mixed with warm ale, if the form of a drench be preferred to that of a ball, and either of the receipts will be found a good remedy in flatulent or spasmodic colic.—White.

ANOINT, v. a. To rub over with unctuous matter; to consecrate by unction.

ANSER, s. The goose, a genus thus characterised. Bill shorter than the head, a little conical, as are the marginal denticulations. Neck of a middle length.

ANT, s. An emmet, a pismire.

An universal bustle and activity observed in anthills may be generally regarded as a sign of rain. The ants frequently appear all in motion together, and carry their eggs about from place to place.—Foster.

ANTHELMINTHICS, s. Medicines that destroy worms, or expel them from the intestines.

The mercurial purgatives are generally considered the most effectual anthelminthics. A variety of vegetables have been thought to possess this quality, but I believe without foundation; among these are box, rue, savin, and wormwood. Æthiop’s mineral, antimony, sulphur, and tin, have also been considered as anthelminthics. I believe tin has not been fairly tried: and as it is an efficacious anthelminthic in dogs, it may probably be found useful in horses. Of all the mercurial preparations, calomel is by far the best for this purpose, and may be given with aloes, soap, and some aromatic oil, with a little ginger. Many prefer giving the calomel at night, and the purgative the following morning. Aloes are a good anthelminthic. A saline substance was some time ago introduced from India, as a remedy for that species of worm termed botts. It seems to be composed of common salt and liver of sulphur, but it does not appear to deserve the high character that was given of it; though, like salt or brine, it may sometimes have been found an effectual anthelminthic.—White. (Vide WORMS.)

ANTHRAX, s. A scab or blotch which burns the skin.

ANTICOR, s. A preternatural swelling in a horse’s breast, opposite his heart.

This is, I believe, an inflammatory disorder, and requires bleeding and opening medicines, with fomentations. It is said to happen frequently, and often end fatally, in France and Italy; but seldom in this country. It consists in a painful swelling of the breast and belly, sometimes ending in suppuration, sometimes in dropsy. After bleeding and opening medicine, give mild diuretics and grass.—White.

ANTIDOTE, s. A medicine given to obviate the effects of poisons.

ANTIMONIAL, a. Made of antimony.

ANTIMONY, s. A metal.

Preparations of antimony are extensively used in veterinary practice, generally in combination. In fevers it is particularly useful, and in a fluid preparation is recommended in foul ulcers of the feet, caukers, &c. &c.

ANTISEPTICS, s.

Antiseptics are medicines which prevent putridity, or remove it if begun. The most efficacious are bark and other bitters; opium, wine, ether, ammonia, and camphor.

Horses do not appear to be subject to those fevers which, in the human system, are termed putrid. In gangrene, or mortification of the external parts, antiseptic fomentations are employed, which are made by boiling wormwood, rue, and other bitter herbs in water.

ANTISPASMODIC, a. That which has the power of relieving the cramp.

ANTISPASMODICS, s.

Antispasmodics in veterinary practice possess the power of allaying inordinate or painful motions in the system, particularly those involuntary contractions in parts which are naturally subject to the command of the will.

Medical writers divide antispasmodics into two kinds, viz. stimulants and sedatives. To the former belong arsenic, preparations of copper, zinc, and iron; also, ammonia, ether, essential oils, &c. The latter comprehends opium, musk, camphor, and all the vegetable narcotics.

Medicines of the fœtid kind, such as galbanum, assaœtida, &c., have also an antispasmodic quality.

When spasm arises from irritation, sedatives are to be given; but when it depends merely on debility, tonics are evidently proper. The spasmodic complaints to which horses are liable, are locked jaw and spasmodic or flatulent colic, commonly named gripes, in which the most efficacious antispasmodic is opium; but it is generally joined with others, such as camphor, assaœtida, ether, oil of peppermint, juniper, caraways, or allspice, or other aromatics.

Spices and aromatic seeds, such as cinnamon, cloves, ginger, caraways, aniseed, &c., are often joined with opium, either in powder or infused with it in proof spirit, to form a tincture, and will be found a good antispasmodic in that form.

ANTLER, s. Branch of a stag’s horn.

APERIENT, a. Gently purgative.

APEX, s. The tip or point.

APIARY, s. The place where bees are kept.

APOPLEXY, s. A sudden deprivation of all sensation.

APOSTUME, s. A hollow tumour filled with purulent matter.

APPARATUS, s. Those things which are provided for the accomplishment of any purpose. (Vide SHOOTING.)

APPLICATION, s. The act of applying any thing to another; the thing applied.

AQUA-FORTIS, s. Weak nitric acid.

AQUILINE, a. Resembling an eagle; when applied to the nose, hooked.

ARAB, s. or ARABIAN. A horse bred in Arabia.

The Arabian.—Of all the countries in the world where the horse runs wild, Arabia produces the most beautiful breed—the most generous, swift, and persevering. They are found, though not in great numbers, in the deserts of that country, and the natives use every stratagem to take them. Although they are active and beautiful, yet they are not so large as those bred up tame. They are of a brown colour, their mane and tail very short, and the hair black and tufted. Their swiftness is incredible; the attempt to pursue them in the usual manner of the chace, with dogs, would be entirely fruitless: such is the rapidity of their flight, that they are instantly out of view, and the dogs themselves give up the vain pursuit. The only method, therefore, of taking them is by traps hidden in the sand, which entangling their feet, the hunter at length comes up, and either kills them or carries them home alive. If the horse be young, he is considered among the Arabians as a very great delicacy, and they feast upon him while any part is found remaining; but if from his shape or vigour he promises to be serviceable in his more noble capacity, they take the usual methods of taming him by fatigue and hunger, and he soon becomes a useful domestic animal. But the horses thus caught, or trained in this manner, are at present very few; the value of Arabian horses all over the world has, in a great measure, thinned the deserts of the wild breed, and there are few to be found in those countries, except such as are tame.

The Arabian breed has been diffused into Barbary as well as Egypt, and into Persia also. Those from the former country are usually denominated “Barbs.”

Let the Arab be ever so poor, he has horses: they usually ride on the mares, experience having taught them that they bear fatigue, hunger, and thirst, better than horses; they also are less vicious, more gentle, and will remain, left to themselves, in great numbers, for days together, without doing the least injury to each other. The Turks, on the contrary, do not like mares, and the Arabians sell them the horses which they do not keep for stallions.

The Arabs have no houses, but constantly live in tents, which serve them also for stables, so that the husband, the wife, and the children, lie promiscuously with the mare and foal. The little children are often seen upon the body or the neck of the mare, while these continue inoffensive and harmless, permitting them thus to play with and caress them without injury.

The Arabs never beat their horses; they treat them gently; they speak to them, and seem to hold a discourse; they use them as friends; they never attempt to increase their speed by the whip, nor spur them, but in cases of necessity;—however, when this happens they set off with amazing swiftness, they leap over obstacles with as much agility as a buck, and if the rider happens to fall, they are so manageable that they stand still in the midst of their most rapid career.

The Arabian horses are of a middle size, easy in their motions, and rather inclined to leanness than fat. They are regularly dressed every morning and evening, and with such care, that the smallest roughness is not left upon their skins. They wash the legs, the mane, and the tail; the two latter they never cut, and very seldom comb, lest they should thin the hair.

They give them nothing to eat during the day; they only give them to drink once or twice, and at sunset they hang a bag to their heads, in which there is about half a bushel of clean barley: they continue eating the whole night, and the bag is again taken away the next morning. They are turned out to pasture in the beginning of March, when the grass is pretty high. When the spring is past they take them again from pasture, and then they get neither grass nor hay during the rest of the year; barley is their only food, except now and then a little straw. The mane of the foal is always clipped when about a year or eighteen months old, in order to make it stronger and thicker; they begin to break them at two years old, or two years and a half at farthest; they never saddle or bridle them till at that age, and then they are always kept ready saddled at the door of the tent, from morning till sunset, in order to be prepared against any surprise. They at present seem sensible of the great advantage their horses are to the country; there is a law, therefore, that prohibits the exportation of the mares, and such stallions as are brought into England are generally purchased on the eastern shores of Africa, and come round to us by the Cape of Good Hope.

The Arabs preserve the pedigree of their horses with great care, and for several ages back. They distinguish the races by different names, and divide them into three classes; the first is that of the nobles, the ancient breed, and unadulterated on either side; the second, that of the horses of the ancient race, but adulterated; and the third the common and inferior kind: the last they sell at a low price, but those of the first class, and even of the second, amongst which are found horses of equal value to the former, are sold extremely dear. They know, by long experience, the race of a horse by his appearance; they can tell the name, the surname, the colour, and the marks properly belonging to each. When the mare has produced the foal, witnesses are called, and an attestation signed, in which are described the marks of the foal, and the day noted when it was brought forth. These attestations increase the value of the horse, and are given to the person who buys him. The most ordinary mare of this race sells for five hundred crowns; there are many that sell for a thousand, and some of the very finest kinds for fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds.

* * * * *

Eighty or one hundred piastres are given for an ordinary horse, which is in general less valued than an ass or mule; but a horse of a well known Arabian breed will fetch any price. Abdallah, pacha of Damascus, had just given three thousand piastres for one. The history of a horse is frequently the topic of general conversation. When I was at Jerusalem, the feats of one of these steeds made a great noise. The Bedouin, to whom the animal, a mare, belonged, being pursued by the governor’s guards, rushed with her from the top of the hills that overlooked Jericho. The mare scoured at full gallop an almost perpendicular declivity without stumbling, and left the soldiers lost in admiration and astonishment. The poor creature, however, dropped down dead on entering Jericho, and the Bedouin, who would not quit her, was taken weeping over the body of his companion. This mare has a brother in the desert, who is so famous, that the Arabs always know where he has been, where he is, what he is doing, and how he does. Ali Aga religiously showed me, in the mountains near Jericho, the footsteps of the mare that died in the attempt to save her master,—a Macedonian could not have beheld those of Bucephalus with greater respect.

* * * * *

The pure Arabians are somewhat smaller than our race horses, seldom exceeding fourteen hands two inches in height. Their heads are very beautiful, clean, and wide between the jaws; the forehead is broad and square; the face flat; the muzzle short and fine; the eyes prominent and brilliant; the ears small and handsome; the nostrils large and open; the skin of the head thin, through which may be distinctly traced the whole of the veins; the neck rather short than otherwise. The body may, as a whole, be considered too light, and the breast rather narrow; but behind the arms, the chest generally swells out greatly, leaving ample room for the lungs to play, and with great depth of ribs. The shoulder is superior to that of any other breed; the scapula, or shoulder-blade, inclines backwards nearly an angle of forty-five degrees; the withers are high and arched; the neck beautifully curved; the mane and tail long, thin, and flowing: the legs are fine, flat, and wiry, with the posteriors placed somewhat oblique, which has led some to suppose that their strength was thereby lessened—but this is by no means the case; the bone is of uncommon density; and the prominent muscles of the fore arms and thigh, prove that the Arabian horse is fully equal to all that has been said of its physical powers. The Arabian is never known, in a tropical climate, to be a roarer, or to have curbs, the shape, from the point of the hock to the fetlock, being very perfect. It is a remarkable fact, that the skin of all the light-coloured Arabians is pure black, or bluish black, which gives to white horses that beautiful silvery gray colour so prevalent among the coursers of noble blood. Bay and chestnut are also common, and considered good colours. It has been remarked in India, that no horse of a dark gray colour was ever known to be a winner on the turf. If an Arabian horse exceed fourteen and a half hands in height, the purity of his blood is always doubted in India.

* * * * *

Speaking of the docile character of the Arab horse, the late Bishop of Calcutta writes: “My morning rides are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet, good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless, that he goes, without starting, close to an elephant, and so gentle and docile, that he eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog. This seems the general character of the Arab horses, to judge from what I have seen in this country. It is not the fiery, dashing animal I had supposed, but with more rationality about him, and more apparent confidence in his rider, than the majority of English horses.”—Le Keux—Brown—Clarke—Heber.

ARBALIST, s. A cross-bow.

ARCHER, s. He that shoots with a bow.

ARCHERY, s. The use of the bow; the act of shooting with the bow; the art of an archer.

Archery is the art or exercise of shooting with a bow and arrow.

In this island, archery was greatly encouraged in former times, and many statutes were made for the regulation thereof; whence the English archers became the best in Europe, and obtained many signal victories. The Artillery Company of London, though they have long disused the weapon, are the remains of the ancient bowmen or archers. Artillery (artillerie) is a French term, signifying archery; as the king’s bowyer was in that language styled artillier du roy. And from that nation the English seem to have learnt at least the use of the cross-bow. William the Conqueror had a considerable number of bowmen in his army, when no mention is made of such troops on the side of Harold. And it is supposed that these Norman archers shot with the arbalist, or cross-bow, in which formerly the arrow was placed in a groove, termed in French, a quarrel, and in English, a bolt. Of the time when shooting with the long-bow first began among the English, there appears no certain accounts. Their chronicles do not mention the use of archery till the death of Richard I.; who, in 1199, was killed by an arrow at the siege of Limoges, in Guienne, which Hemingford mentions to have issued from a cross-bow. After this, there appears no notice of archery for nearly one hundred and fifty years; when an order was issued by Edward III., in the fifteenth year of his reign, to the sheriffs of most of the English counties, for providing five hundred white bows, and five hundred bundles of arrows, for the then intended war against France. Similar orders were repeated in the following years, with this difference only, that the sheriff of Gloucestershire is directed to furnish five hundred painted bows, as well as the same number of white.

Philip de Comines acknowledges what our own writers assert, that the English archers excelled those of every other nation; and Sir John Fortescue says “the safety of the realme of England standyth upon archers.” And hence the superior dexterity of their archers gave the English a great advantage over their capital enemies, the French and Scots.

* * * * *

The Normans used the bow as a military weapon; and, under their government, the practice of archery was not only much improved, but generally diffused throughout the kingdom.

In the ages of chivalry, the usage of the bow was considered as an essential part of the education of a young man who wished to make a figure in life.

The ladies also were fond of this amusement; and by a curious representation from an original drawing in a manuscript of the fourteenth century, we see it practised by one who has shot at a deer, and wounded it with great adroitness; and in another previous engraving, the hunting equipments of the female archers, about the middle of the fifteenth century, are represented.

It was usual, when the ladies exercised the bow, for the beasts to be confined by large inclosures, surrounded by the hunters, and driven in succession from the covers to the stands, where the fair sportswomen were placed; so that they might readily shoot at them, without the trouble and fatigue of rousing and pursuing them. It is said of Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII., that when she was on her way towards Scotland, a hunting party was made for her amusement in Alnwick Park, where she killed a buck with an arrow. It is not specified whether the long-bow or the cross-bow was used by the princess upon this occasion: we are certain that the ladies occasionally shot with both; for when Queen Elizabeth visited Lord Montacute, at Cowdrey, in Sussex, on Monday, August 17th, 1591, “Her highness tooke horse, and rode into the park, at eight o’clock in the morning, where was a delicate bowre prepared, under the which were her highness’ musicians placed; and a cross-bow, by a nymph, with a sweet song, was delivered into her hands, to shoote at the deere; about some thirty in number were put into a paddock, of which number she killed three or four, and the countess of Kildare one.”

Roger Ascham, in his instructions to the archer, first of all recommends a graceful attitude. He should stand, says this writer, fairly, and upright with his body, his left foot at a convenient distance before his right; holding the bow by the middle, with his left arm stretched out, and with the three first fingers and the thumb of the right hand upon the lower part of the arrow affixed to the string of the bow. In the second place, a proper attention was to be paid to the nocking, that is, the application of the notch at the bottom of the arrow to the bow-string: we are told that the notch of the arrow should rest between the fore-finger and the middle finger of the right hand. Thirdly, our attention is directed to the proper manner of drawing the bow-string: in ancient times, says Ascham, the right hand was brought to the right pap; but at present it is elevated to the right ear, and the latter method he prefers to the former. The shaft of the arrow, below the feathers, ought to be rested upon the knuckle of the fore-finger of the left hand; the arrow was to be drawn to the head, and not held too long in that situation, but neatly and smartly discharged, without any hanging upon the string. Among the requisites necessary to constitute a good archer, are a clear sight, steadily directed to the mark, and proper judgment to determine the distance of the ground; he ought also to know how to take the advantage of a side-wind, and to be well acquainted with what compass his arrows would require in their flight: courage is also an indispensable requisite, for whoever, says our author, shoots with the least trepidation, he is sure to shoot badly. One great fault in particular he complains of, which young archers generally fall into, and that is, the direction of the eye to the end of the arrow, rather than to the mark; to obviate this evil habit, he advises such as were so accustomed, to shoot in the dark, by night, at lights set up at a proper distance for that purpose. He then concludes with observing, that “bad tutorage” was rarely amended in grown-up persons; and therefore he held it essentially necessary that great attention should be paid to the teaching of an archer properly, while he was young; “for children,” says he, “if sufficient pains are taken with them at the onset, may much more easily be taught to shoot well, than men,” because the latter have frequently more trouble to unlearn their bad habits, than was primitively requisite to learn them good ones.

Kings and princes have been celebrated for their skill in archery, and among those of our own country may be placed King Henry VII., who in his youth was partial to this exercise, and therefore it is said of him in an old poem, written in praise of the Princess Elizabeth, afterwards Queen to Henry VII.

See where he shoteth at the butts, And with hym are lordes three; He weareth a gowne of velvette blacke, And it is coted above the knee.

He also amused himself with the bow after he had obtained the crown, as we find from an account of his expenditures, where the following memorandums occur: “Lost to my Lord Morgan at buttes, six shillings and eightpence:” and again, “Paid to Sir Edward Boroughes thirteen shillings and fourpence which the kynge lost at buttes with his cross-bowe.” Both the sons of King Henry followed his example, and were excellent archers.

* * * * *

In a curious manuscript of the time of Queen Elizabeth, is this account of an archer and all his necessary appendages:—“Captains and officers should be skilful of that most noble weapon, and see that their soldiers, according to their draft and strength, have good bows, well notched, well strynged, and every strynge whippe in their noche; and in the myddes rubbed with wax, braser, and shooting glove; some spare strynges trymed as aforesaid; every man one shefe of arrows, with a case of leather defensible against the rayne; and in the same fower and twentie arrows, whereof eight of them should be lighter than the residue; to gall or astonye the enemye with the hail-shot of light arrows, before they shall come within the danger of the harquebuss shot. Let every man have a brigandine or a little cote of plate, a skull or huskyn, a mawle of leade of five foote in lengthe, and a fusee, and the same hanging by his girdle with a hooke and a dagger; being thus furnished, teach them by musters to marche, shoote, and retire, keeping their faces upon the enemy’s. Sum tyme put them into great nowmbers, as to battle appertayneth; and thus use them oftentimes practised, till they be perfecte; for those men in battel or skirmish cannot be spared. No other weapon maye compare with the same noble weapon.”

* * * * *

The Royal Company of Scotland, one of the most ancient associations in the empire, is said to owe its origin to the commissioners who were originally appointed by James I., to superintend and regulate the exercise of archery throughout the kingdom. These commissioners, who were generally people of character and respectability, picked out among the number of men under their superintendence, the most expert archers; and, in cases of emergency, made a present of their services to the government, in order that they might form the king’s bodyguard. While in this situation, they gave repeated instances of their courage and dexterity. Within seven miles of Edinburgh, the royal company still claims the rank of the King’s Chief Body Guards. In the year 1677, this company was known under the name and title of His Majesty’s Company of Archers; and in the same year, and by the same act of the privy council, a piece of plate of the value of twenty pounds was shot for at the annual parades of the company, called Weapon-shawings; this plate was denominated the “King’s Prize.” At the period to which we are at present alluding, the Royal Company consisted of the principal nobility of Scotland. But the revolutionary principles to which they so tenaciously adhered, almost annihilated their consequence, and withheld the continuance of the King’s prize. Their original magnificence was, however, revived on the accession of Queen Anne to the throne; but their attachment to the unfortunate and ill-fated house of Stuart, again proved the declension of their splendour. But these differences, by the annihilation of the family to whom they are attached, have now subsided, and they are now reinstated in all their former consequence. In 1788 the annual prize was revived and shot for, in the presence of a numerous body of spectators. We may here observe, that the three principal bodies of archers in England and Scotland, are now incorporated in one; by the union of the Woodmen of Arden, the Toxopholites, and the Royal Society of Archers. The prizes, which properly belong to the latter, and which are annually shot for, are, first, a silver arrow, which was presented by the town of Musselburgh, which seems to have been shot for as far back as the year 1603. Whoever gains this may take charge of it for a year; at the expiration of which period it is returned with any device that his imagination may suggest. Second, a silver arrow, which, in A. D. 1626, was granted by the town of Peebles. Third, a silver arrow, given by the town of Edinburgh, A. D. 1709. Fourth, a silver punch-bowl, about the value of fifty pounds, made at the expense of the company of Scotch silversmiths. Fifth, the king’s prize, which is the entire property of the winner. These prizes are shot for at what is called rovers: the marks are placed at the distance of one hundred and eighty-five yards. The uniform of the Royal Company of Archers is tartan, lined with white, and trimmed with green and white fringes; a white sash with green tassels, and a blue bonnet with St. Andrew’s feather and cross. They have also two standards; on one of which is inscribed, “Nemo me impune lacessit;” on the other, “Dulce pro patria periculum.”—Ascham—Strutt—Ency. Lon.

ARCUBALISTER, s. obs. A cross-bow man.

ARM, s. The limb which reaches from the hand to the shoulder; the large bough of a tree; an inlet of water from the sea; in sporting parlance, that portion of the horse’s fore-leg comprised between the shoulder and the knee.

AROMATIC, a. Spicy; fragrant, strong-scented.

AROMATICS, s. Spices; stimulants, as cinnamon, cloves, &c.

ARQUEBUSE, s. obs. A hand gun.

ARRACK, s. A spirituous liquor.

ARROW, s. The pointed weapon which is shot from a bow.

“There are three essential parts in the composition of the arrow,” says Ascham, “the stele or wand, the feathers, and the head. The stele was not always made with the same species of wood, but varied as occasion required, to suit the different manners of shooting practised by the archers;” he commends sound ash for military arrows, and preferred it to asp, which in his day was generally used for arrows belonging to the army; but for pastime, he thought that none were better than those made of oak, hardbeam, or birch; “but after all,” says he, “in this point I hold it best to trust to the recommendation of an honest fletcher.” The feathers from the wing of a goose, and especially of a grey goose, he thought were preferable to any others for the pluming of an arrow.

English arrows then had forked heads and broad heads, but round pointed heads resembling a bodkin were reckoned better. The notch, or small hollow part at the bottom of the arrow, made for the reception of the bow-string, was varied as occasion required, or at the will of the archer, being sometimes deep and narrow, and sometimes broad and not deep.

* * * * *

An arrow, weighing from twenty to twenty-four pennyweights, made of yew, was considered by archers to be the best that could be made. The feathers of a goose should be used; and the bird from which they are taken should be two or three years of age. In an arrow, it is remarkable that two out of three feathers are commonly white, as they are plucked from the gander; but the third is usually brown or grey, being taken from the goose; and this difference of colour shows the archer when the arrow is properly placed. The expression of the “grey goose’s wing,” in the old ballad of Chevy Chase, is an allusion to this occurrence; originally, arrows were armed with flint or metal heads; latterly with iron of different forms and names. Henry IV. ordained that all arrows should be well boiled or brased, and hardened at the points with steel. Arrows were usually reckoned by sheaves; a sheaf consisting of twenty-four arrows. They were carried in a quiver, called an arrow case, which served for the magazine. In ancient times, different species of combustible materials were attached to the heads of arrows, and shot from long bows; and even subsequently to the invention of gunpowder this mode has been carried into execution. According to Neade, an archer may shoot an ounce of fireworks from an arrow twelve score yards. Among the stores at Berwick and Newhaven, in the reign of Edward VI., arrows with wildfire are enumerated. Some slight opinion of the strength of an arrow in its full flight, may be formed from the account given by Edward VI. in his journal: he observes, that one hundred archers shot arrows each before him, and afterwards altogether; that they shot at an inch board: some pierced it through and stuck in the other board, and others pierced it through with the heads of their arrows.—Ascham—Strutt.

ARSENIC, s. A mineral, the preparations for which are sometimes used in veterinary practice.

There are two kinds, white and yellow: white arsenic is a powerful tonic, and has been given with success in glanders and farcy. Yellow arsenic, mixed with lard, is used to remove warts, and in fistula and poll-evil.

ARSENICAL, a. Containing arsenic.

ARTERIAL, a. That which relates to the artery; that which is contained in the artery.

ARTERY, s. An artery is a conical vessel, conveying the blood from the heart to all parts of the body.

ARTICULAR, a. Belonging to the joints.

ASAFŒTIDA, s. A very offensive-smelling gum. It has antispasmodic qualities; and in veterinary practice is said to be serviceable in coughs, thick wind, and lock-jaw.

ASCARIDES, s. Little worms generally found in the rectum.

ASCITES, s. For this disease in horses and dogs, see White, Blaine, &c.—Vide ANASARCA.

ASH-COLOUR, s. A colour between brown and gray.

Ash colour, pearl colour, or golden cinnamon.—Take some walnut roots and boil till your stuff begins to strike, then add some galls; boil till it comes up near to what you want, and then add some copperas, but very sparingly.

ANOTHER METHOD.

Take a little fresh black-thorn bark and a few young tops of briar; boil them in water, and when you think all the dye is extracted, take them out, and put in a small bit of your stuff for trial, and, if you like the colour, put in the whole when boiling, and boil till it comes to your liking. Bush-thorn bark, when ground, if fresh, will, in turmeric, give a rich golden cinnamon.

ASH-COLOURED FALCON, s. This bird is smaller than the _Hen Harrier_ or Ringtail, with which it is frequently confounded. It is a scarce bird, though Selby says he has taken it in Northumberland, where it breeds on the open moors. Pennant calls it a variety of the Ringtail.

ASININE, a. Belonging to an ass.

ASS, s. An animal of burden.

This animal, though now so common in all parts of these islands, was entirely lost among us during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, for Hollingshed informs us, that in his time “our lande did yield no asses.” Yet we are not to suppose that so useful an animal was unknown here before that period; in fact, mention is made of them as early as the time of King Ethelred, above five hundred years preceding, and again in the reign of Henry III., so that it must have been owing to some accident that the race was extinct during the reign of Elizabeth. We are not certain as to the time it was again introduced, probably in the succeeding reign, when our intercourse with Spain was renewed, in which country this animal was greatly used.

Their constitution is so hardy, that even in the depth of winter, the most wretched hovel is sufficient for them from the cold; and so temperate are they with respect to food, that they can subsist on such vegetables as almost any other animal would refuse to eat. The thistle and plantain, which generally grow in abundance on waste lands and along the sides of roads, afford them a sufficient feast after their day of toil is concluded.

When young they are sprightly, handsome, light, and even graceful; but they soon lose those qualities, either from age or bad treatment, and become slow, stubborn, and headstrong. The ass is strongly attached to his master, notwithstanding he is usually ill-treated; he will scent him at a great distance, and distinguish him from any other person. Of all the animals covered with hair he is the least subject to vermin, which apparently proceeds from the peculiar hardness and dryness of the skin; and for the same reason he is less sensible than the horse to the whip, and to the stinging of flies.

The milk of the ass is the lightest of all milks, and is recommended by medical men to persons of delicate stomachs.

The age of the ass is equal to that of the horse, and even in some instances, exceeds it. One which died in 1782 had been employed in turning the water-wheel at a deep well in Carisbrook Castle for forty years.

By far the largest breed of asses at this time known in the world is in Spain; they are large, strong, elegant, and stately animals, often fifteen hands or more in height. The best of this breed sell there at very high prices, sometimes for as much as a hundred guineas each, and upwards. In other countries of Europe the ass is nearly as much neglected as it is in Great Britain. In Sardinia there is a race of asses that are very little larger than dogs; they seldom exceed two feet in height, and are in all respects proportionately small.

As the skin of the ass is very hard, and very elastic, it is used for different purposes, such as to make drums, shoes, and thick parchment for pocket-books, which latter is slightly varnished over. It is also of ass’s skin that the orientals make their sagri, or, as we call it, shagreen. Probably, too, the bones of asses are harder than those of other animals, since the ancients made their best-sounding flutes of them. In proportion to his size, the ass can carry a greater weight than any other animal; he sleeps much less than the horse, and never lies down for that purpose, unless very much tired.—Le Keux.

ASTHMA, s. A frequent, difficult, and short respiration, joined with a hissing sound and a cough.

ASTHMA IN DOGS.

The Canine Asthma is hardly ever observed to attack any but old dogs, or those who, by confinement, too full living, and want of exercise, may be supposed to have become diseased by these deviations from a state of nature. It is hardly possible to keep a dog very fat, for any great length of time, without bringing it on. This cough is frequently confounded with the cough that precedes and accompanies distemper; but it may be readily distinguished from this, by an attention to circumstances—as the age of the animal, its not affecting the general health, nor producing immediate emaciation, and its less readily giving way to medicine. The cure is often very difficult, because the disease has in general been long neglected before it is sufficiently noticed by the owners. As it is in general brought on by confinement, too much warmth, and over-feeding, so it is evident the cure must be begun by a steady persevering alteration in these particulars. The medicines most useful are alteratives, and of those, occasionally, emetics are the best. One grain of tartarised antimony (i. e. tartar emetic), with two, three, or four grains of calomel, is a very useful and valuable emetic. This dose is sufficient for a small dog, and may be repeated twice a week with great success—always with palliation.

* * * * *

It derives its origin from the artificial mode of life forced on pet and fancy dogs, whose close confinement and over-feeding lead to an extraordinary accumulation of fat: and according to the degree in which these predisposing causes have been applied, the disease appears earlier or later in life. In some it comes on at three or four years old: in others, rather less artificially treated, it may not appear until seven or eight.

In some cases, the irritation of the cough, and the accompanying hectic, emaciates and wears down the animal: in others, the pulmonary congestion stops respiration, and kills by a sudden suffocation; or the obstruction the blood meets with in its passage through the heart, occasions accumulation in the head, and convulsive fits are the precursors of death. Now and then a rupture of the heart, or of some large blood-vessel, suddenly destroys: but by far the most common termination of the complaint is in dropsy, or serous collections within the chest or belly, or both, but most frequently of the latter. In these cases, the limbs and external parts of the body waste, but the belly increases in its size; the legs also swell; the hair stares; the breathing becomes very laborious; and, in the end, suffocation ensues.

Of the various remedial plans I have pursued, none have appeared more uniformly beneficial than a course of emetics, steadily persisted in twice a week. In the intermediate days alteratives were administered, with the occasional use of a purgative, provided the dog was strong, fat, and plethoric; otherwise this was dispensed with: but it should be remembered, that this remedial plan must be uniformly and long continued, to ensure permanent benefit. The alterative is as follows:—

Calomel (submuriate of mercury) ½ gr. Nitre (nitrate of potash) 5 gr. Cream of tartar (supertartrate of potash) 10 gr. Antimonial powder 2 gr.—Mix.

This may be given either as a powder, or it may be made into a ball with honey; this dose being repeated once or twice a day, according to the urgency of the case: the quantities may be also lessened or increased according to the effect produced; the recipe is intended for a dog of middling size. On the morning that the emetic is given, the alterative should be omitted; and where the alterative is repeated night and morning, it will be prudent to watch the mouth, that salivation may not unexpectedly come on. If this should happen, discontinue the medicine for some days. Where also the calomel has been found to disagree, I have substituted the following alterative with benefit:—

Nitre (nitrate of potash) 2 gr. Tartar emetic (tartarised antimony) ¼ gr. Powdered Foxglove (digitalis) ½ gr.—Mix.

This may be given as the other, and alternated with the emetic also, watching the effect of the foxglove, through the medium of the pulse, that they may not be too violent. In some cases of long standing, where the attendant cough has been very harsh, noisy, and distressing, I have added ten, twenty, or thirty drops of tincture of opium (laudanum), or the eighth, sixth, or fourth part of a grain of opium, to each alterative with advantage. In other instances, the cough has been best allayed by an evening opiate of double the strength before prescribed. I have, now and then, experienced benefit also from the use of the balsamic gums, which may be all tried, therefore, in obstinate cases. Relief has been obtained likewise from the following, given every morning:—

Powdered squill ½ gr. Gum ammoniacum, powdered 5 gr. Balsam Peru 3 gr. Benzoic acid 1 gr. Anisated balsam of sulphur to form a ball.

Or,

Inspissated juice of the white garden lettuce ½ dr. Tincture of balsam of Tolu 1 dr. Powdered gum arabic and extract of liquorice 1 oz. each

Make into balls, and give one night and morning.

* * * * *

The following I have found to mitigate the severity of several cases, and it deserves a trial:—

Extract of cicuta ½ dr. Extract of hyoscyamus 10 gr. Powdered digitalis a scruple

Conserve of roses to make 10, 8, or 6 balls, according to the size of the dog; of which one may be given night and morning; increasing the dose if it occasions no disturbance in the system. Mr. Youatt has, I believe, found benefit in asthmatic cases from the exhibition of prussic acid: but the powerful nature of this remedy requires professional assistance when it is administered.—Blaine.

ASTRINGENT, a. Binding, contracting.

Astringents are useful in suppressing unnatural evacuations in diarrhœa, diabetes, &c. Opium, bark, and preparations of copper, iron, lead, and zinc, are principally employed in combining astringent preparations.

ASTRINGENT RECIPES.

No. 1.— For diarrhœa, diabetes, &c. Opium ½ to 1 dr. Ginger 1½ drs. Prepared chalk 3 dr. Flour 2 dr.

Mix into a ball with treacle, syrup, or honey for one dose.

No. 2.— Gum kino 2 dr. Aromatic powder 1½ dr. Or, Veterinary aromatic powder 6 dr. Carbonate of soda 2 dr. Treacle enough to form the mass.

No. 3.— Powdered catechu 2 to 4 dr. Alum 2 to 4 dr. Powdered opium ½ to 1 dr. ———————— ginger 1 to 2 dr. Oil of cloves 10 drops. Treacle enough to form the ball.

Astringent Drench for diabetes.

Opium ½ dr. Powdered ginger 2 dr. Powdered oak bark 1 oz.

To be given in a pint of oak bark decoction.

External Astringents.

POWDERS.

No. 1.— Powdered alum 4 oz. Armenian bole 1 oz.—Mix.

No. 2.— White vitriol 2 oz. Flowers of zinc 1 oz.—Mix.

LOTIONS.

No. 3.— A strong goulard mixture.

No. 4.— A solution of blue vitriol, white vitriol, or alum.

No. 5.— Muriate of iron 1 oz. Water 8 oz.—Mix.

OINTMENTS.

No. 1.— Venice turpentine 4 oz. Bees’ wax 1 oz. Hog’s lard 4 oz.

To be melted over a slow fire; and when rather cool, but while it is liquid, add sugar of lead 1 oz. or alum finely powdered, 2 oz. Stir the mixture until it is cold.

No. 2.— Ointment of yellow resin 4 oz. Oil of turpentine 1 oz. Sulphate of copper finely powdered ½ oz.—Mix.

No. 3.— Red nitrated mercury, commonly named red precipitate, rubbed down to a very fine powder 1 dr. Calamine cerate, commonly named Turner’s cerate 2 oz.—Mix.

Astringent powders and ointments are designed chiefly as remedies for grease, after the inflammation of the part has been in great measure removed by proper poultices: but the ointment is applicable only to those ulcerations or cracks which are effects of that disease, or occurring from other causes.

ADDITIONAL RECIPES FOR INTERNAL ASTRINGENTS.

For diabetes, or an excessive discharge of urine:

No. 1.— Catechu, or kino, 2 to 4 dr. Powdered ginger 1 to 2 dr. ———————— gentian 2 to 3 dr. Opium ½ dr. Oil of caraways 20 drops.

Syrup enough to form the ball. One dose.

No. 2.— Opium ½ to 1 dr. Ginger 1 to 2 dr. Cinchona, or Peruvian bark, or when that cannot be had, powdered oak bark 1 oz. or more.

To be mixed with a decoction of oak bark, or a strong infusion of camomile flowers, and given as a drench. Either of these may be given early in the morning, and repeated at night, should it be found necessary.—White.

ATHLETIC, a. Belonging to wrestling; strong of body, vigorous, lusty, robust.

AUBURN, a. Brown, of a tan colour.

AUCUPATION, s. obs. Fowling, bird-catching.

AUK, s. (Alca impennis, LINNÆUS).

This species appears to have become extremely rare on the north coast of Britain. The natives in the Orkneys informed Mr. Bullock, in his late tour through those islands, that one male only had made his appearance for a long time, which had regularly visited Papa Westra for several years. The female (which the natives call the Queen of the Auks) was killed just before Mr. Bullock’s arrival. The King, or male, Mr. Bullock had the pleasure of chasing for several hours, in a six-oared boat, but without being able to kill him, for though he frequently got near him, so expert was the bird in its natural element, that it appeared impossible to shoot him. The rapidity with which he pursued his course under water was almost incredible.

The length is three feet. The bill is black, very strong, compressed, and marked with several furrows. The base of the upper mandible is covered with short velvet-like feathers; between the bill and the eye is a large patch of white; the head, neck, back, and wings, glossy black; lesser quill-feathers tipped with white; legs black.

The smallness of the wings renders them useless for flight, the longest quill-feather not exceeding four inches in length. These, however, are admirably adapted to its mode of life, and are of peculiar use in diving under water, where they act as fins; by which means it pursues its prey with astonishing velocity.

This bird is only found in the most northern parts of the kingdom; it is said to breed in the isle of St. Kilda, from which Dr. Fleming had one in 1822. Like the rest of this genus it lays only one egg, white, sometimes irregularly marked with purplish lines, or blotched with ferruginous and black at the larger end: length six inches. It feeds on fish, but the young birds will eat rose root (Rhodiola rosea), or other plants.—Montagu.

AURICULARS, s. (In Ornithology). Feathers which cover the ears.

AVOIRDUPOIS, a. A kind of weight, of which a pound contains sixteen ounces, and is in proportion to a pound Troy as 17 to 14.

AVOSET, Scooper, Crooked-Bill, or Yelper. s. (Recurvirostra Avosetta, LINNÆUS. L’Avosette, BUFFON.)

This bird, which is the only British species of Avosets, does not much exceed the lapwing in the bulk of its body; but from the length of its legs it is much taller. It measures about eighteen inches in length, to the end of the toes twenty-two, and from tip to tip thirty; and weighs from twelve to fourteen ounces. The bill is black, about three inches and a half long, and of a singular conformation; looking not unlike flexible flat pieces of whalebone, curved upwards to the tip: the irides are hazel; the head round, black on the upper part to below the nape of the neck: above and beneath each eye, in most specimens, there are small white spots; but in the one from which the above figure was taken, a streak of that colour passed over each eye towards the hinder part of the head. The thighs are naked, and, as well as the legs and feet, are of a fine pale blue colour. The whole plumage of the Avoset is white, intersected with black; and, like most of the variegated or piebald birds, the patches of these colours are not placed exactly the same in every individual; therefore, as the bird cannot be mistaken, a more minute description is unnecessary.

These birds are common in the winter about the lakes, mouths of rivers, and marshes, in the southern parts of England; and they assemble in large flocks on the fens, in the breeding season. When the female is frightened off her nest she counterfeits lameness; and when a flock is disturbed they fly with their necks stretched out, and their legs extended behind over the head of the spectator, much in the same way as the peewit or lapwing, making a shrill noise, and uttering a yelping cry of twit, twit, all the time. The places where they have been feeding may be traced out by the semicircular marks left in the mud or sand by their bills, in scooping out their food, which consists of spawn, worms, insects, &c. Latham says, “They lay two eggs, the size of those of a pigeon, an inch and three quarters in length, of a cinereous grey, singularly marked with deep brownish dark patches, of irregular sizes and shapes, besides some under markings of a dusky hue.” They keep near the shore, wading about, up to the belly in the water, and sometimes swimming. In all their motions they are smart, lively, and volatile, and do not remain long stationary in one spot.

* * * * *

The Scooper is the only species found in England. It breeds in the fens of Lincolnshire, and on Romney Marsh in Kent. It does not migrate, like other birds of similar habits, but is found at all seasons, though in winter it chiefly frequents the sea-shore; and, besides on the coast of Kent, it is found about the mouth of the Severn, in Gloucestershire, as well as on the eastern coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, and sometimes in Shropshire. During the breeding season, the Avosets are seen in considerable numbers near Fossdike, in Lincolnshire, and also in the fens of Cambridgeshire, and similar localities. Temminck says it is common in North Holland. It seems, indeed, to be very widely diffused, being found in Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Siberia, the Caspian Sea, and particularly about the Salt Lakes in the deserts of Tartary.—Bewick—Latham—Montagu.

AWNING, s. A cover spread over a boat or vessel to keep off the weather.

AXLE, AXLE-TREE, s. The pin which passes through the midst of the wheel, on which the circumvolutions of the wheel are performed.

AZURE, a. Blue, faint blue.

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BABBLE, v. To open on a false scent.

BABILLARD, s. (Curruca garrula, BRISSON.)

A species confounded by British naturalists with the white-throat. (Vide MONTAGU.)

The babillard does not appear to be a plentiful species in this country, and is confined to the western parts of the kingdom, from Gloucestershire and Wiltshire, in both which counties we have found them, and is probably in part of Somersetshire, but not in Devonshire or Cornwall. Selby even doubts its existence; but Sweet has kept them in a cage for years.

In some seasons it is very plentiful about London; at other times much scarcer. I am confident I have seen it in Ayrshire, and at Musselburgh Haugh, near Edinburgh.—Rennie.

BACK, s. The hinder part of the body; the outer part of the hand when it is shut; the rear; the place behind; the part of any thing out of sight; the thick part of any tool, opposed to the edge.

BACK, v. To mount a horse; to break a horse; to place upon the back; to maintain; to support; to bet on.

BACKGAMMON, s. A play or game with dice and tables.

The game of tables is better known at present by the name of Backgammon. This pastime is said to have been discovered about the tenth century, and the name derived from two Welsh words signifying “little battle.” But the derivation may be found nearer home. The words are perfectly Saxon, as Bac, or Bæc, and Zamen, that is, Back Game; so denominated because the performance consists in the players bringing their men back from their antagonist’s tables into their own; or because the pieces are sometimes taken up and obliged to go back, that is, re-enter at the table they came from.

The most material circumstances in which the game differed, at this remote period, from the present method of playing it, was, first, in having three dice instead of two, or reckoning a certain number for the third; and secondly, in placing all the men within the antagonist’s table, which, says an ancient writer, must be put upon his ace point. There is also another game upon the tables, called Paume Carie, which is played with two dice, and requires four players, that is, two on either side; or six, and then three are opposed to three. The same authority then speaks of a third game, called Ludus Lombardorum, the Game of Lombardy, and thus played: he who sits on the side marked 13—24 has his men at 6, and his antagonist has his men at 19; which is changing the ace point in the English game for the size point: and this alteration probably shortened the game. He mentions the five following variations by name only; the Imperial game, the Provincial game, the games called Baralie, Mylys, and Faylis.

At the commencement of the last century, backgammon was a very favourite amusement, and pursued at leisure times by most persons of opulence, and especially by the clergy; which occasioned Dean Swift, when writing to a friend of his in the country, sarcastically to ask the following question: “In what esteem are you with the vicar of the parish: can you play with him at backgammon?” But of late years this pastime is become unfashionable, and of course not so much practised.

* * * * *

This game is played with dice upon a table by two persons, upon which there are twenty-four black and white spaces, called points. Each adversary has fifteen men, black and white, to distinguish them, and they are disposed of in the following manner. Supposing the game to be played into the right hand table, two are placed upon the ace point in the adversary’s table, five upon the six point in the opposite table, three upon the cinque point in the hithermost table, and five on the sixth point in the right hand table. The grand object in this game is for each player to bring the men round into his right hand table, by throwing with a pair of dice those throws that contribute towards it, and at the same time prevent the adversary doing the like. The first best throw upon the dice is esteemed aces, because it stops the six point in the outer table, and secures the cinque in the thrower’s table, whereby the adversary’s two men upon the thrower’s ace point cannot get out with either quatre, cinque, or six. This throw is an advantage often given to the antagonist by the superior player. When he carries his men home in order to lose no point, he is to carry the most distant man to his adversary’s bar point, that being the first stage he is to place it on; the next stage is six points farther, viz. in the place where the adversary’s five men are first placed out of his tables. He must go on this method till all his men are brought home, except two, when, by losing a point, he may often save the gammon, by throwing two fours or two fives. When a hit is only played for, he should endeavour to gain either his own or adversary’s cinque point, and if that fails by his being hit by the adversary, and he finds him forwarder than himself, in that case he must throw more men into the adversary’s tables, which is done in this manner: he must put a man upon his cinque or bar point, and if the adversary fails to hit it, he may then gain a forward game instead of a back game; but if the adversary hit him, he should play for a back game, and then the greater number of men which are taken up makes his game the better, because by these means he will preserve his game at home, and then he should endeavour to gain both his adversary’s ace and trois points, and take care to keep three men upon the adversary’s ace point, that, in case he hits him from thence, that point may remain still secure to himself. A back game should not be played for at the beginning of a set, because it would be a great disadvantage, the player running the risk of a gammon to win a single hit.

A variety of instructions with regard to this curious game are given by Mr. Hoyle, who calculates the odds of the game with great accuracy. The following particulars, however, may be of use to the generality of players. If a player has taken up two of the adversary’s men, and happens to have two, three, or more points made in his own tables, he should spread his own men, that he may either take a new point in his tables, or be ready to hit the man which the adversary may happen to enter. If he finds upon the adversary’s entering, that the game is upon a par, or that the advantage is on his own side, he should take the adversary’s man up whenever he can, it being twenty-five to eleven that he is not hit, except when he is playing for a single hit only, then, if playing, the throw otherwise gives him a better chance for it, he ought to do it. As it is five to one against his being hit with double dice, he should never be deterred from taking up any one man of the adversary’s. If he has taken up one of the adversary’s men, and should happen to have five points in his own tables, and forced to leave a blot out of his tables, he should endeavour to leave it upon doublets preferable to any other chance; because the odds are thirty-five to one that he is not hit, whereas it is only seventeen to one but he is hit upon another chance. When the adversary is very forward, a player should never move a man from his own quatre, trois, or deuce points, thinking to bear that man from the point where he put it, as nothing but high doublets can give him any chance for the hit. Instead of playing an ace or a deuce from any of these points, he should play them from his own size or highest points, so that throwing two fives or two fours, his size and cinque points being eased, would be a considerable advantage to him, whereas, had they been loaded, he must have been obliged to play otherwise. It is the interest of the adversary to take up the player as soon as he enters. The blot should be left on the adversary’s lowest point, that is to say, upon his deuce point, rather than upon his trois point, or upon his trois point rather than upon his quatre point, or upon his quatre point preferable to his cinque point, for a reason before-mentioned; all the men the adversary plays upon his trois or his deuce points are deemed lost, being greatly out of play, so that those men not having it in their power to make his cinque point, and his game being crowded in on one point, and open in another, the adversary must be greatly annoyed by the player. If the player has two of his adversary’s men in his tables, he has a better chance for a hit than if he had more, provided his game is forwarder than that of his antagonist, for if he had three or more of his adversary’s men in his tables, he would stand a worse chance to be hit. When a player is running to save the gammon, if he should have two men upon his ace point, and several men abroad, although he should lose one point or two in his putting his men into his tables, it is his interest to leave a man upon his adversary’s ace point, because it will prevent his adversary from bearing his men to the best advantage, and at the same time the player will have a chance of the adversary’s making a blot which he may chance to hit. However, if a player finds, upon a throw, that he has a probability of saving his gammon, he should never wait for a blot, as the odds are greatly against his hitting it, but should embrace that opportunity.

The following are directions for calculating the odds of saving or winning the gammon:—Suppose the adversary has so many men abroad as require three throws to bring them into his tables, and at the same time that the players’ tables are made up, and that he has taken up one of the adversary’s men, in this case it is about an equal wager that the adversary is gammoned. For, in all probability, the player has borne two men before he opens his tables, and when he bears the third man, he will be obliged to open his size or cinque point. It is then probable, that the adversary is obliged to throw twice before he enters his men in the player’s tables, twice before he puts that man into his own tables, and three throws more to put the men which are abroad into his own tables, in all seven throws. Now the player having twelve men to bear, he may be forced to make an ace or a deuce twice before he can bear all his men, and consequently will require seven throws in bearing them; so that, upon the whole, it is about equal whether the adversary is gammoned or not. Suppose a player has three men upon his adversary’s ace point, and five points on his own tables, and that the adversary has all his men in his tables, three upon each of his five highest points, has the player a probability of gammoning his adversary or not?

POINTS. For bearing three men from his sixth point is 18 From his fifth point 15 From his fourth point 12 From his third point 9 From his second point 6 —— In all 60

Bringing his three men from the adversary’s ace point, to his size point in his own tables, being eighteen points each, and making together 54 —— There must remain 6

It is plain from this calculation, that the player has much the best of the probability of the gammon, exclusive of one or more blots which the adversary is liable to make in bearing his men, supposing at the same time the throws to be upon an equality. Suppose two blots are left, either of which cannot be hit but by double dice, one must be hit by throwing eight, and the other by throwing nine, so that the adversary has only one die to hit either of them.

The chances of two dice, being in all 36 The chances to hit six, are six and two twice 2 Five and three twice 2 Two deuces 1 Two fours 1 The chances to hit nine are six and three twice 2 Five and four twice 2 Two trois 1 —— For hitting in all 11 Chances for not hitting, remain 25

So that the odds are twenty-five to eleven against hitting either of these blots.

This method may be taken to find out the odds of hitting three, four, or five blots upon double dice, or blots made upon double or single dice at the same time. After knowing how many chances there are to hit any of those blots, they must be added together, and then subtracted from the number thirty-six, which are the chances of the two dices, and the question is solved.

The laws of backgammon are, first, If a man is taken from any point, it must be played, if two men are taken from it they also must be played. Second, A man is not supposed to be played till it is placed upon a point and quitted. Third, If a player has only fourteen men in play, there is no penalty inflicted; because by his playing with a less number than he is entitled to, he plays to a disadvantage for want of the deficient man to make up his tables. Fourth, If he bears any number of men before he has entered a man taken up, and which of course he was obliged to enter, such men so borne must be entered again in the adversary’s tables, as well as the man taken up. Fifth, If he has mistaken his throw and played it, and his adversary has thrown, it is not in the choice of either of the players to alter it, unless they both agree so to do.

The probable method of prolonging a hit at backgammon, affords a case of instruction as well as curiosity; for there is a probability of making the hit last by one of the players for many hours, although they shall both play as fast as usual. Suppose B to have borne thirteen men, and that A has his fifteen men in B’s tables, viz. three men upon his size point, as many upon his cinque, quatre, and trois points, two upon his deuce point, and one upon his ace point. A in this situation can prolong it by bringing his fifteen men home, always securing six close points till B has entered his two men, and brought them upon any certain point; as soon as B has gained that point A will open an ace, deuce, or trois point, or all of them, which done, B hits one of them, and A taking care to have two or three men in B’s tables, is ready to hit that man, and also he being certain of taking up the other man, has it in his power to prolong the hit almost to any length, provided he takes care not to open such points as two fours, two fives, or two sixes, but always to open the ace, deuce, or trois points, for B to hit him. We add the following two critical cases for a back game. First, suppose the fore game to be played by A, and that all his men are placed as usual, B has fourteen of his men placed upon his adversary’s ace point, and one man upon his adversary’s deuce point, and B is to throw who has the best of the hit; answer, A has the best of it, gold to silver, because, if B does not throw an ace to take his adversary’s deuce point, which is twenty-five to eleven against him, A will take up B’s men in his tables either singly or make points, and then if B secures either A’s deuce or trois point, A will put as many men down as possible, in order to hit and thereby get a back game. It is evident that the back game is powerful, consequently, whoever practises it must become a greater proficient at the game than he could by any other means. Second, Suppose A to have five men placed upon his size point, as many upon his quatre point, and the same number upon his deuce point, all in his own tables. At the same time let us suppose B to have three men placed upon A’s ace point, as many upon A’s trois point, and the same number upon A’s cinque point, in his own tables, and three men placed as usual out of his tables, who has the best of the hit? Answer—The game is equal till B has gained his cinque and quatre points in his own tables, which, if he can effect, and by playing two men from A’s cinque point, in order to force his adversary to blot by throwing a cane, which should B hit, he will have the best of the hit.—Strutt—Ency. Lon.—Hoyle.

BACKSIDE, s. The hinder part of any thing; the hind part of an animal.

BACK-SINEWS, strains in.

The symptoms are swelling, heat, and proportionate degree of lameness. Bleeding and rest are absolutely necessary, assisted by an emollient poultice from the hoof to the knee. A flannel bag, or large woollen stocking, secured above the shoulder by a tape, is the best mode of applying the poultice. All movement of the knee should be avoided.

BACON, s. The flesh of a hog salted and dried.

BADGER, s. A brock, an animal.

The usual length of the badger is two feet six inches, exclusive of the tail, which is barely six inches long, and covered with long hair, the same as those of the body; the weight from fifteen to thirty-four pounds—the last is rare, but in the winter of 1779, Mr. Pennant had a male badger of that weight; the eyes are very small, the ears short and rounded; the neck thick, and the whole shape of the body clumsy, and which being covered with long coarse hairs, like bristles, adds to its awkward appearance; each hair next the root is of a dirty, yellowish white, the middle is black, and the extremity grey; hence arose the old saying, “As grey as a badger.” It has thirty-four teeth, six cutting and two canine teeth in each jaw—the lower and upper have each five grinders; the nose, chin, and lower sides of the cheeks are white; each ear and eye is inclosed in a pyramidal bed of black, the base of which incloses the former,—this point extends beyond the eye to the nose; the throat and under parts of the body are black. This is a singularity in the badger, for all other animals have hair of a lighter colour upon their bellies, than upon their backs. The legs and feet of the badger are black, very short, and strong; each foot is divided into five toes, those in the fore feet are armed with long claws, well adapted for digging its subterraneous habitation, where, although there is but one entrance from the surface, it forms several apartments, and in the breeding season carries in grass in his mouth, to form a bed for its young. It confines itself to its hole during the day, feeding only at night. It is so cleanly as never to obey the calls of nature in its own burrow. It is said the fox takes advantage of this niceness, and uses an obvious method to make the badger’s home unpleasant, of which he by this means possesses himself. In walking, the badger treads on his whole heel, like the bear, which brings the belly very near the ground. Immediately below the tail, between that and the anus, there is a narrow transverse orifice, from whence continually exudes a white substance of a very fœtid smell: this seems peculiar to the badger and the hyæna.

BADGER-HUNTING, s.

Few creatures defend themselves better, or bite with greater keenness, than the badger: on that account it is frequently baited with dogs trained for that purpose, and defends itself from their attacks with astonishing agility and success. Its motions are so quick, that a dog is often desperately wounded in the moment of assault, and obliged to fly. The thickness of the badger’s skin, and the length and coarseness of its hair, are an excellent defence against the bites of the dogs; its skin is so loose as to resist the impression of their teeth, and gives the animal an opportunity of turning itself round, and wounding its adversaries in their tenderest parts. In this manner this singular creature is able to resist repeated attacks both of men and dogs, from all quarters, till, being overpowered with numbers, and enfeebled by many desperate wounds, it is at last obliged to yield.

In hunting the badger, you must seek the earths and burrows where he lies, and, in a clear moonlight night, go and stop all the burrows except one or two, and therein place some sacks, fastened with drawing strings, which may shut him in as soon as he strains the bag. Some only place a hoop in the mouth of the sack, and so put it into the hole; and as soon as the badger is in the sack, and strains it, the sack slips from the hoop, and secures him in it, where he lies trembling till he is taken from his prison.

The sacks or bags being thus set, cast off the hounds, beating about all the woods, hedges, and tufts round about, for the compass of a mile or two, and what badgers are abroad, being alarmed by the hounds, will soon betake themselves to their burrows. Observe that the person who is placed to watch the sacks, must stand close, and upon a clear wind, otherwise the badger will discover him, and immediately fly some other way into his burrow.

But if the dogs can encounter him before he can take his sanctuary, he will then stand at bay like a boar, and make good sport, vigorously biting and clawing the dogs. In general, when they fight, they lie on their backs, using both teeth and nails; and, by blowing up their skins, defend themselves against the bites of the dogs and the blows given by the men. When the badger finds that the terriers yearn him in his burrow, he will stop the hole between him and the terriers; and if they still continue baying, he will remove his couch into another chamber or part of the burrow, and so from one to another, barricading the way before them as he retreats, till he can go no farther.

If you intend to dig the badger out of his burrow, you must be provided with such tools as are used for digging out a fox: you should also have a pail of water ready to refresh the terriers when they come out of the earth to take breath and cool themselves.

It is no unusual thing to put some small bells about the necks of the terriers, which, making a noise, will cause the badger to bolt out.

In digging, the situation of the ground must be observed and considered; or instead of advancing the work, you probably may hinder it. In this order you may besiege them in their holds, or castles, and break their platforms, parapets, and casemates, and work to them with mines and countermines, till you have overcome them.

We must do this animal the justice to observe, that, though nature has furnished it with formidable weapons of offence, and has besides given it strength sufficient to use them with great effect, it is, notwithstanding, very harmless and inoffensive, and, unless attacked, employs them only for its support.

The badger is an indolent animal, and sleeps much: it confines itself to its hole during the whole day, and feeds only in the night. It is so cleanly as never to defile its habitation with its ordure. Immediately below the tail, between that and the anus, there is a narrow transverse orifice, from whence a white substance, of a very fœtid smell, constantly exudes. The skin, when dressed with the hair on, is used for pistol furniture. Its flesh is eaten: the hind quarters are sometimes made into hams, which, when cured, are not inferior in goodness to the best bacon. The hairs are made into brushes, which are used by painters to soften and harmonise their shades.

In walking, the badger treads on its whole heel, like the bear, which brings its belly very near the ground.

Extraordinary Affection in the Badger.—Two persons were on a short journey, and passing through a hollow way, a dog which was with them, started a badger, which he attacked, and pursued, till he took shelter in a burrow under a tree. With some pains they hunted him out, and killed him. Being a very few miles from a village, called Chapellatiere, they agreed to drag him there, as the commune gave a reward for every one which was destroyed; besides, they purposed selling the skin. Not having a rope, they twisted some twigs, and drew him along the road by turns. They had not proceeded far, when they heard a cry of an animal in seeming distress, and stopping to see from whence it proceeded, another badger approached them slowly. They at first threw stones at it, notwithstanding which it drew near, came up to the dead animal, began to lick it, and continued its mournful cry. The men, surprised at this, desisted from offering any further injury to it, and again drew the dead one along as before; when the living badger, determining not to quit its dead companion, lay down on it, taking it gently by one ear, and in that manner was drawn into the midst of the village; nor could dogs, boys, or men, induce it to quit its situation by any means, and, to their shame be it said, they had the inhumanity to kill it, and afterwards to burn it, declaring it could be no other than a witch.—Buffon—Daniel.

BAG, s. A sack, a pouch; that part of animals in which some particular juices are contained, as the poison of vipers.

BAG, v. To put into a bag. In sporting parlance, to kill.

BAGATELLE, s. A trifle; a game.

BAIT, v. To put meat to tempt animals.

BAIT, s. Meat set to allure animals to a snare; a temptation; an enticement; a refreshment on a journey. In Fishing, worms, paste, &c.

BALANCE, s. A pair of scales; the overplus of weight; equipoise.

BALANCE, v. To weigh in a balance; to counterpoise.

BALD, a. Without hair; without natural covering.

BALK, s. A ridge of land left unploughed; disappointment when least expected. In Hunting, a term used when a horse refuses his leap.

BALK, v. To disappoint; to frustrate. In Hunting, to swerve off from a fence; to refuse a jump.

BALL, s. Anything made in a round form; a round thing to play with, a hand-ball, a billiard-ball.

Balls (in farriery) are boluses given to horses, and should not exceed in size a hen’s egg. Though named balls, they are generally rolled up in a cylindrical form, about one inch in diameter, and two and a half in length; but the form of an egg is preferable. There is sometimes difficulty in giving balls, without using a balling iron; and there are horses that will not take a ball by any other means. In giving it, the horse’s tongue is drawn out on the off or right side, and held firmly with the left hand, while with the right the ball is passed over the tongue into the pharynx, or top of the gullet. The hand should be kept as near to the roof of the mouth as possible; there will then be much less danger of being wounded by the teeth. The moment the right hand is withdrawn from the mouth, the tongue is let loose, and the ball generally swallowed.

Balls should be made at the time they are wanted; as by keeping they become so hard as to be insoluble in the stomach, and pass through the intestines unchanged. By keeping they also lose much of their strength, particularly when the ingredients are evaporable in the common temperature of the atmosphere, which is the case with camphor, ammonia, essential oils, &c. But the most serious inconvenience which arises from giving balls that have been kept until they become very hard, is, that they are liable to stick in the throat or gullet, and thereby endanger the horse’s life.

Balls cannot be conveniently given unless wrapped up in paper: but for this purpose the softest and thinnest should be chosen.

In holding the tongue with the left hand while the ball is introduced, great care is required, as the rough and violent manner in which this is sometimes done, injures the tongue or lacerates the under part of it, named the bridle. The muscles by which swallowing is effected may also be seriously injured in this way. In violent colds, strangles, &c. there is so much soreness of the throat as to render swallowing very painful and difficult; in such cases neither balls nor drenches should be given, as they are sure to do mischief by irritating the throat, and may even suffocate the animal by getting into the wind-pipe.

When a ball is found to exceed the proper size, it should be divided and given at twice, as much injury has been done by giving balls too large, especially when they have become dry and hard, or been wrapped in thick paper. In making balls, the dry ingredients should be finely powdered and well mixed, and the liquid for forming them should be adapted to the nature of the other ingredients. When a ball contains any acrid, or very powerful ingredient, such as sublimate or arsenic, flour and paste may be employed for mixing it up, and a small bran mash should be given a little before or after it. After giving a ball, grooms sometimes press or pinch the throat for the purpose of making the horse swallow it; but this should never be done, as it is apt to excite coughing, by which swallowing is prevented. The only thing necessary after the hand is withdrawn is to keep the mouth shut, and press the nose downwards, in a moderate degree, towards the chest.—White.

BALLING-IRON, s. An instrument used in administering balls to horses. It is intended to keep the mouth open while the ball is being introduced, and answers the double purpose of assisting the groom in the operation, and saving his hand from injury from the horse’s teeth. In its use, it should be carefully covered with cloth, to prevent the tongue of the animal from being lacerated.

BALM, s. The sap or juice of a shrub, remarkably odoriferous, and of healing qualities; any valuable or fragrant ointment; anything that soothes or mitigates pain.

BALSAM, s. A thick fluid soluble in spirit of wine.

Balsams are a kind of resinous juice, united with some of the extractive matter of the various plants they are obtained from, in combination with an essential oil. All the balsams are occasionally in use in veterinary medicine, and were formerly in very high estimation, for their supposed salutary action in chronic diseases of the lungs. They were also considered as a sovereign vulnerary for abraded urinary passages. It is the modern doctrine to think their efficacy overrated, and which is probably in some respects true, particularly as regards their expectorant qualities: nevertheless they are far from being inert; on the contrary, they appear to act favourably in some instances, as a warm terebinthinated stimulant. The principal balsams dispensed in veterinary practice are these:—

Balsam of Canada.—A strong diuretic, used in chronic cough and diseases of the lungs.

Balsam of Copaiba, or Capivi.—Possesses similar properties to that of Canada.

Balsam of Friars.—Now called Tincture of Benjamin, an excellent traumatic.

Balsam of Gilead.—Similar in its properties to Copaiba.

Balsam of Peru.—A stimulant; used externally to irritable ulcers.

Balsam of Tolu.—Same properties and uses as Peru.

Balsam of Sulphur.—An expectorant; in inflammatory coughs, however, its use is dangerous.—Outlines of Vet. Art.—White.

BALSAMIC, a. Unctuous, mitigating.

BAMBOO, s. An Indian plant of the reed kind.

BANDALEERS, s. Small wooden cases covered with leather, each of them containing powder that is a sufficient charge for a musket. Obs.

BANDOG, (Canis Villaticus,) s. A mastiff.

This variety is lighter, smaller, and more active than the mastiff, from which he is descended by a cross with the foxhound. He is not near so powerful a dog as the former, but is more fierce in his natural disposition. From his descent, he possesses a finer sense of smelling than that dog. His hair is rougher, generally of yellowish or sandy grey, streaked with shades of black or brown, and semi-curled almost over his whole body; his legs, however, are smooth. Although he generally attacks his adversary in front, like the mastiff and bull dog, it is not his invariable practice, for he is sometimes seen to seize cattle by the flank. His bite is said to be severe and dangerous.—Brown.

BANDY, s. A club turned round at bottom for striking a ball.

BANDY-LEG, s. A crooked leg.

BANE, s. Poison, mischief.

BANK SWALLOW, RIVER SWALLOW, BANK MARTIN, or SAND SWALLOW, s. This is the smallest species of British Swallow; length four inches and three quarters. The whole upper parts of the plumage are of a mouse-coloured brown; the under parts white, except across the breast, which is brown; legs dusky, a little feathered behind; bill dusky; irides hazel. The Bank Swallow is not near so plentiful, and is more local than the other species.—Montagu.

BANTAM, s.

The Bantam, a well-known small breed, originally from India, is chiefly valued for its grotesque figure and delicate flesh.

There has been lately obtained a variety of bantams, extremely small, and as smooth legged as a game fowl. From their size and delicacy, they are very convenient, as they may always stand in the place of chickens, when small ones are not otherwise to be had. They are also particularly used for sitting upon the eggs of partridges and pheasants, being good nurses, as well as good layers. Sir John Sebright, M.P. for Herts, is one of the chief amateurs of this breed. Sir John’s breed are beautifully striped and variegated.

In addition, there is a South American variety, either from Brazil or Buenos Ayres, which will roost in trees. They are very beautiful, partridge-spotted and streaked; the eggs small, and coloured like those of the pheasant; both the flesh and eggs are fine flavoured and delicate.—Moubray.

BAR, s. A piece of wood laid across a passage to hinder entrance; a bolt to fasten a door; any obstacle; a rock or bank at the entrance of a harbour; anything used for prevention; a moveable piece of timber used in the menage to teach horses to leap.

BARB, s. Anything that grows in the place of the beard; the points that stand backward in an arrow.

BARB, s. A Barbary horse. Vide ARAB and HORSE.

BARB, v. To jag arrows and fishing-hooks.

BARBADOES TAR, s. A bituminous substance of strong diuretic power. It is used in chronic coughs, and externally employed in strains and bruises.

BARBECUE, s. A hog dressed whole.

BARBED, a. Bearded; jagged with hooks.

BARBEL, s. A kind of fish found in rivers.

The Barbel is one of the coarsest fishes. In England they are deemed the worst of fresh-water fish, and seldom eaten but by the poorest sort of people, who sometimes boil them with a piece of bacon to give them a relish. The roe is very noxious, affecting those unwarily eating it with a vomiting, purging, and a slight swelling.

The Barbel takes its name from the barbs, or wattels, at his mouth. They begin to run up the rivers in March and April. When they spawn, they keep together in companies, making holes in the gravel wherein they cast it.

The head of the barbel is smooth, the nostrils are near the eyes; it has a leather mouth, which is placed below; on each corner is a single beard, and another on each side of the nose; the shape is long, round, and handsome; the dorsal fin is armed with a remarkably strong spine, sharply serrated; with which it can inflict a severe wound on the uncautious handler, and do much damage to the net. The side fin is straight; the scales are not large, and of a pale gold colour, edged with black; the belly white, the tail is a little bifurcated, and of a deep purple. It is sometimes found three feet in length, and weighing eighteen pounds. According to the accounts in the Elements of Natural History, it is met with from two to fifteen feet long, grows quickly, is very tenacious of life, and lives to a great age.

If there be any difference in the taste of their flesh, they are most in season the latter end of the summer; but in fact they are not worth noticing, except for the sport the angler derives from the catching of them, and which, from their being so strong and determined a fish when hooked, is very great.—Daniel.

BARGE, s. A boat for pleasure; a boat for burthen.

BARGER, s. A river-keeper; the manager of a barge.

BARK, s. The rind or covering of a tree; a small ship.

BARK, v. To strip trees of their bark; to make the noise which a dog makes.

BARK, PERUVIAN, or CINCHONA, s. A tonic and febrifuge medicine. Its effects upon the horse are trifling; it is useful chiefly in diabetes. There are three qualities, pale, red, and yellow. The first is best.

BARK, OAK, s. An excellent substitute for Peruvian.

BARLEY, s. A grain of which malt is made.

BARM, s. Yeast; the ferment put into drink to make it work.

BARN, s. A place or house for laying up any sort of grain, hay, or straw.

BARNACLE, s. A kind of shellfish which attaches itself to timber floating at sea; a bird, vide BERNACLE.

BAROMETER, s. A machine for measuring the weight of the atmosphere, and the variations in it, in order chiefly to determine the changes of the weather.

Barometer.—There is no instrument now more generally used for ascertaining the coming weather than the barometer. It may however be remarked, that it is more from its rising or falling, than from its height or lowness that we are to infer fair or foul weather. Generally speaking, the rising of the mercury presages clear fair weather, and its falling, foul weather; as rain, snow, high winds, and storms.

In very hot weather, the falling of the mercury indicates thunder.

In winter the rising indicates frost, and in frosty weather, if the mercury fall three or four divisions, there will follow a thaw; but in a continued frost, if the mercury rise, it will snow.

When foul weather happens soon after the falling of the mercury, expect but little of it; and, on the contrary, expect but little fair weather when it proves fair shortly after the mercury has risen.

In foul weather, when the mercury rises much and high, and so continues for two or three days before the foul weather is over, then expect a continuance of fair weather to follow.

In fair weather, when the mercury falls much and low, and thus continues for two or three days before the rain comes, then expect a great deal of wet, and probably high winds.

The unsettled motion of the mercury denotes uncertain and changeable weather.

The words engraved on the register plate of the barometer, it may be observed, cannot be strictly relied upon to correspond exactly with the state of the weather; though it will in general agree with them as to the mercury rising and falling.

When the thermometer and barometer rise together in summer, with rain in large drops, a wholesome state of the atmosphere is at hand.

A great and sudden rising of the barometer, that is to say, a great accession of atmospherical pressure, will, in some persons, occasion a slight temporary difficulty of hearing and tingling in the ears, similar to that which is experienced in descending from high mountains, or from the air in balloons.—Foster.

BARREL, s. A round wooden vessel to be stopped close; a vessel containing liquor; anything hollow, as the barrel of a gun; a cylinder.

Barrel-making has occupied the attention of gun manufacturers from the first invention of fire-arms to the present time. Experiments in the material as well as the construction of barrels, have been extensively tried by the artists of every country. A gradual and progressive improvement was the result, until the slub-barrel of the present day has superseded every other kind, and seems to have reached the utmost perfection that human ingenuity can accomplish.

The peculiar formation of barrels at different periods, and by different artists, will be interesting to sportsmen generally.

Spanish barrels have always been held in great esteem, as well on account of the quality of the iron—which is generally considered the best in Europe—as because they possess the reputation of being forged and bored more perfectly than any others. It should be observed, however, that of the Spanish barrels, those only that are made in the capital are accounted truly valuable; in consequence of which a great many have been made at other places, especially in Catalonia and Biscay, with the names and marks of the Madrid gunsmiths. They are also counterfeited at Liege, Munich, &c.; and a person must be a good judge not to be deceived by these spurious barrels.

These barrels were formerly in such high repute, that the price of them was enormous. Those of Belen, Fernandez, and Bez, sold in France for a thousand livres, or 43_l._ 15_s._; while the barrels of artists of lesser name produced three hundred, or 13_l._ sterling.

After the barrels of Madrid, those of Bustindui and St. Olabe, at Placentia, in Biscay, and of Jean and Clement Pedroesteva, Eudal Pous, and Martin Marechal, at Barcelona, are the most esteemed; these usually sell in France for eighty French livres, or 3_l._ 10_s._ sterling.

Almost all the barrels made at Madrid are composed of the old shoes of horses and mules, collected for the purpose. They are all welded longitudinally, but instead of being forged in one plate or piece, as in other countries, they are made, like the English twisted barrels, in five or six detached portions, which are afterwards welded one to the end of another, two of them forming the breech or reinforced part of the barrel. We may form some idea of the very great purity to which the iron is brought in the course of the operation, when we are told, that to make a barrel, which, rough from the forge, weighs only six or seven pounds, they employ a mass of mule-shoe iron, weighing from forty to forty-five pounds; so that from thirty-four to thirty-eight pounds are lost in the heatings and hammerings it is made to undergo before it is forged into a barrel.

Notwithstanding the great reputation of the Spanish barrels, however, they are little used in France, and still less in England, their awkward form and their great length and weight being strong objections to them, especially since they have begun to make their pieces so very light and short in these countries; and from our own experience of the Spanish barrels, we are convinced that the avidity with which they are sought after by some persons, and the extravagant prices that are given for them, proceed more from a fancied than from any real superiority they possess over those made in this country.

* * * * *

The Spanish gunsmiths pique themselves upon the very high polish they give to the inside of their barrels. We have our doubts about the advantage derived from this, and are still of opinion that if a barrel is so smooth as not to lead, it is better to take it as it comes from the hand of the manufacturer, than allow the gunsmith to practise any farther operation upon it. In support of this opinion, Mons. de Marolles informs us, that he has seen a barrel rough from the borer throw a charge of shot deeper into a quire of paper, than another barrel that was highly polished within, although the length, the bore, and the charge, were the same in both.

* * * * *

The canons a ruban, or riband barrels of the French, very much resemble the English twisted barrels. The process pursued in their formation is very troublesome, and seems to possess no countervailing advantage. A plate of iron about the twelfth part of an inch in thickness is turned round a mandril, and welded its whole length in the same manner as a plain barrel: upon this small and light barrel, which is called lining, a stripe or plate of iron, about an inch in breadth, and bevelled off at the edges, is rolled in a spiral direction, by means of successive heats—this spiral is termed the riband, and its thickness must correspond with the part of the barrel it is to constitute. As a riband of sufficient length to cover the lining from one end to the other would be very difficult to manage, it is formed in several pieces, and so soon as one piece is nearly rolled on, another is welded to the end of it, and the operation continued until the whole of the lining is covered. The edges are bevelled so much, that one edge overlaps the other about a quarter of an inch. When the riband is all rolled on, the barrel is heated by two or three inches at a time, and the turns of the spiral united to each other and to the lining, by being welded in the same manner as a twisted or plain barrel, but requiring more care and accuracy in the operation. It is afterwards bored, so that almost the whole of the lining is cut out, and scarcely anything left except the riband with which it was covered.

* * * * *

Lazarini Barrels, so called after the maker, were formerly celebrated throughout the greatest part of Europe. They were very long, and of a very small calibre. Lazarini lived at Brescia, about a hundred and fifty years ago. He did not forge these barrels himself, but he finished them with great accuracy, and ornamented them in a rich and elegant manner. At the time, however, when these barrels were in high estimation, there were numerous counterfeits bearing the name and mark of Cominazzo, and it requires some acquaintance with the genuine barrels not to be deceived by the spurious ones. The true Lazarini are now to be found only in the repositories of the curious.

The vanity of possessing something that is singularly curious, the false idea that whatever is expensive must necessarily be good, and sometimes, though rarely, the laudable desire of improvement, have all in their turns been the causes of a variety of experiments made in the manufacture of barrels. An artist in London, who wrought a great deal of Spanish iron, forged barrels from old scythes, from wire, from needles, and a great many other articles suggested by the whim of the customers—who made barrels with a lining of steel, and formed others with a double spiral of steel and iron alternately—confessed after these numerous trials, that “stub iron wrought into a twisted barrel is superior to every other.” Whenever steel was employed, he found that the barrel neither welded nor bored so perfectly as when iron alone was used.

* * * * *

The English stub barrels are deservedly celebrated for their superior elegance and strength, as well as for the accuracy with which they throw their ball or shot. The iron employed in them is formed of stubs, which are old horse-shoe nails, procured from country farriers, and from poor people who gain a subsistence by picking them up on the great roads leading to the metropolis. These are originally formed from the softest, toughest iron that can be had, and this is still farther purified by the numerous heatings and hammerings it has undergone in being reduced from a bar into the size and form of nails. They cost about ten shillings the hundred weight, and twenty-eight pounds are required to make a single barrel of the ordinary size. A hoop of iron about an inch broad, or six or seven inches diameter, is placed perpendicularly, and the stubs, previously freed from dirt by washing, are neatly piled in it, with their heads outermost on each side, until the hoop is quite filled and wedged tight with them, the whole resembling a rough circular cake of iron. This is put into the fire, until it has acquired a white heat, when it is hammered either by the strength of the arm, or by the force of machinery, until it coalesces, and becomes one solid mass of iron. The hoop is then removed, and the heatings and hammerings repeated, until the iron, by being thus wrought and kneaded, is freed from every impurity, and rendered very tough and close in the grain. The workmen then proceeds to draw it out into pieces of about twenty-four inches in length, half an inch or more in breadth, and half an inch in thickness.

* * * * *

Damascus barrels are thus described by Hawker:—“I saw the process of making them, the mixture of iron and steel for which is beat out in long bars, and then, previously to being wound round the anvil, twisted by a kind of turning lathe, (similar to wringing clothes when wet), and then beat flat again. Although these are by far the dearest barrels that are made, yet the price of one in Birmingham is very trifling, viz.:—

Forging £1 10 0 Boring and grinding 0 5 0 Filing and patent breech 0 11 0 Proof 0 1 6 ———————— £2 7 6

The stub barrels, which are generally used for best guns, cost about sixteen shillings each.”

The Damascene barrels are now unfashionable, and never had anything to recommend them, but as being a pretty novelty.

* * * * *

On boring of barrels there has been much diversity of opinion; and if Colonel Hawker’s theory be correct, the bore should not be perfectly cylindrical.

With respect to the common sized guns, which are usually made for the sports of the field, there are two good ways of boring; the one is, to leave a cylinder for about three-fourths of the barrel, (always taking care, however, to preserve a tightness for a little friction just where the shot first moves), and let the remaining part be gradually relieved to the muzzle. For instance; suppose a barrel to be two feet eight inches long, we would say (beginning at the breech end) about six inches tight, twenty-one inches a cylinder, and the remaining five inches relieved to the muzzle. All this must be done with the most delicate possible gradation, and in so small a degree, that even some gun-makers could scarcely discover it. How natural, then, is it, that many sporting authors should be so far deceived, as to fancy the best guns are bored a true cylinder, and therefore, argue in its favour. This relief has the effect of making the gun shoot as close as it can do, compatibly with the strength and quickness required, which should, however, be increased as much as possible by the best constructed breechings.

The other plan is, to make the barrel regularly tighter all the way down, so that, in firing, the shot goes progressively easier as it approaches the muzzle. All this relief must be given in a very trifling degree, because, should the barrel be too much opened in any part, it would admit of the powder escaping between the wadding and the sides of the calibre, by which the shooting of the gun would be rendered weak. For this reason, I should even object to having a hole through the wadding that covers the powder, which many do to prevent the confined air from resisting the ramrod.

* * * * *

The imperfections to which a barrel is liable in forging, are of three kinds, viz., the chink, the crack, and the flaw. The chink is a solution of continuity running lengthwise of the barrel. The crack is a solution of continuity more irregular in its form than the chink, and running in a transverse direction, or across the barrel. The flaw differs from both; it is a small plate or scale, which adheres to the barrel by a narrow base, from which it spreads out as the head of a nail does from its shank, and, when separated, leaves a pit or hollow in the metal.

With regard to the soundness of the barrel, the chink and flaw are of much greater importance than the crack, as the effort of the powder is exerted upon the circumference, and not upon the length of the barrel. In a sword or bow, the very reverse of this takes place, for if a crack, though but of a slight depth, occurs in either, it will break at that place, when bent but very little, because the effort is made upon the fibres disposed longitudinally, whereas, if the fault be a chink, or even a slight flaw, the sword or bow will not give way. The flaw is much more frequent than the chink, the latter scarcely ever occurring but in barrels forged as above, in which the fibres of the metal run longitudinally. When external and superficial, they are all defects in point of neatness only, but when situated within the barrel, they are of material disadvantage, by affording a lodgment to moisture and foulness that corrode the iron, and thus continually enlarge the excavation, until the barrel bursts, or becomes dangerous to use.

* * * * *

Colonel Hawker says, “that a barrel may be pretty good, and perfectly safe, and yet not able to bear the scientific inspection of a first-rate maker or judge. That is, to hold the barrel up to the window, and gradually raise it, till the shade from above the window runs along its surface, by which inspection you will easily discover the most trifling want of finish.”—Essay on Shooting.

BASILICON, s. An ointment; called also tetrapharmacon. It is now called ointment of yellow resin; it is a digestive.

BASIN, s. A small pond; a part of the sea enclosed in rocks; a dock for repairing and building ships.

BASKET-HILT, s. A hilt of a weapon, so made as to contain the whole hand.

BASSET, s. A game at cards.

BASTARD, s. Any thing spurious.

BASTARD, a. Spurious, supposititious, adulterate.

BAT, s. A heavy stick; an implement used in playing cricket; an animal having the body of a mouse, and the wings of a bird; not with feathers, but with a sort of skin which is extended. It brings forth its young as mice do, and suckles them.

Bats flitting about late in the evening, in spring and autumn—at which seasons they are most commonly seen—foretel a fine day on the morrow; as do door-beetles, and some other insects. On the contrary, when bats return soon to their hiding-places, and send forth loud cries, bad weather may be expected.—Foster.

BAT-FOWLING, s. Bird-catching in the night time.

This sport we call in England, most commonly bird-batting, and some call it low-belling; and the use of it is to go with a great light of cressets, or rags of linen dipped in tallow, which will make a good light; and you must have a pan or plate made like a lantern, to carry your light in, which must have a great socket to hold the light, and carry it before you, on your breast, with a bell in your other hand, and of a great bigness, made in the manner of a cow-bell, but still larger; and you must ring it always after one order.—If you carry the bell, you must have two companions with nets, one on each side of you; and what with the bell, and what with the light, the birds will be so amazed, that when you come near them, they will turn up their white bellies: your companions shall then lay their nets quietly upon them, and take them. But you must continue to ring the bell; for if the sound shall cease, the other birds, if there be any more near at hand, will rise up and fly away.—This is an excellent method to catch larks, woodcocks, partridges, and all other land-birds.—Burton.

BATH, s. A bath is either hot or cold, either of art or nature; a vessel of hot water, in which another is placed that requires a softer heat than the naked fire.

BATHE, v. To wash in a bath; to supple or soften by the outward application of warm liquors; to wash with any thing.

Both the warm and the cold bathings of dogs are attended, in many cases, with the happiest effects. When a warm bath is used for a dog, the heat should be regulated according to the case. In inflammations it should be considerable, and in rheumatisms also; but it must be remembered that, from habit, many persons can bear, without inconvenience, a heat that would be most distressing to a dog; consequently, when it is attempted to ascertain the heat by the hand alone, this circumstance should be considered.

The water bath should come all over the animal, except the head; and when any one particular part is more especially affected, that part ought to be rubbed during the bathing, with the hand. The dog being removed from the water, the utmost care should be observed to avoid his taking cold by exposure. He should be first rubbed as dry as may be by a change of cloths, and then be put into a clothes-basket, wrapped up in a blanket, and there confined till thoroughly dry.

Cold bathing is also, in some instances, very useful, particularly in the spasmodic twitchings that succeed distemper; and in some other cases of habitual weakness, as rickets, &c.: but for dogs in health, I am convinced that bathing is not so salutary as is often supposed.—Blaine.

* * * * *

In Falconry.—Hawks should bathe every five or six days, in a clear stream, or pool, of water, that is shallow at the edge; but when these are not at hand, eyesses may be made to bathe in pans sufficiently large for the purpose.

A moderate quantity of food is to be given to the hawk, before he is taken to the stream; a creance is to be tied to the leash, and fastened to the ground; he is then to be unhooded, and placed near the water. The falconer must then retire to a distance. When the hawk has bathed, he should be left to plume himself on the beach, as long as he remains quiet, but he must be cautiously taken up the moment he shows signs of uneasiness, lest he should bait in the creance with a full crop, which is always to be prevented by every possible precaution.—Sebright.

BATOON, s. A staff or club.

BATTLE-DOOR, s. An instrument with a round handle and a flat blade, to strike a ball or shuttlecock.

BATTU, s. The shooting of preserved game by a numerous company.

Those huntsmen who are so fond of unnecessarily getting blood and wasting foxes, would doubtless have been much gratified at the hunting match given by the Prince Esterhazy, Regent of Hungary, upon the signing the treaty of peace with France—a day’s sport that bids fair to vie, in point of blood (if the King of Naples’ slaughter be excepted), with any of those recorded in modern history; as there were killed, 160 deer, 100 wild boars, 300 hares, and 80 foxes. The king had a larger extent, and a longer period for the exercise of his talents, and it was proved that during his journey to Vienna, in Austria, Bohemia, and Moravia, he killed 5 bears, 1820 boars, 1960 deer, 1145 does, 1625 roebucks, 1121 rabbits, 13 wolves, 17 badgers, 16,354 hares, and 354 foxes; the monarch had likewise the pleasure of doing a little in the bird way, by killing, upon the same expedition, 15,350 pheasants, and 12,335 partridges.

* * * * *

After leaving Lucknow, we directed our course towards Baraeech; our kafeela consisted of about 40,000 men, and 20,000 beasts, composed of 10,000 soldiers, 1000 cavalry, and near 150 pieces of cannon; 1500 elephants, 3000 hackeries, and an innumerable train of camels, horses, and bullocks; a great number of ruts, filled with the Nawalis women; many large and small boats carried on carts, drawn by fifty, forty, thirty, or twenty bullocks; tigers, leopards, hawks, fighting-cocks, quails, and nightingales; pigeons, dancing-women, and boys; singers, players, buffoons, and mountebanks. In short, his excellency had everything, every object which could please or surprise, cause a smile, or raise a sneer, attract admiration, fix with wonder, or convulse with laughter; captivate the eye, lull the ear, or tickle the palate. Above five hundred coolies were employed to carry his shooting apparatus, guns, powder, shot, and et ceteras; he had above a thousand double-barrelled guns, the finest that Manton and Nock could make, and single-barrels, pistols, swords, and spears, without number.

After a gay scene of every species of oriental amusement and dissipation, we returned to this place, having killed in our excursion eight tigers, six elephants, and caught twenty-one. To enumerate the other kinds of game would require a sheet as ample as the petition which was presented to Yenghis Khan, and might perhaps be treated by you in the manner that conqueror treated the petition.—

* * * * *

Ashbridge Castle, Hertfordshire, the seat of the Earl of Bridgewater, was lately a scene of great gaiety. The sports of the field, on the three days of the Duke of York’s sojourn, were never before equalled. The Duke of Wellington’s double-barrelled gun brought down everything before it. During the last four days, a party of gentlemen killed 623 head of game. Killed from eight guns, in three days, 1093 head of game:—

1st day, 7 guns, 627 shots, 326 killed. 2nd .. 9 .. 956 .. 511 .. 3rd .. 8 .. 388 .. 251 ..

The best shots were, the Duke of York, the Duke of Wellington, Lord Bridgewater, and Lord Verulam. The Duke of York killed, on the first day, forty-seven head of game.

* * * * *

In October, 1807, at Up Park, Sussex, the seat of Sir H. Featherstonhaugh, the extraordinary quantity of five hundred and one brace of game was shot, from Wednesday morning, the 7th, to Saturday night, the 10th instant, by a party visiting at the above mansion.

* * * * *

Lord Rendlesham and party killed three thousand seven hundred and seventy-five head of game, during the last week in the season of 1807.

* * * * *

On the day before one of the annual parties at Clumber broke up, two sets went out, each consisting of three persons, and a bet was laid which should kill most game. It was computed that, on an average, each man of the six got sixty shots; total, three hundred and sixty. The winning triumvirate killed three birds! The shooters were, Lord Lincoln, General Philips, Captain (afterwards General) Lascelles, Reverend Mr. Lascelles, Mr. Cotton, and Lieutenant Colonel Stricland. Here the game had a complete triumph over their adversaries.—Daniel—Sporting Anecdotes.

BAWREL, s. A kind of hawk. Obs.

BAWSIN, s. A badger. Obs.

BAY, a. A colour.

Of the bays, there are many varieties, and they include the very best of our horses of every description. The bright yellow bay, although very beautiful, and especially if his mane and tail are black, is the least valuable, because the lightness of his colour seems to give him some tenderness of constitution. The proper bay, with no white about him, and black from the knees and the hocks to the feet, is the most desirable of all colours; he has generally a good constitution, naturally good feet, and, if his conformation is not faulty, will turn out a valuable horse for almost every purpose.—The Horse.

BAY, s. An opening in the land; the state of anything surrounded by enemies; a tree.

BAY, v. To bark, as a dog, at the moon; to shut in.

BAY SALT, s. Salt made of sea water, which receives its consistence from the heat of the sun, and is so called from its brown colour.

BAYARD, s. A bay horse.

BEACH, s. The shore; the strand.

BEADLE, s. In forestry, is an officer that warns all the courts of the forest, executes process, makes all proclamations, &c. &c.

BEAGLE, s. A small hound, with which hares are hunted.

This is the smallest of the dogs of the chase which go under the general denomination of hound; meaning that kind which have the innate property of finding their game and pursuing it by what sportsmen call scent, which seems to be an impregnation of the atmosphere with certain effluvia issuing from the pores of the skin, and acting upon the olfactory membrane of the dog’s nose.

Although the beagle is far inferior in point of speed to the harrier, yet his sense of smelling a hare is equally exquisite, and he pursues her with indefatigable vigilance, energy, and perseverance. Every winding and all the mazes are traced by him with a degree of exactness which must be seen to be properly understood and justly estimated, while the soft and melodious tones of his voice afford ecstatic pleasure to the lovers of the chase, and is thus finely described by Somerville:—

“Hark! from yon covert, where those towering oaks Above the humble copse aspiring rise, What glorious triumphs burst in every gale Upon our ravish’d ears! The hunters shout, The clanging horns swell their sweet winding notes, The pack wide opening load the trembling air With various melody; from tree to tree The propagated cry redoubling bounds, And winged zephyrs waft the floating joy Through all the regions near. The puzzling pack unravel, wile by wile, Maze within maze.”

Much emulation prevailed in former times among sportsmen in the breeding of beagles, and it was then the greatest merit to rear dogs of the smallest growth. Amongst amateurs of hunting, beagles were so carefully selected in point of size, that they seldom exceeded ten or eleven inches in height; and they were so well matched with respect to speed, that during the chase a good pack might be covered with a sheet. This is with all kinds of hounds a sure mark of excellence.

Although beagles are slow in speed, they are uncommonly eager; for, if the scent lies well, a hare has little chance of escape from them. Their slowness, however, is the principal reason of their being almost totally discontinued in packs, and that they are now seldom to be met with beyond a few couples, used in some of the southern counties of England to ensure finding more certainly in greyhound coursing.

Hunting with the beagle was admirably adapted for ladies and gentlemen up in years; and, besides, afforded much amusement to rustics, and other pedestrian hunters; for there were few male persons of any activity who could not keep up with them.

The late Colonel Hardy once had a pack of beagles amounting to ten or twelve couples, and so diminutive in size, that they were always carried to and from the sporting field in a large pair of panniers slung across a horse. This curious pack was lost to the colonel in a rather singular manner. It was kept in a barn which was one night broken open, when all the hounds and the panniers were stolen; and, notwithstanding the most diligent search, no trace of either could ever be discovered.—Brown.

BEAK, s. The bill or horny mouth of a bird.

BEAN, s. The common garden bean; the horse bean.

Beans contain but five hundred and seventy parts of nutritive matter, yet they add materially to the vigour of the horse. There are many horses that will not stand hard work without beans being mingled with their food, and these not horses whose tendency to purge it may be necessary to restrain by the astringency of the bean. There is no traveller who is not aware of the difference in the spirit and continuance of his horse if he allows or denies him beans on his journey. They afford not merely a temporary stimulus, but they may be daily used without losing their power, or producing exhaustion. Two pounds of beans may, with advantage, be mixed with the chaff of the agricultural horse, during the winter. In summer, the quantity may be lessened, or the beans altogether discontinued. Beans are generally given whole. This is very absurd; for the young horse, whose teeth are strong, seldom requires them; while the old horse, to whom they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely able to masticate them, swallows many of them whole which he is unable to break, and drops much corn from his mouth in the ineffectual attempt to break them. Beans should not be merely split, but crushed; they will even then give sufficient employment to the grinders of the animal. Some postmasters use chaff with beans instead of oats. With hardly-worked horses they may possibly be allowed; but in general cases, the beans, without oats, would be too binding and stimulating, and would produce costiveness, and probably megrims or staggers.—The Horse.

BEAN GOOSE, s.

This species differs very little in its general appearance from the grey lag goose, the chief distinction between them being in the bill; which in this is small, much compressed near the end, whitish, and sometimes of a pale red in the middle, and black at the base and nail: the latter is shaped somewhat like a horse-bean, from which it has obtained the name of Bean Goose.

These birds arrive in the fen counties in the autumn, and take their departure in May. They are said to alight in the corn-fields, and to feed much upon the green wheat while they remain in England.

They are reported to breed in great numbers in the Isle of Lewis, and no doubt on others of the Hebrides, and also at Hudson’s Bay.—Bewick.

BEAR, s. A rough savage animal.

BEARWARD, s. A keeper of bears. Obs.

BEARD, s. The hair that grows on the lips and chin; sharp prickles growing upon the ears of corn; a barb of an arrow.

BEAST, s. An animal distinguished from birds, insects, fishes, and man; an irrational animal, opposed to man. In forestry, there are five beasts which are properly beasts of forest, or venery; viz. the hart, hind, hare, boar, and wolf.

BEAT, s. A stroke, or a striking. In sporting phraseology, it means the place or country a man passes over in pursuit of game.

BEAT, v. To move in a pulsatory manner; to dash, as a flood or storm. To look for game.

BEATER, s. An instrument with which any thing is beaten; a person attending a sportsman, as in pheasant or cock-shooting, to beat the covers and flush the birds.

BEE, s. The insect that makes honey.

BEE-EATER, s. (Merops apiaster, LINN.) A bird that feeds upon bees. Of this genus only one species is British.—Montagu.

BEE-HIVE, s. The case or box in which bees are kept.

BEES-WAX, s. Much used in forming ointment.

BEECH, s. A tree. Beechen, a. Consisting of the wood of the beech.

BEEF, s. The flesh of black cattle prepared for food; an ox, bull, or cow.

BEER, s. Liquor made of malt and hops; a useful vehicle for tonics and cordials. When good it is an excellent restorative for a fatigued horse. Heated with spirits and ginger it relieves colic, gripes, &c.

BEET, s. The name of a plant.

BEETLE, s. An insect distinguished by having hard cases, or sheaths, under which he folds his wings; a heavy mallet. Beetles flying about late in an evening often foretel a fine day on the morrow.—Foster.

BELLADONNA, s. Nightshade; a powerful narcotic.

Mr. Youatt considers this to have some prophylactic powers against rabies, but particularly when in union with the scutellaria, or skull-cap. He begins “with a drachm ball to a moderate-sized dog, containing two scruples of the scutellaria, and about two and a half grains of the belladonna, to be given night and morning: on the second week two balls are given; on the third, three; and this continued for six weeks.” The nightshade is also a general sedative.—The Horse.

BELLMETAL, s. The metal of which bells are made.

BELLOW, v. To make a noise as a bull; to make any loud and violent outcry.

BELLWETHER, s. A sheep which leads the flock with a bell hung on his neck.

BELLY, s. That part of the body which reaches from the breast to the thighs, containing the bowels.

BELLY-BOUND, a. Costive.

BELT, s. A girdle; a cincture.

BENZOIN, s. Called also GUM BENJAMIN. It is a yellow resinous substance, and from it Flowers of Benjamin are extracted. It is used as an ingredient in Friar’s Balsam and Paregoric Elixir.

BERNACLE, s. A bird like a goose, fabulously supposed to grow on trees.

The Bernacle, (Anas Erythropus, LINN. La Bernacle, BUFF.) weighs about five pounds, and measures more than two feet in length, and nearly four and a half in breadth. The bill, from the tip to the corners of the mouth, is scarcely an inch and a half long, black, and crossed with a pale reddish streak on each side; a narrow black line passes from the bill to the eyes, the irides of which are brown; the head is small, and, as far as the crown, together with the cheeks and throat, white; the rest of the head and neck, to the breast and shoulders, is black; the upper part of the plumage is prettily marbled or barred with blue, grey, black, and white; the feathers of the back are black, edged with white, and those of the wing coverts and scapulars, blue grey, bordered with black near the margins, and edged with white; the quills black, edged a little way from the tips with blue grey; the under parts and tail coverts white; the thighs are marked with dusky lines or spots, and are black near the knees; the tail is black, and five inches and a half long; the legs and feet dusky, very thick and short, and have a stumpy appearance.

In severe winters these birds are not uncommon in this kingdom, particularly on the northern and western parts, where, however, they remain only a short time, and depart early in the spring to their northern wilds, to breed and spend the summer.—Bewick.

BETTER, s. One that lays bets or wagers.

BEVY, s. A flock of quails.

BILE, s. A thick, yellow, bitter liquor, separated in the liver, collected in the gall bladder, and discharged by the common duct; a sore angry swelling.

BILL, s. The beak of a fowl; a kind of hatchet with a hooked point.

BILLIARDS, s. A kind of play upon a flat surface, with cues, maces, and balls.

In order to play billiards well, attention must be given at first to the method of holding the mace; to the position in which the player should stand, and the manner of delivering the hall from the mace; but these are much more easily acquired by observation or by the direction of a good player, than by any possible written rules. A person who plays with his right hand must stand with his left foot foremost; and on the contrary he who is left-handed must stand with his right foot foremost, by which he will stand more steady and firm. Immoderate bursts of passion, and even fretting at trifling disappointments in the game, are usually found very prejudicial to the player; his nerves, being affected, it is impossible for him to make the stroke with that steadiness and nicety the game requires.

The games usually played till lately were the white winning and the red winning carambole games, but the winning and losing carambole game is now very fashionable.

The different games of billiards are—

The white winning game, played with two white balls, is twelve in number, when two persons play, and fifteen when four play; scored (independently of forfeitures) from winning hazards only.

The white losing game, also twelve in number, played with two white balls, is the reverse of the winning; the points being scored from losing and double, or winning and losing hazards.

The white winning and losing game is a combination of the two preceding; all balls put in by striking the adversary’s ball first, reckon towards the game.

The preceding games should be introductory to the knowledge of those with three or more balls, which are more complicated and difficult.

Choice of balls, in which the player chooses his ball each time, an incalculable advantage, generally played against the losing and winning game.

The bricole game, signifies, being required to strike a cushion, from whence the ball is to rebound so as to hit that of the adversary, reckoned equal to giving eight or nine points. When both parties play bricole, the game is ten, scored from bricole hazards, and forfeitures.

The bar-hole game, so styled because the hole which the ball should be played for is barred, and the player strikes for another hole. When this is played against the common game, the advantage to the last-mentioned is calculated at six points.

One-hole, in which all halls that go into one hole are counted, and the player who best lays his ball at the brink of that particular hole, has the advantage. The lead should be given from that end of the table where the last hazard has been made.

Hazards, so styled as depending entirely upon making hazards, no account being kept of the game. Many persons may play at a table with balls that are numbered, though to avoid confusion seldom more than six play at once. The person whose ball is put in pays a fixed sum for each hazard to the player, and he who misses pays half the same to him whose ball he played at. The only general rule is not to lay any ball a hazard for the next player, which may best be done by always playing upon him whose turn is next, and either bringing his ball close to the cushion, or putting it a distance from the rest.

The doublet game is ten in number, played with two balls, most commonly against the white winning game, and no hazard is scored unless made by a reverberation from the cushion, calculated as equivalent to giving five points.

The commanding game, where the adversary fixes upon the ball which the striker is to play at, reckoned equal to having fourteen points out of twenty-four: usually given by a skilful player against the common game of an indifferent one.

The limited game is very seldom played. In it the table is divided by a line, beyond which, if the striker pass his ball, he pays forfeit.

The red or winning and losing carambole game consists of twenty-one or twenty-four points, reckoned from caramboles, and from winning and losing hazards, equally; both white and red. Each of the white hazards and the carambole counts two; the red hazard three points.

The winning carambole (or red) game is sixteen or eighteen in number, obtained (independently of the forfeitures which every game has peculiar to itself), by winning hazards and carom only.

The losing carambole is nearly the reverse of the winning, and consists of sixteen or eighteen points, made by caramboles, losing and double hazards; counted as in the winning and losing game.

N.B. The simple carambole is only a trifling variation from the above.

The carambole games are played with three balls; one red which is neutral, and termed the carambole: the other two white: one of them allotted to each player. The carambole is placed upon a spot on a line even with the stringing nail at the bottom of the table, and after leading from the upper end the striker is either to make the winning or losing hazard, according to the particular game, or to hit with his own ball the other two successively; for which stroke, called a carambole or carom, he obtains two points.

The Russian carambole varies from the common carambole in the following particulars:—

The red ball is to be placed upon the usual spot; but the player, at the commencement of the game, or after his ball has been holed, is at liberty to place it where he pleases. The leader, instead of striking at the red ball, should lay his own gently behind the same, and the opponent may play at either of them; if the said opponent play at and hole the red ball, he scores three; then the red ball is to be replaced upon the spot, and the player may take his choice again, always following his stroke till both balls are off the table; he gains two points for every carambole; but if in doing that he hole his own ball, then he loses as many as otherwise he would have obtained; and if he strike at the red ball, and should carambole and hole that ball and his own, he loses five points; and when he holes all three balls he loses seven, which respective numbers he would have won had he not holed his own ball.

The caroline or carline game is played either on a round or square table with five balls, two white, one red, another blue, and the caroline ball yellow. The red ball is to be placed on its usual spot, the caroline ball exactly in the middle of the table, and the blue ball between the two at the lower end of the table. The striking spot is at the upper end, in a parallel line with the three balls. The game is 42, scored from caramboles and hazards; the red hazard counts three, the blue two, and the yellow, when holed in the caroline or middle pocket, is reckoned at six points.

The four game consists of two partners on each side at any of the common games, who play in succession after every winning hazard lost.

The cushion game consists in the striker playing his ball from the top of the baulk cushion, instead of following his stroke upon the table, and is generally played in the winning, or winning and losing game, reckoned equal to giving six points.

Fortification Billiards, for an account of which see Hoyle.

As the red, or winning and losing game, is that most commonly played, and as its regulations are, with trifling exceptions, applicable to all the others, the following will be found a correct code of the general laws of billiards. For tables of the odds, and a description of particular games, the reader is referred to the later editions of Hoyle.

Rules &c. in the winning and losing carambole game.—1. The game commences by stringing for the lead and choice of balls.

2. In stringing, the striker must place his ball within the striking ring; and, if his adversary desire it, must stand within the limits of the corner of the table.

3. He who, after playing at the bottom cushion, brings his ball nearest to the cushion, at the upper or baulk end of the table, wins the lead, and chooses his ball.

4. After the first person has strung for the lead, if the adversary who follows should make his ball touch the other, he loses the lead.

5. By holing his own ball, either in stringing or leading, the player loses the lead.

6. Should the leader follow his ball, with either mace or cue, beyond the middle hole, it is no lead; and his adversary may make him lead again.

7. The leader must place his ball within the ring, between the striking nails or spots at the upper end of the table: and the same must be observed after every losing hazard has been got.

8. The red ball is to be placed on the lower of the two spots, at the bottom of the table.

9. When either of the white balls has been holed, &c., it must be replaced in, and played from the striking ring, as at the commencement of the game.

10. When the red ball has been holed or forced over the table, it must be replaced on the same spot as at the beginning of the game, and the present striker is bound to see it thus replaced, otherwise he cannot win any points while it is off the spot, and the stroke he may make is deemed foul.

11. If the striker do not hit his adversary’s ball, he loses one point; and if by the same stroke he pocket his own ball, he loses three points and the lead.

12. If the striker force either of the balls over the table, he loses the lead.

13. If the striker force his own, or either of the other balls over the table, after having made a carambole or hazard, he gains nothing, and also loses the lead.

14. If the striker hit both the red and his adversary’s ball with his own ball, this is called a carambole or carom.

15. If the striker with his own hole his adversary’s ball, he wins two points.

16. If the striker hole the red ball, he wins three points.

17. If the striker hole his own off his adversary’s ball, he wins two points.

18. If the striker hole his own off the red ball, he wins three points.

19. If the striker hole both his adversary’s and the red ball, he wins five points.

20. If the striker, by playing at the red ball, hole his own and the red ball, he wins six points.

21. If the striker, by hitting the white ball first, hole both his own and the adversary’s ball, he wins four points.

22. If the striker, by striking at the red ball first, hole both his own and his adversary’s ball, he wins five points: three for holing his own ball off the red, and two for holing the white ball.

23. If the striker play at his adversary’s ball first, and hole his own ball and the red, he wins five points: two for holing his own ball off the white, and three for holing the red ball.

24. If the striker play at his adversary’s ball, and hole it, at the same time that he pockets both his own ball and the red, he wins seven points: two for holing his own ball off the white, two for holing his adversary’s, and three for holing the red ball.

25. If the striker play at the red, and hole his own ball off the same, and the red ball, and his adversary’s ball, by the same stroke, he wins eight points: three for holing his own ball off the red, three for holing the red, and two for holing the white ball.

26. If the striker make a carambole, and by the same stroke pocket his adversary’s ball, he wins four points: two for the carambole, and two for the white hazard.

27. If the striker make a carambole, and pocket the red ball, he wins five points: two for the carambole, and three for the red hazard.

28. If the striker should carambole, and hole both the red and his adversary’s ball, he gains seven points: two for the carambole, two for the white, and three for the red ball.

29. If the striker make a carambole by striking the white ball first, and hole his own by the same stroke, he wins four points: two for the carom, and two for the white losing hazard.

30. If the striker make a carambole by striking the red ball first, and by the same stroke pocket his own ball, he wins five points: two for the carambole, and three for the red losing hazard.

31. If the striker play at the white ball first, and should make a carambole, and also hole his own and his adversary’s ball, he wins six points: two for the carambole, and two for each white hazard.

32. If the striker play at the red ball first, and carambole, and should likewise hole his own and his adversary’s ball, he gains seven points: two for the carom, three for the red hazard, and two for the white hazard.

33. If the striker should carambole by playing first at the white ball, and also hole his own and the red ball, he wins seven points: two for the carom, two for the white losing hazard, and three for the red winning hazard.

35. If the striker should carambole by striking the white ball first, and hole his own and his adversary’s, and the red ball, he wins nine points: two for the carambole, two for each of the white hazards, and three for the red hazard.

36. If the striker should carambole by striking the red ball first, and by the same stroke hole his own and the red, and his adversary’s ball, he gains ten points: two for the carambole, three for red losing, three for the red winning, and two for the white winning hazard.

37. After the adversary’s ball is off the table, and the two remaining balls are either upon the line, or within the stringing nails or spots, at the upper end where the white balls are originally placed in leading, it is called a baulk; and the striker, who is to play from the ring, must strike the opposite cushion, to make his ball rebound, so as to hit one of the balls in the baulk—which if he do not, he loses one point.

38. It sometimes happens, after the red ball has been holed or forced over the table, that one of the white balls so occupies its place, that it cannot be put upon its proper spot without touching the same. In such a case, the marker must hold the red ball in his hand, while the striker plays at his adversary’s ball, and immediately afterwards replace the red on its proper spot, so that it may not prevent a carambole, &c.

39. If the striker play with the wrong ball, it is a foul stroke.

40. If the striker be going to play with the wrong ball, no person ought to discover it to him, except his partner, when they are playing a double match.

41. If the striker play with the wrong ball, and his adversary should not discover it, he may reckon all the points gained by the stroke, and the marker is obliged to score them.

42. If the striker, after having made a hazard or carom, move with his hand or stick either of the balls which remain upon the table, the stroke is deemed foul.

43. If a ball be found to have been changed during the game, and it is not known by which player, the game must be played out with the balls as they then are.

44. No one has a right to take up or otherwise move a ball, without permission of the adversary.

45. If a striker touch his ball with the instrument twice, the stroke is foul.

46. If a striker be impeded in his stroke by his adversary or a spectator, he has a right to recommence the stroke.

47. If the striker should accidentally move his own ball, without intending at the time to make a stroke, he loses no point; but the adversary may replace the ball.

48. If the striker touch his ball, and make his mace or cue go over or past it, he loses one point.

49. If either of the players, in the act of striking, happen to move his own, the adversary’s, or the red ball, from the place it occupied on the table, it is a foul stroke.

50. When the striker’s, and either of the other balls are so close as to touch, and in playing the former off, the latter is moved from its place, the stroke is considered foul.

51. If the striker, in attempting a stroke, do not touch his ball, it is no stroke, and he must strike again.

52. If, when the balls are very near each other, the striker should make his ball touch the other, it is to be considered a stroke, though not intended as such.

53. If the striker play upon a ball which is still running, the stroke is foul.

54. Whoever stops a ball when running, loses the lead; if his adversary do not like the ball he has to play at the next stroke.

55. Whoever retains his adversary’s cue or mace, when in the act of striking, makes the stroke foul.

56. If the striker interrupt the course of his own ball, when running towards a hole, after having made a miss, and it is the opinion of the marker that it would have entered the pocket, had it not been interrupted, he loses three points.

57. And if the striker should interrupt, stop, or put his adversary’s ball out of its course, when running towards or into a hole, he is subjected to the same forfeiture.

58. If the striker, after having made a hazard, or carambole, interrupt the course of his own ball, the stroke is foul, and he cannot score any of the points he may have thus made.

59. He who blows upon a ball when running makes the stroke foul; and if his own ball were running towards a hole, or near a hole, and he be seen by his adversary to blow upon it, he loses two points.

60. If the striker play with both feet off the ground, the stroke is deemed foul.

61. Whoever strikes the table when the ball is running, makes the stroke foul.

62. If the striker throws his mace or cue upon the table so as to baulk his adversary, he causes him to make a foul stroke.

63. If a ball be made to go extremely near the brink of a hole, and after sensibly standing still, falls into it, the striker wins nothing, and the ball must be put on the same brink where it stood before the adversary makes his next stroke; and if it should fall into the hole at the instant the striker hath played upon his ball, so as to prevent the success of his stroke, the striker’s and the adversary’s balls must be placed in the same relative position, and the striker play again.

64. He who will not play the game out, loses the same.

65. If a person agree to play with the cue, he is obliged to play with it during the whole of the game or match; but if no agreement have been made, he may at any time change it for the mace, and vice versâ. But when the parties agree to play mace against cue, the mace player has no right to use a cue, nor has the cue player any right to use a mace, without permission.

66. When a person agrees to play with a cue, he must play every ball within his reach with the point thereof; and if he should agree to play with the butt of the cue, he has no right at any time to play with the point without permission. Also, when the parties agree to play point and point of the cue, neither of them has any right to use the butt: but every person who plays with a cue, may use occasionally a long one, and in such case he may play with the point of a long cue or a mace.

67. If the striker should make his mace or cue touch both balls at the same time, it is deemed a foul stroke, and if discovered by the adversary, he wins nothing for any points he might make by the stroke, and the adversary may break or part the balls.

68. Whenever a foul stroke is made, it is at the option of the adversary either to part the balls, and play from the striking ring, as at the beginning, or, if the balls happen to be in a favourable position for himself, to suffer the preceding striker to score the points; which the marker is obliged to do in every case where the balls are not broken.

69. The adversary only is bound to see that the striker plays fair, which, if he neglect, the striker wins all the points he may have made by that particular stroke, and the marker is obliged to score them.

70. No person has a right to discover whether a stroke be fair or foul until asked, unless during a four match; and in that case none but the player or his partner has a right to ask it.

71. Should a dispute arise between the players concerning the fairness of a stroke, the marker alone is authorised to decide, and from his decision there is no appeal: but if he happen to be incompetent, the majority of the disinterested company then present should decide the dispute.

72. Whoever proposes to part the balls, and his adversary agrees, the person who made the proposal loses the lead.

73. No person in the room has a right to bet more than the odds on a hazard or a game; but if he err through ignorance, he should appeal to the marker, or the table of the odds. Each person who proposes a bet should name the precise sum; and also should be extremely careful not to offer a bet when the striker has taken his aim, or is going to strike; and no bet ought to be proposed on any stroke, that may have any tendency to influence the player. If A propose a bet which is accepted by B, it must be confirmed by A, otherwise it is no bet. If any bets be laid on the hazard, and the striker should lose the game by a miss, at the stroke in question, it cannot be a hazard, the game being out by a miss. In all cases the betters are to abide by the determination of the players, and the betters have a right to demand their money when their game is over.

74. Every person ought to be very attentive, and listen for the stroke, before he opens the door of a billiard-room.

75. The striker has a right to command his adversary not to stand facing or near him, so as to annoy or molest him in his stroke.

76. Each party is to take care of his own game, and his adversary has no right to answer any questions; as, if the ball be close?—if he touch the ball? &c.

77. The marker should make those persons who do not play stand from the table, and give room for the players to pass freely round.

78. Those who play ought to be particularly careful and attentive to their strokes, when any bets are depending thereon: but even should they play carelessly, the bets must, in every case, be decided by the event.

79. No person has any right to discover to the player in what manner he may play his ball. And if it be done, and discovered by the adversary, he may prevent the striker from scoring the points he has made by the stroke. Neither, after a stroke has been played, has any one a right to detect any error the striker may have committed.

* * * * *

The Dutch Baron.—A few years since the gentlemen of the green cloth were put out of cue, by a hero of the hazard table imported from the continent by one of the squad, who, while he pretended to be playing the losing game, was shrewdly suspected of going snacks in all that rolls into the pocket.

The Dutch baron was introduced by his friend, who happened to have known him at Hamburgh. He played in a crowd of billiard amateurs and professors, many of whom were raw, and lost about one hundred and fifty guineas with the utmost sang froid. Upon his retiring, his friend told the company he was a fine pigeon, a Dutch baron, who had emigrated from Holland, with immense property, and who would as readily lose ten thousand pounds as ten guineas. “Who is he?” was eagerly inquired. “A Dutch baron, as rich as a Jew,” was answered in a whisper.

No Batavian ever laid out an hundred and fifty guineas so well as the Dutch baron. The whole corps of riflemen flocked around him like a swarm of fish at a piece of bread. But little P——, well known at Bath, who thought he best knew how to make his market, like a man of business, applied to the baron’s friend to have the first plucking. The friend, as a great favour, engaged to use his influence; little P—— was at the billiard table the first man in the morning, that he might secure the play in his own hands. The baron came: to it they went; little P—— kept back his play: the Dutch baron played but poorly. Fair strokes he often missed; but whenever he was at an important point he won as if by accident. On they went—Hambletonian and Diamond. Little P—— was afraid of frightening the baron, by disclosing the extent of his play; the baron played so as to persuade every one he knew little of the game. The contest was who should play worst at indifferent periods, and who, without seeming to play well, should play best at important points. The baron won all on great occasions, till little P—— had lost about £100. But the baron managed so well that no one thought he could play at all, and although little P—— was sickened, yet the bait of 150 guineas found plenty of customers. Some of them, the greatest adepts in the kingdom, gave the baron, at starting, three points in the game; but the baron’s accidental good play was so superior, whenever a stake was down, he at last gave three points to those who had given him three points, and still beat them—by accident; and before the billiard knowing ones at Bath would stop, the baron had won nearly ten thousand pounds, with which he made a bow, and came to London.

But this Dutch nobleman’s fame travelled almost as fast as himself, and he was found out; not, however, till he had sweated some of the most knowing gentlemen of the cue.

He concealed his play so well, that no one could form an idea of its extent. To the best billiard players he gave points, and always won on important occasions. He seemed to be a very conjurer, commanding the balls to roll as he pleased; and there was nothing to be named, that it is not supposed he could accomplish.

And who was the Dutch baron? In Hamburgh, he was the marker at a billiard table!—Hoyle—Anecdotes of Play.

BIN, s. A place where corn or wine is deposited.

BIPAROUS, a. Bringing forth two at a birth.

BIPED, s. An animal with two feet.

BIPENNATED, a. Having two wings.

BIRD, s. A general term for the feathered kind, a fowl.

The term of life varies greatly in birds, and does not seem to bear the same proportion to the time of acquiring their growth, as has been remarked with regard to quadrupeds.

Most birds acquire their full dimensions in the course of a few months, and are capable of propagation the first summer after they are hatched. In proportion to the size of their bodies, birds possess more vitality, and live longer, than either man or quadrupeds: notwithstanding the difficulties which arise in ascertaining the age of birds, there are instances of great longevity in many of them. Geese and swans have been known to attain to the age of seventy and upwards; ravens are very long-lived birds—they are said sometimes to exceed a century; eagles are supposed to arrive at a great age; pigeons are known to live more than twenty years; and even linnets, and other small birds, have been kept in cages from fifteen to twenty years.

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Every part of their frame is formed for lightness and buoyancy; their bodies are covered with a soft and delicate plumage, so disposed as to protect them from the intense cold of the atmosphere through which they pass; their wings are made of the lightest materials, and yet the force with which they strike the air is so great, as to impel their bodies forward with astonishing rapidity, whilst the tail serves the purpose of a rudder, to direct them to the different objects of their pursuit. The internal structure of birds is no less wisely adapted to the same purposes: all the bones are light and thin, and all the muscles, except those which are appropriated to the purpose of moving the wings, are extremely delicate and light; the lungs are placed close to the back-bone and ribs, the air, entering into them by a communication from the wind-pipe, passes through, and is conveyed into a number of membranous cells which lie upon the sides of the pericardium, and communicate with those of the sternum. In some birds these cells are continued down the wings, and extended even to the pinions, thigh-bones, and other parts of the body, which can be filled and distended with air at the pleasure of the animal.—Vide AIR CELLS.

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It seems evident that this general diffusion of air through the bodies of birds is of infinite use to them, not only in their long and laborious flights, but likewise in preventing their respiration from being stopped or interrupted by the rapidity of their motion through a resisting medium. Were it possible for man to move with the swiftness of a swallow, the actual resistance of the air, as he is not provided with internal reservoirs similar to those of birds, would soon suffocate him.

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The migration of birds would appear miraculous, did we not know their extraordinary power of flight. Speaking of this, Bewick says—“If we can suppose a bird to go at the rate of only half a mile in a minute, for the space of twenty-four hours, it will have gone over, in that time, an extent of more than seven hundred miles, which is sufficient to account for almost the longest migration; but, if aided by a favourable current of air, there is reason to suppose that the same journey may be performed in a much shorter space of time. To these observations we may add, that the sight of birds is peculiarly quick and piercing; and from the advantage they possess in being raised to considerable heights in the air, they are enabled, with a sagacity peculiar to instinctive knowledge, to discover the route they are to take, from the appearance of the atmosphere, the clouds, the direction of the winds, and other causes; so that, without having recourse to improbable modes, it is easy to conceive, from the velocity of their speed alone, that most birds may transport themselves to countries lying at great distances, and across vast tracts of ocean.”

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In speaking of the flight of birds, Mr. Rennie says—“Their capability of performing flights much longer than there is any necessity for supposing, may be proved by numerous facts. Even a sparrow has been calculated to fly at the rate of not less than thirty miles an hour, and many experiments prove that the eider duck can fly ninety miles in the same time. The common kite (falco milvus) has been observed to pass, without great exertion, over a space of a quarter of a league, in a minute; and it could fly, with ease, from Cape Pruth to the Land’s End, in a single day. M. Audubon, the distinguished ornithologist, has shot the passenger pigeon of America, and on dissection, found its stomach full of fresh rice, which, to have resisted the digestive process, must have been swallowed not many hours preceding its death, but could not have been obtained within eight hundred miles of the place where it was killed. Though the nightingale, the willow-wren, and other birds of passage, fly with only half the swiftness, they may easily arrive in most parts of the south of Europe, or the north of Africa, in a few days.”—Bewick—Rennie—Montagu.

BIRD, v. obs. To catch birds.

BIRDBOLT, s. A small arrow with three heads, which was anciently discharged at birds from a cross-bow.

BIRD-CATCHER, s. One that makes it his employment to take birds.

BIRD-CATCHING, s. The act of taking birds or wild fowl, whether for food, for the pleasure of their song, or for their destruction, as being pernicious to the husbandman, &c. The methods are by birdlime, nets, decoys, &c. See BIRDLIME, DECOYS, NETS, &c.

In the suburbs of London there are many persons, who, during the months of October and March, get their livelihood by an ingenious, and we may add, a scientific, method of bird-catching, which is totally unknown to other parts of Great Britain. The reason of this trade being confined to so small a compass, arises from there being no considerable sale for singing birds except in the metropolis; and as the apparatus for their purpose is heavy, and must be carried on a man’s back, it prevents the bird-catchers going to above three or four miles’ distance. This method of bird-catching must have been long practised, as it is brought to a most systematic perfection, and is attended with very considerable expense. The nets are a most ingenious piece of mechanism, are generally twelve yards and a half long, and two and a half wide; and no one, till he becomes eye-witness of the puller’s success, would imagine that a bird, which is so very quick in all its motions, could be caught by the nets flapping over each other. The wild birds fly, as the bird-catchers term it, chiefly during the month of October, and part of September and November, as the flight in March is much less considerable than that of Michaelmas. The several species of birds do not make their appearance precisely at the same time during the months of September, October, and November. The pipet, a small species of lark, but inferior to the others in singing, for example, begins to fly about Michaelmas, and then the woodlark, linnet, goldfinch, chaffinch, greenfinch, and other birds of flight, succeed; all of which are not easily caught, or in any numbers at any other time, and more particularly the pipet and the woodlark. These birds, during the Michaelmas and March flights, are chiefly on the wing from day-break to noon, though there is afterwards a small flight from two till night, but this is so inconsiderable, that the bird-catchers take up their nets at noon. It well deserves the attention of the naturalist whence these periodical flights of certain birds arise. As the ground, however, is ploughed during the months of October and March for sowing the winter and spring corn, it should seem that they are thus supplied with a profusion both of seeds and insects, which they cannot so easily procure at any other season. It has been observed, too, that, during their sitting, they fly always against the wind; hence, there is great contention amongst the bird-catchers, who shall gain that point. If, for example, it is westerly, the bird-catcher who lays his nets most to the east, is sure almost of catching every thing, provided his call birds are good; a gentle wind to the south-west generally produces the best sport. The bird-catcher generally carries with him five or six linnets, of which more are caught than any other singing-bird, two goldfinches, two greenfinches, one woodlark, one redpole, a yellow hammer, titlark and aberdevine, and perhaps a bullfinch; these are placed at small distances from the nets, in little cages. He has besides what are called slur-birds, which are placed within the nets, are raised upon the slur, and gently let down at the time the wild bird approaches them. The slur is a moveable perch to which the bird is tied, and which the bird-catcher can raise at pleasure by means of a long string fastened to it. The slur-birds generally consist of the linnet, goldfinch, and greenfinch, which are secured to the slur by what is called a brace, which secures the bird without injuring the plumage. It is a sort of bandage, formed of a slender silken string, fastened round the body, and under the wings, so as to hinder the bird from being hurt, let it flutter ever so much. As it has been found that there is a superiority in birds that are in song, the bird-catchers contrive that their call-birds should moult before the usual time. They therefore, in June or July, put them into a box, quite close under two or three folds of blankets, and leave their dung in the cage to raise a greater heat, in which state they continue, being perhaps examined but once a week to have fresh water. As for food, the air is so putrid, that they eat little during the whole state of confinement; which lasts about a month. The birds frequently die under the operation, and hence the value of a stopped bird, as the bird-catchers style it, rises greatly. When the bird has thus prematurely moulted, he is in song whilst the wild birds are out of song, and his note is louder and more piercing than that of a wild one; but it is not only in his note he receives an alteration, the plumage is also improved. The black and yellow in the wings of the goldfinch, for example, become deeper and more vivid, and acquire a beautiful gloss, which is not to be seen in the wild bird. The bill, which, in the latter, is black at the end, in the stopped bird becomes white and more taper, as do its legs; in short, there is as much difference between a wild and a stopped bird, as there is between a horse kept in body-clothes, and one at grass. When the bird-catcher has laid his nets, he disposes his call-birds at proper intervals. There is a most malicious joy in these call-birds, to bring the wild ones into the same captivity, which may likewise be observed with regard to decoy ducks. (See DECOY.) Their sight and hearing infinitely excel those of the bird-catcher. The moment they see a hawk they communicate the alarm to each other by a plaintive note, nor will they then jerk or call though the wild birds are near. But at any other time, the instant that the wild birds are perceived, notice is given by one to the rest of the call-birds, as by the first hound that hits on the scent, to the rest of the pack, after which follows the same sort of tumultuous joy. The call-birds, while the bird is at a distance, do not sing as a bird does in a chamber; they invite the wild ones by what the bird-catchers call short jerks, which, when the birds are good, may be heard at a great distance. The ascendancy by this call is so great, that the wildest bird is stopped in his flight; and, if not a sharper, as the bird-catchers style a bird acquainted with the nets, lights boldly within twenty yards perhaps of three or four bird-catchers, on a spot which, otherwise, it would not have taken the least notice of. Nay, it frequently happens, that if only half a flock are caught, the remainder will immediately after light in the nets, and share the same fate, and should only one bird escape, that bird will suffer itself to be pulled at till it is caught, such a fascinating power have these call-birds.

Here it is worth mentioning, that the bird-catchers frequently lay considerable wagers whose call-bird can jerk the longest, as that determines the superiority. They place them opposite to each other, by an inch of candle, and the bird who jerks the oftenest before the candle is burnt out, wins the wager. There have been instances of a bird giving 170 jerks in a quarter of an hour; and of a linnet, in such a trial, persevering in its emulation till it swooned from the perch. Birds, when near each other, and in sight, seldom jerk or sing. They either fight, or use short and wheedling calls; the jerking of these call-birds, therefore, face to face, is a most extraordinary instance of contention for superiority in song.

Various methods are used to catch different kinds of birds. The bullfinch, though not properly a singing bird, or a bird of flight, as it does not move farther than from hedge to hedge, yet, as it sells well on account of its learning to whistle tunes, and sometimes flies over where the nets are laid, the bird-catchers have often a call-bird to ensnare it, though most of them can imitate the call with their mouths. It is remarkable that the female bullfinch answers the purpose of a call-bird as well as the male, which is not experienced in any other species of bird taken by the London bird-catchers. The nightingale is not a bird of flight, in the sense in which the bird-catchers use the term. Like the robin, wren, and many other singing birds, it only moves from hedge to hedge, and does not take the periodical flights in October and March. Those who catch these birds make use of small trap-nets, without call-birds, and are considered as inferior in dignity to other bird-catchers, who will not rank with them. The arrival of the nightingale is expected by the trappers in the neighbourhood of London, the first week in April; at the beginning, none but cocks are taken, but in a few days the hens make their appearance, generally by themselves, though sometimes with a few males. The latter are distinguished from the females, not only by their superior size, but by a great swelling of their vent, which commences on the first arrival of the hens. They are caught in a net-trap, the bottom of which is surrounded with an iron ring; the net itself is rather larger than a cabbage-net. When the trappers hear or see them, they strew some fresh mould under the place, and bait the trap with a meal-worm. Ten or a dozen have been thus caught in a day. The common way of taking larks (Vide LARK) is in the night, with nets called trammels. These are usually made of thirty-six yards in length, and about six yards over, with six ribs of pack-thread, which at the ends are put upon two poles about sixteen feet long, and made lesser at each end. These are to be drawn over the ground by two men, and every five or six steps the net is made to touch the ground, otherwise it would pass over the birds without touching them. When they are felt to fly up against the net, it is clapped down, and then all are safe that are under it. The darkest nights are best for this sport; and the net will not only take larks but all other birds that roost on the ground. In the depth of winter people sometimes take great numbers of larks by nooses of horse-hair. The method is this:—Take 100 or 300 yards of pack-thread; fasten at every six inches a noose made of horse-hair; at every twenty yards the line is to be pegged down to the ground, and so left ready to take them. The time to use this is when the ground is covered with snow, and the larks are to be allured to it by some white oats, scattered all the way among the nooses. They must be taken away as soon as three or four are hung, otherwise the rest will be frightened, but though the others are scared away just where the sportsman comes, they will be feeding at the other end of the line, and the sport may be thus continued for a long time. Those caught in the day are taken in clap-nets of fifteen yards long, and two and a half broad, and are enticed within their reach by bits of looking-glass, fixed in a piece of a wood, and placed in the middle of the nets, which are put in a quick whirling motion by the string the larker commands; he also makes use of a decoy-lark. These nets are used only till the fourteenth of November, for the larks will not dare to frolic in the air except in fine sunny weather, and of course cannot be inveigled into the snare. When the weather grows gloomy, the larker changes his engine, and makes use of a trammel-net, twenty-seven or twenty-eight feet long, and five broad, which is put on two poles eighteen feet long, and carried by men under each arm, who pass over the field and quarter the ground like a setting dog; when they hear or feel a lark hit the net, they drop it down, and so the birds are taken. Linnæus observes, that the male chaffinches fly by themselves, and in the flight precede the females, but this is not peculiar to them. When the tit-larks are caught in the beginning of the season, it frequently happens that forty are taken and not one female among them, and probably the same would be observed as to other birds (as has been done with relation to the wheatear) if they were attended to. Experienced bird-catchers tell us, that such birds as breed twice a year, generally have in their first brood a majority of males, and in their second, of females, which may, in part, account for the above observation.

BIRDING-PIECE, s. A gun to shoot birds with; an ancient fowling-piece.

BIRDLIME, s. A glutinous substance spread upon twigs, by which the birds that light upon them are entangled.

Birdlime is prepared in different ways. The best birdlime is made of the middle bark of the holly boiled seven or eight hours in water, till it is soft and tender, then laid in heaps in pits in the ground, and covered with stones, the water being previously drawn from it, and in this state left for two or three weeks to ferment, till it is reduced to a kind of mucilage. This being taken from the pit, is pounded in a mortar, to a paste, washed in river water, and kneaded, till it is free from extraneous matters. In this state it is left four or five days in earthen vessels, to ferment and purify itself, when it is fit for use. It reddens tincture of litmus. Exposed to a gentle heat, it liquifies slightly, swells in bubbles, becomes grumous, emits a smell resembling that of animal oils, grows brown, but recovers its properties on cooling, if not heated too much. The residuum contains sulphate and muriate of potash, carbonate of lime, and alumina, with a small portion of iron.

The misletoe affords a juice superior to that of the holly; and if a young shoot of the common alder be cut through, a stringy juice will draw out in threads, and follow the knife like birdlime, or the juice of the holly.

When birdlime is to be put in wet places, the common birdlime is apt to have its force soon taken away. It is necessary, therefore, to have recourse to a particular sort, which, from its property of bearing water unhurt, is called water birdlime, and is prepared thus: Take a pound of strong birdlime, wash it in spring water till the hardness is all removed; then beat it well, that the water may be well separated, so as not a drop remains; then dry it well, and put it into an earthen pot, add to it as much grease as will make it run, with two teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar, one spoonful of oil, and a small quantity of Venice turpentine; let the whole boil for some minutes over a moderate fire, stirring it all the while; then take it off, and, when there is occasion to use it, warm it, and cover the sticks well with it. This is the best sort of birdlime for snipes, and other birds that frequent wet places.

The most successful method of using birdlime is this:—Cut down the branch of any bushy tree, whose twigs are thick, straight, and smooth. The willow and the birch tree afford the best of this kind. Let all the superfluous shoots be trimmed off, and the twigs all made neat and clean; they must all be well covered with the birdlime, within four inches of the bottom: no part of the bark where the lime should come must be left bare; but it is a nice matter to lay it on properly, for if it be too thick it will give the birds a distaste, and they will not come near it; and if there be too little of it, it will not hold when they come there. When the bush is thus prepared, it must be set up in some dead hedge, or among bushes near the outskirts of a town, or the like, in the spring, for these places are the resort of small birds at that time. If it be used in summer, the bush must be placed in the midst of a quickset hedge, or in whitethorn trees, near fields of corn; and, in the winter, the proper places are about stacks of corn, hovels, barns, and the like. When the lime-bush is thus planted, the sportsman must stand as near it as he can without being discovered, and with the mouth, or otherwise, make such notes as the birds do when they attack or call to one another. The time of day for this sport is from sunrise to ten o’clock, and from one to sunset. Another very good method of bringing the birds together is by a stale. A bat makes a very good stale, but it must be fastened so as to be in sight at a distance. An owl is a still better stale, for this bird never goes abroad but it is followed by all the small birds. They will gather together in great numbers about it, and having no convenient place to sit on but the lime-bush, many will be taken. If a living owl or bat is not to be had, the skin stuffed will serve the purpose, and will last twenty years. Some have used the image of an owl carved in wood, and painted in the natural colours, and it has been found to succeed very well.

BIRDS, METHOD OF PRESERVING.

Various methods have been attempted for preserving birds from putrefaction, so as to retain their natural form and position, as well as the beauty of their colours and plumage. A good antiseptic for animal substances has been much inquired after, as, for want of it, many curious animals, and birds particularly, from foreign parts, entirely miscarry, and others of the finest plumage are devoured by insects. The following improved method by Dr. Lettsom seems to be the least troublesome, and the most complete. After opening the bird by a longitudinal incision from the breast to the vent, dissecting the fleshy parts from the bones, and removing the entrails, eyes, tongue, and brains, (which in large birds may be extracted through the eye-holes with a surgeon’s directar,) the cavities and inside of the skin are to be sprinkled with the powders mentioned below. Glass eyes, which are preferable to wax, are then to be inserted, and the head stuffed with cotton or tow, and a wire is to be passed down the throat through one of the nostrils, and fixed on the breast bone. Wires also to be introduced through the feet, up the legs and thighs, and inserted into the same bone; next fill the body with cotton to its natural size, and sew the skin over it; the attitude is lastly to be attended to, and whatever position the subject is placed in to dry, it will be retained afterwards. The dyeing compound is as follows:—

Corrosive sublimate ¼ lb. Saltpetre, prepared or burnt ½ lb. Alum, burnt ¼ lb. Flowers of sulphur ½ lb. Camphor ¼ lb. Black pepper 1 lb. Tobacco, ground coarse 1 lb.

Mix the whole, and keep it in a glass vessel, stopped close. Small birds may be preserved in brandy, rum, arrack, or first runnings; though the colour of the plumage is liable to be extracted by the spirit. Large sea-fowl have thick strong skins, and such may be skinned; the tail, claws, head, and feet are carefully to be preserved, and the plumage stained as little as possible with blood. The inside of the skin may be stuffed as above. Kuckahu observes, (in the Phil. Trans. vol. ix. p. 319.) that “Baking is not only useful in the fresh preservations, but will also be of very great service to old ones, destroying the eggs of insects; and it should be a constant practice, once in two or three years, to bake them over again, and to have the cases fresh washed with camphorated spirit, or the sublimate solution, which would not only preserve collections from decay, much longer, but also keep them sweet.” But Dr. Lettsom remarks that, “Baking is apt to crimp and injure the plumage, unless great care be used, and, therefore, the proper degree of heat should be ascertained by means of a feather, before such subjects are baked.” And he prescribes as the best preservative, boxes well glazed; and he adds, “When the subject is to be kept for some time in a hot climate, it should be secured in a box filled with tow, oakum, or tobacco, well sprinkled with the sublimate solution.” In Guiana, the number and variety of beautiful birds is so great, that several persons in the colony advantageously employ themselves, with their slaves and attendants, in killing and preserving these animals for the cabinets of naturalists in different parts of Europe. The method of doing this, as related by Mr. Bancroft, (in his Nat. Hist. of Guiana,) is, to put the bird which is to be preserved in a proper vessel, and cover him with high wines, or the first running of the distillation of rum. In this spirit he is suffered to remain for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, or longer, till it has penetrated through every part of his body. When this is done, he is taken out, and his feathers, which are no ways changed by this immersion, are placed smooth and regular. It is then put into a machine, made for the purpose, among a number of others, and its head, feet, wings, tail, &c. are placed exactly agreeable to life. In this position they are placed in an oven, very moderately heated, where they are slowly dried, and will ever after retain their natural position without danger of putrefaction.—Ency. Lond.

BISCUIT, s. A kind of hard, dry bread, made to be carried to sea; a composition of fine flour, almonds, and sugar.

BISHOP, s. A cant word for a mixture of wine, oranges, and sugar.

BISHOP, v. To bishop a horse, is to remove, by filing, the distinguishing marks by which the teeth indicate the age. It was a very common practice some years since, and is still resorted to by low horse dealers. It will, however, by carefully observing other indiciæ of age, be easily detected. See AGE OF HORSE.

BISTORT, s. A plant called snake-weed. The roots are a very powerful astringent. It has also styptic properties.

BISTOURY, s. A surgeon’s instrument, used in making incisions.

BIT, s. The iron part of the bridle which is put into the horse’s mouth.

BIT, v. To put the bridle upon a horse.

BITCH, s. The female of the dog kind.

Bitches should be allowed to breed, nor is it good for their health to prevent it; for nature almost invariably punishes extraordinary deviations from her established laws, of which the reproductive system is one of the most important. Breeding, therefore, is so much a healthy and necessary process, that bitches prevented from it rarely remain unaffected by disease. Bitches in heat are very cunning, and often elude all but the greatest vigilance in their attempts to escape in search of a mate; and thus, for want of due caution, many frustrate the hopes of their owners in the desired breed; and many others meet their death by becoming lined by a dog so extremely disproportionate in size that the mothers are found unable to bring forth. Impregnation takes place sometimes at the first copulation, in others not until the second, third, or fourth; and in some cases it has been known, from decided proofs, that impregnation did not ensue until the seventh warding. Dogs should be suffered, therefore, to remain together some days to insure prolific intercourse. It is not easy to detect whether bitches are in pup until the fourth or fifth week after warding; about which time the teats enlarge, the flanks fill, and the belly assumes a fulness and rotundity unnatural to it at others. Pupping usually comes on the sixty-second, sixty-third, or, at farthest, on the sixty-fourth day. A quarter or half an hour, and sometimes a longer time, intervenes between the expulsion of each fœtus.

Dogs are certainly capable of superfœtation; that is, impregnation may take place at more than one warding, and that by distinct mates.

It would appear that this mental impression, which is perhaps usually raised at some period of œstrum, always recurs at that period, and is so interwoven with the organisation even, as to become a stamp or mould for some, if not all, of her future progeny. I had a pug bitch whose constant companion was a small and almost white spaniel dog, of Lord Rivers’ breed, of which she was very fond. When it became necessary to separate her, on account of her heat, from this dog, and to confine her with one of her own kind, she pined excessively; and notwithstanding her situation, it was some time before she would admit of the attentions of the pug dog placed with her. At length, however, she did so; impregnation followed, and at the usual period she brought forth five pug puppies, one of which was elegantly white, and more slender than the others. The spaniel was soon afterwards given away, but the impression remained; for at two subsequent litters (which were all she had afterwards) she presented me with a white young one, which the fanciers know to be a very rare occurrence.

The Rev. R. Lascelles, in his Letters on Sporting, p. 250, relates a case of a greyhound bitch, intrusted to the care of a servant, which whelped one perfect greyhound and six complete curs: the curs were the likeness of the dog she domesticated with in common; the single one resembled the greyhound she was taken to during her heat. There is little reason, therefore, to doubt that the bitch had been previously lined by the cur, and the single greyhound pup was the effect of superfœtation.

Sportsmen incline to the opinion, that the male pups are more strongly tinctured with the external form of the father than of the mother, and vice versâ; but though instances may occur to favour such a conclusion, it is not a uniform occurrence.—Blaine.

BITE, v. To crush or pierce with the teeth; to cut, or wound.

BITE, s. The seizure of anything by the teeth; the act of a fish that takes the bait; a cheat, a sharper.

BITTERN; BOG BUMPER; BITTERN BUM, or MIRE DRUM; (Ardea Stellaris, LINN.; Le Buton, BUFF.) s. A bird with long legs, which feeds upon fish.

The bittern is nearly as large as the common heron; its legs are stronger, body more plump and fleshy, and its neck is more thickly clothed with feathers. The beak is strong at the base; straight, sharp on the edges, and gradually tapers to an acute point; the upper mandible is brown, the under inclining to green; the mouth is wide, the gape extending beyond the eyes, with a dusky patch at each angle: the irides are yellow. The crown of the head is somewhat depressed, and covered with long black feathers; the throat is yellowish white; the sides of the neck pale rust colour, variegated with black, in spotted, waved, and narrow transverse lines, and on the forepart the ground colour is whitish, and the feathers fall down in less broken and darker lengthened stripes. These neck-feathers, which it can raise and depress at pleasure, are long and loose, and, inclining backwards, cover the neck behind; those below them, on the breast to the thighs, are streaked lengthwise with black, edged with yellowish white: the thighs, belly, and vent, are of a dull pale yellow, clouded with dingy brown. The plumage on the back and wings is marked with black zigzag lines, bars, and streaks, upon a ground shaded with rust colour and yellow. The bastard wings, greater coverts, and quills, are brown, barred with black. The tail, which consists only of ten feathers, is very short; the legs are of a pale green, bare a little above the knees; the claws, particularly those on the hind toes, are long and sharp, the middle ones serrated.

The female is less than the male; her plumage is darker, and the feathers on her head, breast, and neck, are shorter, and the colours not so distinctly marked. She makes an artless nest, composed chiefly of the withered stalks and leaves of the high coarse herbage, in the midst of which it is placed, and lays from four to six eggs, of a greenish white colour.

The bittern is a shy solitary bird; it is never seen on the wing in the day time, but sits, commonly with the head erect, hid among the reeds and rushes in the marshes, where it always takes up its abode, and from whence it will not stir, unless it is disturbed by the sportsman. When it changes its haunts, it removes in the dusk of the evening, and then rising in a spiral direction, soars to a vast height. It flies in the same heavy manner as the heron, and might be mistaken for that bird, were it not for the singularly resounding cry which it utters from time to time while on the wing; but this cry is feeble when compared to the hollow booming noise which it makes during the night time, in the breeding season, from its swampy retreat.

The bittern, when attacked by the buzzard, or other birds of prey, defends itself with great courage, and generally beats off such assailants; neither does it betray any symptoms of fear, when wounded by the sportsman, but eyes him with a keen undaunted look, and, when driven to extremity, will attack him with the utmost vigour, wounding his legs, or aiming at his eyes with its sharp and piercing bill. It was formerly held in much estimation at the tables of the great, and is again recovering its credit as a fashionable dish.

* * * * *

The Little Bittern, (Ardea Minuta, LINN. Le Blongois, BUF.) in size is not much larger than the throstle, measuring only about fifteen inches in length. From the corners of the mouth, a black stroke extends across the under side of the cheeks; and a patch of black, glossed with green and edged with chestnut, covers the crown of its head. On the back, rump, and scapulars, the feathers are dark brown, edged with pale rusty coloured red; the sides of the neck, and the breast are of the same colours, but the brown on the middle of each feather is in narrower streaks. The belly is white: the hinder part of the neck is bare, but the long feathers on the forepart lie back and cover it. The tail is short, and of a black green colour, edged and tipped with tawny: the legs dirty green. The little bittern has seldom been met with in Great Britain.

The above drawing and description were taken from an ill-stuffed specimen in the Wycliffe Museum.—Bewick.

BITUMEN, s. A fat unctuous matter dug out of the earth, or scummed off lakes.

BLACK, a. Of the colour of night; dark.

BLACK, s. A black colour; mourning.

To dye a good black.—First make your stuff a very dark blue: then make a very strong dye of strawall and walnut bark; boil the wool in this for six hours. Take out the stuff, and clean out the dye-pot, and make a fresh dye of strawall, logwood dust, or a good quantity of chips, with some madder and Brazil dust: boil in this two hours, and pour off your liquor. Clean your pot, and put in liquor again with the stuff, and when hot, pour in a quart of urine, at least eight days’ old, and boil in this half an hour. Having dissolved in some of the boiling liquor the size of a hazel-nut of copperas, lift out your stuff, and pour in this liquor—boil it well, and all is done. If any brown or purple should appear between you and the light, put down some clean water, and boil it, adding to it one, two, or three tea spoonfuls of salt of tartar, and throw in your stuff for a few minutes. This is a long way for black dyeing, but the best for fishing. Let your dye-pot be large, or it will run over when you add the copperas; keep your dye-pot constantly full of water.—Ancient Recipe.

BLACKBIRD, s. The name of a bird.

The length of the blackbird, or ouzel, (Turdus Merula, LINN.—Le Merle, BUFF.) is generally about ten inches. Its plumage is altogether black; the bill, inside of the mouth, and edges of the eye-lids, are yellow, as are also the soles of the feet; the legs are of a dirty yellow. The female is mostly brown, inclining to rust colour on the breast and belly; the bill is dusky, and the legs brown; its song is also very different, so that it has sometimes been mistaken for a bird of a different species.

The males, during the first year, resemble the females so much, as not easily to be distinguished from them; but, after that, they assume the yellow bill, and other distinguishing marks of their kind. The blackbird is a solitary bird, frequenting woods and thickets, chiefly of evergreens, such as holly, pines, firs, &c., especially where there are perennial springs, which together afford it both shelter and subsistence. Wild blackbirds feed on berries, fruits, insects, and worms; they never fly in flocks like thrushes; they pair early, and begin to warble nearly as soon as any other of the songsters of the grove.

The female builds her nest in bushes, or low trees, and lays four or five eggs, of a bluish green colour, marked irregularly with dusky spots. The young birds are easily brought up tame, and may be taught to whistle a variety of tunes; for which their clear, loud, and melodious tones are well adapted. They are restless and timorous birds, easily alarmed, and difficult of access. But Buffon observes, that, “they are more restless than cunning, and more timorous than suspicious, as they readily suffer themselves to be caught with bird-lime, nooses, and all sorts of snares.” They are never kept in aviaries; for, when shut up with other birds, they pursue and harass their companions in slavery unceasingly: for which reason they are generally confined in cages apart. In some counties of England, this bird is called simply the Ouzel.—Bewick.

BLACKCAP, s. A small singing bird.

BLACK COCK, s. (Tetrao tetrix, LINN.) Known also as the heath-cock and heath-poult.

This species sometimes weighs as much as four pounds; length about twenty-three inches, bill dusky, irides hazel; the head, neck, and whole body, are of glossy blue-black, particularly about the neck, breast, and rump; over the eye the bare scarlet skin is granulated; the coverts of the wings dusky brown, the four first quill feathers black, the next white at the bottom, the lower half and tips of the secondaries white, under wing coverts white; the thighs are dark brown, sometimes marked with a few white spots; the tail consists of sixteen black feathers; the exterior ones bend outwards, and are much longer than those in the middle, which makes the tail very forked; the under tail coverts pure white; legs covered with hair-like feathers of a dark brown, speckled with grey; toes pectinated.

The female weighs about two pounds; the plumage is very different from that of the male; the general colour is ferruginous, barred and mottled, with black above, the under parts paler, with dusky and brown bars; the tail-feathers are straight and even at the end, variegated with ferruginous and black.

The black grous is at present confined to the more northern parts of this kingdom, population and culture having driven them from the south, except in a few of the more wild, uncultivated parts; in the New Forest in Hampshire, Dartmoor and Sedgmoor in Devonshire, and the heathy hills in Somersetshire, contiguous to the latter. It is also found in Staffordshire, and in North Wales, and again in the North of England; but no where so plentiful as in some parts of the highlands of Scotland. The males are polygamous, and fight desperately for the females.

In the month of April the male places himself on an eminence as soon as it is light in the morning, crows and claps his wings, on which the females resort to his station. After the courting season the males associate peaceably together, in small packs; are fond of woody, heathy and mountainous situations; but will occasionally visit the corn-fields in the autumn, retiring almost wholly to the woods in the winter, and perching on trees.

The female lays six or seven dirty-white eggs, blotched with rust-colour, about the size of those of a pheasant. These are deposited amongst the highest heath, without much appearance of a nest.

The young follow the female for some time. The males are scarcely distinguishable from the other sex till they are above half grown, when the black feathers begin to appear first about the sides and breast. Their food is chiefly the tops of heath and birch, except when the mountain berries are ripe, at which time they devour bilberries and cranberries most voraciously.

A supposed hybrid bird of this species has been described under the following synonimes:—

Tetrao Hybridus, Tetra Tetrix, Spurious Grous.

This bird has been described by Linnæus and others as a distinct species, or mixed breed between the black and wood grous. It is said to differ from the black grous in having reddish spots on the neck, breast, wings, and thighs, and in being of a superior size. It is said to have been formerly met with in Scotland.—Montagu.

BLACK-TAIL, s. The ruff or pope; a small fish.

BLADDER, s. That vessel in the body which contains the urine; a blister, a pustule.

BLADE, s. The spire of grass; the green shoots of corn. The sharp or striking part of a weapon or instrument.

BLADEBONE, s. The scapula, or scapular bone.

BLADED, a. Having blades or spines.

BLAIN, s. A pustule, a blister.

BLANK, s. A void space.

BLANK-DAY, s. A sporting term, used when a cover is drawn without success. It is also applied when shooters are kept in-doors by severity of weather, tired dogs, &c.

BLAY, s. A small whitish river-fish; a bleak.

BLAZE, s. A flame, the light of the flame; a white mark upon a horse.

BLAZE, v. To blazon; to inflame; to fire.

BLEAK, s. A small river fish.

The bleak is seldom more than six inches long; the head is small, and the skull transparent; the eyes are large, with a blood coloured spot on the lower side; the irides of a pale yellow; the under jaw the longest; the gills silvery; the body is slender, greatly compressed sideways, not unlike that of the sprat: the back is green; the sides and belly silvery; the fins pellucid; the lateral line rather crooked; the scales are large, and fall off very easily; the tail is much forked.

Some call the bleak the water swallow, on account of its nimbleness in catching flies; they are very restless, their haunts being sometimes in deep still water, at the sides and tails of streams, where the water shelves off, and makes a gentle eddy; at others in the streams, which may be observed by their swimming near the surface, and their very active manner of taking and diverting themselves with small flies, and insects. In angling for the bleak, the tackle must be very fine, with four or five small hooks, so placed above each other as not to entangle, and swimming by the assistance of a small quill float, rather deeper than mid-water, and baited variously, as with a gentle, bloodworm, caddis, the house-fly, (or any fly they are observed at the moment to feed upon,) and a very small bit of red paste, throwing in now and then some malt grains, or chewed bread, to keep them together; always remembering, wherever ground bait is used, it should be inferior to the hook-baits: thus two or three at a time may be taken, for they are so eager as to leap out of the water at the bait. Should the day be cold and cloudy, a single gentle, or cadis, upon the hook is then best, sunk about two foot under water.

Another way of taking bleak is by whipping from a boat, or the bank-side in fresh streams, with a rod six feet, and a line twice as long, using an artificial black gnat, a fly of a very sad brown colour, or the small dace-flies; they not only yield much sport, but are very instructive to the young fly-fisher.—Daniel.

BLEED, v. To lose blood; to run with blood; to drop as blood; to let blood.

Bleeding.—This operation is frequently required in the diseases of horses; and if employed seasonably, and to a sufficient extent, is the most efficacious remedy we are acquainted with. When a horse appears dull and heavy, and indifferent about his food, by bleeding we often prevent a fever. If a horse is bled at the commencement of a cold, the complaint generally proves moderate, and of short continuance. In all cases of internal inflammation, or symptomatic fever, bleeding is the most essential remedy, provided the operation be performed at an early period, and the blood drawn in sufficient quantity. In such cases I have often taken away six quarts or more, and repeated the operation the same or the following day when it appeared necessary. By bleeding copiously at first, those formidable diseases are crushed at once; while by suffering them to proceed or become at all violent, which they will do unless this practice is adopted (or if only a small quantity of blood is drawn), they generally prove fatal: nor will bleeding then be of any service.

Bleeding is either general or local: that is, it is done either so as to affect the system in general, or a particular part only. For general bleeding, the jugular or neck vein is most convenient.

When the vein is firmly pressed with the fingers of the left hand, the blood is prevented from descending, and that part of the vein which is above the fingers is considerably distended, and becomes very conspicuous. In this state it may be easily opened with a lancet held in the right hand. The vein will continue to bleed as long as the pressure below is continued.

Farriers bleed with a fleam, which, though apparently a clumsy method of operating, is certainly safer than the lancet in unskilful hands. In topical bleeding, a vein is chosen as near as possible to the affected part, or the vessels covering the part are opened: in the inflammation of the eye, for example, it is done by scarifying the inner surface of the eyelid, or by opening a small vein which is easily seen going from the inner corner of the eye towards the nose. I do not think, however, that either of these operations do any good; indeed that of scarifying the eyelids is often, I believe, injurious.

A graduated tin vessel, capable of containing six or seven quarts, is very convenient for the purpose of receiving the blood; every pint being marked on the inside of the vessel, so that the quantity of blood that is taken off may be exactly known. The blood should always be preserved, that we may judge from its appearance of the nature of the disease, and whether it is proper or not to repeat the operation. When it continues fluid a considerable time, it denotes an inflammatory state of the system. Should a whitish or light buff-coloured jelly appear on its surface, after it has coagulated or settled, and should this jelly be of considerable thickness, rather firm, not easily penetrated by the finger, we may be satisfied that the horse’s complaint is inflammatory; that bleeding was a proper remedy; and that, if the symptoms continue, the operation may be repeated with advantage: but if the blood coagulates quickly, is uniformly of a dark liver colour, loose and easily broken, with a considerable quantity of water upon its surface, it denotes debility, and shows that the disease arises from a weakness of the system; that instead of bleeding, tonic and cordial medicines are to be employed, with every thing that may tend to restore the animal’s strength.

In order to judge correctly by the appearance of the blood, it should be drawn from a large orifice, and not suffered to run down the sides of the vessel which receives it. The first quantity that is drawn should be put aside for examination, and not shaken or disturbed in any way until it has perfectly coagulated.

When bleeding is employed as a preventive, or in any slight complaints, from two to three quarts may be taken off, according to the horse’s strength and condition; but in cases of internal inflammation, or fever, a more copious evacuation is necessary.

When horses are taken from camp or grass, and put into warm stables, they are very subject to inflammatory complaints and dangerous fevers: under those circumstances, moderate bleeding now and then will prevent such diseases. Horses that are getting into condition, as it is termed, are liable to similar disorders, unless moderate bleeding is occasionally employed. I am inclined to believe, however, that it is a bad practice to bleed often upon trifling occasions; it is liable to induce a plethora or fulness of habit, whereby a horse is rendered more susceptible of disease than he would otherwise be. Moderate purging and regular exercise, with a proper regulation of diet and temperature, are fully adequate to the prevention of disease on those occasions; but these are too often neglected.

It has been asserted that it is seldom necessary to pin up the orifice, which is made in the skin by bleeding. I grant there is not often any danger to be apprehended from its bleeding again; but unless it is pinned up, that is, unless the lips of the wound are brought into contact, and kept in that situation, by passing a pin through the edges of the skin, and twisting a little tow round it, as is generally done by farriers, inflammation and swelling will sometimes take place in the wound, and matter will form in consequence. The fleam has been found upon many occasions, particularly for opening the neck vein, a better instrument than the lancet; the latter makes an orifice in the skin, scarcely larger than the vein; and as the horse is generally a little restless, the blood soon gets between the skin and the vein, plugging up the orifice in the latter, and sometimes diffusing itself in the cellular membrane, so as to cause a swelling. The lancet, however, in skilful hands is a neater method, and more convenient for horses that are very shy and difficult to be bled in the common way.

* * * * *

Dogs may be conveniently bled by the jugular or neck vein, with a fleam, or with a common lancet; but the latter is much preferable. A ligature being put round the lower part of the neck, and the head being held up, the vein will swell and protrude itself on each side of the windpipe, about one inch from it. It will, however, be necessary previously to cut the hair away, if it be very thick; after which, the puncture can be easily made with a lancet, the operator leaning over the dog. Nothing is necessary, in general cases, to stop the bleeding, but to remove the ligature; nor is any pin, plaister, or bandage, requisite for the orifice. When circumstances such as the want of a regular operator, or when the amateur is called on to deplete his own dog suddenly, as in the field, when the means of venesection by the neck are not at hand; in any such case the ear may be punctured, or an incision may be made on the inner side of the flap of it, choosing, if possible, the course of a vein for the puncture, but avoid passing the instrument through the ear. Or the tail may be cut in desperate cases; but, when this is done, it is better to cut off a small piece than to merely make an incision underneath; for I have seen, when this has been injudiciously done, the whole tail in a state of mortification.

The quantity of blood drawn should be regulated by the size of the dog: for a very small dog, one or two ounces are sufficient; for a middling sized dog, three or four ounces; and for a large dog, five, six, seven, or eight ounces, according to the size and strength of the patient, and the nature of the disease he labours under.—White.—Blaine.

BLEMISH, v. To mark with any deformity; to tarnish.

BLEMISH, s. A mark of deformity, a scar.

BLIGHT, s. Mildew; anything nipping or blasting.

BLIND, a. Without sight, dark; a sconce.

BLINDNESS, s. Want of sight; ignorance.

BLINK, v. To wink; to see obscurely. A dog is termed blinked when rendered useless in the field, from timidity occasioned by alarming him by a shot, severity, or other ill-usage.

BLISTER, s. A pustule formed by raising the cuticle from the cutis; any swelling made by the separation of a film or skin from the other parts.

Blisters are medicines that inflame the skin, and cause watery bladders to rise upon its surface: the most useful of this kind is the cantharis, or Spanish fly, (lytta vesicatoria) which forms the principal ingredient in all our blisters. There are others, however, which are generally mixed with it as auxiliaries; as hellebore, euphorbium, turpentine, and sublimate.

Blisters are much used in veterinary medicine, and are extremely efficacious in dispersing callous swellings, the consequence of strains, bruises, &c.

In inflammation of parts remote from the surface, they are of great service. When the internal parts of the foot are inflamed, relief is generally obtained by blistering the pastern, provided the subordinate or auxiliary remedies are not omitted, such as paring the sole, soaking the horny part of the foot in warm water, or applying a poultice to it, and giving a dose of physic. When the lungs are inflamed, blistering the sides freely is an excellent remedy, especially when we feel doubtful as to the propriety of further bleeding.

Blistering is employed also for curbs, windgalls, spavins, &c.

Broken knees, unless skilfully treated, leave a callous swelling on the part; for the removal of which, blistering is employed. When blisters are properly made, and free from any caustic ingredients, such as sublimate, vitriolic acid, &c., there is no danger of destroying the hair; and if the first blistering does not prove effectual, it may be repeated until the desired effect is produced.

Before a blister is applied, the hair should be closely cut off, or even shaved off, if the situation of the diseased part will admit of its being done without wounding the skin; but good scissors, or shears, if skilfully used, will answer the purpose sufficiently. If the skin is scurfy it may be washed with flannel, soap, and warm water, and be made perfectly dry before the blister is applied. Blisters are generally employed in the form of ointment, but on some occasions they are preferred of a thinner consistence, or in the form of liniment, or even still thinner or more fluid, and are then named liquid blisters. Though a variety of ingredients are used in blisters, the cantharis or Spanish fly is the best; and if not injured by long keeping, or adulterated, is the only blistering ingredient required for common purposes.

The following formulæ are recommended by Mr. White.

BLISTER OINTMENT.

Hog’s lard 4 oz. Oil of turpentine 1 oz. Powdered cantharides 1 oz.—Mix.

Melt the lard by a gradual heat; remove it from the fire, and stir in the turpentine, then add the cantharides, and continue stirring until it is cold.

Or,

Hog’s lard 6 oz. Oil of rosemary ½ oz. Oil of origanum 2 dr. Powdered cantharides 6 dr. Solution of sublimate in muriatic acid, one fluid drachm or sixty minims.

Mix as above.

Or,

Oil of turpentine 2 oz. Sulphuric acid, by weight 1 oz.

Mix cautiously, under a chimney, or in the open air, and avoid the suffocating vapour which will arise. When perfectly united, add hog’s lard, from six to eight ounces, or more, according to the strength required. When a blister is wanted, take two ounces of this ointment, and rub up with it from two to three or four drachms of recently powdered cantharides. This ointment may be made still stronger by the addition of a little calomel or sublimate at the time it is wanted; but the latter must be used only in a small proportion, and with caution, as it is apt to ulcerate the skin, and cause sloughing and a permanent blemish. It should therefore be applied to a small surface only, as in bone spavin or splent. Neither the cantharides nor the calomel, or sublimate, should be kept ready mixed with the above ointment, as it is probable they would undergo some change, and be rendered inert after a little time. The above recipes may be varied by substituting mercurial ointment, oil of bay, or any other unctuous substance for hog’s lard, or oil of origanum, for oil of turpentine. And if a more solid form is desired, it may be obtained by the addition of a little bees-wax, suet, or resin.

BLISTERING LINIMENT.

Olive oil 4 oz. Oil of turpentine 1½ oz. Oil of origanum ½ oz. Recently powdered cantharides. 1 oz.—Mix.

Or.

Olive oil 4 oz. Oil of turpentine 1 oz. Oil of rosemary, and oil of origanum of each ½ oz. Solution of sublimate 1 dr. Recently powdered cantharides 1 oz.

Mix.

LIQUID BLISTER.

Boiling water 6 oz. to 8 oz. Powdered cantharides 1 oz.

Macerate for twenty-four hours, and then add rectified spirit of wine, four ounces; solution of corrosive sublimate in muriatic acid, one drachm. To be kept well corked for two or three weeks before it is used: it may then be either strained through blotting paper, and used as a transparent tincture, or merely shaken up and employed as it is. The solution of sublimate should be added at the time the blister is used.

Rectified spirit 2 oz. Liquid ammonia 2 oz. Oil of turpentine, origanum, or rosemary (either) 1 oz. Powdered cantharides 6 dr. to 1 oz.

Mix.

After a blister has been applied to the legs or hocks, the litter should be removed, and the horse’s head should be confined or tied to the rack, to prevent his rubbing the part with his nose; but this may be done better by putting what is termed a cradle or necklace round his neck; he may then be turned loose into a box and exercise himself, which is very desirable after blistering. It is necessary to keep the cradle on for about a fortnight, as they are apt to gnaw the part or injure the skin, when the effect of the blister is going off, and an itching only remains.

The following is a convenient method of making a blister, when the other ingredients cannot be obtained:—Take of the blistering plaster, sold by druggists, two ounces, melt or rather soften it by a gentle heat, and mix with it oil of turpentine from half an ounce to one ounce.

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Blistered Heel.—If your heel should become galled by walking in a water, or any other boot, you will immediately remedy the inconvenience by applying a piece of gold-beater’s skin, and over that a little court plaster, in order doubly to defend the part. But even in this trifle there is a right and wrong way of going to work. Instead of cutting with scissors, and merely wetting the plaster, let it be for a moment heated by the fire, as well as wetted, being previously stamped with a wadding punch; by which means, from having no angles, or corners, it will stick as fast as your own skin; provided that, when on and dry, you put over it a little cold cream, or any kind of grease, in order to repel the damp.

The application that has been usually recommended to me by surgeons is a diachylon plaster, which, in cold weather, curls up and torments you so much in walking, that you soon become lame again, and then wish the doctor at Jericho. Go to Godfrey’s or some other first-rate chemist, in order to get the sticking plaster in perfection, as many a one has poisoned his skin by not having the genuine article.

* * * * *

I have been prevented by an accident from accompanying the party; and though my wound be “not so deep as a well, nor so wide as a church door,” it still renders me hors de combat. I blistered, or rather neglected a blistered heel: and the fag of yesterday has so excoriated the surface, as to make it imperative upon me to lie by for a little. Antony engages to effect a perfect cure by tomorrow; and here I remain tête-à-tête with the otter-killer.

The old man proceeded skilfully enough; he lanced the blisters, and then applied the cuticle which covers a sheep’s kidney, and which is very similar in appearance and effect to what we call “gold-beaters’ leaf.” This application prevented the heel from being frayed by the stocking. To the remainder of the foot, he rubbed a hot mixture of tallow and whiskey; and his remedy was “the sovereignest thing on earth,” for in twelve hours the cure was effected.—White—Hawker—Blaine—Wild Sports of the West.

BLISTER, v. To rise in blisters; to raise blisters by some method.

BLOCK, s. A short heavy piece of timber; a sea term for a pulley.

In Falconry, a solid piece of wood, shaped like a sugar loaf, with the six upper inches broken off, whereon the hawk perches, being tied to it by the leash, which goes through the last link of a small iron swivel fixed in its side.—Campbell.

BLOOD, s. The red liquor that circulates in the bodies of animals.

BLOOD, v. To stain with blood; to inure to blood, as a hound.

In essential characters and properties, blood is the same in all animals: in some, it wants the colouring matter, but it is invariably red in the higher orders, though the intensity of its hue varies with circumstances, the principal instance of which is that afforded between the venous and arterial; where it is, in the former, almost purple, but in the latter a bright scarlet.

The specific gravity of the blood is very differently estimated, it being subject to increase and decrease at different times. Disease and emaciation make it lighter, while in the contrary states, from its more perfect organisation, it is found heavier. If water be estimated at 1000, the specific gravity of blood may be reckoned at 1050; from which it may, however, be increased to 1120. Venous blood is heavier than arterial, as 1052 is to 1049; but these data vary.

The temperature of the blood in the horse is about 100°; in the ox, 102; and in the sheep, 103: but various circumstances tend to increase or decrease it. Arterial blood is usually one or two degrees warmer than venous: Mr. Vines, I believe, rates the difference much higher. Some diseases reduce the heat of the blood, and ardent inflammations are also capable of augmenting it. The quantity that an animal contains, in proportion to his bulk, has been endeavoured to be ascertained: but the results have been various. Very fat animals are found usually to have proportionally less than lean ones; and in those in a state of close confinement, the quantity is found to be smaller than in the wild; but it is evident, that as the calculation must be in a degree imaginary, from that which will remain in the vessels, so the real quantity is not easy to estimate. A medium sized horse has lost forty-four pounds without apparent injury, and most of them will lose one-fifteenth of their total weight before life becomes extinct: it may, therefore, be presumed that it forms one-tenth of the whole: Mr. Percivall thinks one-eighth.

BLOOD-HOUND (Canis Sanguinarius), s. A hound that follows by the scent.

In the darker ages the blood-hound had the fabulous reputation of pursuing naturally with unerring precision, and of taking murderers, robbers, and other depredators, if he were laid on the footsteps of those intended to be pursued, within a certain given time. We, however, cannot give our assent to the character thus ascribed to him, although experience has taught us, that all sorts of hounds may be broken in to follow any kind of scent, when resolutely taught that they are to run on no other.

One of the principal uses in which the blood-hound was employed by our ancestors, was in recovering game that had escaped wounded from the hunter. And he was taught also to pursue felons, which he would do through thickets, and the most secret coverts; and, if they had lately escaped, they were almost certain of being retaken. For this reason there was a law in Scotland, enacting, that whoever denied entrance to one of these dogs, in pursuit of stolen goods, should be deemed an accessory. And they were also much used on the borders, between England and Scotland, which were greatly infested by robbers and murderers; and a tax was laid on the inhabitants for keeping and maintaining a certain number of these animals. The arm of justice is now, however, so effectually extended over Great Britain, and cultivation so general, that there are no secret haunts where villany can be concealed; which renders this part of the services of the blood-hound no longer necessary. In Scotland this dog was called the sleuth-hound. A few of this race are still kept in the royal forests for the purpose of finding deer that have been previously wounded; and even lately they have been employed in tracing deer-stealers, which they do from the blood which issues from the wounds of the animal.

The blood-hound is tall and most beautifully formed, and is usually of a reddish or brown colour, and exceeds in size, weight, strength, and courage, every other variety of hound. He possesses a kind of sagacious, or serious solemn dignity, admirably calculated to impress the marauder with dread and awe; and at one period, when he was destined to a single pursuit, he was kept a stranger to every other. Much care was taken to prevent those dogs from following the sports of the field, and they were scrupulously taught to trace the footsteps of man alone. At the time they were so much in use, deer-stealing was extremely prevalent in Great Britain, which rendered a constant vigilance on the part of park-keepers, necessary; and when necessity required, in their nocturnal watching, to trace a depredator, when once laid upon the scent, they so closely and keenly pursued, that they infallibly traced and discovered the offending party. Somerville finely describes the manner in which these animals pursue the nightly poacher.

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To try whether a young blood-hound was well instructed, a nobleman caused one of his servants to walk to a town four miles from thence. The dog, without seeing the man he was to pursue, followed him by the scent to the above-mentioned places, notwithstanding the multitude of people going the same road, and of travellers that had occasion to cross it. When the hound came to the chief market-town, he passed through the streets, without noticing any of the people there, till he got to the house where the man he sought was, and there found him in an upper room.

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Blood-hounds were formerly employed by the Spanish chasseurs in the island of Cuba, for hunting down maroons and fugitive slaves. Mr. Dallas thus describes them:—

“The dogs carried out by the Chasseurs del Ré are perfectly broken in, that is to say, they will not kill the object they pursue, unless resisted. On coming up with a fugitive, they bark at him till he stops; they then crouch near him, terrifying him with a ferocious growling, if he stirs. In this position they continue barking, to give notice to the chasseurs, who come up and secure their prisoner; each chasseur, though he can hunt only with two dogs, properly is obliged to have three, which he maintains at his own cost, and that at no small expense. These people live with their dogs, from which they are inseparable. At home the dogs are kept chained, and, when walking with their masters, are never unmuzzled, or let out of ropes, but for attack. They are constantly accompanied with one or two small dogs, called finders, whose scent is very keen, and always sure of hitting off a track. Dogs and bitches hunt equally well, and the Chasseurs rear no more than will supply the number required. This breed of dogs, indeed, is not so prolific as the common kind, though infinitely stronger and hardier. The animal is the size of a very large hound, with ears erect, which are usually cropped at the points; the nose more pointed, but widening very much towards the upper part of the jaw. His coat, or skin, is much harder than that of most dogs, and so must be the whole structure of the body, as the severe beatings he undergoes in training would kill any other species of dog. There are some, but not many, of a more obtuse nose, and which are rather squarer set. These, it may be presumed, have been crossed by the mastiff; but if by this the bulk has been a little increased, it has added nothing to the strength, height, beauty, or agility, of the native breed.”—Brown—Boyle—Dallas.

BLOTCH, s. A spot or pustule upon the skin.

BLUE, a. One of the seven original colours.

To dye Blues and Greens.—You must have two pickling crocks that well hold eight quarts each; fill them with clean urine, let them stand for eight days. Pound two ounces of Spanish indigo, separate. Put it into a small flannel bag, each ounce; put a bag into each crock, and carefully squeeze out the indigo; let it stand two or three days; stir it each day, and when you see a shining scum on it, it is in order to work. It will dye feathers, mohair, or hog’s fur; any hackles, or fur dyed with this must be brightened with a solution of liquid blue made with boiling water, with a little of the liquid poured into it for each shade.

To make liquid blue.—A pound of the oil of vitriol and an ounce of the best Spanish indigo pounded very fine and sifted; pour the vitriol into a three-pint delft bowl, put the indigo in, and stir it with a clean stick for half-an-hour; add of soft water by little and little one pint, stirring it all the time till the fermentation is over; then bottle it for use. This gives the finest blues and greens, but they fade; you are not to touch your blueing vat with any thing that is yellow.

For blues.—You ought to get the finest of whites, and prepare them well; have the urine vat in good order. Stir up the vat, throw in the feathers in as many bunches as you intend to have shades; lift them out now and then to strike the air. When a middling bright blue, take out a bunch; let the second lie in for double the time and more, and air them as directed. When you see a fine full blue, take out another bunch. You may let the third bunch lay in for two or three days; but as soon as you take out each bunch, you should have about six drops of solution blue in a bowl with a pint of boiling water; rinse them well in that, and it will clean them. If you see it wants it, add in a few drops more, and it will still add to the brightness. Put them instantly into cold water, and wash them well. Do the same three or four times; thus you will have fine deep blues, bright and fast.

Powder blues.—Follow the same process, but do not leave them till done; draw and air them every half-hour; and when of a proper colour, have some boiling water, and from four to six drops of solution to rise and brighten them; and if you see it requires it, add a few drops more. Wash, &c., as before.

A very bright blue.—Ground richly with an archill. Wash in stale urine; put your feathers into the urine vat for half-an-hour; take out and air them, and do as with all the rest. Boiling water, solution water, &c.—Old Recipes.

BLUE-BOTTLE, s. A fly with a large blue belly.

BLUENESS, s. The quality of being blue.

BLUE-STONE, BLUE VITRIOL, or SULPHATE OF COPPER, s. A mild caustic, and, when dissolved, a mild detergent and astringent lotion. By the addition of any of the mineral acids it becomes a strong caustic. When in solution with vinegar and water, it makes a good wash for the foot-rot in sheep. When very weak it may be applied to the eye. It is a tonic used in diabetes and farcy.

BLUNT, a. Dull on the edge or point; not sharp.

BOAR, s. The male swine.

BODY, s. The material substance of an animal; matter; strength—as, wine of a good body.—The coating or wool of an artificial fly.

BOG, s. A marsh, a fen, a morass.

BOLE, s. The body or trunk of a tree.

BOLE ARMENIA, s. Little used but as an application to ulcers, where the discharge is thin and acrimonious.

BOLT, s. An arrow; a dart; a thunderbolt. Bolt upright, that is, upright as an arrow; the bar of a door; an iron to fasten the legs.

BOLT, v. To spring out with speed and suddenness. To gib, or diverge from the course.

BOLUS, s. A medicine made up into a soft mass larger than pills.

BONE, s. The solid parts of the body of an animal.

The bones of birds are nearly all hollow, and communicating with the lungs, are thence filled with air, so as to render them more buoyant for flight. The breast bone (sternum) extends much lower than in quadrupeds, and is distinguished by a ridge like the keel of a ship, except in the ostrich, &c., which do not fly. The bones of the wings are similar to the fore-legs of quadrupeds.—Rennie.

BOOM, v. To rush with violence. To make a noise like a bittern.

BOONK (Ardea minuta, LINN.), s.

This is a very rare bird, and few instances only are recorded of its being killed in England. A male was shot near Bath, in the autumn of 1789, perched on the stump of a tree on the bank of the Avon. In the month of May, 1808, a female was shot contiguous to the river Creed, and Dr. Fleming tells us that one was shot at Sunda, Orkney, in 1805. It is more frequent in some parts of the European continent, particularly in Switzerland, and, as Temminck informs us, in Holland.—Montagu.

BOOT, s. A covering for the leg.

All boots for going in the wet, answer much better if kept at least half a year before they are worn; and they should afterwards never be suffered to get too hard. Water boots should be invariably worn over an extra pair of coarse yarn stockings, without which you do not give them a fair trial.

So far from being hard to the feet, they are the softest possible wear, and may be made very light. They should always be made to draw, when required, very far above the knees, in order to protect them from cold or wet.

Various dressings are recommended, though, perhaps, almost any grease may answer; but the first and most effectual application might be tar, tallow, and bees’ wax, melted, (not too warm) and then poured into the boots; which, after having this shaken into every part of them, should be hung up to let it run out. By this dressing, and the sacrifice of the first pair of stockings that follows it, we may walk in the river with more comfort than a Bond-street lounger would cross the street after a shower.

This recipe, however, though a double defence, I do not mean to say is absolutely necessary.

As another good recipe, I should prefer the following one:—

RECIPE.

Drying oil 1 pint Yellow wax 2 ounces. Turpentine 2 ounces. Burgundy pitch 1 ounce.

Melt those over a slow fire, and then add a few drachms of essential oil of lavender (or thyme). With this your boots are to be rubbed with a brush, either in the sun, or at some distance from the fire. The application must be repeated as often as the boots become dry again, until they are fully saturated.

Melt three ounces of spermaceti in an earthen vessel, over a slow fire, to which add six drachms of India rubber cut into thin slices, and when dissolved, add eight ounces of tallow, two ounces of hog’s lard, and four ounces of amber varnish, which, when well mixed, is fit for immediate use. Two or three coats applied with a common shoe-brush makes the leather water-proof, and produces a polish equal to the best puffed-off blacking in the kingdom.

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Fishermen use a preparation for their boots, of bees-wax, burgundy pitch, and clean turpentine, each two ounces, clear rendered tallow, four ounces, all melted together, and applied over a weak flame until the leather fills; the boots should be perfectly dry before being liquored, and apply the liquor by degrees so that one portion may be dried in, before another is laid on.

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The following is an approved recipe:—If the boots are new, half a pound of bees wax, a quarter of a pound of rosin, and the like quantity of mutton suet or tallow; boil them up together, and anoint the boots well with the preparation luke-warm. Should the boots have been used, beef suet is to be substituted for the mutton.—Hawker—Sport. Mag.

BOOT OF A COACH, s. The place under the coach-box.

BOOT-HOSE, s. Stockings to serve for boots.

BORAX, s. An artificial salt, prepared from sal ammoniac, nitre, calcined tartar, sea-salt, and alum, dissolved in wine.

Borax is sometimes applied in a solution of water to the mouths of young horses when cutting teeth, but alum is cheaper and more effectual.

BOTT, s. Small worms in the entrails of horses.

BOTTLE, s. A small vessel of glass, or other matter; a quantity of wine usually put into a bottle—a quart; a quantity of hay or grass bundled up.

BOTTOM, s. The lowest part of any thing; the ground under the water; a ball of thread wound up together. The constancy or durability of a man, horse, or dog.

BOUND, s. A limit, a boundary; a leap, a jump, a spring.

BOUND, v. To jump, to spring.

BOURGEON, v. obs. To sprout, to shoot into branches.

BOW, s. To bend, or incline, in condescension.

BOW, v. An instrument of war, or of the chase; a rainbow; the instrument with which stringed instruments are played upon.

The cross-bow is an instrument of great antiquity, formerly used in projecting bolts or short arrows, for which, in modern times, bullets have been substituted.

Rooks, although pertaining to no species of game, yet the custom of shooting them being adopted by many gentlemen who use the cross-bow for that purpose, and since upon the proper regulation of this instrument, the whole of its execution depends, directions are therefore here given to render it useful.

Cross-bows employed formerly as weapons in war, and also to kill animals in the field, (where great nicety of vision was required, to find those sorts of game that kept upon the ground, for the cross-bow was always used at motionless objects), were of somewhat the shape as those of the present day, at least those that now throw what is termed a bolt. The bullet-bows are of modern and much neater construction, and their accuracy, when once set, is astonishing; the splitting a ball upon the edge of a knife, however extraordinary it may sound, is to be performed by a novice, at a distance of from fifteen to twenty yards, and the bow, once regulated, will throw the ball with the same unerring certainty for fifty times successively.

Directions.—When shooting where the trees are lofty, try the bow at fourteen yards upon a level, stopping all the holes in the sight but one; if it shoots too high, raise the bead higher on the fork; if too low, the contrary: should it carry to the right, turn the bead round to the right; if to the left, the contrary.

When the ball does not come within the notches of the fork, open another hole in the sight; if it shoots too high, open one lower; if too low, the reverse.

Should the spring within the lock happen to fail, take care to place the open part of the new one toward the butt end of the bow; if it be put in the wrong end forward, the bow will be useless.

Never keep the bow long in full tension, rather shoot the ball waste.

If the string frets or unravels, close up the defective places with bees-wax.

Care is necessary to hold the bow steady in charging; if let slip whilst drawing up the string, it will assuredly break the stock, and probably the lath and string at the same time.—Daniel.

BOWELS, s. Intestines, the vessels and organs within the body; the inner parts of anything.

The bowels of the dog are very frequently disordered. Dysentery, as an idiopathic affection in dogs, is very rare; but an irritation productive of morbid and inordinate mucous discharge is produced by various causes. A principal one is the consequence of long-continued diarrhæa, which is so common to distemper. Another is the result of bilious inflammation. A third cause is the introduction of poisons. Super-purgation will bring it on, as noticed with enteritis and diarrhæa: the presence of worms will likewise occasion it.—See WORMS.

BOWL, s. A vessel to hold liquids; the hollow part of anything; a basin; a fountain. A round mass rolled along the ground.

BOWL, v. To play at bowls; to throw bowls at anything.

BOWLER, s. He that plays at bowls.

BOWLING-GREEN, s. A level piece of ground, kept smooth for bowlers.

BOWMAN, s. An archer.

BOWSTRING, s. The string by which the bow is kept bent.

BOWYER, s. An archer; one whose trade is to make bows.

BOX, s. A tree; the wood of it. A case made of wood, or other matter, to hold any thing.

“A tin box is sometimes preferred for carrying fly tackle, as the flies are not pressed in it, as they are in the book.”—Daniel.

BRACE, v. To bind, to tie close with bandages; to strain up.

BRACE, s. Cincture, bandage; that which holds anything tight. Braces of a coach, thick straps of leather on which it hangs.

BRACH, s. A bitch hound.

BRACHIAL, a. Belonging to the arm.

BRAG, s. A game at cards.

Brag is not so much in vogue as formerly; it is played with a whole pack of cards, and rather variously conducted by different parties, but the following is given as one of the most scientific methods:—As many persons as the cards, leaving a few for stock, will supply, may play at a time, all of whom are to lay down three stakes a piece, one for the best whist card turned up in the deal; the second for the best brag-hand, and the third for the eldest hand obtaining thirty-one, or the next number under that. The dealer is to give three cards at once to every player turning up, all round, the last card belonging to each player, and the best card reckoning from ace downwards amongst those so turned up, wins the first stake; if two or more superior cards of a sort be turned up, the eldest hand, of course, has the preference, except in case of the ace of diamonds, which at this part of the game takes place of every other.

The second stake is won by the person possessing the best brag-hand, or often rather by the boldest bragger, who sometimes only pretends to hold good cards, such as pairs, flushes, sequences of flushes, and so on, similar to cribbage, excepting fifteens. In this state of the game there are usually two favourite cards; viz. the knave of clubs and the nine of diamonds, which are reckoned with any others to form pairs-royal or pairs; that is, the two favourites combined together with one, or either of them with two aces, kings, &c., are styled a pair royal of such cards, or singly, either of the favourites with another card ranks as a pair; only natural pairs-royal are to precede artificial ones, as three aces, kings, &c., take place before a pair-royal, formed by assistance of the two favourites, though a natural pair does not supersede an artificial one made by the help of a favourite, into which situation only the knave of clubs is admitted by some companies. The principal sport of the game is occasioned by any player bragging that he holds a better hand than the rest of the party, which is declared by saying, I brag, and staking a sum of money; if no one answer by a similar or larger deposit, then the bragger wins the second stake; but should any one reply, either by putting down the same or a greater sum, and the first bragger decline the contest, the answerer then takes both the money put down and the second stake: should the first bragger go on, and he says Again, and ventures another sum, whether similar to that laid down by the opponent or not, is of no consequence, provided it is not smaller; and if the other should reply in like manner again, the parties continue betting, each putting down a sum not less than that last ventured by his adversary, till one or other of them, frightened, gives up the contest, by which the player holding out longest gains all the money wagered, including the second stake; or either party may lay down a stake, saying, Let me see you, or I’ll see it, in which case both the hands are to be shown, and the strongest wins. When more than one person wishes to answer the first bragger, the eldest has the preference.

The third stake is obtained by the eldest player, who may hold, either from the cards dealt, or obtain by drawing in addition from the stock, thirty-one, or the highest number under that; each ace, king, queen, and knave being calculated as ten, and the rest according to their pips; any one drawing above thirty-one loses of course.

The player who is so fortunate as to gain all the three stakes in one deal, is, strictly speaking, entitled to three more from each of his antagonists, though in some companies this is declined, as savouring too much of gambling.—Hoyle.

BRAKE, s. Fern, brambles. A carriage for training horses.

BRAKY, a. Thorny, prickly, rough.

BRAMBLE, s. Blackberry-bush, dewberry-bush, raspberry-bush; any rough prickly shrub.

BRAMBLING, s. A bird, called also the mountain chaffinch. A small worm.

BRAN, s. The husks of corn ground.

BRANCH, s. The shoot of a tree from one of the main boughs; any distinct article; any part that shoots out from the rest; a smaller river running into a larger. The offspring, the descendant; the antlers or shoots of a stag’s horn.

BRANCH, v. To spread in branches, to spread into separate parts; to have horns shooting out.

BRANCHER, s. One that shoots out into branches. In Falconry, a young hawk. A young rook.

BRAND, s. A stick lighted, or fit to be lighted; a mark made by burning with a hot iron.

BRANDLING, s. A particular worm.

BRANDY, s. A strong liquor distilled from wine.

BRANK, s. Buckwheat.

BRASIL, or BRAZIL, s. An American dye-wood, commonly supposed to have been thus denominated, because first brought from Brasil.

BRASS, s. A yellow metal made by mixing copper with lapis calaminaris; impudence.

BRAWN, s. The fleshy or muscular part of the body; the arm, so called from its being muscular; bulk; muscular strength; the flesh of the boar; a boar.

BRAWNER, s. obs. A boar killed for the table.

BRAY, v. To pound, or grind small. To make a noise as an ass.

BRAZE, v. To solder with brass.

BREAD, s. Food made of ground corn; corn in general.

BREAK, v. To part in two; to bruise by dashing, as waves upon a rock; to open and discharge matter.

BREAKER, s. He that breaks dogs.

Breaking Dogs.—There are three kinds commonly used in shooting; the setter, the pointer, and the spaniel. It is not designed in this work to enter into minute directions for breaking them; that is a province few gentlemen choose to undertake, and very properly have their dogs made to understand their business, before they will take them into the field; however, a method will be here concisely mentioned, and which the experience of one, who has broke as many, and as capital dogs as any man of his age, in this or any other country, always led him to adopt.

For breaking a pointer or setter, get a check collar, with a line nearly twenty yards long. Peg the dog down, and give him the word (“Take heed!”) or any other, make him drop, and let him lay a quarter of an hour, walking round, and using the word; afterwards walk up and give him a small piece of cheese. Take the dog upon a slack line, drop him, and act as above every morning for a fortnight, until he perfectly knows the word; then hunt him at first single; when on a strong haunt of birds, use the word, and stop him; reward him as above with a piece of cheese, and so encourage him until he knows his game: serve each dog in the same way for fourteen days; then take two or three dogs upon check collars, peg down one before the other, give the word, and make them back each other four mornings successively; afterwards hunt them together.

To teach pointers or setters to bring their game, get a rabbit’s skin stuffed; begin by throwing it in a room, and let the dog have a small line on his collar; when he takes up the skin, bring him to you with a gentle pull, with the skin in his mouth; encourage him three or four times, and then take the line off; when the dog begins to enjoy it, take a small line and run it through a pulley fixed at the top of a room; tie the rabbit’s skin to one end of the line, keep the other in hand, fire a pistol, and let the skin drop; the dog will soon be fond of the sport, and readily bring every head of game that is shot. Break all the dogs in this way, and then take two or three together into a room, fire the pistol, and order first one, and then another dog, to bring the skin, and they will soon be perfect.

To break a wild spaniel, fasten a wide leather strap, about four feet long, to his collar, with a swivel; this he will tread on, and throw himself over, and will, by that means, soon be checked, and rendered handy and obedient. Spaniels may be taught to bring the game by the same mode of instruction as the pointers or setters; there should, however, be but one spaniel in a team that does this; if more, they will break the game in struggling which shall carry it.

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The keepers in the west of Ireland commonly break their dogs by using a pole of about five feet long perforated with a small bicket, about a foot from the end—to this bicket they affix the check-collar, and by pegging the dog down, secure him at his point as long as they please. By reversing the pole when it is necessary to chastise the animal for misconduct, the dog is effectually secured from escape or resistance; and, with this simple apparatus, an Irish breaker will stop the wildest setter, and subdue the most refractory.

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Some sportsmen, however, object to the use of the pole on the score of severity, and allege that timid dogs are frequently blinked by using it. But for a violent setter, nothing will conquer his obstinacy so soon or so effectually as this implement.—Thornhill, &c.

BREAM, s. The name of a fish.

The bream is a well-known fish, and yields good diversion to the angler; it is found in slow running, deep rivers, but is chiefly met with in extensive ponds, where, although it grows tardily, it will attain the weight of three or four pounds (they have been known to weigh eight), and if the water and air suit him, will get very fat: they are great breeders, for it is observed the melter has two melts, and the spawner two large bags of spawn, from which is deposited upwards of 130,000 ova. Very few wish to stock their waters with them, as they increase so rapidly, as to consume all the sweet feed, and starve other fish, and are only fit to be put into ponds as food for pike, perch, &c.

The bream is broad, with a small head, smooth at the top, big eyes, a small leather mouth, no teeth, but a lozenge-like bone to help its grinding; the palate is soft and fleshy, resembling that of the carp; it is covered with curious net-work scales, on which it sometimes has abundance of minute whitish tubercles; has a hog back, of a colour between blue and black; the sides of the largest are yellowish, and the belly, inclining to red, is extremely deep, and thin in proportion to its length; the tail is very large, and something in the form of a crescent.

The flesh is soft and clammy, yet by some reckoned of easy digestion, and of better nourishment than that of a carp; the choice parts are the belly and head; what renders it unpleasant for the table is the multitude of bones, and the best way of preparing him is by pickling it like salmon. The French, however, esteem this fish highly, and proverbially say, “he that hath breams in his pond is able to bid his friend welcome.”

The baits used are the red paste; also paste made of brown bread and honey, gentles, waspings, flag-worms; and they are great lovers of red-worms, especially such as are found at the root of a great dock, and lie wrapt up in a round clue: the common red-worms should be used two small ones at a time. Green flies under water, the grasshopper with the legs cut off in June and July; but the best bait for the full-grown bream is a large red worm without a knot, which is to be found in garden walks or chalky commons after rain; put the worms with moss well washed and picked, and the water squeezed from it, into an earthen pot set dry; change the moss every four days for three weeks; they will then be clear, lively, and at the best.

The following directions have been generally given for taking the bream, and as being also equally certain of tempting that shy fish the carp. The bait to be a large red worm, the rods long; the lines silk, or silk and hair, and the floats, goose or swan quills; a piece of lead of the form of an upright brass weight, with a hole at the top, is to be fastened to the low end of the lines; then fasten the hook-link also to the lead, allowing ten inches or a foot between lead and hook, which should be No. 4: the lead must be sufficiently heavy to sink the float quite level with the surface, and not for the float to bear up the lead, which must lie on the ground; by which means the worm will crawl up and down so far as the lead will allow, which to the fish is a great enticement. The line for two yards at bottom should be of strong round gut, and the link next the hook as small as you dare use, for fear of pike or perch (who will assuredly visit the hooks), and till they are taken, neither carp or bream will come near to bite: this fineness will admit the worm to draw the hook to and fro with less difficulty.

For the ground-bait, get a peck, or peck and a half, according to the greatness of stream and depth of water, of sweet gross ground malt, or unground wheat, which is thought preferable; boil it very little, and strain it through a bag: when cold, at night, cast in two parts of it squeezed hard between the hands, so that it may rest in the precise spot where you mean to angle; and if this be repeated for two or three times, it will more certainly attract the fish. Recollect in a stream, to throw it at least a yard above the place where you mean your hook to be, or the stream will carry it too far down; some sew worms for the fish to feed on, upon a turf of short grass, nearly to cover the turf, which is then fastened to a round board, with a hole through that and the turf, where a cord runs, and is tied to a pole to let down to the bottom. Bream generally choose the broadest and deepest part of a river, and in hot weather are easily seen swimming in shoals; there, or thereabouts, with a clear bottom, take the exact depth, making some mark that shall explain if any rise or fall has taken place in consequence of watermills, &c.

The ground thus baited, the worms and tackling prepared, by three or four in the morning, with great caution approach the place, so as not to be seen by the fish; some of them are frequently at the top of the water, whilst the rest are feeding beneath. Having baited the hook that the worm can move at bottom, cast it, and by drawing it gently to you, let the lead rest about the middle of the ground bait; a second rod should be a yard or two above, and a third a yard or two below it; retire from the water so far as just to perceive the top of the floats; when there is a bite the top of the float will sink suddenly; remain quiet until the line goes clear away, then creep to the water-side, and give as much line as possible; if it be a good carp or bream it will go to the farther side of the river, strike gently, and hold the rod at the proper bend, that it may tire him; for if both pull together, either line, hook, or hold, will break, and the fish will be lost. The bream is strong, and runs hard when first struck; but after two or three turns, he will fall on his side, which enables you easily to land him: the carp is far stronger and more mettlesome than the bream; it is advisable to use a reel upon the rods for carp, barbel, or bream; the length of line kills the fish with ease, and increases the angler’s amusement.

This sport may be continued from four till eight in the morning, and from four until the same hour in the evening. The following morning, for the same hours, your diversion will be perhaps the best; if it is gloomy and windy, they will bite all day long, especially if the water is a little thick after rains; during the time of fishing, and at that of quitting the water, throw in more of the ground-bait. After two or three days, the place should be baited and left quiet; the fish will otherwise get too cunning to touch the hook-bait.

Another mode of catching the bream, is, after plumbing the depth, put one or more shot a foot below the float, to balance it, which is a way to take the shyest fish; the bait a large red-worm, which must be laid in, and let sink very gradually to the ground-bait. When the fish bites, strike gently that very instant.

A third is the running line, with a bullet and hole through it, and a small shot to hinder the bullet falling on the hook; let this run on the bottom with the current into holes, and equally as for the bream, it will be found to answer for all other fish that bite at the bottom.—Daniel.

BREAST, s. The middle part of the human body, between the neck and the belly; the part of a beast that is under the neck, between the fore-legs.

BREATH, s. The air drawn in and ejected out of the body; life; respiration.

BREATHE, v. To draw in and throw out the air by the lungs; to live; to rest; to take breath.

BREECH, v. To fit any thing with a breech, as to breech a gun.

BREED, v. To procreate, to generate; to bring up, to take care of. To bring young; to raise a breed.

BREED, s. A cast, a kind, a subdivision of species; progeny, offspring; a number produced at once, a hatch.

BREEDER, s. One that produces any thing; a female that is prolific; one that takes care to raise a breed.

Breeding Dogs.—Never breed from an old dog and old bitch; if one party must be aged, it had better be the latter; but age on either side should be avoided if possible.

Winter whelps of all sorts of dogs are best, although the difficulty in rearing the produce and the loss of the use of the bitch for some weeks, are strong reasons against it, in the opinion of many; but the few that survive and are reared, amply recompense these obstacles. At three or four days old, part of the sterns should be twisted off, and the dew claws be cut off with a sharp pair of scissors. Puppies will soon learn to lap milk, which will relieve the mother; at six weeks old they may be separated, and should then be wormed.

The dog, to be complete in his form, should have round small feet, legs strong, straight, and muscular; the shoulders fall properly into the back, not upright; chest let down; loins good; back not too long; elbows play finely in their action, and come well in; thighs and gaskings broad and strong.

* * * * *

In our selection of parents for multiplying a breed a variety of circumstances should necessarily engage our attention; as, whether we are continuing a race already established, improving a defective one, or altogether forming a new variety. In either case, but particularly in the two latter, one or two propagations are not sufficient to enable us to judge of the merits or demerits of the products: anomalies may occur, monstrosities appear, or dogs may breed back. It should likewise be always present to us, that, in despite of all our care, and in face of the most favourable opportunities for selection, still perfect specimens to propagate from are unattainable; and as, therefore, we are necessarily to expect defects, it should be our care to well examine that we do not select our male and female parents with each the same faulty form or property; for, however perfect they may be in other respects, they are, in such a case, totally unfit to breed from together. We may, for instance, suppose an otherwise eligible pair of pointers, of the purest blood, but that each, from early and constant confinement, had contracted long, weak, spreading phalanges or toes, instead of a round, cat-like form of foot. By choosing a mate for each of these whose feet were unusually small, round, and firm, we might remedy this defect, and preserve their excellencies; but it would be only propagating deformity to breed from them together. We can only expect to prove successful in rearing a superior race of any domestic animal, when we make our selection of parents with a careful reference to the merits and defects in each, by balancing the one against the other, and by thus combining their different properties. It is by inattention to these circumstances that so many persons, after giving immense prices for animals of particular stocks, have found themselves foiled in their attempts at rearing any thing beyond mediocrity, which animals, under the judicious management of a Russell, a Coke, or an Ellman, among cattle, or an Orford, a Meynell, a Rivers, or a Topham, among dogs, would have produced unrivalled forms.

Breeding In-and-In.—Among the practical and systematic breeders of all domestic animals, and among none more than those sportsmen who devote themselves to the improvement of the dog, a great diversity of opinion has always existed on the subject of consanguineous breeding, or of that between near relations, characterised by the term In-and-In. The conflicting authorities on the subject are numerous, and the testimonies contradictory; and it is more than probable that they will remain so, until a long course of experiment is undertaken by a body or society of scientific and observant breeders on various domestic animals, for the express purpose of arriving at the truth in this particular.

Sir John Sebright says, “a breed cannot be improved, or even continued in the degree of perfection at which it has already arrived, but by breeding from individuals, so selected as to correct each other’s defects, and by a judicious combination of their different properties (a position that I believe will not be denied); it follows that animals must degenerate by being long bred from the same family, without the intermixture of any other blood, or from being what is technically called bred in-and-in.”

To Mr. Meynell’s opinion to the contrary, he replies—“Mr. Meynell’s fox-hounds are quoted as an instance of the success of this practice (i. e. the in-and-in); but, on speaking to that gentleman upon the subject, I found that he did not attach the meaning that I do to the term in-and-in. He said, that he frequently bred from the father and the daughter, and the mother and the son. This is not what I consider as breeding in-and-in; for the daughter is only half of the same blood as the father, and will probably partake, in a great degree, of the properties of the mother.” Again: “I have tried many experiments by breeding in-and-in upon dogs, fowls, and pigeons; the dogs became, from strong spaniels, weak and diminutive lap-dogs; the fowls became long in the legs, small in the body, and bad breeders.”

Sir W. C——n, in his Treatise on Greyhounds, is unfavourable to breeding a kin. He says, “If continued for some litters, a manifest inferiority of size, and a deficiency of bone, will soon be visible, as well as a want of courage and bottom; though the beauty of the form, with the exception of the size, may not be diminished.”—Blaine.—Sir John Sebright.

BRENT GOOSE (Anas Bernicla, LINN.; Le Cravant, BUFF.), s.

This is of nearly the same shape, but somewhat less than the Bean Goose, from which it differs in the colour of its plumage, being mostly of a uniform brown, the feathers edged with ash; the upper parts, breast and neck, are darker than the belly, which is more mixed and dappled with paler cinereous and gray: the head and upper half of the neck are black, excepting a white patch on each side of the latter, near the throat: the lower part of the back and rump are also black: the tail, quills, and legs dusky: the bill is dark, rather of a narrow shape, and only about an inch and a half long: the irides are light hazel. In the female and the younger birds, the plumage is not so distinctly marked, and the white spots on the sides of the neck are often mixed with dusky; but such varyings are discernible in many other birds, for it seldom happens that two are found exactly alike.

The brent geese, like other species of the same genus, quit the rigours of the north in winter, and spread themselves southward in greater or less numbers, impelled forward, according to the severity of the season, in search of milder climates. They are then met with on the British shores, and spend the winter months in the rivers, lakes, and marshes in the interior parts, feeding mostly upon the roots, and also on the blades of the long course grasses and plants which grow in the water; but, indeed, their varied modes of living, as well as their other habits and propensities, and their migrations, haltings, breeding-places, &c., do not differ materially from those of the other numerous families of the wild geese. Buffon gives a detail of the devastations which they made, in the hard winters of 1740 and 1765, upon the corn-fields on the coasts of Picardy in France, where they appeared in such immense swarms, that the people were literally raised (en masse we suppose) in order to attempt their extirpation, which, however, it seems they could not effect, and a change in the weather only caused these unwelcome visitants to depart.

The brent and the bernacle were formerly, by some ornithologists, looked upon as being of the same species; later observers, however, have decided differently, and they are now classed as distinct kinds.—Bewick.

BRET, s. A fish of the turbot kind.

BREW, v. To make liquors by mixing several ingredients; to prepare by mixing things together.

BRIDLE, s. The headstall and reins by which a horse is restrained and governed; a restraint, a curb, a check.

BRIDLE, v. To guide by a bridle; to restrain, to govern.

BRIDLE-HAND, s. The hand which holds the bridle in riding.

BRIERY, a. Rough, full of briers.

BRIG, s. A square-rigged vessel with two masts.

This class of vessels are generally employed as merchantmen and cruisers; and from their sea-worthy qualities and handy rig, are at once safe and easily worked. Latterly they have been introduced into the Royal Yacht Club; and the proud boast of having built one of the fastest and finest vessels in the world, has been recently achieved by the Earl of Belfast.

The Water Witch is 331 tons measurement, and has more than realised all that a builder could expect. She has, in every trial, proved her superiority; and in all weathers maintained a decided advantage over every antagonist. A letter from the noble owner, elicited by some trifling misstatement, concerning her model, &c., appeared in a late number of the Sporting Magazine, and as it is briefly descriptive of this beautiful brig, we have transferred it from the periodical.

“Her stern is upright, and, consequently, not so handsome as if it had more over-hung; but being built for a man-of-war, the intention (which has completely succeeded) was to enable her to run two guns out astern without a platform, which most vessels are obliged to have, and which is exceedingly inconvenient, inasmuch as it takes up a considerable portion of the quarter-deck.

“As regards the quantity of canvas, her sails are the same size as a ten-gun brig; nor has she any advantage in being without fittings below, having all the bulk-heads up (with the exception of the one that ought to divide the captain’s cabin from the gun-room), which was omitted, to make a larger and more airy cabin for my friends.

“Add to this, that she had her full weight of stores, &c., on board, as if provisioned for five months, with eight eighteen-pound carronades, and two long six-pounders, three boats, all spare spars, &c., on deck.

“I have only to add, that to this day she has beaten everything that has ever attempted to sail with her, both large and small; and although His Majesty’s ship Vernon (two thousand two hundred tons) had the advantage in light breezes of her one day, by crossing to windward of her, (after a trial of eight hours) about a cable’s length, she having started half a cable’s length to leeward of the Vernon, I understand she retaliated next day by beating the Vernon (under double-reefed topsails and top-gallant sails and considerable head-sea) two or three miles. I can also state, she never took advantage of any of her opponents in starting; and that I should not have the least objection to change her eighteen-pounders for four and twenty-pounders, and sail any square-rigged vessel (now built) in England for whatever sum they please.”

BRIGANDINE, or BRIGANTINE, s. A light vessel, such as has been formerly used by corsairs or pirates. They are still used in the Mediterranean.

BRIGHT, a. Shining, glittering, full of light; clear.

BRILLIANT, a. Shining, sparkling.

BRIMSTONE, s. Sulphur.

BRINDED, a. Streaked, tabby.

BRINDLE, s. The state of being brinded.

BRINDLED, a. Brinded, streaked.

BRINE, s. Water impregnated with salt, the sea.

BRISKET, s. The breast of an animal.

BRISTLE, s. The stiff hair of swine. Hogs’ bristles for fly tying are dyed in the same manner as feathers and wool. They require, however, to be kept longer in the dye-pot.

BRISTLE, v. To stand erect as bristles.

BRIT, s. The name of a fish.

BROACH, v. To spit, to pierce as with a spit; to pierce a vessel in order to draw the liquor.

BROCK, s. A badger.

BROCKET, s. A red deer, two years old.

BROGUE, s. A kind of shoe; a corrupt dialect.

BROIL, v. To dress or cook by laying on the coals.

BROKE. Preterimperfect tense of the verb To break. Applied to a dog when perfect in field discipline.

BROKEN KNEES, PASTE FOR.

Take pipe-clay and alum in equal parts; powder them, and reduce them in water to the consistency of cream; should the composition become dry, dilute it with water; stronger applications, as red precipitate and burnt alum, are occasionally necessary.

When the wound heals use any ointment coloured with lamp-black.

BRONCHIAL, a. Belonging to the throat.

BRONCHOTOMY, s. The operation which opens the windpipe by incision, to prevent suffocation.

BRONZE, s. Brass; a medal.

BROOD, v. To sit on eggs to hatch them; to cover chickens under the wing.

BROOD, s. Offspring, progeny; a hatch, the number hatched at once; the act of covering the eggs.

BROOD MARES.

No part of a racing establishment requires stricter attention than the brood mares. They should be kept, during the winter, in a paddock well supplied with water; also with a roomy hovel, with two wide entrances, to prevent accidents. There should also be rollers up each side of the door-way, as foals are apt to have their hips knocked down in striking them, or by getting squeezed against them by the mares in passing in or out. Not more than two mares should be kept in one paddock.

In winter, brood mares should be fed with the best hay; and, if in low condition, should have cold bran mashes twice a day. When in foal, the greatest care should be taken that their food be of the sweetest nature; the olfactory organs of a mare, during the period of her gestation, being extremely sensitive, and mouldy hay or straw has frequently caused premature birth. Indeed, extraordinary as it may appear, abortion has been caused by a groom merely striking a mare on the nose with his hand, which proves that, during the time they are in foal, they cannot be kept too quiet, or free from danger or excitement of any sort. The smell of carrion, or of animals fresh slaughtered, should be carefully avoided; for it is very provoking to lose a fine foal, after the heavy expense incurred, by these apparently trifling circumstances, so easily guarded against.

Attention should be paid to the state of the bowels of a newly dropped foal. If a passage be not observed, the gut should be carefully emptied by the hand. About a month previous to foaling, mares should be fed, at least twice a day, with cold bran mashes, as also plentifully supplied with any forward succulent food—such as lucerne, tares, clover, &c., but the two first are best. It is desirable to have the mares foal as early as possible, and when the mare is barren, she may be covered as early in February as she will take the horse, and if stinted she will foal early in January—thereby gaining a considerable advantage over those foaled later in the year. For instance, a colt dropped in January is fifteen months old, when in racing chronology he only reckons for twelve. It must, however, be observed, that it is impossible to have mares to foal every year in the month of January, unless the mare were to take the horse every year in February, as her time of gestation is eleven months and some days. Consequently, if she were to be covered in January, she would foal (out of the year) in December, as was the case with the December filly.

When mares are near their time of foaling, they should be carefully watched, for they will always approach water at this time; and as they generally (though not invariably) foal standing up, the produce may thus be lost. Some mares should be watched from another cause, as they will kill their foals as soon as they are dropped. When a mare has foaled, she should have a pail full of warm gruel, and should live generously until there is grass for her. The colt should also be fed with oats (bruised) twice or three times a day, which it will begin to eat at three days old.

The covering season commences on the first of February. Mares should be tried by the teazer every ninth day until the end of the season, which terminates in July.

Those mares which have foaled will be in season on the third day after; but it is not advisable to put them to the horse until the ninth, when they will probably be stinted. A mare, with a foal at her foot, is quite as likely to stand to the horse, if not more so, than one which has never bred, or proved barren the previous season; as it is called “missed the horse,” though she might have bred the year before.

Various have been the measures resorted to, to stint mares to the horse, which have proved barren for several years, or perhaps never bred at all—such as bleeding, immersing in cold water, and putting them in motion after the horse has retired; but no great faith is to be placed in any of them. It said that opium has been administered with effect; but in the cases of Victoria and Echo, every possible means tried, proved abortive.

Perhaps it would be better that stallions which cover at a high price, should only be suffered to serve a certain number of mares, as in that case it would not be necessary to pamper them to that degree generally practised, to enable them to exceed their natural powers. I have no hesitation in saying, that, in the long run, their produce would be greater, and I reason thus:—A mare which has missed three or four seasons together, is put to an ass, and generally stands to him. Now whatever may be the supposed increased physical powers of this animal, the effect, in this instance, is principally to be attributed to the cool state of his blood.

It is usually the practice to keep stallions very full of flesh, perpetually crammed with corn, by which their blood must be in a constant state of fever, and many of them have died in consequence of this treatment. Eggs are also frequently given them in the covering season. Some years since, a person in Shropshire, who purchased a horse out of the north, called “Young Roscius,” at a considerable price, not taking the precaution of cracking the egg before he gave it to him, it got across his gullet and killed him. If, instead of having recourse to a common farrier, who attempted to force it down with the butt-end of a whip, he had sent for a veterinary surgeon, it might have been dissected out with the greatest ease and safety, and his horse’s life preserved. Stallions, at the end of the season, should be physicked and turned out into a paddock, with very little corn; but the first day they are turned out, great precaution is necessary. They should be walked out on that day from five o’clock in the morning until evening; for if turned into the paddock fresh from their stable, they would gallop about for hours; and some have been known to do so until they have dropped down dead. Early in November, they should be brought into the stable again, physicked, moderately fed at first; well cleaned, and exercised every day for two or three hours; and this plan should be continued until the commencement of the next covering season. The air and exercise, say an hour or two a day, at this time, would invigorate their bodies, and conduce to their general health. Grooms may object to this system; but it has reason on its side, which they have not always on theirs.—Sporting Repository.

BROOK, s. A running water; a rivulet.

BROOM, s. A shrub; a besom, so called from the matter of which it is made.

BROTH, s. Liquor in which flesh is boiled.

BROWN, a. The name of a colour.

For a rich fiery Brown.—Put down some young fustic, about six chips, boil your stuff in three or four quarts of water; this takes a long time to give out the dye. If your fur be very white, and free from black hairs, you may draw two shades of fine bright yellows from it; you should put the more fur on that account. Then put down five or six more chips and boil it on till you bring it to a very deep orange; lift out your fur, and if you have half a pound of it you must put down an ounce of black grain, or half an ounce to a quarter of a pound; boil it and put in your stuff, and boil on till you have a blood orange.—Lift out your stuff, put in three teaspoonfuls of brasil wood in powder, stir it up and put down your stuff, boil till it comes to a light fiery brown. If you see what brasil you have added does not bring it to that shade, add more, and when you are near it take out your stuff, and have prepared in another vessel half a tablespoonful of archill, by boiling it in water, put half a noggin of this liquor into your pot and boil your stuff in it, and then try your shade, as I think you must be near it. Put in a little stale urine, and if not dark enough put in a little salt of tartar, throw in your stuff and I think you have it. If you want it darker, repeat the same quantity of salt of tartar. If you wish you may have two shades from this very process, or by drawing the fur may get many fine shades of claret by using double the quantity of black grain and more archill. Be nice with the archill, as if you darken too much with it, you can never discharge it.

Brown Varnish.—Rectified spirits of wine one quart, seed lac six ounces, dissolve the lac in the spirits two days and it is done, you must keep it the chief of the first day near the fire. This is the best of all varnishes, it must not be laid on any thing that is oiled.—Ancient Recipes.

BROWSE, v. To eat branches or shrubs.

BRUISE, v. To crush or mangle with a heavy blow.

BRUISE, s. A hurt with something blunt and heavy.

BRUSH, s. An instrument for rubbing. The tail of a fox. “To get the brush,” in sporting parlance, means to be foremost rider at the death.

BRUSH, v. To sweep or rub with a brush; to strike with quickness; to fly over; to skim lightly.

BRUSHER, s. He that uses a brush. A horse liable to _speedy cut, &c._

BRUSHWOOD, v. Rough, shrubby thickets.

BUBO, s. The groin, from the bending of the thigh to the scrotum; all tumours in that part are called buboes.

BUCK, s. The male of the fallow deer; the male of rabbits, and other animals.

BUCK, v. To copulate as bucks and does.

BUCKBEAN, s. A plant, a sort of trefoil, intensely bitter; its properties are tonic, diuretic, and purgative.

BUCKLE, s. A link of metal, with a tongue or catch, made to fasten one thing to another. BUCKLE, v. To fasten with a buckle.

BUCKRAM, s. A sort of strong linen cloth, stiffened with gum.

BUD, s. The first shoot of a flower; a germ.

BUD, v. To put forth young shoots or germs.

BUFF, s. Leather prepared from the skin of the buffalo, used for waist-belts, pouches, &c.; a colour.

To dye light shades of Buff, and other colours.—To assist in mixing, the drakes are said to be dyed by ivy and laurel alone; I do not vouch for their being fast and yet they may.

For Buffs.—Get some rich common fustic chips, put down three or four of them in three or four quarts of water with your stuff, and when it comes to a pale yellow, put in some pale madder, by a teaspoonful at a time, and you have, by boiling a sufficient length of time, a light buff. Boil on and put in more madder, and you will have a deeper; if your yellow is too faint put in more fustic, half an hour before your next addition of madder. By using young fustic chips and madder in the same way, you will get nice rich colours, something between a rich cinnamon and a light brick red.—Old Recipe.

BULL, s. The male of black cattle; a blunder.

BULLBAITING, s. The sport of baiting bulls with dogs.

BULL-DOG (Canis Molossus), s. A dog of particular form, remarkable for his courage.

The bull-dog is low in stature, deep-chested, and strongly made about the shoulders and thighs, the muscles of both of which are extremely developed. His head is broad, his nose short, and the under jaw projects beyond the upper, which gives him a fierce and disagreeable aspect. His eyes are distant and prominent, and have a peculiar suspicious-like leer, which, with the distension of his nostrils, gives him also a contemptuous look; and from his teeth being always seen, he has the constant appearance of grinning, while he is perfectly placid. He is the most ferocious and unrelenting of the canine tribe, and may be considered courageous beyond every other creature in the world, for he will attack any animal, whatever be his magnitude.

The internal changes which determine the external characters of this dog, consist in a great development of the frontal sinuses, a development which elevates the bones of the forehead above the nose, and draws the cerebral cavity in the same direction.

But the most important quality, and that, perhaps, which causes all the others, although we cannot perceive the connexion, is the diminution of the brain. The cerebral capacity of the bull-dog is sensibly smaller than in any other race; and it is doubtless to the decrease of the encephalon that we must attribute its inferiority to all others in every thing relating to intelligence. The bull-dog is scarcely capable of any education, and is fitted for nothing but combat and ferocity.

This animal takes his name from his having been employed, in former times, in assaulting the bull, and he is used for the same purpose at the present day, in those districts where this brutal amusement is still practised.

Nothing can exceed the fury with which the bull-dog falls upon all other animals, and the invincible obstinacy with which he maintains his hold. In attacking the bull, he always assails him in front, and generally fastens upon his lip, tongue, or eye, where he holds and hangs on, in spite of the most desperate efforts of the other to free himself from his antagonist, which affords ample proof of the amazing strength and power of this animal.

Whenever a bull-dog attacks any of the extremities of the body, it is invariably considered a mark of his degeneracy from the original purity of blood. Puppies will assail a bull, and thereby give a decided proof of their breed, when only six months old; and, if permitted, will rather suffer themselves to be destroyed than relinquish the contest.

Although this trial is sometimes made with the whelps of a particular litter, to demonstrate the purity of their descent, and to prove that there has been no improper cross by which the future fame of their posterity may be affected, yet they are seldom entered in a regular ring until from fifteen to eighteen months old. But their ligaments cannot be considered as at their full strength until they are at least two years old. Indeed, amateurs say, that they are not at their prime until they have attained four or five years of age.

The bull-dog is admitted by naturalists to be one of the original and peculiar races of Britain, and may be ranked, in point of originality, with the shepherd’s dog and Irish greyhound. In various districts of England this breed is still preserved in its native purity, by that class of people who delight in bullbaiting and fighting of dogs; both of which amusements, alike inhuman, are now happily on the decline.—Brown.

BULL-HEAD, s. The name of a fish.

The bull-head seldom exceeds the length of three inches and a half; the head is large, broad, flat, and thin at its circumference, being well adapted for insinuating itself under stones; on the middle part of the covers of the gills is a small crooked spine turning inwards; the eyes are very small, the irides yellow; the body grows slender towards the tail, and is very smooth; the colour is as disagreeable as its form, being dusky, mixed with a dirty yellow; the belly whitish. They are found all the summer in holes, among mud and gravel, and among weeds and flat stones in clear water, where they may be seen sunning themselves in a hot day; put the hook, with a small red worm, before them, and they will instantly take it. Notwithstanding the disgust which the form of the bull-head creates, the largest, when the heads are cut off, are very delicious eating; they are also good baits for other fish. Some anglers think them, when their gill-fins are cut away, preferable to the minnow.—Daniel.

BULL TERRIER (Canis Pugilis), s.

This variety, which has now assumed a fixed character, as its name implies, was produced by a cross between the bull-dog and terrier, and this variety proves to be a handsomer dog than either of its progenitors. It is a sprightly and showy animal, and even better adapted for mischievous sport than either of the above dogs. He is airy and pleasant tempered, but possesses great fierceness when his energies are called into action.

The full-sized bull terrier is larger than either of his original parents, from which we are inclined to think he has a dash of the mastiff in him. He has rather a large square head, short neck, deep chest, and very strong legs. He possesses great strength of jaw, and draws a badger with much ease. He is all colours, and often white, with large black or brown patches on different parts of his body. His hair is short and stiff.

This variety has risen into great reputation with gentlemen of the fancy, and consequently good ones sell for a high price. Bull terriers are to be had of every colour in the metropolis—and of late years, dealing in these and other dogs has become a regular trade.—Brown, &c.

BULL TROUT, BULGER, or SCARF, s.

This species migrates, like the salmon, into several of our rivers; they begin to run up the rivers in May, and are most plentiful in September and October, although the flesh is not then so good (on account of their spawning) as in July and August; when boiled, it is of a pale red, and well flavoured, but drier than that of the salmon. Mr. Pennant has described one taken in June, 1769, in the Tweed below Berwick.

The shape was thicker than the common trout; the irides silver, and the head thick, smooth, and dusky, with a gloss of blue and green; the back of the same colour, growing fainter towards the lateral line, which is straight; and the sides, as far as this line, are marked with large irregular-shaped spots of black; the sides beneath the line and the belly are white; the tail is broad and even at the end; the weight was three pounds two ounces.

The bull have the same haunts as the salmon trout, and are sometimes met with in gentle shallow streams, running between and over rocks and stones, and are also found about weirs, made across rivers. The baits and tackle should be the same as for the salmon trout.—Daniel.

BUMP, s. A swelling, a protuberance.

BUMPER, s. A cup filled.

BUNTING, (Emberiza miliaria, LINN.; Le Proyer, BUFF.) s. The name of a bird.

The principal difference between this kind and that of the passerine order, consists in the formation of the bill, which in the bunting is of a very singular construction.

The two mandibles are movable, and the edges of each bend inwards; the opening of the mouth is not in a straight line as in other birds, but at the base, the junction is formed by an obtuse angle in the lower mandible, nearly one-third of its length, which is received by a corresponding angle in the upper one; in the latter there is a strong knob, of great use in breaking the harder kinds of seeds and kernels, on which it feeds. The tongue is narrow, and tapers to a point like a toothpick; the first joint of the outer toe is joined to that of the middle one.—Bewick.

BUOY, s. A piece of cork or wood tied to a weight. Dog or sheep skins prepared with a coating of tar and tallow, are used for suspending spellits and herring nets—on the western and southern coasts of Ireland they are called puckawns.

BUOY, v. To keep afloat.

BUOYANCY, s. The quality of floating.

BUR, s. A rough head of a plant.

BURBOT, s. A fish full of prickles.

BURN, v. To consume with fire; to wound with fire.

BURNISH, v. To polish.

BURNISHER, s. The person that burnishes or polishes; the tool used—it is commonly a dog’s tooth set in a stick.

BURROW, s. Holes made in the ground by rabbits.

BURROW, v. To mine as conies or rabbits.

BURST, v. To break suddenly.

BURST, s. A cry of hounds.

BURT, s. A flat fish of the turbot kind.

BUSH, s. A thick shrub.

BUSHEL, s. A measure containing eight gallons; a strike.

BUSHY, a. Thick; full of small branches; full of bushes.

BUSS, s. A vessel for fishing—a herring boat.

BUSTARD, (Otis Tarda, LINN.; L’Outarde, Buff.)

Great Bustard.—This very singular bird, which is the largest of our land birds, is about four feet long, and weighs from twenty-five to thirty pounds; its characters are peculiar, and with such as connect it with birds of the gallinaceous kind, it has others which seem to belong to the ostrich and the cassowary. Its bill is strong, and rather convex: its eyes red; on each side of the lower bill there is a tuft of feathers about nine inches long; its head and neck are ash-coloured. In the one described by Edwards there are on each side of the neck two naked spots, of a violet colour, but which appeared to be covered with feathers when the neck was much extended. The back is barred transversely with black and bright rust-colour on a pale reddish ground; the quills are black, the belly white; the tail consists of twenty feathers; the middle ones are rust-colour, barred with black; those on each side are white, with a bar or two of black near the ends; the legs are long, naked above the knees, and dusky; it has no hind toe, its nails are short, strong, and convex both above and below; the bottom of the foot is furnished with a callous prominence, which serves instead a heel. The female is not much more than half the size of the male: the top of her head is of a deep orange, the rest of the head brown; her colours are not so bright as those of the male, and she has no tuft on each side of the head. There is likewise another very essential difference between the male and the female: the former is furnished with a sack or pouch, situated in the forepart of the neck, and capable of containing about two quarts; the entrance to it is immediately under the tongue. This singular reservoir was first discovered by Dr. Douglas, who supposes that the bird fills it with water as a supply in the midst of those dreary plains where it is accustomed to wander. It likewise makes a farther use of it in defending itself against the attacks of birds of prey. On such occasions, it throws out the water with such violence, as not unfrequently to baffle the pursuit of its enemy.

Bustards were formerly more common in this island than at present; they are now found only in the open counties of the south and east, in the plains of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, and in some parts of Yorkshire; they were formerly met with in Scotland, but are now supposed to be extinct there. They are slow in taking wing, but run with great rapidity, and when young are sometimes taken with grey-hounds, which pursue them with great avidity: their chase is said to afford excellent diversion. The great bustard is granivorous, but feeds chiefly on herbs of various kinds, it is also fond of those worms which are seen to come out of the ground in great numbers before sun-rise in the summer; in winter, it frequently feeds on the bark of trees; like the ostrich, it swallows small stones, bits of metal, and the like. The female builds no nest, but making a hole in the ground drops two eggs, about the size of those of a goose, of a pale olive brown, with dark spots. She sometimes leaves her eggs in quest of food; and if during her absence, any one should handle, or even breathe upon them, she immediately abandons them.

Bustards are found in various parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; but have not hitherto been discovered on the new continent.

The Little Bustard, (Otis Tetrax, LINN. La Petite Outarde, BUFF.) is in length only seventeen inches. The bill is pale brown; irides red; the top of the head is black, spotted with pale rust colour; the sides of the head, the chin, and throat, are of a reddish white, marked with a few dark spots; the whole neck is black, encircled with an irregular band of white near the top and bottom; the back and wings are rust colour, mottled with brown, and crossed with fine irregular black lines, the under parts of the body, and outer edges of the wings, are white: the tail consists of eighteen feathers; the middle ones are tawny, barred with black, the others are white marked with a few irregular bands of black, the legs are grey. The female is smaller, and has not the black collar on the neck; in other respects she nearly resembles the male.

This bird is very uncommon in this country: and we have seen only two of them, both females. The figure was drawn from one sent by W. Trevelyan, Esq. which was taken on the edge of Newmarket heath, and kept alive about three weeks in a kitchen, where it was fed with bread and other things, such as poultry eat. It is very common in France, where it is also a very shy and cunning bird; if disturbed it flies two or three hundred paces, not far from the ground, and then runs away much faster than any one can follow on foot. The female lays her eggs in June, to the number of three or four, of a glossy green colour: as soon as the young are hatched, she leads them about as the hen does her chickens: they begin to fly about the middle of August.

Both this and the great bustard are excellent eating, and, we should imagine, would well repay the trouble of domestication: indeed, it seems surprising that we should suffer these fine birds to run wild, and be in danger of total extinction, which, if properly cultivated, might afford as excellent a repast as our own domestic poultry, or even as the turkey, (vide TURKEY) for which we are indebted to distant countries.—Bewick.

BUTT, s. The place on which the mark to be shot at is placed; a vessel; a barrel containing one hundred and twenty-six gallons of wine; the thick or lower joint of a fishing rod; the handle of a cue.

The marks usually shot at by archers, for pastime, were “butts, prickes, and roavers.” The butt, we are told, was a level mark, and required a strong arrow, with a very broad feather; the pricke was a “mark of compass,” but certain in its distance; and to this mark strong swift arrows, of one flight, with a middling sized feather, were best suited; the roaver was a mark of uncertain lengths. It was, therefore, proper for the archer to have various kinds of arrows, of different weights, to be used according to the different changements made in the distance of the ground.

The Cornish men are spoken of as good archers, who shoot their arrows to a great length; they are also, says Carew, “well skilled in near shooting, and in well aimed shooting: the butts made them perfect in the one, and the roaving in the other, for the prickes, the first corrupters of archery, through too much preciseness, were formerly scarcely known, and little practised.” Other marks are occasionally mentioned; as the standard, the target, hazel wands, rose garlands, and the popinjay, which, we are told, was an artificial parrot.—Strutt.

BUTT, v. To strike with the head.

BUTTER, s. An unctuous substance, made by agitating the cream of milk till the oil separates from the whey.

BUTTERFLY, s. A beautiful insect.

BUTTOCK, s. The rump, the part near the tail.

BUTTON, s. Any knob or ball; the bud of a plant.

BUZZARD, s. A degenerate or mean species of hawk.

The Common Buzzard, or Puttock.—(Falco Buteo, LINN.; La Buse, BUFF.) M. Buffon distinguishes the kites and the buzzards from the eagles and hawks, by their habits and dispositions, which he compares to those of the vultures, and places them after those birds. Though possessed of strength, agility, and weapons to defend themselves, they are cowardly, inactive, and slothful, they will fly before a sparrow-hawk, and when overtaken, will suffer themselves to be beaten, and even brought to the ground, without resistance. The buzzard is about twenty inches in length, and in breadth four feet and a half. Its bill is of a lead colour, eyes pale yellow: the upper parts of the body are of a dusky brown colour; the wings and tail are marked with bars of a darker hue; the under parts pale, variegated with a light reddish brown; the legs are yellow; claws black. But birds of this species are subject to greater variations than most other birds, as scarcely two are alike: some are entirely white, of others the head only is white, and others again are mottled with brown and white.

This well-known bird is of a sedentary and indolent disposition; it continues for many hours perched upon a tree or eminence, whence it darts upon the game that comes within its reach: it feeds on birds, small quadrupeds, reptiles and insects. Its nest is constructed with small branches, lined in the inside with wool and other soft materials; it lays two or three eggs, of a whitish colour, spotted with yellow. It feeds and tends its young with great assiduity. Ray affirms, that if the female be killed during the time of incubation, the male buzzard takes charge of them, and patiently rears the young till they are able to provide for themselves.

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The Honey Buzzard (Falco Apivorus, LINN.; La Bondrée, BUFF.), is as large as the buzzard, measuring twenty-two inches in length; the wings extend above four feet. Its bill is black, and rather longer than that of the buzzard; the eyes are yellow; the head large and flat, and of an ash-colour; the upper parts of the body dark brown; the under parts white, spotted or barred with rusty brown on the breast and belly; tail brown, marked with three broad dusky bars, between each of which are two or three of the same colour, but narrower; the legs are stout and short, of a dull yellow colour; claws black.

This bird builds a nest similar to that of the buzzard, and of the same kind of materials: its eggs are of an ash-colour, with small brown spots. It sometimes takes possession of the nests of other birds, and feeds its young with wasps and other insects. It is fond of field-mice, frogs, lizards and insects. It does not soar like the kite, but flies low, from tree to tree, or from bush to bush. It is found in all the northern parts of Europe, and in the open parts of Russia and Siberia, but is not so common in England as the buzzard.

Buffon observes that it is frequently caught in the winter, when it is fat and delicious eating.

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The Moor Buzzard, Duck Hawk or White-headed Harpy (Falco Æruginosus, LINN.; Le Busard, BUFF.) is in length above twenty-one inches. The bill is black; cere and eyes yellow; the whole crown of the head is of a yellowish white, lightly tinged with brown; the throat is of a light rust colour: the rest of the plumage is of a reddish brown, with pale edges; the greater wing coverts tipped with white. The legs are yellow; claws black.

Birds of this kind vary much; in some, the crown and back part of the head are yellow; and in one described by Mr. Latham, the whole bird was uniformly of a chocolate brown, with a tinge of rust colour.

The moor buzzard preys on rabbits, young wild ducks, and other water-fowl; and likewise feeds on fish, frogs, reptiles, and even insects. Its haunts are in hedges and bushes near pools, marshes, and rivers that abound with fish. It builds its nest a little above the surface of the ground, or in hillocks covered with thick herbage: the female lays three or four eggs of a whitish colour, irregularly sprinkled with dusky spots. Though smaller, it is more active and bolder than the common buzzard, and, when pursued, it faces its antagonist, and makes a vigorous defence.—Bewick.—Latham.

BY-LAW, s. By-laws are orders made for the good of those that make them, farther than the public law binds.

BY-WAY, s. A private obscure way.

BY-WORD, s. A saying, a proverb; a term of reproach.

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CAB, s. A contraction of cabriolet; a two-wheeled carriage.

CACKLE, v. To make a noise, as a goose or hen.

CACKLER, s. A fowl that cackles.

CADDIS or CAD-BAIT, s. A kind of worm or grub.

The several kinds of cadews in their nympha, or maggot state, thus house themselves; one sort in straw, called from thence straw-worms; others in two or more parallel sticks, creeping at the bottom of brooks; a third, in a small bundle of pieces of rushes, duckweed, &c. glued together, therewith they float on the surface, and can row themselves about the water with the help of their feet; both these are called cad-bait. It is a curious faculty that these creatures possess, of gathering such bodies as are fittest for their purpose, and then so gluing them together, some to be heavier than water, that the animal may remain at bottom where its food is, and others to be so buoyant as to float, and there collect its sustenance; these houses are coarse, and show no outward art, but are within well tunnelled and have a tough hard paste, into which the hinder part of the maggot is so fixed, that its cell can be drawn after it without danger of leaving it behind, and it can also thrust out its body to reach the needful supplies, or withdraw into its covering for protection and safety.

These insects inhabit pits, ponds, low running rivers, or ditches, in cases of different forms, and composed of various materials; some of them inclosed in a very rough shell, found among weeds in standing waters, are generally tinged green; others are bigger than a gentle, and of a yellowish hue, with a black head; they are an excellent bait, and are found in most plenty in gravelly and stony rivulets, and by the sides of streams, in large rivers among stones.

To collect them, turn up the stones, and the best will adhere to them; when the quantity wanted is obtained, put them into a linen bag for five or six days, dip them, together with the bag, into water once a day, and hang them up; they will then turn yellow, become tough, and fitter for angling than when first got from the brook. If meant to be kept long, they must be put into a thick woollen bag, with some of the moist gravel or sand from the same rivulet whence they are taken; they must be wetted twice a day, but oftener in very hot weather; when you carry them abroad, fill the bag with water and holding the mouth of it close, let the water run from them; thus they have been kept three weeks. Another way of preserving them is, by placing them in an earthen pot full of river water, with some of the gravel they were bred in at the bottom; but the preceding method is preferable: some use bait pans of different sizes for insects, the tops punched full of holes, not so large as to admit of their escaping when placed in the river, which not only keeps them cool, but supplies them with aliment in the fresh water; some keep them in moss in a woollen bag on a damp floor, taking care that the bag retains a proper moisture. Another mode of preserving caddis, and also grasshoppers, caterpillars, oak-worms, or natural flies, is to take the green withy bark from a bough six or seven inches round, and about a foot in length, turn both ends into the form of a hoop, and fasten them with a large needle and thread; stop up the bottom with cork, and bore the bark full of holes with a red hot wire, tie over it a colewort leaf, and lay it in the grass every night: in this manner caddis may be preserved until they turn to flies. When grasshoppers are to be preserved in the case, some grass must be put into it.

In angling with caddis, the line, when all out, should be as long as the rod, for three lengths next the hook, of single hairs, with the smallest float, and the least weight of lead, that the swiftness of the stream will allow to sink, and that may be aided by avoiding the violence of the current, and angling in the returns of a stream, or in the eddies betwixt two; which are also the most likely places wherein to kill fish, either at the top or bottom. The caddis may be at times, with very good effect, joined to a worm, and sometimes to an artificial fly, to cover the point of the hook, and also two or three together may be put upon the hook; but it is always to be angled with at the bottom, especially when by itself, with the finest tackle, and at all seasons is a most holding bait for trout and grayling.—Daniel.

CAG, s. A barrel or wooden vessel, made to contain four or five gallons.

CAGE, s. An enclosure of twigs or wire, in which birds are kept; a place for wild beasts; a prison for petty malefactors.

In Falconry, the cage is an oblong frame, four feet six inches long and two feet wide, made of light wood, the sides and ends are of a proper size for hawks to perch upon, and a little wadded, that it may not injure their feet. It is supported, when placed on the ground, by four legs, about a foot long. Slight rods of hazel are fixed across each end, to prevent the hawks from falling on the inside when they bait. A space of about twenty inches in length is left in the middle of the cage, in which the falconer places himself, carrying it by two straps that pass over his shoulders. The hawks are tied upon the cage as upon a perch, and by this contrivance many may be carried by one man.

Cages and other instruments used in falconry, are well described in the plates of the French Encyclopædia, printed in 1751.—Sebright.

CAGE, v. To enclose in a cage.

CAJEPUT OIL, s. Is highly stimulating; it is given internally as an antispasmodic, and applied as an external remedy for strains and rheumatism: it may be diluted with olive oil.

CALAMINE, (Lapis calaminaris,) s. A kind of fossil bituminous earth, which, being mixed with copper, changes it into brass.

CALCINATION, s. Such a management of bodies by fire as renders them reducible to powder: chemical pulverization.

CALCINE, v. To burn in the fire to a calx or substance easily reduced to powder.

CALCULUS, s. The stone in the bladder.

CALF, s. The young of a cow or deer; the thick, plump, bulbous part of the leg.

CALIBRE, s. The bore, or diameter of the barrel of a gun.

CALIDRIS, (Illiger,) s. Sanderling, a genus thus characterised:—

Bill of middle length, slender, straight, soft, flexible throughout; compressed from the base; at the point depressed, flattened, and broader than in the middle, the nasal groove being prolonged towards the point; nostrils at the sides slit lengthwise; legs slender, three toes directed forwards, and almost entirely divided; wings of middle size, the first quill the longest.—Montagu.

CALIVER, s. obs. A hand-gun, or harquebuse; an old musket.

CALL, v. To name; to make a noise like quails and partridges.

CALL, s. An instrument to call birds.

The Call of Birds is, in most instances, effected by the lungs and larynx; but some species of woodpecker, in the breeding season, have a very extraordinary and peculiar call to each other, by strong reiterated strokes of their bill against the dead sonorous branch of a tree. These calls seem to be a species of song.—Montagu.

CALLOSITY, s. A kind of swelling without pain.

CALLOUS, a. Hardened, insensible.

CALLOW, a. Unfledged, naked, wanting feathers.

CALOMEL, s. Mercury six times sublimed.

Calomel, or submuriate of mercury, is the most useful of the mercurial preparations, and composed of oxide of quicksilver and muriatic acid. When prepared it is a fine white powder, rather inclining to yellow, and very ponderous. It is the most efficacious anthelminthic we are acquainted with (see ANTHELMINTHIC), and an excellent alterative. When a brisk purgative is wanted, calomel may be added to the common physic, which is composed chiefly of aloes.

Though calomel possesses these useful qualities, it must be given with caution, and its effects carefully watched; as it sometimes acts very violently and unexpectedly on the stomach and bowels, and induces a dangerous degree of weakness. Salivation is sometimes the effect of calomel, when given daily as an alterative, or as a remedy for farcy or mange; the mouth becoming so sore, and the tongue so swollen, as to prevent the horse’s feeding. When these accidents occur, the medicine should be discontinued a short time, and the horse allowed to drink plentifully of water-gruel, linseed infusion, or any other mucilaginous drink. When the bowels are affected by it, opium is the best remedy, should arrow-root gruel or wheat-flour gruel prove ineffectual. In some cases, where it has produced great irritation about the anus or bladder, opium should be given in the form of clyster. (See CLYSTERS.) If the mouth becomes very sore, let it be washed with a solution of alum, by means of a syringe.

Whenever calomel is given, the horse must be kept warm, drink warm water, and have regular exercise. When calomel is given as an anthelminthic, or as a purgative, the dose is from one to two drachms; as an alterative, from fifteen grains to half a drachm. Calomel generally acts upon the kidneys, increasing the discharge of urine. (See ALTERATIVES and ANTHELMINTHICS.)—White.

CALVE, v. To bring forth a calf, spoken of a cow. To drop a fawn.

CALUMBA, s. A plant. The root is a good tonic and stomachic.

CALX, s. Any thing rendered reducible to powder by burning.

CAMBER, s. A piece of timber cut archwise. The bending of a gun-stock.

CAMLET, or CAMBLET, s. A kind of stuff, originally made by a mixture of silk and camel’s hair; it is now made with wool and silk. It is much used for shooting jackets, as it resists water well, and is light and strong.

CAMPHOR, s. A kind of resin produced by a chemical process from the camphor tree. The tree from which camphor is extracted.

The following description of the properties of camphor was given me by an old M. D. Camphor is at once an emollient, an antispasmodic, an anodyne, a febrifuge, and a sedative.—Condition of Hunters.

CANARY, s. Wine brought from the Canaries; sack.

CANARY BIRD, (Fringilla canaria, LINN.) s. A much admired singing bird.

In length this beautiful species is about five inches and a half; the bill pale flesh-colour, passing into reddish white; eyes chestnut brown; the whole plumage of a rich, deep primrose colour, inclining to yellow; edge of the quills sometimes yellowish white; legs and feet the same colour as the bill. The female is distinguished from the male by the plumage being of a paler colour; the yellow round the bill, eye, and on the breast and edge of the wing, being also of a paler yellow; she is likewise rather larger and less slender in form towards the tail.

There are said to be upwards of thirty varieties of the breeds of canaries, which can be easily distinguished; and the number is increasing every year. In London, we have societies for promoting the breeds, and a premium is awarded to the competitor who comes nearest to the model of perfection given out by the society the season prior to the competition.

There are two distinct species of canaries, the plain and the variegated, or, as they are technically called, the gay spangles, or mealy; and jonks, or jonquils. These two varieties are more esteemed by amateurs than any of the numerous varieties which have sprung from them; and although birds of different feathers have their admirers, some preferring beauty of plumage, others excellence of song, certainly that bird is most desirable where both are combined. The first property of these birds consists in the cap, which ought to be of fine orange colour, pervading every part of the body except the tail and wings, and possessing the utmost regularity without any black feathers, as, by the smallest speck, it loses the property of a show-bird, and is considered a broken-capped bird. The second property consists in the feathers of the wing and tail being of a deep black up to the quill, as a single white feather in the wing or tail causes it to be termed a foul bird; the requisite number of these feathers in each wing is eighteen, and in the tail twelve. It is, however, frequently observed that the best coloured birds are foul in one or two feathers, which reduces their value, although they may still be matched to breed with.

* * * * *

A small breeding cage is all that is required for rearing these birds; but where a room can be allotted to the purpose, it ought to have shrubs for them to roost and build, with plenty of water to drink and bathe in, that being indispensable for all birds. The light should be admitted into the room from the east, for the benefit of the morning sun, and the windows should have wire cloth, that they may enjoy the fresh air. The floor of the apartment ought to be strewed with sand or white gravel, and on that should be thrown groundsel, chickweed, or scalded rapeseed; but when breeding, they should have nothing except hard chopped eggs, dry bread, cake without salt, and, once in two or three days, a few poppy-seeds. Some bird-fanciers give their breeding-birds plantains and lettuce-seeds; but this should be done sparingly, and only for two days, lest it should weaken them.

About the 15th of April they ought to be furnished with flax, soft hay, wool, hair, moss, and other dry materials, for building the nest, which usually occupies about three days: the time of incubation is thirteen days; but when the hen has sat eight or nine days, it is necessary to examine the eggs, holding them carefully by the ends, against the sun or a lighted candle, and to throw away the clear ones. Some bird-fanciers substitute an ivory egg until the last is laid, when the real ones are replaced, that they may be hatched at the same time.

When the young are to be reared by the stick, they must be taken from the mother on the eighth day, taking nest and all. Prior to this, the food should consist of a paste composed of boiled rapeseed, the yolk of an egg, and crumbs of cake unsalted, mixed with a little water; this must be given every two hours. This paste ought not to be too wet, and must be renewed daily, until the nestlings can feed themselves. The hen has generally three broods in the year, but will hatch five times in the season, each time laying six eggs.

The process of moulting, which takes place five or six weeks after they are hatched, is frequently fatal to them. The best remedy yet known is to put a small piece of iron into the water they drink, keeping them warm during the six weeks or two months which generally elapse before they regain their strength. This malady, to which they are all subject, is often fatal to the hen after the sixth or seventh year; and even the cock, though from superior strength he may recover, and continue occasionally to sing, and survive his mate four or five years, appears dull and melancholy from this period, till he gradually droops, and falls a victim to this evil.

If it is proposed to rear gay birds, the cock and hen should be of the same deep colour; if mottled birds are required, both parents should be mottled. When a gay bird and a fancy bird are matched, they are termed mule-birds, because they are irregularly mottled in their plumage, and therefore of no value, although they be equally good singers. The spangled or French canary cock, with a mealy hen, often produces beautiful varieties.

* * * * *

The most common cause of disease in birds proceeds from a superabundance of food, which brings on repletion. In this case the intestines descend to the extremities of the body, and appear through the skin, while the feathers on the part affected fall off, and the poor bird, after a few days, pines and dies. If the disease is not too far gone, putting them in separate cages, and confining them to the cooling diet of water and lettuce-seed, may save the lives of many: they are also subject to epilepsy, asthma, ulcers in the throat, and to extinction of the voice. The cure for the first is doubtful; it is said that if a drop of blood fall from the bill, the bird will recover life and sense; but if touched prior to falling of itself, it will occasion death. If they recover from the first attack, they frequently live for many years without any alteration in their note. Another cure is to inflict a slight wound in the foot. Asthma is cured by plantain, and hard biscuit soaked in white wine; while ulcers, like repletion, must be cured by cooling food. For extinction of voice, the cure ought to be hard yolk of eggs, chopped up with crumbs of bread, and for drink a little liquorice-root, or a blade of saffron in water. In addition to these evils, the canary is infested by a small insect, if they are kept dirty. To avoid this, they should have plenty of water to bathe in, in a new cage, covered with new cloth, and their seeds well sifted and washed. These attentions, if troublesome, are nevertheless necessary to possess a thriving bird. When wild, it has already been remarked, that all birds require water, and to a canary this is so necessary, that if a saucer or cup of snow be put into the cage they will flutter against it with the utmost delight, even during the most severe winters. They are bred in immense numbers, both for amusement and commerce, in France, Tyrol, Germany, and in this country: those from Germany are in the least esteem, from their living only one or two years in this country, although the cock of this variety is an approved songster.—Montagu.

CANCER, s. A crabfish; a virulent swelling; a sore.

The virulent, dreadful ulcer, that is so fatal in the human subject, and is called cancer, is unknown in dogs; yet there is very commonly a large scirrhous swelling of the teats in bitches, and of the testicles (though less frequent) in dogs, that as it sometimes becomes ulcerated, so it may be characterised by this name. In the early state of this disease, discutients prove useful; as vinegar with salt, and camphor and Spanish flies with mercurial ointment, have sometimes succeeded, taking care to avoid irritating the part so much as to cause blister. But when the swelling is detached from the belly, and hangs pendulous in the skin, it had better be removed; and, as a future preventative, suffer the bitch to breed. Scirrhous testicles are likewise sometimes met with; for these no treatment yet discovered succeeds, but the removal of the part, and that before the spermatic chord becomes much affected, or it will be useless.—White.

CANCEROUS, a. Having the virulence of a cancer.

CANDLE, s. A light made of wax or tallow, surrounding a wick of flax or cotton.

Candles, as well as lamps, often afford good prognostics of weather. When the flames of candles flare and snap, or burn with an unsteady or dim light, rain, and frequently wind also, are found to follow. The excrescences from the wicks called funguses also denote rain and wind.—Foster.

CANE, s. A kind of strong reed; the plant which yields the sugar; a lance. Canes are sometimes used for fishing-rods.

CANELLA-ALBA, s. An aromatic stimulant.

CANINE, a. Having the properties of a dog.

CANKER, s. A worm that preys upon, and destroys fruits; a fly that preys upon fruits; any thing that corrupts or consumes; an eating or corroding humour; corrosion, virulence; a disease in trees.

Canker in the ear.—A common and troublesome disease, to which dogs are liable. To cure it, boil two ounces of best shag tobacco in a quart of water, until one pint is consumed; dip the dog’s ears, as it is boiling hot, into the tobacco water, until two inches above the cankered part; repeat it three successive days. To bring the hair again, burn some old shoe, and mix with a quarter of a pound of hog’s-lard, and frequently anoint the ears; but the readiest and best way to rid dogs of cankers, is to apply the rounding-iron.

* * * * *

In the early stages, a wash composed of half a drachm of superacetate (sugar) of lead, dissolved in four ounces of rose or rain water, is often all that is necessary. A small teaspoonful may be introduced (previously warmed to a blood heat, to prevent surprise) night and morning, rubbing the root of the ear at the same time, to promote the entrance of the wash into the cavities. In more obstinate cases, it is prudent to add fifteen or twenty grains of vitriolated zinc (white vitriol) to the wash; and if, instead of water, a decoction of oak bark is made use of to form the wash, it will greatly promote the end desired. In some cases, acetate of copper (verdigris), mixed with oil, has proved beneficial when introduced in the same manner. In others, submuriate of quicksilver (calomel) and oil have produced amendment in the same way. A very weak injection of the oxymuriate of quicksilver (corrosive sublimate) has succeeded when every other application has failed. A very mild injection of nitrate of silver, as one grain to two ounces of water, has done much good also.

* * * * *

Canker on the outside of the ear consists of an ill-disposed ulcer, which is usually situated on the lower edge of the flap or pendulous part of one or both ears, dividing it into a kind of slit. It seems to itch intolerably, and is therefore kept in a continual state of aggravation by the shaking of the dog’s head. An unguent, made with equal parts of ointment of nitrated quicksilver and calamine cerate, may be applied once a day, carefully securing the ear from the injury occasioned by the shaking of the head, by a sort of head dress, during its use. Or the following may be tried:—

Oxymuriate of quicksilver (corrosive sublimate) very finely powdered 3 grains Cerate of calamine (Turner’s cerate) 1 drachm Sublimated sulphur (milk of) 1 scruple.

In some cases, the oxymuriate of silver has become more efficacious in a wash, six grains being dissolved in four ounces of water. Strong astringent lotions are sometimes useful; as alum dissolved in a decoction of oak bark. When the disease proves very obstinate, excision must be resorted to, taking care that the whole, not only of the immediate cracked part, but also of its tumefied edges, are included in the operation.

* * * * *

In tumefied flap of the ear, the tumour ought either to be opened its full length, and a pledget of lint introduced, to prevent too hasty a union of the outer edges of the sac; or a seton should be introduced, embracing the whole of the tumour, which should be suffered to remain for a week or ten days. By this means, instead of a discharge of serum, healthy matter will form in a little time; the sides will granulate and unite, and on the removal of the seton, the external lips of the wound will close firmly and healthily.—Blaine.

CANKER, v. To corrupt, to corrode; to infect, to pollute.

CANOA, or CANOE, s. A boat made by cutting the trunk of a tree into a hollow vessel; a very light boat.

The Poole canoe is built sharp at both ends, on the plan of the Greenland whale-boat, except being so flat at the bottom as to draw only two or three inches of water, and so light as to weigh only from sixty to two hundred pounds. In making all canoes for gunning, the builder should be careful to have the bottoms of them a little rounded (say about half an inch of convex “a-midships,” for a bottom three feet broad); and, what is of still more consequence, a little “kammelled,” or sprung; that is, gradually rising “fore and aft,” in order to “give them life.” They will, otherwise, row miserably heavy, and, when they get aground, suck the mud or sand so much, that, in order to get them off again, you might be forced to stand up, and this would frighten away the fowl. If, however, the bottom of a canoe is too much kammelled, she will never keep steady in going to birds. Some people, for this reason, leave hollow grooves between the bottom planks. I should say, that to every five feet of plank I would give about one inch of “kammel;” so that the bottom of the canoe being ten feet, would, by holding a string along the centre of the bottom, outside, prove convex about two inches. If a little more, she would be none the worse; perhaps the better, provided that she drew water enough to give a bearing to every part; otherwise the ends that were sprung, would, by being out of the water, “cluck” so much as to make birds swim away in the night. In short, let your draught of water be the chief guide to regulate the kammelling, or springing, of your punts and canoes. If not required for rough work, or a fixed swivel-gun, I should recommend all the planks to be not more than three quarters of the thickness specified in the plate; as nothing, provided it be perfectly safe, can be too light for getting to wild birds. It is the large size of a boat, not the substance of the wood, that makes her safe in a sea. If the builder puts some oakum and tar round the heads of the principal nails, before he drives them in, so much the better.—Hawker.

CANTER, s. A short gallop.

The chief paces for a hack to carry a gentleman are the walk and the canter. A very quick trot is a most ungentlemanlike pace, and only fit for a butcher; besides which, it wears out a horse much sooner than a canter, from the weight being all thrown upon one fore leg at the same time; whereas, in the canter, it is equally divided between both. Added to this a canter is much more easy, as well as safer to the rider, the horse having his haunches more under him than when he trots, thereby more likely to recover himself in case of making a mistake, which the best is sometimes subject to. Fast trotting also distresses a horse more than cantering, because in the one he is going up to the top of his speed, and in the other much below it.—Nimrod.

CANTHARIDES, s. Spanish flies, used to raise blisters.

These insects are found adhering to trees of different kinds in France, Germany, and Spain: those from the latter country are considered the best.

Cantharides are so very acrimonious, that they inflame and excoriate the skin; and hence raise a more perfect blister than any other substance: this property renders them extremely useful in veterinary practice, in which a good blister is the most important of all external remedies. Cantharides should be finely powdered; but previously to this operation they should be sifted, that they may be free from a great deal of dust and useless matter, which we generally observe with them. When powdered, they may be either formed into an ointment, a liniment, or a spirituous tincture; but the former is the best form, and most commonly used. (See BLISTERS.)

Cantharides are imported from Sicily and Astracan, in sacks and small chests. The best are of a lively fresh colour, a small size, and not mouldy, nor mixed with the Melolontha vitis; an insect resembling them in some degree, but possessing no vesicating property. It may be distinguished by its form, which is more square than that of the Spanish fly, and by its black feet. If Spanish flies have been properly dried and kept in a well-stopped glass bottle, they retain their acrimony, and remain unchanged a great length of time; but sometimes they are attacked by a small worm, which, however, feeds on the inactive part only of the fly, reducing it to a powder that still possesses the active quality of the entire insect. They soon putrify when kept in a damp place, and therefore should be occasionally spread out to the air.—Thomson’s London Dispensatory.

CANTLE, s. A piece with corners. The hinder part of the saddle.

CAP, s. A strong covering for the head, formerly worn by huntsmen—hats are now preferred by gentlemen riders. Vide COPPER.

CAPARISON, s. A sort of cover for a horse; generally horse furniture.

CAPELOT, s. A swelling on the hock; it is harmless, but incurable.

CAPERCALZIE, (Urogallus vulgaris, FLEM.), s.

The male of this species is polygamous, and lives separate from the females, except in the breeding season. Their manner and habits are very like those of the black grous, except that this seems to be confined wholly to forests of pine, on the tender shoots of which it feeds. It was formerly to be met with in Scotland and Ireland, but is now extinct.

The female is said to lay from eight to sixteen eggs, of a white colour, spotted with yellow, larger than those of our domestic fowl. Dr. Latham says, he is well informed the nest of one found in Scotland was placed on a Scotch pine; if so, it differs from all the genus, who are known to lay their eggs on the bare ground.

It is not uncommon in the pine forests of Norway, whence we have received it. It is also found plentiful in Russia and Siberia, in Italy, and several parts of the Alps. It formerly frequented the fir woods of Ireland and Scotland, and was last seen in 1760, in the woods of Strathglass. It continued in Strathspey till 1745. Recent attempts have been made to re-introduce the species from Norway without success.—Montagu.

CAPISTRUM, s. In ornithology, is a word used by Linnæus to express the short feathers on the forehead just above the bill. In some birds these feathers fall forward over the nostrils: they quite cover those of the crow.

CAPIVI, s. A balsam. It has been lately introduced into veterinary practice.

CAPON, s. A castrated cock.

The Chinese are said to be particularly skilful in this operation, the outline of which, according to their mode, I give as a matter of curiosity. The wings of the fowl are folded back till they meet, and the left foot of the operator is placed upon them, the great toe of his right foot pressing upon the legs to keep them fast. After pulling the feathers, an incision is made, one inch long, and one inch from the spine, obliquely downward and forward.

After the operation, instead of being melancholy, abashed, and humiliated, the capon assumes a bold, lofty, and triumphant air; and such is the influence of audacity over all animals, that his borrowed courage completely imposes on the cocks and hens, and prevents them from disturbing him in the fulfilment of his charge. At first, he is a little awkward in the exercise of his office. His ambition, in imitating in his gait, the majesty and dignity of the cocks, makes him carry his head too stiff, and prevents him from seeing the chickens, which he sometimes thus inadvertently tramples under foot. But experience soon teaches him to avoid such mishaps, and accidents of the same kind do not occur again.—Moubray.

CAPRIOLE, s. Caprioles, in the old menage, are leaps such as horses make in one and the same place, without advancing forwards.

CAPSICUM, s. The pod from which cayenne pepper is produced; a powerful stimulant.

CAR, s. A small carriage of burden.

CARABINE, or CARBINE, s. A small sort of musket. It is shorter in the barrel and smaller in the bore.

CARAWAY, s. A plant.

The seeds are cordial and carminative, and from them an essential oil is obtained for veterinary purposes. The dose is from half a drachm to a drachm, and may be mixed either with ale, milk, or water, into a drench; or formed into a ball with powdered liquorice, powdered ginger, and honey.

Caraway is a useful cordial and carminative. The dose of the seed is about an ounce; to which may be added a drachm or two of powdered ginger.

From twenty to thirty drops of oil of caraway are a useful addition to aloes, making a purgative ball; or, as it is commonly termed, a dose of physic.

Though the essential oil is the most convenient form for giving caraways, it is not perhaps so grateful to the stomach, or likely to produce so gradual or durable a stimulus as the recently powdered seeds. Caraways lose their power by long keeping, especially in damp places. When the essential oil is employed, the best manner of mixing it is to rub it in a mortar with sugar and treacle, and to add the ale or water gradually. Or it may be mixed in the proportion of one part of the oil to two of spirit of wine, and kept as an essence of caraway: this, when mixed with ale or water, will be more uniformly diffused through the liquor than the oil alone, which will immediately float on the surface.—White.

CARDAMOM-SEEDS, s.

There are two sorts of cardamoms, the greater and lesser: the latter are commonly sold in their shells or pods, from which they are easily freed. These are preferred in medical practice, probably on account of their more grateful smell and taste, but the larger sort, which are generally termed grains of paradise (see GRAINS OF PARADISE), are better for veterinary purposes, being a stronger stimulant, and much cheaper.—White.

CARDS, s.

The general opinion respecting the origin of playing-cards is, that they were first made for the amusement of Charles VI. of France, at the time he was afflicted with a mental derangement, which commenced in 1392, and continued for several years. In proof of this supposition, an article in the treasury registers belonging to that monarch is quoted, which states that a payment of fifty-six sols was made to Jacquemin Gringonneur, painter, for three packs of cards gilded and painted with divers colours and different devices, to be carried to the king for his diversion.

In Spain, as early as A.D. 1387, John I., king of Castile, in an edict, forbade playing of cards and dice in his dominions. The provost of Paris, January 22, A.D. 1397, published an ordinance, prohibiting the manufacturing part of the people from playing at tennis, dice, cards, &c. which has inclined several modern writers upon this subject to refer the invention of cards from France to Spain; and the names of some of the cards, as well as of many of the most ancient games, being evidently derived from the Spanish language, are justly considered as strong corroborating arguments in favour of such an opinion.

A very intelligent writer upon the origin of engraving, Baron Heineken, asserts, that playing-cards were invented in Germany, where they were used towards the latter end of the fourteenth century; but his reasons are by no means conclusive. He says they were known there as early as the year 1376.

At the time that cards were first introduced, they were drawn and painted by the hand without the assistance of a stamp or plate; it follows of course that much time was required to complete a set or pack of cards; and the price they bore, no doubt, was adequate to the labour bestowed upon them, which necessarily must have enhanced their value beyond the purchase of the under classes of the people. For this reason it is, I presume, that card-playing, though it might have been known in England, was not much practised until such time as inferior sets of cards, proportionably cheap, were produced for the use of the commonalty, which seems to have been the case when Edward IV. ascended the throne, for in 1463, early in his reign, an act was established, on a petition from the card-makers of the city of London, prohibiting the importation of playing-cards; and soon after that period card-playing became a very general pastime.

The increasing demand for these objects of amusement, it is said, suggested the idea of cutting the outlines appropriated to the different suits upon separate blocks of wood, and stamping them upon the cards; the intermediate spaces between the outlines were filled up with various colours laid on by the hand. This expeditious method of producing cards reduced the price of them, so that they might readily be purchased by almost every class of persons. The common usage of cards was soon productive of serious evils, which all the exertions of the legislative power have not been able to eradicate.

CARMINATIVE, s. Carminatives are such things as dispel wind, and promote insensible perspiration.

The disorders for which carminatives are employed are flatulent or spasmodic colic, gripes, fret, and botts.

CARMINATIVE MIXTURES.

1. Best Cognac brandy 4 to 6 oz. Hot water 10 or 12 oz.

Mix for one dose.

2. Anodyne carminative tincture 2 to 4 oz.

(The receipt for this tincture will be found under the article ANODYNE.)

Hot water 8 or 10 oz.

Mix.

3. Tincture of opium ½ to 1 oz. Essence of peppermint (see PEPPERMINT) 1 dr. Water 10 or 12 oz.

4. Oil of turpentine 4 oz. Gruel 10 or 12 oz.

Mr. Bracey Clark recommends, above all other remedies, a tincture of allspice, made by digesting one pound of bruised allspice in three quarts of proof spirit. Of this he gives four ounces in a little water every hour until the horse is relieved.

CARMINATIVE, a. Belonging to carminatives.

CARNIVOROUS, a. Flesh-eating; a term applied to birds and animals.

Carnivorous birds are distinguished by those endowments and powers with which they are furnished by nature for the purpose of procuring their food. They are provided with wings of great length, the muscles which move them being proportionally large and strong; whereby they are enabled to keep long upon the wing, in search of their prey. They are armed with strong hooked bills, and sharp and formidable claws. They have also large heads, short necks, strong and brawny thighs, and a sight so accurate and piercing, as to enable them to view their prey from the greatest heights in the air, upon which they dart with inconceivable swiftness and undeviating aim. Their stomachs are smaller than those of the granivorous kind, and their intestines are much shorter.—Bewick.

CAROTID, s. Two arteries which arise out of the ascending trunk of the aorta.

CARP, s. A pond and river fish, very abundant in Great Britain.

The carp is the queen of rivers; a stately, a good and a very subtle fish; that was not at first bred, nor hath been long in England, but is now naturalised. It is said, they were brought hither by one Mr. Mascal, a gentleman that then lived at Plumsted in Sussex, a county that abounds more with fish than any in this nation.

Carps and loaches are observed to breed several months in one year, which pikes and most other fish do not. And this is partly proved by tame and wild rabbits: and also by some ducks which will lay eggs nine of the twelve months; and yet there be other ducks that lay not longer than about one month. And it is the rather to be believed, because you shall scarce or never take a male carp without a melt, or a female without a roe or spawn, and for the most part very much, and especially all the summer season. And it is observed, that they breed more naturally in ponds than in running waters, if they breed there at all; and that those that live in rivers are taken by men of the best palates to be much the better meat.

I told you that Sir Francis Bacon thinks that the carp lives but ten years: but Janus Dubravius has writ a book Of Fish and Fish Ponds, in which he says, that carps begin to spawn at the age of three years, and continue to do so till thirty: he says also, that in the time of their breeding, which is in summer, when the sun hath warmed both the earth and water, and so apted them also for generation, that then three or four male carps will follow a female; and that then, she putting on a seeming coyness, they force her through weeds and flags, where she lets fall her eggs or spawn, which sticks fast to the weeds; and then they let fall their melt upon it, and so it becomes in a short time to be a living fish: and, as I told you, it is thought that the carp does this several months in the year.—Walton.

CARRIER, s. One who carries something; a species of pigeons.

CARRION, s. The carcass of something not proper for food; flesh corrupted. Relating to carcasses.

CARRION CROW, (Corvus corone, LINN.; Le Corneille, BUFF.) s.

The carrion crow is less than the raven, but similar to it in its habits, colour, and external appearance. It is about eighteen inches in length; its breadth about three feet. Birds of this kind are more numerous and as widely spread as the raven. They live mostly in woods, and build their nests on trees. The female lays five or six eggs, much like those of a raven. They feed on putrid flesh of all sorts; likewise on eggs, worms, insects, and various sorts of grain. They live together in pairs, and remain in England during the whole year.—Bewick.

CARROT, s. A garden root.

The varieties of food, as I have termed them, are such articles as, by their saccharine matter, prove highly nutritious, although their gluten is in small proportion. Carrots stand foremost on this list, and hardly too much can be said on their excellent qualities. They appear particularly favourable to condition, as the skin and hair always look well under their use: they are highly nutritious, as we know from the fat accumulated when they are used; and so favourable are they to the free exercise of the lungs, that horses have been found even to hunt on them: and, in conjunction with a certain portion of corn, perhaps they would form as good a food as could be devised for our coach and machine horses, our hackneys, and, in fact, for all horses not used on “fast work.” In the Museum Rusticum is an account of two hunters fed with carrots and small loaves made of barley and oatmeal mixed; and these horses were said to be the pride of the field. Agricultural horses may be supported on them wholly, when sliced and mixed with chaff.

CART, s. A wheel-carriage, used commonly for luggage.

CART-HORSE, s. A coarse unwieldy horse.

CARTILAGE, s. A smooth and solid body, softer than a bone, but harder than a ligament.

CARTOUCH, s. A case of wood, three inches thick at the bottom, holding balls. It is fired out of a small mortar.

CARTRIDGE, s. A case of paper or parchment filled with gunpowder, used for the greater expedition in charging guns.

CASCARILLA, s. A tonic bark. Dose from one to three drachms.

CASE, s. Condition with regard to outward circumstances; in physic, state of the body; condition with regard to leanness or health.

CASE, v. To put in a case or cover; to cover as a case; to strip off the covering; to unskin.

CASEWORM, s. A grub that makes itself a case.

CASSIA, s. A sweet spice.

Cassino, s. A game at cards.

Cassino is generally played by four persons, but occasionally by three or two; the points consist of eleven, and the lurch is six.

The points are thus calculated:—

That party which obtains the great cassino, or ten of diamonds, reckons 2 points. Ditto little cassino (the deuce of spades) 1 The four aces one point each 4 The majority in spades 1 The majority in cards 3 A sweep before the end of the game, when any player can match all on the board, reckons 1

In some deals at this game, it may so happen that neither party wins any thing, as the points are not set up according to the tricks, &c., obtained, but the smaller number is constantly subtracted from the larger, both in cards and points, and if they both prove equal, the game commences again, and the deal goes on in rotation; when three persons play at this game, the two lowest add their points together and subtract from the highest; but when their two numbers together amount to or exceed the highest, then neither party scores.

LAWS.

The deal and partners are determined by cutting, as at whist. The dealer gives four cards, by one at a time, to every player, and either regularly, as he deals, or by one, two, three, or four at a time, lays four, face upwards, on the board, and after the first cards are played, four others are to be dealt to each person till the pack is out; but it is only in the first deal that any cards are to be turned up.

The deal is not lost when a card is faced by the dealer, unless in the first round, before any of the four cards are turned up on the table: but should a card be faced in the pack before any of the said four are turned up, then the deal must be begun again.

Any person playing with less than four cards must abide by the loss, and should a card be found under the table, the player whose number is deficient is to take the same.

Each person plays one card at a time, with which he may not only take, at once, every card of the same denomination on the table, but likewise all that will combine therewith; as, for instance, a ten takes not only every ten, but also nine and ace, eight and deuce, seven and three, six and four, or two fives; and if he clear the board before the conclusion of the game, he scores a point. When a player cannot pair or combine, he is to put down a card.

The number of tricks are not to be examined or counted before all the cards are played, nor may any trick but that last won be looked at, as every mistake must be challenged immediately.

After the pack is dealt out, the player who obtains the last trick sweeps all the cards remaining unmatched on the table.

RULES.

The principal objects are to remember what has been played; and when no pairs or combinations can be made, to clear the hand of court cards, which cannot be combined, and are only of service in pairing or in gaining the final sweep: but should no court cards be left, it is best to play any small ones, except aces, as thereby combinations are often prevented.

In making pairs and combinations a preference should generally be given to spades, as obtaining a majority of them may save the game.

When three aces are out, take the first opportunity to play the fourth, as it then cannot pair; but when there is another ace remaining, it is better even to play the little cassino, that can only make one point, than to risk the ace, which may be paired by the opponent, and make a difference of two points; and if great cassino and an ace be on the board, prefer the ace, as it may be paired or combined, but great cassino can only be paired.

Do not neglect sweeping the board when an opportunity offers; always prefer taking up the card laid down by the opponent, and as many as possible with one card; endeavour likewise to win the last cards or final sweep.

While great or little cassino is in, avoid playing either a ten or a deuce.

When you hold a pair, lay down one of them, unless when there is a similar card on the table, and the fourth not yet out.

Attend to the adversaries’ score, and, if possible, prevent them from saving their lurch, even though you otherwise seemingly get less yourself, particularly if you can hinder them from clearing the board.

At the commencement of a game, combine all the cards possible, for that is more difficult than pairing; but when combination cannot be made, do not omit to pair, and also carefully avoid losing opportunities of making tricks.—Hoyle.

CAST, v. To admit of a form by casting or melting; to warp, to grow out of form; to direct the hunting of a dog.

When hounds are at fault, staring about and trusting to their eyes and ears, a forward cast is the least likely to regain the scent; the place where they left is the most probable spot for them to hit the scent, and hounds knowing where they left the scent, will there try to recover it, nor is a wide cast often to be made without good reason; the scent should be tried to be retrieved by crossing the line of it, and a huntsman, by attending to this, will not fail to make a good cast, if he observes the point of the fox. When hounds cannot hit off a fault by themselves, the first cast should be speedy; the scent is then good, and hounds not likely to go over it. Every huntsman should adopt these rules; with a good scent his cast should be quick, with a bad scent, slow, and when hounds are picking along a cold scent, he is not to cast them at all.

* * * * *

Hounds that are all well taught will cast forward to a hedge of their own accord. Time ought always to be allowed them to make their own cast; it is impertinence in a huntsman to prevent them, and prudence should induce him to humour his hounds in the cast they seem inclined to make, and either to stand still, or trot round with them, as circumstances may point out. Different countries require different casts; in an open country, wide casts are always necessary; in casting round a flock of sheep, the whipper-in ought to drive them the other way, lest they keep running on before the hounds; in every cast a huntsman should make it perfect one way, before he tries another.—Daniel.

CAST, s. The act of casting or throwing; a throw; state of any thing cast or thrown; the throw of dice; chance from the cast of dice; a mould, a form; a shade, or tendency to any colour; manner, air, mien; a flight of hawks.

CASTER, s. A thrower, he that casts.

CASTILE SOAP, s. A kind of soap.

CASTING-NET, s. A net to be thrown into the water by hand.

The casting-net may be successfully employed in a certain depth of water, viz. gudgeon net at four, and large meshed casting net from six to eight feet: in the making great attention must be paid to putting in the widenings, or the net will never open freely, however skilful the person that throws it. In preparing it for casting, it must not be taken upon the shoulder so short as to prevent the leads having their proper swing, which is to be aided by the corresponding turn of the caster’s body, at the exact moment of delivering it from his arm; and the first object is, to let the leads all break the surface at once. Many persons jerk one part of the net high in the air (which assists the spreading), whilst the other part of the lead line drops close to the caster’s foot, making a variation of some seconds in the fall of the different leads into the water: fish must be very crowded, or extremely sleepy, if they remain within the curtailed range and slow sinking of a net so cast. The nicety of the art is, to be able to cover any particular spot, and to shape the net accordingly; and no one can be deemed a proficient, unless he is an ambidexter, and throws from either shoulder, as the turning and holes in a river may require.

For carp or large fish, the mesh should be an inch and three quarters, and the circumference of the lead line not less than twenty-four yards, and from that to twenty-eight; if made of silk, it will sink more speedily, and of course will admit to be thrown with success in deeper water and more weeds. By baiting a place in ponds with grains, worms, or graves, the fish may be collected, and the casting-net thrown over them: should there be much mud, let the net remain quiet some minutes, and the fish will rise from the mud, into which they may have sunk themselves at the noise of the net.

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N.B.—A piece of crumb of bread put into the stomach of either carp or tench suspected to be tainted with the mud, will absorb all the disagreeable taste, and should be taken out before they are sent to table.

CASTLE, s. Vide CHESS.

CASTOR OIL, s. Oil made from the beaver.

A useful laxative in cases where it is necessary to open the bowels, and at the same time avoid irritation: it is therefore extremely proper in fevers accompanied with costiveness, particularly when there appears to be pain and irritation in the bowels, and may be given with four or six ounces of Epsom salts.

The dose is from half a pint to a pint, or a pint and half.—White.

CASTRATE, v. To geld.

Castration is performed in various ways, but in all it expresses the removal of the testicles: there are methods of rendering the animal impotent without the actual ablation of these organs; for if by any other method the secretion of the spermatic glands is prevented, from which the uncontrollable sexual excitements arise, the end is answered.

Castration by cauterization is the method which has been principally practised among us; and as it is that taught at our alma mater, we may naturally suppose it has proved worthy of the patronage it has received. It is that I always practised, and was successful with it. But this by no means proves it the best; although good it must be, since I never had an untoward case in it; and the more, as, when I was called on to perform it, it was usually on adult horses, mostly on aged ones. Other plans may be still better: it is my duty, assuming as I do, to be a teacher, to bring them forward to view, that they may be compared together. A preliminary observation should be made previously to castrating, to see that the horse has no hernia or rupture: such cases have happened; and as in our method we open a direct communication with the abdomen, when the horse rises it is not improbable that his bowels protrude until they trail on the floor.

If a colt cannot be enticed with oats, &c., he must be driven into a corner between two steady horses, where, if a halter cannot be put on, at least a running hempen noose can be got round his neck; but, whichever is used, it should be flat, or the struggles, which are often long and violent, may bruise the neck, and produce abscess or poll evil. When his exertions have tired him, he may be then led to the operating spot: here his attention should be engaged while the hobbles are put on, if possible; if not, a long and strong cart-rope, having its middle portion formed into a noose sufficiently large to take in the head and neck, is to be slipped on, with the knotted part applied to the counter or breast, and the long pendent ends passed backwards between the fore legs, and, as expressed by Mr. Percivall, ‘extended obliquely backward, carried round the hind fetlocks within the hollows of the heels, brought forward again on the outside, passed under the collar rope, and a second time carried backwards over the outside of all, and extended to its full length in a direct line behind the animal.’ Thus fettered, Mr. Percivall says his hind feet may be drawn under him towards the elbows; I have, however, often found that, at the moment the rope touches the heels, the colt either kicks and displaces the rope, or altogether displaces himself; but his attention can generally be engaged by one fore leg being held up, or by having his ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch: if not, the rope may be carried actually around each fetlock, which then becomes a hobble; and this rope may be gradually tightened: in this way I have succeeded with very refractory colts; but it requires very able assistants, and, if possible, the man who has been used to the individual colt should be present. In either way, as soon as the rope is fixed, with a man to each end of it, behind the colt, let them, by a sudden and forcible effort in concert, approximate his hind legs to his fore, and thus throw him. Before the colt is cast, however, it should be endeavoured to ascertain that he is free from hernia: with an adult horse this is even more necessary.

Being satisfied that no hernia exists on either side, proceed to cast the horse, turning him, not directly on the left side, but principally inclining that way; and if possible let the croup be very slightly elevated: it is usual to place him directly flat on the left side, but I have found the above rather more convenient. Every requisite being at hand, and as Hurtrel d’Arboval, with his usual minuteness, observes, the operator, having his scalpel between his teeth, should place himself behind the horse, as the most convenient way to perform his manipulations, and firmly grasping the left testicle with his left hand, and drawing it out so as to render the scrotum tense, he should make an incision lengthways of the bag, from its anterior to its posterior part, or, as expressed by Hurtrel d’Arboval, in the direction of the grand axis of the organ. The incision may be carried at once through the integuments, the thin dartos expansion, and the vaginal coat of the testicles, by the dexterous operator, with a sweep of the scalpel: but with one less au fait at the operation, it will be more prudent to make the first incision through the scrotum and dartos only, to the required extent, and then to do the same by the vaginal coat, thus avoiding to wound the testicle, which would produce violent resistance, and give unnecessary pain. The testicle, if the opening be sufficiently large, will now slip out; but the operator must be prepared, at the moment of so doing, to expect some violent strugglings, more particularly if he attempts to restrain the contractions of the cremaster, and by main force to draw out the testicle. Preparatory to this, therefore, the twitch should be tightened; the attendants, especially the man at the head, must be on the alert, and the testicle itself, at the time of this violent retraction of the cremaster, should be merely held, but not dragged in opposition to the contraction, otherwise peritonitis itself might be the result from any such violence. If the clams have been put on over the whole, according to Mr. Percivall’s method, they will assist in retaining the retracting parts; but I must again offer a caution, that they be not used with too much pressure. The resistance having subsided, provided the clams have been thus employed, they must now be removed; or, if they have not been previously in use, they must now be taken in hand, and, being wadded with tow, should be placed loosely on the cord, while time is given to free the vas deferens, or spermatic tube, which is seen continued from the epididymis, from the grip of the pincers. The Russians, Mr. Goodwin informs us, cut it through when they operate. Hurtrel d’Arboval does not note it in the French practice; but humanity is much concerned in its removal from pressure, from the excess of pain felt when it is included. It is also necessary, before the final fixing of the clams, to determine on the part where the division of the cord is to take place. To use Mr. Percivall’s words, “If it be left too long, it is apt to hang out of the wound afterwards, and retard the process of union;” indeed, I have known the end of it swell into a fungous excrescence, which greatly embarrassed the practitioner to destroy: on the other hand, if it be cut very short, and the arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has been relieved from the clams, the operator will find it no easy task to recover it from the retraction of the cremaster. The natural length of the cord, which will mainly depend on the degree of the descent of the gland, will be our best guide in this particular. The place of section determined on and marked, close the clams sufficiently tight to retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectually stop the circulation within it. There are now two modes of making the division; the one is to sever it with a scalpel, and then to sufficiently sear the end of it so as to prevent a flow of blood, avoiding, however, to burn it to a cinder, as is sometimes done. The other, and in some respects the preferable method, is to employ an edged firing-iron, which is to divide it by little crucial sawings, so that, when the cord is separated, it shall not present a uniform divided surface, but ragged edges, which will more perfectly destroy the mouths of the vessels, and tend to lessen the chances of hæmorrhage. This done, loosen the clams sufficiently to observe whether there be any flow of blood; gently wipe the end of the cord also with the finger, as sometimes an accidental small plug gets within the vessel, which afterwards is forced out, and therefore had better be removed by this means and at this time. Retain a hold on the clams a few minutes longer; and while loosening them gradually, observing to have an iron in readiness again to touch the end of the cord, if any blood makes its appearance. Satisfied on this point, sponge the part with cold water, but by no means dash it over them, as has been done; neither is any external application necessary, still less any resin seared on the end of the cord, which can only irritate, and will never adhere. On the after-treatment much difference of opinion has existed, and even yet exists. The powerful evidence of accumulated facts has now convinced veterinarians of both the necessity and propriety of some motion for the newly-castrated horse as a preventive of local congestion; such practice is common in most countries but our own, and seems salutary in all. Hurtrel d’Arboval, thus impressed, recommends the horse, immediately after the operation, to be led out to walk for an hour, and it is a general plan in France to walk such horses in hand an hour night and morning. Mr. Goodwin, in proof of its not being hurtful, informs us, that whole studs of horses brought to St. Petersburgh to be operated on, are immediately travelled back a certain portion of the distance, night and morning, until they arrive at home. I have, therefore, no hesitation in recommending a moderate degree of motion in preference to absolute rest, as practised among us: it is a plan which has long been followed with success among our own cutters; and perhaps our not adopting it before has arisen from prejudice against whatever was practised by illiterate persons, without reflecting that, illiterate as they are, their employers are not all so; and that, unless success attended their practices, they would cease to be employed.

For the French mode, twitching, &c., vide GOODWIN, BLAINE, &c.

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When a colt is to be gelded.—In the first or second week in June he should be cut; and when recovered he should be turned out for the summer.

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“I would not operate,” says Mr. Percivall, “during the season of changing the coat, nor even just prior to that period, from fear of interrupting the process, or checking it altogether; neither would I choose frosty or sultry weather: but, above all, it is advisable to suspend the operation when the flies abound. If the subject have passed the colt period of age, I would recommend a dose of aperient medicine before the operation be undertaken, unless he should be already living on green food.”

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Each testicle should be taken out of the scrotum separately, by an opening sufficiently large, when a ligature should be applied, moderately tight only, around the spermatic chord, about an inch and a half beyond its insertion into the testicle; the separation should then be effected by the scalpel or knife, between the ligature and testis. It is sometimes performed without the ligature, by making the division of the chord with a red-hot knife, but the other is the neatest and safest mode.

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The castration of cats is sometimes practised to keep them from roving, or to increase their size. For this purpose nothing more is requisite than to make a slight opening on each side the scrotum, to slip out the two testicles, and draw them away with the fingers. The rupture alone of the spermatic chord prevents hæmorrhage in them, and no future inconvenience is felt. It is often found difficult to secure a cat for this operation; but it may be easily managed in two ways:—one by putting the head and fore-quarters of the animal into a boot; the other by rolling his whole body lengthways in several yards of towelling; but the former is the most secure and simple, for no animal is more intractable, as a surgical patient, than grimalkin: though to administer medicines to a pig beats the cat hollow, as an obstreperous operation.—Blaine—Nimrod—Percivall.

CASTRATION, s. The act of gelding.

CASTERIL, or CASTREL, s. A mean or degenerate kind of hawk.

CAT, s. A domestic animal that catches mice.

The cat is a faithless domestic; though gentle and frolicsome when young, they even then possess an innate cunning, and perverse disposition, which age increases, and education only serves to conceal.

The form and temperament of the cat’s body perfectly correspond with his disposition; he is handsome, light, adroit, cleanly, and voluptuous; he loves ease, and searches out the softest places for rest and repose. The cat is very amorous. The passion of the female continues nine or ten days, and commonly happens only twice a year, in the spring and autumn, but sometimes three and even four times. They go with young 55 or 56 days, and they usually have from four to six at a litter. As the males are apt to devour their progeny, the females commonly conceal themselves when they litter, and if suspicious of a discovery, they carry their young ones away in their mouths and hide them in holes or inaccessible places. After suckling them a few weeks, the old one takes them mice or small birds, to accustom them to eat flesh; but by an unaccountable caprice, these very mothers so tender and careful, become sometimes so cruel and unnatural, as to devour their offspring themselves.

Cats are without docility, and their scent, which, in the dog is so eminent a quality, is very indifferent, and therefore they hunt by the eye only; neither do they properly pursue, but rather lie in wait and attack the animals by surprise; and after having played with, and tormented them a long time, they kill them without any necessity, even when well fed, and in no want of prey to satisfy their appetites.

The most immediate physical cause of their inclination to seize other animals by surprise, comes from the advantage they receive from the particular formation of their eyes. The pupil in man, and many other animals, is capable of a certain degree of contraction and dilation; it enlarges a little when the light is faint, and contracts when it becomes too strong; in cats and nocturnal birds, as owls, &c., this contraction and dilation is so considerable that the pupil, which in the dark is large and round, becomes in the day long and narrow like a line; and therefore these animals see better in the night than in the day. There is a perpetual contraction in the eye of the cat during the day, and it is only by a great effort that he can see in a strong light, whereas, in the twilight, the pupil resumes its natural form; he sees perfectly, and profits from this superiority to know, attack, and surprise his prey.

Cats have less attachment to persons than to houses. When taken to the distance of a league or two they will return to their former abode of their own accord. They fear water, cold, and bad smells; they love to be in the sun, and to lie in warm places; they are very fond of perfumes, and willingly allow themselves to be taken and caressed by those who make use of them. They do not come to their full growth in less than fifteen or eighteen months, but they are capable of engendering before the end of the first year, and they can procreate all their lives, which seldom exceeds eight or nine years; they are notwithstanding, very lively and hardy, and more nervous than most other animals which live longer.

The wild cat couples with the domestic one, and they consequently form but one species. It is not uncommon for both males and females to quit their houses, when they are proud to go into the woods to seek wild cats, and afterwards return to their former habitations; it is for this reason that some of our domestic cats so entirely resemble the wild ones. The greatest difference between them is internally, the intestines of the domestic cat being longer than those of the wild cat, although the latter is much the largest and strongest; his lips are also always black, his ears more stiff, his tail larger, and his colour more uniform.

In general cats are not, like dogs, subject to degenerate when transported into warm climates. Their nature is indeed more constant, and as their domestic state is neither so entire, universal, nor perhaps so ancient as that of the dog, it is not surprising that they should have undergone less variation.

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Besides this large and ferocious species, the warrens upon the coast suffer much injury from the common cat becoming wild and burrowing in the rabbit-holes. They are sometimes surprised and shot in the sand-banks, or taken in traps; but they are generally too wary to be approached—and hunting only by night, during the day they sleep in their dens, and are rarely met abroad.

Some estimate of their numbers may be formed, from the circumstance of five males having been killed in a herdsman’s outhouse which joined the warren. They had been attracted there by one of their own species, and the noise having alarmed the peasant, he guessed the cause, and cautiously managed to stop the hole by which they gained entrance, with a turf-cleave. Knowing the value of the capture, he kept guard upon the prisoners till morning, and then despatched information to the Lodge. My cousin, with his followers, promptly repaired to the place, and surrounding the barn with guns and greyhounds, bolted the wild cats successively, until the whole number were despatched. This chassé was not only novel, but profitable. After the death of their persecutors, the rabbits increased prodigiously; but fears are entertained that these destructive animals are become once more abundant in the sand-banks.

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Cats are said, when they wash their faces, or when they seem sleepy and dull, to foretel rain. The same is said of them when they appear irritable and restless, and play with their tails.—Buffon—Wild Sports—Foster.

CATAPLASM, s. A poultice.

CATARACT, s. An inspissation of the crystalline humours of the eye; sometimes a pellicle that hinders the sight.

CATARRH, s. A deduction of a sharp serum from the glands about the head and throat.

CATERPILLAR, s. A worm sustained by leaves and fruits.

CATHARTIC, s. A medicine to purge downwards.

Cathartics are a most important class of medicines, and of all cathartics Barbadoes aloes is the best. Cathartics improve digestion and chylification, by cleansing the intestines and unloading the liver, and if the animal is afterwards properly fed, will improve his strength and condition in a remarkable degree. Cathartics are always useful when the appetite and digestion are bad, and this is known by a voracious or depraved appetite, both for food and for water; rumbling of the bowels, and a frequent discharge of wind from the anus. This is the case in a remarkable degree with broken-winded horses, and generally in such as have chronic cough, or are crib-biters. They should not be given too strong or too frequently, as they might thereby weaken instead of strengthening the digestive organs, and produce the effect they were intended to remove. Cathartics should always be made with soap, in the following manner, and then, if given upon an empty stomach, they will be carried off, and will not be dissolved until they get into the large bowels, where their effect is intended to be produced: that is carrying off all the excrementitious matter that may be lodged in them. When given in this way they never produce sickness or pain in the stomach, but always operate without pain or danger.

CATHARTIC BALL.

Barbadoes aloes powdered, from 5 dr. to 1 oz. Hard soap 3 to 4 dr. Ginger 1 dr. Water 1 dr. Oil of cloves 10 drops.

Beat the soap, oil of cloves, and water together in a mortar, so as to form a paste; if necessary use more water. Add the powdered aloes and ginger, and beat the whole into a ball.—White.

CATTLE, s. Beasts of pasture, not wild or domestic.

CAUF, s. A chest with holes, to keep fish alive in the water.

CAVISSON, s. A head-stall provided with a nose-band and ring, to which a long cord is attached. The cavisson is used in the earlier stages of horse-breaking.

CAUSTICS, s. Medicaments which, by their violent activity, and heat, destroy the texture of the part to which they are applied.

The most powerful is the actual, or hot iron; but there are many other caustics possessed of great strength, which speedily destroy the parts to which they are applied. If a solid caustic is wanted, nothing is more convenient than the lunar caustic (nitrate of silver). Milder caustics are more frequently used; such as sulphate of copper, red precipitate, (nitric oxide of mercury,) burnt alum, &c.

Strong caustics are employed to destroy unhealthy or diseased parts; and for cleansing foul ulcers, so as to produce a healthy state, and render them curable by more simple applications. Caustics, divided into liquid and solid, are strong and mild. The mild are often called escharotics.

SOLID CAUSTICS, STRONG.

No. 1. The red-hot iron. (See FIRING.) 2. Pure potash with lime. 3. Nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic. 4. Nitrate of copper.

MILD CAUSTICS, SOLID.

No. 1. Acetate of copper, or distilled verdigris. 2. Sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol. 3. Red nitrated quicksilver, red precipitate, or nitric oxide of mercury. 4. Burnt alum. 5. Common verdigris.

The mild require to be finely powdered and sprinkled on the ulcer; and are sometimes mixed with digestive ointments to increase their power.

STRONG CAUSTICS, LIQUID.

No. 1. The sulphuric and nitrous acids, which must be used cautiously: they may be diluted with a sufficiency of water, to be applicable to the purpose required. 2. Nitrous acid 1 oz. Quicksilver ½ oz.

Place them in a large gallipot, or open phial, and avoid the noxious fumes which arise. When the quicksilver is perfectly dissolved, and the mixture cold, it may be put into a phial and corked.

This is a strong and efficacious caustic; a certain remedy for the foot-rot in sheep, and effectual in canker of the horse’s foot, provided these complaints are properly managed in other respects. It is formed with melted hog’s lard into a strong detergent ointment, or diluted with water.

No. 3. Nitrous acid 1 oz. Verdigris ½ oz.—Mix.

This caustic is similar to the former, and applicable to the same purposes.

No. 4. Muriate of antimony, or butter of antimony. 5. Muriate of quicksilver, or sublimate 1 dr. Muriatic acid 2 dr.

This is a very powerful caustic, and always requires dilution. Yellow arsenic mixed with lime and grease, or hog’s lard, is sometimes used as a caustic to destroy warts, or cure fistula or poll-evil.

MILD CAUSTICS, LIQUID.

No. 1. Solution of blue vitriol. 2. Any of the stronger caustics, except butter of antimony, diluted with an equal quantity, or more, of water. 3. Muriatic acid. 4. Muriate of iron.—White.

CAUTERIZE, v. To burn with the cautery.

CAUTERY, s. Cautery is either actual or potential; the first is burning by a hot iron, and the latter with caustic medicines.

CAW, v. To cry as the rook or crow.

CELLULAR, a. Consisting of little cells or cavities.

CEMENT, s. The matter with which two bodies are made to cohere.

CERATE, s. A plaster made of wax.

CERE, s. (Cera, LINN.) A term in ornithology for the naked skin which covers the base of the bill, as in the hawk kind.

CERECLOTH, s. Cloth smeared over with glutinous matter.

CERTIFICATE FOR KILLING GAME, s. The legal authority prescribed by act of parliament.

Penalty for shooting without, 20_l._

To be taken out annually, in the parish or place where your assessed taxes are paid—costs, 3_l._ 13_s._ 6_d._, and one shilling fee to the collector.

Does not authorise unqualified persons to kill game, but exempts them from the penalty of 20_l._, and leaves them subject to that of 5_l._ for non-qualification, and also to that of 5_l._ a piece for every head of game found in their possession.

For menial servants, hired as gamekeepers, costs, 1_l._ 5_s._, and a shilling fee to the collector.

Persons, not menial servants, must have a three and a half guinea certificate, and should have, also, the common gamekeeper’s certificate, to hold a deputation.

When demanded by any assessor, collector, land owner, commissioner, inspector, surveyor, occupier of land, also gamekeeper, or other person, provided the two latter produce their certificates, previously to requiring yours, penalty for refusing, 20_l._ If you have not your certificate to produce, your name, and place of abode, may be asked. All certificates expire on the 5th of April in each year.

If you have not a certificate to produce at the time it is called for, your Christian and surnames, and place of abode, may be demanded by any assessor, &c. &c., (as before mentioned) and the penalty for refusing them, or giving a false name, is 20_l._

CERULEAN, a. Blue, sky-coloured.

CHAD, s. A sort of fish.

CHAFFINCH, s. A bird so called, because it delights in chaff.

This bird is rather less than the sparrow. The bill is bluish; irides hazel; the forehead black; crown of the head, back part, and sides of the neck, bluish ash-colour; the cheeks, under side of the neck, and breast, dull pink; back, chestnut-brown; rump greenish; belly, white, tinged with pink; the bastard wing and coverts of the primary quills are black; those of the secondary tipped with white; the smaller coverts black and greyish, on which is a spot of white; the quill-feathers dusky, slightly edged with greenish yellow on the outer webs, marked with white on both webs at the base; tail dusky; the exterior feather is obliquely marked with white, taking in the whole of the outer web, the next is tipped with white; legs dusky.

The female is of a dull green above; the breast and belly of a brown or dirty white; the wings have the same markings as the male, but less brilliant.

This bird makes a most elegant nest of green moss, curiously studded with lichen, interwoven with wool, and lined with feathers and hair. It builds against the side of a tree, particularly in ivy, or in some forked branch of a bush; but particularly in apple trees overgrown with moss and lichen, and, like many other birds, adapts the materials of its nest to the surrounding colour; an instinct of no small importance.—Bewick.

CHAIN, s. A series of links fastened one within another; a bond, a manacle; a fetter.

CHAISE, s. A carriage either of pleasure or expedition.

CHALDRON, or CHAUDRON, s. A dry English measure of coals, consisting of thirty-six bushels heaped up. The chaldron should weigh two thousand pounds.

CHALK, s. A white fossil, usually reckoned a stone, but by some ranked among the boles.

CHALYBEATE, a. Impregnated with iron or steel.

CHAMBEL OF A HORSE, s. The joint or bending of the upper part of the hind leg.

CHAMOIS, s. An animal of the goat kind, the skin of which made into leather is called Shammy.

The chamois is a little larger than a goat, but much superior in power and agility; the strongest man could not hold one of a month old; they bound from precipice to precipice to a prodigious distance, gaining the loftiest summits, and precipitating themselves from the steepest rocks without fear. The chase of this animal occupies a great part of the mountainous population, and many perish annually in the hazardous pursuit.

Often the hunter, overtaken by a dark mist, loses himself amongst the ice, and dies of cold and hunger; or the rain renders the rocks so slippery, that he is not able to reascend them. In the midst of eternal snows, braving all dangers, they follow the chamois frequently by the marks of their feet; when one is perceived at a distance, the hunter creeps along till within reach of his gun, which he rests on a rock, and is almost always sure of his prey: thus the innocent beast, which tranquilly feeds, perhaps enjoys the last moments of its happy existence. But if his watchful eye perceives the enemy, as is often the case, he flies from rock to rock, “timor addidit alas,” and the fatigues of the pursuer begin, who traverses the snows, and climbs the precipices, heedless of how he is to return. Night arrives, yet the hopes of the morrow reassure him, and he passes it under a rock. There, without fire, without light, he draws from his wallet a little cheese and oaten bread, which he is obliged to break with a stone, or with the hatchet he carries to cut his path in the ice. This repast finished, he falls asleep on his bed of snow, considering what route the chamois has probably taken. At break of day he awakens, insensible to the charms of a beautiful morning, to the glittering rays which silver the snowy summits of the mountains around him, and, thinking only of his prey, seeks fresh dangers. Thus they frequently remain many days in these horrible deserts, while their wives and families scarcely dare to sleep, lest they should behold the spirits of their dead husbands; for it is believed that a chasseur, after his death, always appears to the person who is most dear to him, to make known where lie his mangled remains, to beg the rites of burial.

CHAMP, v. To bite with a frequent action of the teeth; to devour.

CHANCE, s. Fortune, the cause of fortuitous events; the act of fortune; accident; possibility of any occurrence.

CHAP, s. The upper or under part of a beast’s mouth.

CHAR, s. A fish found chiefly in Winandermeer in Lancashire.

The char is a most beautiful and excellent fish, and is a fish of prey. They generally haunt deep cool lakes, and are seldom found at the surface till late in autumn. When they are at the surface, however, they will take either fly or minnow. I have known some caught in both these ways, and have myself taken a char, even in summer, in one of those beautiful, small, deep lakes in the Upper Tyrol, near Nazereet; but it was where a cool stream entered from the mountains, and the fish did not rise, but swallowed the artificial fly under water. The char is always, in its colour, a very brilliant fish, but in different countries there are many varieties in the tint. I do not remember ever to have seen more beautiful fish than those of Aussee, which, when in perfect season, have the lower fins and the belly of the brightest vermilion, with a white line on the outside of the pectoral, ventral, anal, and lower part of the caudal fin, and with vermilion spots, surrounded by the bright olive shade of the sides and back. The dorsal fin in the char has eleven spines, the pectoral fourteen, the ventral nine, the anal ten, and the caudal twenty. I have fished for them in many lakes, without success, both in England and Scotland, and also amongst the Alps; and I am told the only sure way of taking them is by sinking a line with a bullet and a hook having a live minnow attached to it, in the deep water which they usually haunt.—Davy.

CHAR, v. To burn wood to a black cinder.

CHARADRIUS (LINN.) s. Plover, a genus thus characterised:

Bill shorter than the head, slender, straight, compressed, nasal furrow prolonged more than two-thirds; mandibles bulged towards the tip. Nostrils at the base, jagged, slit lengthwise in the middle of a large membrane, which covers the fosse. Legs long or of middle length, slender, three toes directed forwards; the outer toe joined to the middle one by a short membrane; the inner toe separate. Tail slightly rounded or square. Wings of middle size, the first quill a little shorter than the second, which is the longest in the wing.—Montagu.

CHARCOAL, s. Coal made by burning wood. Charcoal poultices are sometimes used to remove the fetid smell arising from greased heels.

CHARGE, v. To accuse; to command; to fall upon, to attack; to load a gun.

CHARGE, s. Care, trust, custody; command, commission; imputation; expense; onset; the quantity of powder and ball put into a gun; a preparation, or a sort of ointment applied to the shoulder-splaits and sprains of horses.

Charges are plasters applied to the legs to remove windgalls and lameness, previous to turning the horse out. Those in common use, are—

1. Yellow rosin 2 oz. Burgundy pitch 4 oz. Barbadoes tar 2 oz. Bees-wax 3 oz. Red lead 4 oz.

2. Yellow rosin 1 lb. Bees-wax 8 oz. Common turpentine 2 oz. Armenian bole, powdered 4 oz.—Mix.

The first three are to be melted together, and then the latter is to be added. The mixture is to be constantly stirred until sufficiently cold to be applied; and if it prove too thick when cold, it may be softened with a little oil or lard.

CHARGER, s. an officer’s horse.

CHARIOT, s. A carriage of pleasure, or state.

CHARMER, s. One that has the power of charms, or enchantments.

The Charmer.—That individuals have exercised a powerful and unaccountable influence on the most unmanageable animals, by means which still remain a mystery, is certain. The most remarkable case on record, is that of an Irish blacksmith, who, by an undiscovered agency, could subdue the most vicious horses. He asserted, that this was effected by merely whispering in the animal’s ear some potent spell, and hence he gained the title of the charmer. This power over the most desperate horses was so often put to the test, that all doubt is idle. He never refused to enter the stable of horses that to all besides were unapproachable, and after a short tête-à-tête, the animal would be found trembling and subdued, and while every limb appeared convulsed with terror the charmer would pass under his belly, lift his feet, or do any thing he was required. In his repeated experiments upon the most savage horses, the charmer never received any injury, or failed in subduing the animal.

Many attempts have been made to account for the means by which this influence was obtained. The general belief was, that some powerful drug was passed by the exorciser into the horse’s ear; but by what means was he enabled to approach sufficiently close to a furious brute to administer it?

It is singular that though the charmer was a miserable and poverty-stricken wretch, no bribe could induce him to communicate the charm—if it was one—and though immense sums of money were offered, he carried the secret with him to the grave!

CHASE, v. To hunt, to pursue; to drive.

CHASE, s. Hunting, pursuit of anything as game; fitness to be hunted; pursuit of something as desirable; hunting match; the game hunted; open ground stored with such beasts as are hunted; the chase of a gun, is the whole bore or length of a piece.

CHASER, s. Hunter, pursuer, driver.

CHECK, s. Restraint, curb; in falconry, when a hawk forsakes the proper game to follow other birds; the cause of restraint; a stop.

When hounds divide and are in two parts, the whipper-in must wait for the huntsman’s halloo before he stops either. If there are many scents, and it is quite uncertain which is the hunted fox, he should stop those hounds that are the farthest down the wind, as they can hear the others, and will reach them soonest.

When hounds are at a check, every one should be silent, and stand still, the huntsman had better let the hounds alone, or content himself with holding them forward, without taking them off their noses.

If hounds come to a check on a high road, by the fox being headed, in trying back they have the best chance of hitting off the scent again, as they may try on both sides at once.—Beckford.—Daniel.

CHECKMATE, s. The movement on the chess-board, that puts an end to the game.

CHEEK, s. The side of the face below the eye; a general name among mechanics for almost all those pieces of their machines that are double.

CHERUP, v. To chirp, to use a cheerful voice.

CHESS, s. A nice and intricate game, in imitation of a battle between two armies.

RULES FOR CHESS.

1. Move your pawns before your pieces, and afterwards bring out the pieces to support them; therefore the king’s, queen’s and bishops’ pawns should be the first played, in order to open the game well.

2. Do not, therefore, play out any of your pieces early in the game, because you thereby lose moves, in case your adversary can, by playing a pawn, make them retire, and he also opens his game at the same time: especially avoid playing your queen out, till your game is tolerably well opened.

3. Avoid giving useless checks, and never give any unless to gain some advantage, because you may lose the move, if the adversary can either take or drive your piece away.

4. Never crowd your game by having too many pieces together, so as to prevent your men advancing or retreating as occasion may require.

5. If your game should be crowded, endeavour to free it by exchanges of pieces or pawns, and castle your king as soon as convenient; afterwards bring out your pieces, and attack the adversary where weakest.

6. When the adversary plays out his pieces before his pawns, attack them as soon as you can with your pawns, by which you may crowd his game and make him lose moves.

7. Never attack the adversary’s king without a sufficient force; and if he attack yours, and you cannot retaliate, offer exchanges; and should he retire, when you present a piece to exchange, he may lose a move. It also may sometimes be expedient to act in this manner in case of other attacks.

8. Play your men in guard of one another, so that if any be taken, the enemy may also be captured by that which guarded yours, and endeavour to have as many guards to your piece, as your adversary advances others upon it; and, if possible, let them be of less value than those he assails with. When you cannot well support your piece, see if by attacking one of his that is better, or as good, you may not thereby save yours.

9. Never attack but when well prepared, for thereby you open your adversary’s game, and prepare him to pour in a strong attack upon you, as soon as your weaker one is over.

10. Never play till you have examined whether you are free from danger by your adversary’s last move; nor offer to attack till you have considered what harm he would be able to do you by his next moves, in consequence of yours.

11. When your attack is in a prosperous way, never be diverted from it by taking any piece, or other seeming advantage, your adversary may purposely throw in your way, with the intent that, by your taking the bait, he might gain a move which would make your design miscarry.

12. When, in pursuing a well-laid attack, you find it necessary to force your adversary’s defence, with the loss of some pieces; if, upon counting as many moves forward as you can, you find a prospect of success, sacrifice a piece or two to gain your end: these bold attempts make the finest games.

13. Never let your queen stand so before the king, as that your adversary, by bringing forwards a rook or a bishop, might check your king if she were not there, for you could hardly save her, or perhaps at best must sacrifice her for an inferior piece; as for example: place the white king on 61, the queen on 53; the black king on 4, and the rook, on 16: which last, if moved to 13, must be taken by the white queen, who in return would be taken by the black king, because the white queen could not otherwise be moved without putting the king on check to the black rook.

14. Let not your adversary’s knight fork your king and queen, or king and rook, or queen and rook, or your two rooks, at the same time; for in the two first cases, the king being forced to go out of check, the queen or the rook must be lost; and in the two last a rook must be lost, at best, for a worse piece. Place the white queen on 5, the rook on 7, and a black knight on 37. The latter piece, if moved to 22, will fork both the queen and rook, and consequently one of them must be lost for the knight.

15. Take care that no guarded pawn of your adversary’s fork two of your pieces: knights and rooks are particularly liable to this mode of attack; also guard against either a check by discovery, or a stale-mate.

16. When the kings have castled on different sides of the board, attack with the pawn you have on that side where the adversary has castled, advancing the pieces, especially the queen and rooks to support them; and if the adversary’s king have three pawns on a line in front, he should not stir them till forced to it.

17. Endeavour to have a move in ambuscade; that is, place the queen, bishop, or rook behind a pawn, or a piece, in such a manner, as that, upon playing that pawn, or piece, you discover a check upon your adversary’s king, and consequently may often get a piece, or some other advantage by it. Suppose the black king on 6, a white bishop on 41, and a pawn on 34; by moving the pawn to 26, a check by the white bishop is discovered upon the black king.

18. Never guard an inferior piece or pawn with a better, if you can do it with a pawn, because that better piece may in such a case be, as it were, out of play.

19. A pawn pushed on, and well supported, often costs the adversary a piece; but one separated from the others is seldom of any value. And whenever you have gained a pawn, or other advantage, and are not in danger of losing the move thereby, make as frequent exchanges as you can.

20. If each player have three pawns upon the board, and no piece, and you have a pawn on one side of the board, and the other two on the other side, and your adversary’s 3 are opposite to your 2, march with your king to take his pawns; and if he move to support them, go on to queen with your single pawn; and if he attempt to hinder it, take his pawns, and push yours to queen; that is, to move a pawn into the adversary’s back row, in order to make a queen, when the original is lost.

21. At the latter end of the game, each party having only three or four pawns on different sides of the board, the kings are to endeavour to gain the move, in order to win the game: for example—the white king placed on 54, and the black king on 37, white would gain the move by playing to 53, or black to 38, and in both cases the adverse king would be prevented from advancing.

22. When the adversary has no more than his king and one pawn on the board, and you a king only, you can never lose that game if you bring and keep your king opposite to your adversary’s, when he is immediately either before or on one side of his pawn, and only one house between the kings. This must then either be a drawn game, or if the opponent persist in his endeavours to win, he will lose by a stale-mate, by drawing you upon the last square.

23. When your adversary has one pawn on the rook’s line, with a king and bishop against a king only, and his bishop is not of the colour that commands the corner-house his pawn is going to, if you can get your king into that corner, you cannot lose that game, but may win by a stale-mate.

24. When you have only your queen left in play, and your king happens to be in that position of stale-mate, keep giving check to your adversary’s king, always taking care not to check him where he can interpose any of his pieces that make the stale: by so doing, you will at last force him to take your queen, and then you win the game by being in stale-mate.

25. Never cover a check with a piece that a pawn pushed upon it may take, for fear of only getting that pawn for it: put a black rook on 7, and a pawn on 40; the white king on 63, and a knight on 61: the white king being on a check to the rook, if the check be covered by moving the white knight to 56, the black pawn could then be moved to 48, and take the knight.

26. Do not crowd your adversary’s king with your pieces, lest you inadvertently give a stale-mate.

27. Do not be too much afraid of losing a rook for an inferior piece; though a rook is better than any other, except the queen, yet it seldom comes into play, so as to operate, until the end of the game; and it is generally better to have a worse piece in play than a superior out.

28. When you have moved a piece, which your adversary drives away with a pawn, that is a bad move, your enemy gaining a double advantage. At this nice game no move can be indifferent. Though the first move may not be much, between equally good players, yet the loss of one or two more, after the first, makes the game almost irretrievable: but if you can recover the move, or the attack (for they both go together), you are in a fair way of winning.

29. If ever your game be such, that you have scarce any thing to play, you have either brought out your pieces wrong, or, which is worse, not at all; for if you have brought them out right, you must have variety enough.

30. Do not be much afraid of doubling a pawn: two in a direct line are not disadvantageous when surrounded by three or four others; three together are strong, (as three white pawns on 28, 35 and 37;) but four, (as 44 in addition) that make a square, with the help of other pieces, well managed, form an invincible strength, and probably may produce you a queen: on the contrary, two pawns, with an interval between (as on 35 and 37) are no better than one; and if you should have three over each other in a line (as 26, 34, and 42) your game cannot be in a worse situation.

31. When a piece is so attacked that it is difficult to save it, give it up, and endeavour to annoy your enemy in another place; for it often happens, that whilst your adversary is pursuing a piece, you either get a pawn or two, or such a situation as ends in his destruction.

32. Supposing your queen and another piece are attacked at the same time, and by removing your queen, you must lose the piece, if you can get two pieces in exchange for her, rather do that than retire; for the difference is more than the worth of a queen; besides, you preserve your situation, which is often better than a piece; when the attack and defence are thoroughly formed, if he who plays first be obliged to retire by the person who defends, that generally ends in the loss of the game on the side of him who attacks.

33. Do not aim at exchanges without reason; a good player will take advantage of it, to spoil your situation, and mend his own: but when you are strongest, especially by a piece, and have not an immediate check-mate in view, then every time you exchange, your advantage increases. Again, when you have played a piece, and your adversary opposes one to you, exchange directly, for he wants to remove you: prevent him, and do not lose the move.

34. Every now and then examine your game, and then take your measures accordingly.

35. At the latter end of the game, especially when both queens are off the board, the kings are capital pieces; do not let your king be idle; it is by his means, generally, you must get the move and the victory.

36. As the queen, rooks, and bishops operate at a distance, it is not always necessary in your attack to have them near your adversary’s king; they do better at a distance, cannot be driven away, and prevent a stale-mate.

37. When there is a piece you can take, and that cannot escape, do not hurry; see where you can make a good move elsewhere, and take the piece at leisure.

38. It is not always right to take your adversary’s pawn with your king, for very often it happens to be a safeguard and protection to him. Place a black rook on 5, with a pawn on 45, and the white king on 53, and he will be sheltered by the black pawn from the attack of the rook.

39. When you can take a man with different pieces, consider thoroughly with which you had best take it.

APPLICATION TO SOME OF THE FOREGOING RULES.

1. Whether you play the open or close game, bring out all your pieces into play before you begin the attack; for if you do not and your adversary should, you will always attack, or be attacked, at a great disadvantage; this is so essential, that you had better forego an advantage than deviate from it; and no person can ever play well who does not strictly practise this. In order to bring out your pieces properly, push on your pawns first, and support them with your pieces, by which your game will not be crowded, and all your pieces will be at liberty to play and assist each other, and so co-operate towards obtaining your end; and either in your attack or defence, bring them out so as not to be driven back again.

2. When you have brought out all your pieces, which you will have done well, if you have your choice on which side to castle; then consider thoroughly your own and adversary’s game, and not only resolve where to castle, but likewise to attack where you appear strongest, and your enemy weakest. By this it is probable you will be able to break through your adversary’s game, in which some pieces must be exchanged. Now pause again, and survey both games attentively, and do not let your impetuosity hurry you on too far; at this critical juncture (especially if you still find your adversary very strong) rally your men, and put them in good order for a second or third attack, still keeping them close and connected, so as to be of use to each other. For want of this method, and a little coolness, an almost sure victory is often snatched out of a player’s hands, and a total overthrow ensues.

3. At the last period of the game, observe where your pawns are strongest, best connected, and nearest to queen; likewise mind how your adversary’s pawns are disposed, and compare these things together; and if you can get to queen before him, proceed without hesitation; if not, hurry on with your king to prevent him: I speak now, as supposing all the noblemen are gone; if not, they are to attend your pawns, and likewise to prevent your adversary from going to queen.—Vide Hoyle—Jones, &c.

CHESS-BOARD, s. The board or table on which the game of chess is played.

CHESS-MAN, s. A puppet for chess.

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE, s. A piece of timber traversed with wooden spikes, pointed with iron, five or six feet long.

CHEW, v. To grind with the teeth, to masticate; to meditate, or ruminate in the thoughts; to taste without swallowing.

CHICK, CHICKEN, s. The young of a bird, particularly of a hen, or small bird.

CHINE, s. The part of the back in which the back-bone is found; a piece of the back of an animal.

CHIRP, s. The voice of birds or insects.

CHOP, v. To do any thing with a quick motion; to light or happen upon any thing. To fall upon a scent.

CHOUGH, s. A bird which frequents the rocks by the sea.

This species weighs about fourteen ounces; length near seventeen inches. The bill is longer and more slender than in any of the genus, a little curved, of a deep orange red, much resembling red coral, and is remarkably brittle; irides hazel.

The plumage is wholly black, glossed with purple; legs and feet red; claws black, strong, and much hooked. The female differs in not being so large, and in the bill being shorter; the plumage in both sexes is alike.

This bird with us seems to be chiefly confined to Devonshire, Cornwall, and Wales, where it is found on most of the bold rocky shores. It has been seen on the cliffs of Dover, supposed to have escaped from confinement, and stocked those rocks. But we believe the breed in those parts is again lost.—Montagu.

CHRONIC, a. Relating to time. A chronic distemper is of long duration. Vide LAMENESS.

CHUB, s. A river fish. The cheven.

This fish takes its name from the head, not only in our own but other languages; we call it chub, according to Skinner, and from the old English cop, a head; the French, testard; the Italians, capitome: in different parts of England this fish is called cheven, nob, or botling; he much resembles the carp, but is of a longer form; the body is oblong, rather round, and of a pretty equal thickness in the greater part of the slope; the scales are large; the irides silvery; the cheeks of the same colour; the head and back of a deep dusky green; the sides silvery, but in the summer, yellow; the belly white; the pectoral fins of a pale yellow; the ventral and anal fins, red; the tail forked, of a brownish hue, but tinged with blue at the end; it is altogether a handsome fish, will sometimes weigh upwards of five pounds; but Salvianus speaks of them as increasing to eight or nine. The flesh of the chub is not in much esteem, being coarse, and when out of season, full of small hairy bones; the head and throat are the best parts, taking care to have the latter well washed and cleansed from the grass and weeds usually in it. The roe is exceedingly good, and this fish stewed as carp, will, it is said, deceive a connoisseur.

The haunts of the chub are in rivers whose bottoms are of sand or clay, or which are bounded by clayey banks; particularly in deep holes, shaded by trees, weeds, &c. They frequently float on the surface, and are sometimes in streams and deep waters where the currents are strong; in ponds fed by a rivulet they grow to a large size. They spawn in April, and are most in perfection in December and January, having then very few of the hairy bones aforementioned.

The chub does not afford the angler so much diversion as the trout, from being so dull a fish on the hook, and when once struck becoming soon tired; but he bites so eagerly, that, when he takes the bait, his jaws are heard to chop like those of the dog, and having a very wide leather mouth, and his teeth in his throat, there is little danger of his breaking hold; to fish for him, the angler should have a stout long rod, a strong line (if he uses a reel he will be enabled the better to fish under bushes) with a yard or more of the best silk-worm-gut at bottom, a hook proportioned to the bait used, a swan-quill float, and the line so shotted, eight or ten inches from the hook, as to sink the float to a quarter of an inch above the surface; the same ground-bait to be used as for the carp, and the hook baited with a sufficient quantity of salmon’s roe (boiled a little) to fill up the bend properly; this rightly done is a tempting bait. The large ones are to be caught by dibbing, very early in the morning, with the brown beetle or cockchafer: by day-break the angler should be at the river, and after baiting his hook, let him move it two or three times near the surface, as in the act of flying; then let it softly drop on the water, shaking the rod gently, which will cause the appearance of its struggling to escape: this attracts the chub, who are so fond of this bait that they will rise two or three at a time to seize it; the landing-net in this fishing should never be forgotten, as the places most likely for success in taking chub, are those where the angler cannot get to the water-side to land them with his hands.

Another way of dibbing is in a hot summer day with a grasshopper. In any hole where they haunt, many of them will be seen basking themselves near the surface; the rod must be both long and of considerable strength; the line strong, and in length about a yard. Bait the hook with a grasshopper, and the angler must conceal himself behind some bush or tree, and remain as motionless as possible, for the chub is so fearful, that the smallest shadow of a bird flying over, or of the rod, makes him sink to the bottom, but he will soon rise again. Having selected the largest chub, let him move the rod with great slowness and caution, and drop the bait gently upon the water, three or four inches before it, and he will infallibly take it: there is no danger of securing the chub, if allowed play enough before it is attempted to be taken out, being one of the leather-mouthed fishes, wherein a hook seldom loses its hold.

The chub will take gentles, wasps, maggots (which must be baked in an oven before used). Paste of fine new white bread (without being made wet), worked up in the hand, and tinged with vermilion as near as possible to the colour of salmon’s roe; from the hook this paste will not easily wash off, and is a most killing bait; but the best baits for bottom or float-fishing for this fish, are old Cheshire cheese, (such as, without crumbling, will mould in the hand), and the pith from the back bone of an ox, with the outward so carefully taken off as not to bruise the inward skin.

At every season of the year, the former of these is good; but the latter end of summer, and all the winter, are the preferable times for both. In baiting with the cheese, put a round lump, the size of a cherry, on a large hook, so as to cover the bend, and some way up the shank; fish six inches from the bottom, or in cold raw weather the bait may lie on the ground; but if the hole has not been ground-baited, the depth is immaterial; when there is a bite, the float will very swiftly be drawn under water, strike immediately and give him play, holding a tolerable tight line, to keep the fish clear of weeds and stumps, which at sight of the angler he will endeavour to get at for shelter, and if not properly managed, he will break the tackle. In the spring of the year the chub will take a marsh, or small red-worm; in May, June, and July, flies, beetles, snails (the black ones with the belly slit to shew the white;) in August, pastes: the large chub will also take minnows, small dace, and gudgeons, angled with in the same manner as for perch; and the latter bait used likewise in trolling for pike, the hook not so heavily loaded upon the shank. They gorge immediately upon taking the bait. Their biting times are chiefly from before sunrise until nine in the morning, and from four until after sunset in the summer, (some will, by chance, take at any time of the day when mild and cloudy); and in the winter the middle of the day is best; remembering that in hot weather, they are to be fished for at or near the top, and not deeper than mid-water, and in cold, close to or upon the bottom; and that the main point in taking this fish is, the angler’s keeping himself out of sight.—Daniel.

CHUBBED, a. Big-headed, like a chub.

CHUCK, v. To make a noise like a hen.

CHYLE, s. The white juice formed in the stomach by digestion of the aliment.

CICATRICE, or CICATRIX, s. The scar remaining after a wound; a mark, an impressure.

CICATRIZE, v. To apply such medicines to wounds, or ulcers, as skin them.

CIDER, s. The juice of apples expressed and fermented.

CILIARY, a. Belonging to the eyelids.

CILIATED (Lingua Ciliata, LINN.), a. In ornithology, a term used when the tongue is edged with fine bristles, as in ducks.

CINGLE, s. A girth for a horse.

CINNABAR, s. Vermilion, a mineral consisting of mercury and sulphur.

CINNAMON, s. The fragrant bark of a low tree in the island of Ceylon.

To dye cinnamon colour.—Take about three pints of right stone crottle, (common lichen) about four or six chips of young fustic, and a good flake of walnut-bark; put them down in eight quarts of water; when your time of boiling is half done, add a pint of crottle and eight or ten fustic chips; make four very thick canvass bags, ten inches broad and fourteen or fifteen inches long—wash them when made, lest they should hurt your colour. Divide one pound of fur into four parts, and put a part into each bag; tie a leaden weight to each bag, at both ends, allowing two inches of string, to admit the bags to rise that height from the bottom, lest they should burn; place them in the pot so that they may not entangle with each other, put in your frame without the lid, and fill the pot with water. It will take from twelve to eighteen hours boiling; divide that time as to the drawing each shade; look at them every hour by lifting out a bag, and if you see a shade to your eye, draw a part and put down your bag again: in this case you should put half a pound of fur in your bags. There are many shades of cinnamon wanting in fishing. Thus you have your colour nice and clean. The reason of using the bags is the difficulty of carding the crottle out of the fur; and the reason of boiling so long, is, that the bag in some degree prevents the dye.

You may get a more flaming cinnamon by using the following dye-stuff:—A quarter of a pound of turmeric, half a table-spoonful of brasil, and a flake of walnut-bark; follow the process of the other, as to the addition of more dye-stuff, the bags, leads, &c.—Old Receipt.

CINQUE, s. A five.

CIRCLE, v. To move round any thing; to enclose, to surround; to confine.

CIRCUMVOLATION, s. The act of flying round.

CIRRUS, s. A description of cloud.

Cirrus or Curlcloud.—When, after much fine weather, this cloud appears like a white line pencilled along on the azure sky, we may generally reckon on a change; and if the cloud increases, and others are added to it latterly, or if it change to the wane-cloud, rain will probably follow before long.

The tufts of cirrus, called mares’ tails, are known to be a sign of wind, which has frequently been found to blow from the quarter to which these curlclouds have previously pointed.—Foster.

CIST, s. A case, a tegument, commonly the enclosure of a tumour.

CISTERN, s. A receptacle of water for domestic uses; a reservoir; an enclosed fountain; any watery receptacle.

CITRON, s. A large kind of lemon.

CITRON-WATER, s. Aqua vitæ, distilled with the rind of citrons.

CLARET, s. A species of French wine.

To dye claret colour.—Take any quantity of stuff, put it down with some young fustic chips, bring it up to as bright a shade as it will give, and then put in some black grain; bring it up high with this, add some brasil dust, and you will have a deep red. Have a small quantity of boiling water and a little stale urine in another vessel, dip a small bit of wool in, and if you like the change dip more; have some archil liquor boiled and strained, add this to the rest of your liquor sparingly, as, if you darken too much at first, you ruin all: thus you may draw two shades between the different additions of the archil and liquor; and if you wish it to be still darker, take out your fur, and throw into the pot a quarter of a tea-spoonful of salt of tartar, and that will darken it sufficiently.

To dye good dark clarets, blood, and fiery reds.—Get some bunches of the clearest red hackles, ground them well in cochineal, then add some brasil dust, and when they have boiled a few minutes draw a bunch or two; add more brasil dust, boil and draw again. If they are changed enough, then add in some archil and boil them again. Never attempt to ground in yellow for this process, as at best the hackles will appear but a dull mahogany colour when placed between you and the light. Never use young fustic in hackle-dyeing, as it spoils the feathers.—Old Receipt.

CLASS, s. A rank or order of persons or animals.

CLASS, v. To range according to some stated method of distribution.

CLAW, s. The foot of a beast or bird armed with sharp nails.

Puppies are frequently born with dew claws; sometimes they are double. Whether there is any bony attachment or not, it is always prudent to cut them off in a few days after birth, otherwise they become very troublesome as the dog grows up; for the claw or nail attached to the end of each, frequently turns in and wounds the flesh; or, by its hook-like shape, it catches into every thing the dog treads on.

The horny claws or nails of the true toes are also subject, when dogs have not sufficient exercise, to become preternaturally long, and, by turning in, to wound these toes likewise, and lame the dog. It is better to saw them off with a very fine and hard cockspur saw, and then to file them smooth; avoiding to cut them too close, or the vascular part may be entered on, and much unnecessary pain given to the animal. Some dogs require their nails to be cut every two or three months, or even oftener; otherwise they become very lame.—Blaine.

CLEANLINESS, s. Freedom from dirt, being clean.

The following curious fact is mentioned in a communication on the cleanliness of animals.—(Jour. Roy. Institution, No. II.) “Walking one day along the shore of Holy Island, off the coast of Northumberland, I disturbed an ash-coloured sanderling (Calidris islandica, STEPH.), which flew heedlessly, and as if injured. On shooting the bird, I found that it was covered with vermin, more especially about the head; so much so, that the poor thing must have fallen a victim to their tormenting ravages. On further examination, I found that it had lost one of its legs, so that it was from its incapability to rid itself of these insects that their extraordinary increase was to be attributed. Poultry (the same naturalist remarks) which run about in stony or paved yards, wear away the points of their claws by friction and digging, which renders them unfit to penetrate their coating of feathers; they are, therefore, more covered with vermin, and, in consequence, more sickly than fowls from the country.”—Ainsworth.

CLERGY, s. A man in holy orders, not a laic.

The propensity of the clergy to follow the secular pastimes, and especially those of hunting and hawking, is frequently reprobated by the poets and moralists of the former times. Chaucer, in his Canterbury Tales, makes the monk much better skilled in riding and hunting, than in divinity. The same poet, afterwards, in the Ploughman’s Tale, takes occasion to accuse the monks of pride, because they rode on coursers like knights, having their hawks and hounds with them. In the same tale he severely reproaches the priests for their dissolute manners, saying, that many of them thought more upon hunting with their dogs, and blowing the horn, than of the service they owed to God.

The bishops and abbots of the middle ages hunted with great state, having a large train of retainers and servants; and some of them are recorded for their skill in this fashionable pursuit. Walter, bishop of Rochester, who lived in the thirteenth century, was an excellent hunter, and so fond of the sport, that at the age of fourscore he made hunting his sole employment, to the total neglect of the duties of his office. In the succeeding century an abbot of Leicester surpassed all the sportsmen of the time in the art of hare-hunting; and even when these dignitaries were travelling from place to place, upon affairs of business, they usually had both hounds and hawks in their train. Fitzstephen assures us, that Thomas à Becket, being sent as ambassador from Henry II. to the court of France, assumed the state of a secular potentate; and took with him dogs and hawks of various sorts, such as were used by kings and princes.

At the time of the Reformation, the see of Norwich, only, was in the possession of no less than thirteen parks, well stocked with deer and other animals for the chase. At the end of a book of Homilies in MS., in the Cotton Library, written about the reign of Henry VI., is a poem containing instructions to priests in general, and requiring them, among other things, not to engage in “hawkynge, huntynge, and dawnsynge.”—Strutt.

CLEW, s. Thread wound upon a button; a guide.

CLICK, v. To make a sharp, successive noise.

CLIFF, or CLIFT, s. A steep rock, a rock.

CLIP, v. To cut with shears; to curtail, to cut short.

CLIPPING, s. The part cut or clipped off; an operation performed on rough or long-coated horses. Of its benefits and disadvantages very contrary opinions have been given.

I should certainly prefer seeing a horse of mine with a fine short coat without the aid of clipping; but if that were not to be accomplished, I would certainly have him clipped.

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“A very dangerous effect of debility, or being out of condition,” says Mr. Smith, p. 18, “is, that the subject has a long rough coat, which retains the perspiration excited by exercise; and even in cold weather, when the exercise is not such as to excite sweat, the insensible perspiration which is constantly issuing from the extremities of the cutaneous vessels is condensed among the hair, and appears on the surface like dew; whereby cold is produced on the surface of the body, occasioning too great a determination of blood to the lungs, and other important viscus, which is always in proportion to the diminution of the cutaneous perspiration.”

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“I must own myself a very decided advocate for the clipping of hunters, having observed such horses to have had a most decided advantage, during the last season, with the Cheshire, Sir Richard Puleston’s and Sir Thomas Stanley’s fox-hounds, as well as with the Chester harriers, now under the very superior management of Captain Puleston. Experience and observation are, in this matter, worth a bushel of à priori reasoning; but scientific argument and rational explanation are not wanting to aid and enforce the practice of clipping. In the first place and to begin with the most trifling reason—the horse is a pound lighter; and the coat affording little resistance to the brush, your groom is not half so soon fatigued in dressing, and lays double strength upon the surface. This causes a greater determination to the extreme vessels, and the insensible perspiration is proportionably increased. We invariably find a connexion between the action of the skin and that of the intestines; and this is sufficiently evident in a well-groomed horse; the lacteals of the bowels seem to have a corresponding action communicated to them—they absorb and select the pabulum of the blood with increased vigour—the secreting vessels of the stomach furnish the gastric solvent more abundantly—the liver more readily acts, and separates those vitiated parts which have fulfilled their duties in the circulation, and require to be thrown out of the system, but in their transit, in the form of bile, perform other important uses, in stimulating the intestines to that regular peristaltic motion which secures a change of particles to the vessels which absorb the nourishment for the blood. But the abdominal viscera do not alone benefit by the more intimate friction which is admitted to the skin of a clipped horse. The lungs are wonderfully assisted the more the insensible perspiration is increased: the less work for them to accomplish, the less will be the determination to the internal vessels; and consequently the less risk of congestion in the minute bronchial ramifications of the lungs.”

* * * * *

Were I to give a good price for a promising young horse for the purpose of making him a hunter, and keeping him for my own use, and a man were to come into my stable and tell me he would give me one-third of his value if I would have him clipped, I would refuse his offer. I look upon clipping as nothing but a bad substitute for good grooming, and an operation attended with several disadvantages. In the first place, when once performed it must always be repeated; and in the second, it is a constant eye-sore to a person who is fond of seeing his horses looking well, as it effectually destroys that bloom on the skin which is not only so beautiful, but also so confirmatory of the sound health of the animal; and lastly, by depriving him of the protection which a short thick coat, lying close to the body, affords him against the scratching of thorns and briars, it very frequently causes a horse to refuse rough places in a fence which he would not have refused before. It is a remedy to be sure, or at least a palliative; but I had rather a horse of mine should endure the disease it is intended to relieve, until I could bring a better medicine to his aid; and were I to become possessed of a hunter which required clipping, I would put up with his long coat and evening sweats, until, by strengthening his general system, I got rid of the latter, to which the former is by no means a certain contributor. It is quite possible—and I have an instance at this moment in my own stable—for a horse to have a long coat (and some horses at certain periods will not wear a short coat), but still to look very blooming to the eye, and dry immediately after a sweat, as is the case with the horse I speak of. I am not weak enough to suppose that clipping will not continue to be practised because one individual disapproves of it; but I may be allowed to say, I will never after this year practise it again. The horse I had clipped last winter must now, I fear, be clipped again, for I abhor the sight of him in his present state—his coat somewhat resembling a poodle dog; but his evening sweats are got rid of by the method I pursued with him in the summer. Clipping may be all very well for those who cannot, or will not, get their horses into condition by other means; and to such only do I recommend it.—Nimrod—Smith—Equestris.

CLOSE, s. A small field enclosed; the period when it is illegal to shoot or fish; the time of shutting up; a grapple in wrestling.

CLOTHE, v. To invest with garments, to cover with dress.

CLOVE, s. A valuable spice brought from Ternate; the fruit or seed of a very large tree; some of the parts into which garlick separates.

CLOVEN-FOOTED, or CLOVEN-HOOFED, a. Having the foot divided into two parts.

CLOVER, s. A species of trefoil.

CLOUT, s. Anciently the mark of white cloth at which archers shot; an iron plate to an axletree.

CLOY, v. To satiate, to sate, to surfeit.

CLUB, s. A heavy stick; the name of one of the suits of cards; the shot or dividend of a reckoning; an assembly of good fellows.

CLUSTER, s. A bunch, a number of things of the same kind growing or joined together; a number of animals gathered together.

CLUTCH, s. The gripe, grasp, seizure; the paws, the talons.

CLYSTER, s. An injection into the anus.

Clysters of broth, gravy, or gruel, will afford a very considerable quantity of nourishment: a small proportion of opium, as twenty drops of laudanum, may be given in each, to assist in retaining it within the bowels. Astringent clysters, as starch, rice-water, alumine whey, infusion of red roses, or of oak-bark, are useful in violent loosenesses. Purging clysters may be made of veal or mutton broth, with a portion of salt or moist sugar added: the effect may be still further quickened by adding castor oil or Epsom salts.

Clysters are very easily administered to dogs, and no apparatus is so convenient for the purpose as the patent syringe of Reid: a good domestic apparatus is found in the common pipe and bladder also. The liquid used should be warm, but not hot; the quantity from three ounces, to six or eight, according to the size of the dog, &c.: the pipe should be greased previously to its introduction, and the tail held down a minute or two after its removal.

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In flatulent colic it is essentially useful, and it is from this circumstance being too little known, or not attended to, that flatulent colic sometimes terminates in inflammation, and death. (See CARMINATIVES.) In suppression or retention of urine, or in difficulty of staling, a clyster is the best remedy that can be employed. In short there is scarcely a disease to which horses are liable, in which clysters may not be advantageously employed, either as a principal remedy, or as an auxiliary to others. The clyster syringes commonly employed are worse than useless, because they sometimes prevent a clyster being given when it is absolutely necessary, especially in flatulent colic. The clyster-pipe and bladder is the only effectual apparatus I have seen. The pipe should be one inch in bore, and fifteen inches in length. The quantity of liquid employed should be five or six quarts, and consist only of warm water, with half a pound of salt dissolved in it. There is sometimes difficulty found in introducing the pipe, generally from hard excrement in the straight gut; sometimes, however, from the bladder being distended with urine. In such cases patience and care are necessary to exhibit the clyster effectually, and it may almost always be accomplished without raking or drawing out the hard excrement with the hand; there is no objection, however, to this operation, and when a clyster-pipe is not at hand, it must be employed as a substitute for a clyster. (See RAKING.) The simple emollient clyster should be thin gruel, or warm water only. The anodyne or opiate clyster should be composed of three or four ounces of tincture of opium in two quarts of gruel, or warm water. Gibson gave half an ounce of solid opium dissolved in water, as a clyster to a horse in locked jaw, with success. Nourishing clysters are composed of arrow-root, or wheat-flour gruel with sugar, or broth thickened with flour. Tincture of opium is an useful addition to such clysters, especially in locked jaw.—Blaine.—White.

COAL, s. The common fossil fuel; the cinder of burnt wood, charcoal.

COAL-BLACK, a. Black in the highest degree.

COAT, s. The upper garment; the covering of any animal; any tegument.

COAT, v. To cover; to change the hair.

COAT-CARD, s. A card having a coat on it; as the king, queen, or knave; now corrupted into Court-card.

COB, s. A sort of sea-fowl; a low but powerful horse; a hack.

Perfection is seldom found in any living being; but certain it is, that of all animals in which perfection, or as near to it as their nature will admit, is required, it is in a horse to carry a man or a woman on the road: and were I requested by a friend to purchase a good hack for him, I should consider him to have given me a commission ten times more difficult than if he had requested me to purchase half a dozen hunters. The qualifications of a good hack are so numerous as to be almost disheartening to look for them: he must have good fore legs as well as good hinder ones: he must have perfect feet, a good mouth, not given to start, safe on his legs, gentle in his temper, and quiet to ride on all occasions. A fidgetty hack, however good in his nature, is very unpleasant, and in hot weather insupportable. He is fit for nothing but to ride to covert at the rate of twenty miles in the hour.—Nimrod.

COBBLE, v. To mend any thing coarsely; to do or make any thing clumsily.

COBBLE, s. A punt used for wild-fowl shooting, fishing, &c.

COCHINEAL, s. An insect, from which a red colour is extracted.

COCK, s. The male to the hen; the male of any small bird; the weather-cock that shows the direction of the wind; a spout to let out water or any other liquor at will; the notch of an arrow; the part of a lock of a gun that strikes with the flint; cock-boat, a small boat; a small heap of hay; the form of a hat.

Cock-fighting is a sport of great antiquity. It is supposed to have first originated with the Greeks; and that at one period it became so prevalent amongst them, that families of extensive property were reduced thereby to the lowest ebb of fortune.

As the Romans were so fond of imitating the Greeks, in their bad as well as good customs, it came to them as a mere gambling sport. According to Herodian, the first cause of contention between the two brothers, Bassianus and Geta, sons of the Emperor Septimus Severus, happened in their youth, about cock-fighting, which they had probably seen in Greece, whither they had often accompanied their father.

It is not known when this custom was first introduced into England, but undoubtedly by the Romans. The bird was here before the landing of Julius Cæsar; but no notice of cock-fighting occurs earlier than the time of William Fitz Stephen, who wrote the life of the Archbishop Becket in the reign of Henry II., and describes it as a sport of school-boys on Shrove Tuesday. From this time it continued in a fluctuating state; sometimes in vogue, at others, disapproved; and prohibited, 39 Edward III.; also in the reign of Henry VIII., and in 1569. It has been termed a royal diversion; and the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by a crowned head for the more magnificent celebration of it. There were other pits in Drury Lane and Jewin Street. It was prohibited by Oliver Cromwell, March 31, 1654.

With respect to the breed of game fowls, the criterion of blood in these animals, before trial, is “fineness of feathers,” richness of plumage, “cleanness of feet,” and keenness of aspect. But there have been introduced of late years some varieties quite distinctly marked from the game fowls of old times; viz., “top knots” and “muffy heads,” which were quite unknown to our ancestors.

The cock is in his prime at two years old, and retains his vigour to his fifth year: the hen somewhat longer. Cockers breed in-and-in without scruple. The following is Mr. Sketchley’s description of a brood cock, in full health and vigour:—“A ruddy complexion, feathers close and short, not cold or dry: flesh firm and compact, full breasted, yet taper and thin behind; full in the girth, well coupled, lofty and spiring, with a good thigh; the beam of his leg very strong, a quick large eye, strong beak, crooked, and big at setting on.” Such a one, not more than two years old, to be put to early pullets, or a blooming stag with two-year old hens; and when a cock, with pullets of his own getting. Uniformity of colours is generally sought for, and the hens selected of similar plumage to that of the cock; the same of shape, which is a greater object in the hen, than size; only she should be lofty crested, short and close feathered, with clean, sinewy, blood-like legs. Shropshire and Cheshire have long been famous for their breed of game cocks; and the Shropshire reds are in particular high estimation. There was formerly in Staffordshire a famous breed of cocks, of a perfect jet black, gipsey faced, black legs, and rather elegant than muscular; lofty in fighting, close in feather, and well shaped. This breed soon degenerated; and, I presume, is now extinct. The following procreative comparison of Mr. Sketchley speaks volumes:—

YEARS. YEARS. YEARS. YEARS. Stags 1 with hens 2 man 18 woman 22 Cock 2 with pullets 0 man 25 woman 22 Cock 2 with hens 2 man 25 woman 22 Cock 3 with hens 3 man 40 to 50 woman 45 Cock 4 with hens 3 man 50 to 60 woman 45

It is said that a game cock that happened to be on board Rodney’s ship on the memorable 12th of April, during that glorious action, exhibited the most undaunted courage, by crowing and clapping his wings.—Vide Hoyle, article GAME COCK.

Cocks, when they crow at unwonted hours, often foretel a change of weather. We have often noticed this before rain. During the calm, still, dry, dark, and warm weather, sometimes occurring in the winter months, and which may be called the halcyon days of our climate, cocks keep a constant crowing all night and day. There appear to be three principal cock-crowings in ordinary weather, namely, about midnight or soon after, about three in the morning, and at daybreak; the latter is never omitted. We have noticed, however, that when cocks crow all day, in summer particularly, a change to rain has frequently followed.

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Cocks and hammers.—If the sportsman has no objection to its clumsy appearance, I should be inclined to recommend the solid cock which falls on its end, instead of being stopped in the middle by the lock plate. It will therefore admit of main springs as strong as you please: and, by this means, add considerably to quickness in firing. But if you have very strong main springs, with the common cock, the resistance from the hammer spring, to prevent its breaking, must be so great, that you would soon wear out hammers, by being obliged to use an immoderate quantity of flints. With this another part of the lock also is safer, because the solid cock is received on a firm support annexed to the pan; while the one on the other construction suddenly catches the lock-plate, and is therefore liable to jar, and break either the tumbler itself, or the pin of the tumbler. A solid cock has many other advantages, from its durability and strength: it is proof against all awkward hands, and particularly desirable on guns which are liable to meet with rough usage in a boat.—Sporting Repository—Hawker—Foster.

COCK, v. To set erect, to hold upright; to fix the cock of a gun for a discharge; to raise hay in small heaps.

COCKER, s. One who follows the sport of cock-fighting: a small spaniel.

The Cocker—(Canis extrarius, Var. B. LINN.)—This dog is much smaller than the springing spaniel, and is generally used for woodcock and snipe shooting. His diminutive size peculiarly fits him for ranging in low and thick coverts, for which purpose nature seems peculiarly to have adapted him.

The cocker differs from the springer in having a shorter and more compact form, a rounder head, and a shorter muzzle; the ears are very long, the limbs are short and strong; the tail is generally truncated and more bushy; and the hair of the cocker, over his whole body, is more curled than that of the springer. He varies in colour from liver and white, red, red and white, black and white, all liver-coloured, and not unfrequently black, with tanned legs and muzzle.

This beautiful and lively dog seems to have been produced, originally, by a cross between the small water spaniel and the springer, for he not only resembles the figure of the latter, but also has many of his habits, combined with the lively and active disposition of both. From the beauty and temper of the cocker, the breed has become very generally diffused throughout the kingdom, and he is more frequently a companion in the parlour than used in the sports of the field. He is extremely common in many parts of Sussex, from which, in the south, he has obtained the name of the Sussex Spaniel. There has long been a beautiful breed of this dog in the possession of the Duke of Marlborough and his friends, which is preserved in great purity; these are invariably red and white, with very long ears, short noses, and black and sparkling eyes; they are active and indefatigable in the chase, and are consequently held in great estimation among sportsmen.

General Maxwell, of Edinburgh, has long had an extremely beautiful breed of cockers; most of them have been black, with tanned cheeks and legs, and ears nearly seven inches in length; they are of a small size, but they are lively and handsome little creatures.

In his general qualifications the cocker differs but little from the springer, except that he is decidedly more active: he appears also to have a more acute sense of smelling, and pursues game with an enthusiasm amounting to ecstacy. From his lively temperament, he does not tire so soon as the springer, however long the labour of the day may be.

From an innate principle of this industrious little animal, he gives the loudest proofs of his ecstatic delight upon finding, or even coming upon the scent, foot, or haunt of game; it is also his determined resolution to persevere until he has fairly driven them from covert. Consequently all sportsmen who take the field with cockers, are compelled to be on the alert, and to keep pace with the progress which the dogs make in the wood, otherwise they are sure to lose the greater part of the game. They may even travel many a weary mile without obtaining a successful shot, as it is the unalterable nature of these dogs to spring, flush, or start all the game before them; and they pursue, without distinction, hare, pheasant, partridge, woodcock, snipe, quail, and plover. It thus becomes necessary to hunt them within gun-shot of covert, and bells or gingles should be placed inside the collars, if the wood is extensive, to prevent them from beating too wide, and to keep them within call of the whistle.

The springer and cocker are more particularly appropriated to pheasant and woodcock shooting. The former may be considered the most laborious, and the least entertaining of all field sports, if we except the mode in which it is practised in the extensive preserves of Norfolk and Suffolk, and some few districts in other counties, where the large tracts of lofty wood-lands with thick and low underwood, contribute so materially to the safety and increase of the game.

Spaniels of both descriptions are brought into general use and domestic estimation, from their handsome shape, their beautiful sleek coats, their cleanly habits, insinuating manner, incessant attendance, and faithful obedience to their masters, qualities in which they surpass all the other members of the canine race.

Cockers are said to be more subject to certain diseases than other dogs, as loss of smell, and swelling of the glands in the neck, which sometimes prevents their taking any assistance till they die; a disease of the ears, like the mange, called formicæ; and lastly to the mange itself, which is most destructive of all to their beauty, health, and quiet.—Thornhill.

COCKEREL, s. A young cock.

COCKFIGHT, s. A match of cocks.

COCKPIT, s. The area where cocks fight.

COD, or CODFISH, s. A sea-fish.

The fishermen take the cod from the depth of fifteen to sixty fathoms, according to the inequality of the bank, which is represented as a mountain under water, above five hundred miles long, and near three hundred broad, and that the approach to it is known by the great swell of the sea, and the thick mists that impend over it.

The largest cod ever taken on our coasts was at Scarborough, in 1755, and weighed seventy-eight pounds; the length was five feet eight inches; and the girth, round the shoulders, five feet. It was sold for one shilling. The general weight of these fish in the Yorkshire seas, is from fourteen to forty pounds.

* * * * *

A cod will not only live, but thrive well, in fresh water, if properly fed. A respectable fishmonger assured me that he had tried the experiment and succeeded, and offered to send me some live cod in a well-boat, for my piscatorium in Bushy Park.—Daniel—Jesse.

CODLING, s. An apple; a small codfish.

COFFEE, s. The berries of the coffee-tree; a drink made by the infusion of those berries in hot water.

COFFIN, s. Coffin of a horse, is the whole hoof of the foot above the coronet, including the coffin-bone.

A sprain of the coffin joint is not an unusual occurrence; and, like the former, consists of violence applied to the tendinous and ligamentous connexion of this joint. When a horse becomes suddenly lame, and attentive examination can discover no injury above, the feet should be closely examined, when it is very probable there will be found in one of them some tenderness, and perhaps swelling, particularly at the back part, towards the upper portions of the heels, and in the neighbourhood of the navicular bone, where the part will be more hot than the others, and the horse will express pain when the foot is bent or extended, and he will generally also, though not always, point the foot when in the stable, or, as it is expressed, will stand favouring. The treatment, if the heat be considerable, would be to put the whole foot into a Goulard poultice for three or four days: in very bad cases I have thinned the whole crust of the hoof, and have drawn blood from the toe with advantage. After the heat has in some degree subsided, blister, as a milder treatment will seldom avail here: frequently it must be repeated also.—Blaine.

COG, v. To flatter; to cog a die, to secure it, so as to direct its fall.

COHESION, s. The act of sticking together; the state of union.

COIL, v. To gather into a narrow compass; to collect a rope.

COIN, s. Money stamped with a legal impression; payment of any kind.

COISTREL, s. obs. A coward hawk.

COLIC, s. Is strictly a disorder of the colon; but loosely, any disorder of the stomach or bowels that is attended with pain.

The causes are various: the sudden application of cold either to the surface of the skin when hot, or to the intestines under similar circumstances, in the shape of cold water drunk hastily, and when the horse has been warm; in which latter case, the attack often soon follows. Costiveness will bring it on. Tumours in the mesentery, and strictures in the bowels are also the sources of occasional colic; and when a horse is found to be subject to repeated attacks, something of this kind, or otherwise calculous concretions, may be suspected: and I have known many instances where habitual colic was present, dependent on these causes. Horses long confined to dry food will sometime get it by suddenly gorging themselves with green meat; and with others, a constitutional tendency from some occult cause, gives them a predisposition to it.

The symptoms of spasmodic colic are usually sudden in their appearance, and not marked, as in inflammation of the bowels, by previous indisposition; but the horse is observed to be at once attacked with considerable uneasiness, shifting his position from side to side, pawing his litter, and stamping with his feet impatiently. After a few minutes thus passed, the pain remits, and leaves the horse tolerably easy; while in enteritis no perfect remission occurs, but all is one scene of nearly equable pain and distress. As the colic advances, the remissions are less perfect, and less frequent: the horse now lies down frequently, and on rising shakes himself, looking round to his sides, which occasionally, in desperate cases, he snaps at with his teeth; but more frequently he is seen to strike with his hind feet at his belly, as though determined to remove by force the cause of his pain. In enteritis this acuteness of sensation or violence of temper is seldom seen. When on the ground, it is not uncommon for the horse to roll on his back; sometimes he will remain in this situation a few seconds, or he will roll over; neither of which are usually done in simple inflammation. In colic the pulse is seldom much altered from its natural state, unless the colic have existed some time, when it occasionally presents marks of general irritation, and is not only quickened, but also somewhat hardened. If felt also during the intensity of the paroxysms, it will likewise be often found to be disturbed even in the early stage, but this is momentary only, and ceases on the remission of the pain. The extremities, as the legs and ears, in colic are not often much affected, and they never remain intensely cold for a considerable period, as in enteritis; but the coat stares, and the horse breaks out frequently into cold sweats. In colic, also, relief is obtained by friction and motion, but both aggravate the distress in enteritis. Sometimes he is seen to attempt to stale without effect, at others he stales frequently, with momentary relief.

Treatment.—Having reason to believe that the patient is labouring under simple spasm of the intestines, unmixed with inflammatory tendency, derived from idiopathic enteritis; or symptomatic irritation from inversion, involution, invagination, or intussusception of the intestinal track; proceed at once to administer such one or more of the numberless antispasmodic remedies as custom and experience have warranted the use of. Numerous as these are, there is not one that has not its advocate, and perhaps not one that does not deserve it, so simple are the means sometimes required; and so much is the constitution prone, in some cases, to assist itself or our efforts. While, at the same time, other cases occur, sufficiently obstinate, and sufficiently fatal, to require all our energies, and all our discrimination in the choice of our remedies, I can confidently speak to the antispasmodic qualities of the following, which should one or either of them be given as soon as possible, and repeated in one, two, three, or four hours, according to the violence of the symptoms, if no benefit be apparent from the first dose: for it must be remembered, that what we do we must do quickly, to prevent inflammation, for, of the fatal cases, four-fifths show evident marks of enteritic attack on a post-mortem examination.

1. Ground pepper ½ oz. Spirit of turpentine 2 oz. Tincture of opium 1 oz. Sound ale 4 oz. Mix. 2. Spirit of vitriolic æther 1 oz. Tincture of opium (laudanum) 2 oz. Oil of peppermint 1 drachm. Common gin, and sound ale, of each ¼ of a pint. 3. Spirit of turpentine 2 oz. Oil of peppermint 1 drachm. Castor oil, and watery tincture of aloes (Mat. Med.) each 6 oz.

As a domestic remedy, and one which has relieved at the moment, when other medicines were not at hand, I would recommend the following:—

Ground pepper 1 tea-spoonful. The juice of two or three large onions Common gin, and sound ale, of each ¼ of a pint.

The antispasmodic having been given, the necessity of bleeding should be next taken into consideration: if the case be one of very acute features, I would recommend that it be proceeded with without delay, and, according to the degree of intensity, or duration of the complaint, do it more or less liberally. Extensive bleeding, it should be remembered, is one of the most powerful relaxers of spasmodic constriction with which we are acquainted, and instead of its being an antagonist to the antispasmodic treatment usually adopted, by internal remedies, its relaxant qualities are found to be infinitely increased in efficacy when conjoined with large doses of opium. I have had so many opportunities of witnessing the effect of this combination, that I cannot too strongly recommend it: and although most of the ordinary cases of spasmodic colic will yield to the common stimulant treatment, and many would even go off without any treatment at all, yet bleeding, in mild cases even, is always safe and precautionary against inflammation; and in the more aggravated, it is essentially necessary, both to combat the inflammatory tendency, and to promote the relaxation of the spasmodic irritation on the muscular fibre. It is likewise particularly indicated in these violent or protracted cases, to counteract the irritative qualities of the antispasmodics used, which, though in other instances of simple spasm are innocuous, however large, yet may not prove so when reaction is at hand, or already begun. It should, however, be remembered, that though I advocate bleeding, it is not that useless and non-medical practice of bleeding by the palate or sublingual vessels; and though, with Mr. Peal, I would most strongly condemn violent, and particularly long-continued exercise, yet I have so often experienced the good effects of a brisk trot for ten minutes, that I cannot but recommend its adoption. Friction to the belly is also to be employed, by means of a brush, or if with a heated coarse woollen cloth it will be better; but the practice of rubbing with a stick is, I apprehend, worse than useless, and often hurtful. Fomentations of very hot water are also sometimes singularly efficacious; and in every case we should, by means of the patent syringe, throw up considerable quantities of relaxant clysters; and where costiveness is present, until the bowels are relieved of their fæcal matter, the clysters should be of a mild watery solution of aloes, or, by preference, of a solution of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) in broth, gruel, &c. Afterwards the clysters may be made media of applying antispasmodics to the bowels, as decoction of poppy heads, or even tinct. opii, largely diluted with warm water, &c.—Vide Outlines of Vet. Art.

* * * * *

Dogs are subject to two kinds of colic; one arising from constipation of the bowels; the other is of a kind peculiar to dogs, apparently partaking of the nature of rheumatism, and also of spasm. From a sudden or violent exposure to cold, dogs become sometimes suddenly paralytic, particularly in the hinder parts, having great tenderness and pain, and every appearance of lumbago. In every instance of this kind, there is considerable affection of the bowels, generally costiveness, always great pain. A warm bath, external stimulants, but more particularly active aperients, remove the colic. Colic, arising from costiveness, is not in general violently acute from the pain it produces; sometimes it appears accompanied with more spasm than is immediately dependent on the confinement of the bowels. In the former give active aperients, as calomel with pil. cochiæ, i. e. aloetic pill, and clysters; in the latter, castor-oil, with laudanum and ether.—Blaine.

COLLAR, s. A ring of metal put round the neck; the harness fastened about the horse’s neck. A collar of brawn is the quantity bound up in one parcel.

COLLAR-BONE, s. The clavicle; the bones on each side of the neck.

COLOUR, s. The appearance of bodies to the eye; hue, dye; the appearance of blood in the face; in the plural, a standard, an ensign of war.

A general name given to the dyed wools and mohairs, which are used in forming the bodies of artificial flies. Mixing the wools, or producing, by a union of different colours, the exact shade of the body of the insect to be imitated, is justly reckoned the greatest difficulty of the art; and I have known many persons tie a fly with neatness and elegance, who never could turn out a killing one. Hence practical acquaintance with the ephemeræ, which are imitated, is absolutely requisite for tying, as without it, the handsomest fly is inefficient.

To this may be ascribed the inferiority of the flies usually purchased in extensive fishing shops. Though, possibly, an elegant similitude of the intended insect in size and shape, they are, in tint and colouring, untrue to nature; and, as such, are easily discovered by the keen eye of the invited victim, and as certainly rejected. Without the precise colour of the fly is obtained, the handsomest production will be unsuccessful; and the neophyte will marvel that the basket of the rustic fisherman is filled, while his own showy imitations fail to rise a fish.

In choosing colours the brightness of the tint is to be less regarded than the permanency of the dye. To produce, at the same time, a brilliant and lasting colour, requires time, trouble, and experience. But for all the disciple of Walton will be well repaid; for nothing can be more mortifying to an angler, than to see the tints of his fly fade after a few immersions in the water, and a short exposure to the sunshine.

The receipts for dying wools and feathers, recommended in the FIELD BOOK, were given the compiler by Major Patrickson, an angler, who, in scientific and practical knowledge is, probably, second to none in Britain. They may, perhaps, be undervalued by modern philosophers; but from these simple and antiquated recipes, my accomplished friend produced the most beautiful and permanent colours; and I have, at this moment, in my possession, flies bodied with his wools, which have stood the test of water and weather, and are still as brilliant in their hue, as when they were first attached to the hook. Vide FLY FISHING.

COLOUR, v. To mark with some hue or dye; to palliate.

COLT, s. A young horse.

COLT’S-TOOTH, s. An imperfect tooth in young horses.

COLUMBA, (LINN.) s. A dove or pigeon. Vide WOOD-PIGEON.

Bill (save at the point, which is bent down) compressed and straight, the base of the upper mandible being covered with a soft gristly substance, in which the nostrils are placed towards the middle of the bill, forming a cleft lengthwise. The feet having three toes before entirely separated, with one hind toe articulated on the heel. Wings of middle size, the first quill rather shorter than the second, which is the longest in the wing.

COLUMBARY, s. obs. A dove-cote.

COLYMBUS (LATHAM.) s. A diver; a genus thus characterised:—

Bill of middle size, strong, straight, much pointed, compressed. Nostrils at the sides of the base, concave, oblong, half shut by a membrane, pierced from part to part. Legs of middle length, drawn towards the belly beyond the equilibrium of the body; shanks compressed; three toes before, very long, entirely webbed; the hind toe short, articulated upon the shank, carrying a small loose membrane. Claws flat. Wings short; the first quill the longest. Tail very short and rounded.—Montagu.

COMB, s. An instrument to separate and adjust the hair; the top or crest of a cock; the cavities in which the bees lodge their honey.

COMFORTER (Canis consolator), s. A species of dog.

This beautiful little dog seems to be a cross betwixt the Maltese and the smaller spaniel described in the last section. His colour is generally white, with black or brown patches; his ears are long, and his head broad on the upper part, with an acute muzzle; the hair is long over the whole body, with the fore-legs feathered. His tail is curled, and feathered with very long hairs. This is the smallest of any of the distinct races of dogs, frequently not above a foot from the tip of the nose to the point of the tail.

This elegant little animal is used as a lap-dog, or as an attendant on the toilet or in the drawing-room. He is most affectionate to all the members of the family in which he resides; but is very snappish to strangers, whose familiarity he will seldom permit.—Brown.

COMMERCE, s. A game at cards.

Of this game there are two distinct methods of playing, the new and the old mode. The new way is played by any number of persons, from three to twelve, with a complete pack of 52 cards, bearing the same import as at whist, only the ace is reckoned as eleven. Every player has a certain quantity of counters, on which a fixed value is put, and each, at every fresh deal, puts down one for the stake. Sometimes the game is continued, or not finished, till one of the players has lost all the counters given at the commencement; but in order to prevent it from being spun out to an unpleasant length, or concluded too soon, it is often customary to fix the duration to a determinate number of tours, or times, so that the whole party shall deal once each completely round.

After determining the deal, the dealer, styled also the banker, shuffles the pack, which is to be cut by the left-hand player; then three cards, either altogether or one by one, at the dealer’s pleasure, are given to each person, beginning on the right hand, but none are to be turned up. If the pack prove false, or the deal wrong, or should there be a faced card, there must be a fresh deal. There are three degrees or ranks in this game. The first, which takes place of all others, is what is called the tricon, or three cards of the same denomination, similar to pair royal at cribbage; the next in rank is the sequence, or three following cards of the same suit, like tierce at piquet; and the last, the point, being the greatest number of pips on two or three cards of a suit in any one hand. As to all these parts, the higher disannuls the lower. For the old method &c. vide Hoyle.

COMMON, s. An open ground equally used by many persons.

COMMONAGE, s. The right of feeding on a common.

CONCAVE, a. Hollow, opposed to convex.

CONDITION, s. Quality, that by which any thing is denominated good or bad; natural quality of the mind, temper, temperament.

Condition, as regards horses, is a term conventionally well understood; but beyond the precincts of the stable, it is neither precise nor technical. The term, in common parlance, might be supposed to imply nothing more than the symptoms and appearances which usually betoken health. Thus, when a horse is in perfect health, he ought, under this view of it, to be considered as in perfect condition; and, on the contrary, when a horse is in any respect out of health, he should be considered as out of condition; that is, in a condition that neither fits him for perfect service to his owner, nor for perfect comfort to himself.

The accidental causes of this latter (morbid condition) are various; a very common one is found in injudicious feeding, both as to quality and quantity. Any sudden alteration in the articles of a horse’s diet will frequently, according to the term of horse amateurs, “throw him out of condition,” such as removing him from the grass field or the straw yard to a full allowance of dry hay and corn, with a scanty supply of water “to draw up his belly;” all which are perhaps done at once, without the smallest preparation. In these cases the alimentary canal, being hardly yet in a state of digesting capacity, suffers from the increased powers necessary to draw nutriment from substances which, although in themselves more nutritious, yet are, in this instance, less digestible than those before in use. Thence follow costiveness, heat, and thirst; as well as an unhealthy state of the coat, which stares, and feels harsh and dry, being a necessary consequence of the ordinary sympathy between the stomach and the skin. A sudden remove from a generous to a poor diet is unfavourable to condition likewise; for in such case the chyle or nutritious pabulum, from whence all the vital organs are recruited, and all the vital energies derive their vigour, cannot be separated in sufficient quantities: the blood thereby becomes deteriorated; universal absorption takes place of the softer parts, which produces lessened bulk; while a laxity of fibre in the remaining portions is productive of langour and debility. The quality of the food is also of considerable consequence to the condition. Mow-burnt hay, by exciting a partial diabetes, is very apt to “throw a horse out of condition.” Musty hay, also, and oats highly kiln-dried, have an unfavourable effect on it also. The liquid aliments should likewise be attended to in a consideration of the condition. Mineral waters are unfavourable to it in most cases; although there is reason to believe that in some morbid affections they are salutary. Sea-water may be considered in the same light, but a continued use of the brackish water found near sea-bathing places, is unfavourable to the condition of such horses as have not been accustomed to it: to which, in union with the bad care taken of them in most of the livery stables of the sea-coast bathing, I attribute the universal complaint of the ill-condition in which they so frequently return from thence. Badly ventilated stables, excess of clothing, and deprivation of water, are also frequent causes of morbid condition, as I have often witnessed: for, in some of these cases, after a course of purgatives, followed by alteratives and tonics, has failed, the more simple means of succulent food, a proper quantity of water, a well regulated but perfectly cool stable, with a free access of air, and very moderate clothing, have created an immediate change. An inordinate quantity of exertion, particularly if continued unremittingly for several days, will often produce morbid condition; and this in cases where the feeding has been, as supposed, equal to the tasks required. It is particularly likely to happen to young horses, and to such as have not been sufficiently prepared: in which cases, it is clear that the stomach, participating with the general debility, has a double task to perform in digesting a larger quantity of nutriment than usual, to make up the increased wants of the constitution; and thus the evil is increased by adding the further deterioration of this organ to the others. I know of no state of morbid condition which often proves so obstinate as this; and which is often found at last only to give way to a good salt-marsh run. Drastic purgatives, or violent remedies, as the mineral acids, when injudiciously continued, reduce the condition very quickly, and sometimes irrecoverably. Another principal cause of want of condition is the alternation of heat with cold. A sudden check to the natural or acquired heat of the body, particularly if aggravated by the evaporation of a perspiring state, and great previous exertion, as a sudden check after a severe burst with the hounds.

* * * * *

After a general enumeration of the causes of morbid condition, Mr. Blaine continues:—But to proceed with this important subject with some regularity, I would direct that in young plethoric horses, with much flesh on them, and which are, of all others, the most subject to take on this state of morbid condition, that one or two moderate bleedings may be premised, particularly in such as have been full fed for some time previous. If the inner surface of the eyelids, or of the nasal membranes, show any tinges of red, it is still more necessary to bleed; and in such cases I would repeat the same with moderation once or twice more, or until this inflammatory appearance should be removed. I have found this, united with mashing, in many instances sufficient to relax the hide and reduce the rugous tumefaction of the lampas. In most cases, however, some more active internal remedies will be found necessary with a young and plethoric patient: thus one or two very mild doses of physic, preceded by a nightly mash, into which ten grains of submuriate of mercury (calomel) has been mixed, are proper. If there be joined to the affected hide, and the swollen or clammy mouth of lampas, any eruptions on the skin, or any cracks of the heels, stable soiling, or even daily turning out to grass, are advisable; but as these cases usually happen when the animal is either at present wanted, or is intended soon to be used, so I have not mentioned turning out altogether; yet, if these appearances prove obstinate, such a course will be advisable, provided the season and other circumstances are favourable to the proceeding. But when neither the partial nor total turning out to grass is convenient, and when soiling is likewise not practicable, still the use of carrots as manger food can be resorted to. To this treatment may be added, after the administration of the physic, a nightly alterative.

Crude antimony Supertartrate of potash of each 2 (cream of tartar) or 3 drs. Nitrate of potash (nitre)

Or,

Supertartrate of potash 2 or 3 drs. Nitrate of potash do. Powdered sulphur ¼ oz.

Both of these will gently stimulate both the stomach and kidneys, and produce, by consent of parts, a favourable effect on the skin, and hair also. Violent diuretics are never advisable; nor have I seen their mildest form, unaccompanied by other remedies, produce much good, unless there have been, in addition to the other symptoms, swelled legs, either with or without discharge.

When morbid condition arises in such horses as, from age, previous deprivations, severe work, long confinement in bad stables, or feeding on unwholesome provender, are not to be supposed plethoric; even then, if no actual debility is present, I have often derived great benefit by commencing the treatment with a very mild dose of physic, the horse being previously fully mashed, to make a small quantity of aloes sufficient; for I have generally found that the stomach tonics to be afterwards administered have had double effect from this previous preparation of the alimentary canal. But where the debility has been extreme, or where there has been already sufficient laxity of bowels, or perhaps even superpurgation from drastic physic, begin at once with either of the following tonics, or of any of those detailed under that head in the Materia Medica:—

Socotrine aloes, in powder 1 dr. Winter’s bark, ditto 2 drs. Ærugo (verdigris) 1 dr. Treacle or honey to form a ball.

Or,

Oxide of arsenic (arsenic) 8 grs. Pimento (allspice) in powder 1 dr. Extract of gentian ½ oz.

Make into a ball with liquorice powder. Or,

Sulphate of copper 1½ gr. Sulphate of iron ditto Powdered ginger 1 dr. Horse turpentine to form a ball.

Either of these formulæ may be given some time in each day, at the convenience of the practitioner or owner. It would, however, where practicable, be more prudent to let it be given in the morning, fasting, allowing the horse but a handful or two of hay for an hour after its exhibition. If a liquid form only can be got down, either of the above mixtures may be dissolved and horned down as a drink, with ale; but active mineral agents seem to produce their effect best in mass. In all cases of morbid condition, marked with emaciation and debility, a full allowance of carrots is advisable; and in default of them, or alternating with them, malt mashes or speared corn may be usefully brought in aid of the other tonics.

* * * * *

When a horse returns from grass, or straw-yard, both his external appearance, and the internal state of his body, in general, require considerable alteration before he can be said to be fit for the uses to which he is applied by man.

To promote ‘condition’ in a horse from grass, his dieting and watering, the temperature to which he is removed, his clothing, grooming, and exercise, are the circumstances particularly to be attended to. Physicking is also a usual and necessary appendage to the other parts of the treatment.

It would be most imprudent to take a horse from so moist a food as grass, and at once to place before him hay and corn without caution or limitation. Coming from a straw-yard, this restraint is not so imperative; yet even in this case, little corn should be given at first: but following the removal from grass, both corn and hay should be allowed but sparingly, particularly the former. The hay given for the first two or three days should likewise be moistened, by sprinkling it with water; the corn allowed should also be mixed with bran, by which the dangers of constipation and repletion may be avoided. The constipating effects of the removal from a moist to a dry course of feeding, may be further obviated by a nightly bran mash. The bran mashing may likewise be extended to twice a day, or until the bowels be somewhat relaxed, if the horse be very full in flesh, or have his skin at all tight, or eruptive; or if the legs be inclined to swell. In all which cases it likewise tends to shorten the process, and prevent that almost irrecoverable hide-binding, which often follows these appearances, if succulent food, particularly carrots, be mixed with, or even wholly substituted for, hay. The privation of grass renders it prudent that water should at first be given in sufficient quantity: it is often withheld, with a view to harden the flesh and get up the belly: but this treatment at first is erroneous, and by exciting heat, thirst, and indigestion, frustrates its own intention. The temperature into which the newly-stabled horse is removed, should not at first be much increased beyond that to which he has been so long accustomed, or the sudden change may operate unfavourably on his lungs; and if it does not produce inflammation, it may at least occasion roaring, or broken wind. The most prudent plan is, first to place the horse in an airy box, which will not only prevent too great heat, but also obviate the danger of swelled legs, and heated feet. By degrees so much increase of temperature may be kept up, as will promote the fall of long hair, or the retention or renewal of the short: and in the degree to which the artificial coating is wished to be carried, to that degree should a temperate or an ardent climate be imitated. The clothing and grooming should, like the other parts of the conditioning treatment, be at first very moderate: the one produces extra heat, the other extra irritation; but by degrees both may be increased according to the views of the owner, or the purposes of the horse. Physicking is found to assist the condition of horses; for by emptying the bowels thoroughly, absorption of the extraneous fluids is promoted. One, two, or three doses, according to the extent to which the condition is intended to be carried, are usually given to every horse, where this process is conducted on the usual principles; and are certainly necessary, wherever continued and accelerated exertions are required. Exercising a conditioning horse, like the other aids, must be done with a due regard to circumstances. At first, walking alone best answers the purpose, and twice a-day is better than once: the duration of each walk must be regulated by the age, the fulness of habit, &c. &c. As the condition improves, trotting and galloping may be employed, to benefit the wind, draw up the carcass, and accustom the horse to full work. It may be here remarked, that I have seen all attempts to promote condition fail in a horse removed from an old companion, or when stabled alone. Horses are gregarious, and often bear segregation badly: such a case can only be treated by association.—Blaine—Outlines of the Vet. Art—Nimrod on Condition—White, &c.

CONEY, s. A rabbit, an animal that burrows in the ground.

CONGER, s. The sea-eel.

CONIROSTRES, (CUVIER,) s. Birds having concave bills.

CONTAGION, s. The emission from body to body by which diseases are communicated; infection; pestilence.

CONTAGIOUS, a. Infectious, caught by approach.

CONVULSE, v. To give an involuntary motion to the parts of any body.

CONVULSION, s. A convulsion is an involuntary contraction of the fibres and muscles; an irregular and violent motion, commotion.

COO, v. To cry as a dove or pigeon.

COOKERY, s. The art of dressing victuals.

Cookery on the Moors.—No one merits or relishes a good dinner better than a grouse-shooter. It delights me to see my companion eat like a traveller; and, to please me, he should possess sufficient acumen to enable him to appreciate the fare. I despise the man who is cursed with a Spartan palate, and who hardly knows the difference between beef and mutton; and yet, in equal ratio, the gourmand is my abomination. There is a limit in culinary lore beyond which, as I opine, the sportsman should never travel. Like a soldier, he will sometimes find it serviceable to be able to direct the broiling of a steak, and the combination of a stew. To fabricate a curry, or even regulate a hash, may be tolerated; and in wild countries, like Ballycroy or the Scottish highlands, this knowledge will frequently be “worth a Jew’s eye;” but every thing beyond this in kitchen accomplishments, is detestable. With one who composed omelets, and talked scholarly of the materiel of a plum-pudding—and I once had the misfortune to fall into a shooting party afflicted with such a personage—I would consort no more upon the heath, than I would shoot with a cook, or draw a cover with a confectioner. And yet, with these antipathies, I recommend the neophyte to make himself in every thing as independent as he can. A few practical lessons are worth a world of precept: one week’s cooking in the moors will render him for life an adept; and if gun and angle fail him not, he will be able to command a dinner, without owing to the devil the compliment of a bad cook.—Wild Sports.

COOLNESS, s. Gentle cold, a soft degree of cold; freedom from passion.

COOMB, s. A measure of corn containing four bushels.

COOP, s. A cage, a pen for animals, as poultry or sheep.

COOT (Fulica, LINN.), s. A small black water-fowl.

Its characteristics are, bill strong, thick, sloping to a point; the base of the upper mandible rising far up into the forehead; both mandibles of equal length; nostrils inclining to oval, narrow, short; body compressed; wings and tail short; toes long, furnished with broad scalloped membranes between each joint, on each side; the inner toe has two, the middle three, and the outer four scallops; and the hinder toe, one plain membrane adhering to its whole length.

Bald Coot.—(Fulica atra, LINN.—Le Foulque au Morelle, BUFF.)—This bird generally weighs, when in full condition, about twenty-eight ounces, and measures fifteen inches in length. The bill is of a greenish white colour, more than an inch and a quarter long: a callous white membrane, like that of the water hen, but larger, is spread over the forehead, which also, as in that bird, changes its colour to a pale red in the breeding season: irides red; the upper part of the plumage is black, except the outer edges of the wings, and a spot under each eye, which are white; the under parts are of a hoary dark ash or lead colour. The skin is clothed with a thick down, and covered with close fine feathers; the thighs are placed far behind, are fleshy and strong, bare, and yellow above the knees; the legs and toes are commonly of a yellowish green, but sometimes of lead colour.

The common coot has so many traits in its character, and so many features in its general appearance like the rails and water hens, that to place it after them, seems a natural and easy gradation. Linnæus and other ornithologists, however, describe it as a genus distinct from those birds, and from the waders in general, on account of its being fin footed, and its constant attachment to the waters, which, indeed, it seldom quits. With it naturalists begin the numerous tribe of swimmers, and rank it among those that are the most completely dependent upon the watery element for their support: it swims and dives with as much ease as almost any of them; and also, like those which seldom venture upon land, it is a bad traveller, and may be said not to walk, but to splash and waddle between one pool and another, with a laboured, ill balanced, and awkward gait.

These birds skulk and hide themselves during the day among rushes, sedges, and weeds, which grow abundantly in the loughs and ponds, where they take up their constant abode: they rarely venture abroad, except in the dusk, and in the night, in quest of their food, which consists of the herbage, seeds, insects, and the slippery inhabitants of stagnant waters. It is seldom that the sportsman and his dog can force the coot to spring from its retreat; for it will, in a manner, bury itself in the mud rather than take wing: and when it is very closely pursued, and compelled to rise, it does so with much fluttering and apparent difficulty.

This species is met with in Great Britain at all seasons of the year; and it is generally believed that it does not migrate to other countries, but changes its stations, and removes in the autumn from the lesser pools or loughs, where the young have been reared, to the larger lakes, where flocks assemble in the winter. The female commonly builds her nest in a bush of rushes surrounded by the water; it is composed of a great quantity of coarse dried weeds, well matted together, and lined within with softer and finer grasses: she lays from twelve to fifteen eggs at a time, and commonly hatches twice in a season: her eggs are about the size of those of a pullet, and are of a pale brownish white colour, sprinkled with numerous small dark spots, which, at the thicker end, seem as if they had run into each other, and formed bigger blotches.

As soon as the young quit the shell, they plunge into the water, dive, and swim about with the greatest ease; but they still gather together about the mother, and take shelter under her wings, and do not entirely leave her for some time. They are at first covered with sooty coloured down, and are of a shapeless appearance: while they are in this state, and before they have learned, by experience, to shun their foes, the kite, moor buzzard, and others of the hawk tribe, make dreadful havoc among them; and this, notwithstanding the numerous brood, may account for the scarcity of the species.

Greater Coot.—(Fulica aterrima, LINN.; Le Grand Foulque au Morelle, BUFF.)—This is of a larger size than the last, but differs not in the colour of the plumage, except that it is blacker. Brisson distinguishes the two by the colour of the bare forehead, which is in this white; and the garters, which are of deep red. This bird is said to be found in Lancashire and in Scotland. It should seem to be a mere variety of the former, did not authors join in advancing the contrary. They are more plentiful on the continent, being found in Russia and the western part of Siberia very commonly, and are also in plenty at Sologne and the neighbouring parts, where they call it judelle. The people eat them on maigre days, and the flesh is much esteemed.—Latham.

* * * * *

A curious anecdote is related of a bald coot that built her nest in Sir William Middleton’s lake, at Belsay, Northumberland. The rushes which contained it being afterwards loosened by the wind, the nest was driven about, and floated upon the surface of the water, in every direction; notwithstanding which, the female continued to sit as usual, and brought out her young upon her moveable habitation.

Cleaning Coots.—The recipe for this, is, after picking them, to take off all the black down, by means of powdered white rosin and boiling water, and then to let them soak all night in cold spring water; by which they are made to look as delicate as a chicken, and to eat tolerably well; but, without this process, the skin, in roasting, produces a sort of oil, with a fishy taste and smell; and, if taken off, the bird becomes dry, and good for nothing. After all, however, these birds are in no way delicate, except when skinned; and after being soaked twenty-four hours in cold spring water, repeatedly changed, made into a pudding, by which, as with all such birds, when in puddings, pies, or soup, you can get rid of their strong skins without losing the juice of their flesh; and their fishy taste is, in a great measure, drawn off by steam.

Moor-hens may be cleaned in like manner, and, if in good condition, they will then be nearly equal to any wild fowl.—Hawker.

COPPER, s. One of the six primitive metals.

COPPER-CAP, s. A metallic covering fixed upon the nipple of a percussion gun, containing a fulminating composition, which explodes by the action of the cock and ignites the powder in the barrel. Vide PERCUSSION.

COPPERAS, s. A kind of vitriol.

COPPICE, s. Low woods cut at stated times for fuel.

COPSE, s. Short wood.

COPSE, v. To preserve underwood.

COPULATE, v. To come together as different sexes.

COPULATION, s. The congress or embrace of the two sexes.

CORACLE, s. A boat used in Wales by fishers.

CORDIAL, s. A medicine that increases the force of the heart, or quickens the circulation; any medicine that increases strength; any thing that comforts, gladdens, and exhilarates. Cordials are useful to give a temporary energy to the stomach and bowels, and stimulate the nervous system.

White says, “There is not a better cordial than about half a pint of good strong beer, with a little ginger grated into it. A wineglassful of brandy in half a pint of water is stronger, and may, on some occasions, be more useful; but I wish to impress on the reader, that, whenever a cordial appears necessary, we should give one of no greater strength than is sufficient to produce the desired effect; and it will be found, I think, that a much better effect may be produced by three or four small doses, or weak cordials, than by giving only one large dose.”

CORDIALS.

1. From half a pint to a pint of the best old mild beer, with a little grated ginger.

2. Best Cognac brandy, from 2 to 4 oz. Warm water 6 to 12 oz.

3. Anodyne carminative tincture 2 oz. Water 6 or 8 oz.

4. Allspice, powdered 2 to 4 drs. Caraway seeds (fresh), powdered 4 dr. to 1 oz. Treacle enough to form a ball.

5. Ginger, powdered 1 dr. Allspice, powdered 2 drs. Caraway seeds, powdered 4 drs. Treacle enough to form a ball.

The cordials No. 4 and 5 may be given as a drench with a little water; and if the cordials 1, 2, and 3, were sweetened with treacle or sugar, they would be more palatable to the horse, and probably have a better effect. The above cordials are as well suited to cattle as to horses; and, though much stronger drenches are often given, those will be found, I think, of sufficient strength.—White.

CORDIAL, a. Reviving, invigorating, sincere.

CORE, s. The heart; the inner part of any thing; the inner part of a fruit, which contains the kernel; the matter contained in a bile or sore.

CORIANDER, s. A plant.

CORK, s. A glandiferous tree, in all respects like the ilex, excepting the bark; the bark of the cork-tree used for stopples; the stopple of a bottle.

CORMORANT, COLE GOOSE, or GREAT BLACK CORMORANT, (Pelicanus Corbo, LINN.; Le Cormoran, BUFF.) s. A bird that preys upon fish.

The weight of this species varies from four to seven pounds, and the size from thirty-two inches to three feet four or five in length, and from four feet to four feet six inches in breadth. The bill, to the corners of the mouth, measures four inches, and on its ridge two and three quarters; it is of a dark horn colour, and the tip or nail of the upper bill is much hooked and sharp; from the base of this it is furrowed on each side nearly to the tip, without any visible appearance of nostrils; the lower bill is compressed, and covered, about the gape of the mouth, with a naked yellowish skin, extended under the chin and throat, where it hangs loose, and forms a kind of pouch, which, together with the springing blade on each side, forming its rim, is capable of distension to a great width, and enables the bird to swallow prey apparently too large to be admitted into its throat; the skin about the eyes is also naked, and of the same colour as the pouch; the eyes, which have a remarkable wild stare, and are placed near the bill, look like two little greenish glass globes. The crown of the head, and the neck, are black; on the hinder part of the former the feathers appear elongated, and form a sort of loose short crest. In some specimens the throat is white, with a kind of stripe passing from it, upwards, behind each eye; in others the cheeks and throat are mixed with brown and white; and again, in others the head and neck are streaked with scratches of the latter colour. The middle of the belly is white, with a patch of the same colour over each thigh; all the under parts, however, together with the back and rump, are commonly of a glossy blue black, with green reflections: the shoulders, scapulars, and wing-coverts, are of a bronze brown, tinged and glossed with green, and each feather is bordered with shining blueish black; the secondary quills are nearly of the same colour; the coverts and the primaries are dusky. The tail consists of fourteen stiff husky feathers, which look as if they were discoloured by being dipped in mud or dirty kennel-water: the legs are thick, strong, black, and coarse, about two inches and a half long, and the outer toe is more than four in length.

The cormorant is found in every climate. In Greenland, where it is said they remain throughout the year, the jugular pouch is made use of by the natives, as a bladder to float their fishing-darts, after they are thrown; their skins, which are tough, are used for garments, and their flesh for food; “but the eggs are too fetid to be eaten even by the Greenlanders.”

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These birds usually assemble in flocks on the summits and inaccessible parts of the rocks which overhang or are surrounded by the sea, upon which the female makes her nest of the withered sea-tang, weeds, sticks, and grasses, which are cast on shore by the waves: she lays four or more greenish-white eggs, of the size of those of a goose, but of a longer shape. There are writers who assert that, in some parts of the world, they build their nests on trees, like the rook and the heron; other authors, stricken with the singular conformation of the feet and serrated claws, have ascribed properties to them which they do not possess, and believe that they hold their prey in one foot, while with the other they push forward to the shore, or carry it thither, in the same manner, on the wing; but this seems mere conjecture, for the feet of this tribe are not fitted for any such purpose; they are, like those of all the expert divers, placed far behind; and while, by the position of these, and the powerful strokes from their broad webs, the bird is enabled to pursue and overtake its slippery prey, the hooked, sharp-edged beak is the only fit instrument both to catch and to secure it; and there is no need to use the awkward expedient of removing it afterwards to the foot.

At sea, or on the inland lakes, they make terrible havoc. From the greatest height they drop down upon the object of pursuit, dive after it with the rapidity of a dart, and, with an almost unerring certainty, seize the victim; then emerging with the fish across the bill, with a kind of twirl, throw it up into the air, and, dexterously catching it head foremost, swallow it whole.

While at rest on the shore, commonly on the ledge of a projecting rock, these birds sit, more or less, in an erect posture, and are propped up by the stiff feathers of the tail; and in places where they have not experienced the fatal effects of the gun, they have been known, however wary at other times, to sit and receive repeated shots, without offering to move out of the danger. At other times and places, while they sit in a dosing and stupified state, from the effects of one of their customary surfeits, they may easily be taken, by throwing nets over them, or by putting a noose around their necks, which they avoid no further than by slipping the head from side to side as long as they can.

Notwithstanding the natural wildness of their disposition, it seems, according to some accounts, that certain species of these birds have formerly been tamed and rendered subservient to the purposes of man, both in this and other countries. Among the Chinese it is said they have frequently been trained to fish, and that some fishermen keep many of them for that purpose, by which they gain a livelihood. “A ring placed round the neck hinders the bird from swallowing; its natural appetite joins with the will of its master, and it instantly dives at the word of command; when, unable to gorge down the fish it has taken, it returns to the keeper, who secures it to himself. Sometimes, if the fish be too big for one to manage, two will act in concert, one taking it by the head and the other by the tail.” In England, according to Willoughby, “when they came to the rivers, they take off their hoods, and having tied a leather thong round the lower part of their necks, that they may not swallow down the fish they catch, they throw them into the river. They presently dive under water, and there for a time, with wonderful swiftness, they pursue the fish; and when they have caught them, they arise presently to the top of the water, and pressing the fish lightly with their bills, they swallow them, till each bird hath in this manner swallowed five or six fishes; then their keepers call them to the fist, to which they readily fly, and, little by little, one after another, vomit up all their fish, a little bruised with the nip they gave them with their bills. When they have done fishing, setting the birds on some high place, they loose the string from their necks, leaving the passage to the stomach free and open, and for their reward they throw them part of the prey they have caught, to each, perchance, one or two fishes, which they by the way, as they are falling in the air, will catch most dexterously in their mouths.”

Whitelock tells us “That he had a cast of them manned like hawks, which would come to hand.” He took much pleasure in them, and relates, that the best he had was one presented to him by Mr. Wood, Master of the Cormorants to Charles the First.

Dr. Heysham relates that, about the year 1759, one of these birds “perched upon the castle at Carlisle, and soon afterwards removed to the cathedral, where it was shot at upwards of twenty times without effect; at length a person got upon the cathedral, fired at, and killed it.” “In another instance, a flock of fifteen or twenty perched, at the dusk of evening, in a tree on the banks of the river Esk, near Netherby, the seat of Sir James Graham. A person who saw them settle, fired at random at them in the dark six or seven times, without either killing any or frightening them away: surprised at this, he came again, at day-light, and killed one, whereupon the rest took flight.”—Bewick—Latham—Willoughby, &c.

CORN, s. The seeds which grow in ears, not in pods; grain unreaped; grain in the ear, yet unthrashed; an excrescence on the foot, hard and painful.

Corns are a very common and a very troublesome disorder, and may truly be said to be often occasioned by the smith, being generally in consequence of bad shoeing. Corns most commonly happen in white feet with weak low heels; but they are too common in feet of all colours. They are occasioned by the pressure of the heel of the shoe, either by its bearing directly on the sole when it is too thin to bear the pressure, or by its forcing the heel of the crust inwards. In this way the sensible sole and laminæ are bruised, their blood-vessels ruptured, and the blood penetrates into the pores of the horn, causing the dark red appearance observable on removing the shoe, and scraping off the surface of the sole. This bruised part is exceedingly tender, and incapable of bearing the pressure of the shoe, and so are the crust and bar on each side of it. In the treatment of this complaint all this must be cut away, that is, all the parts must be so cut down, crust, bar, and sole, that when a bar shoe is applied it may be full half an inch distant from its surface. In this way a horse will be able to do his work, provided the shoe is removed, and the heel pared down as often as is necessary. As in this case the frog will be constantly receiving considerable pressure from the bar shoe, it is necessary to take care that the heels are not too thick and inflexible, in which case it is necessary to rasp them; and whenever there is a morbid degree of heat in the feet, or dryness, they should be kept constantly moist and cool in the stable, either by poultice or by several folds of old woollen wrapped round the coronet, and kept constantly wet. The common practice of pairing out the corn and leaving the bar and crust to be in contact with the heel of the shoe, is doing no good, nor would it afford even temporary relief, if the shoe were not bent up or made to bear off that quarter a little, as they term it; yet after riding a few miles the shoe is sure to yield to the horse’s weight, and bear upon the tender heel. It is thus that corns are made so troublesome as we find them, and many horses are rendered nearly unserviceable, or absolutely ruined by this improper treatment. Matter is often formed within the heel from this sort of management, and breaks out at the coronet, frequently doing great mischief, and even rendering the horse useless. When corns have been suffered to go this length the foot must be poulticed, and all the hollow horn cut away. After the inflammation has been thus completely subdued, the sensible parts which have been laid bare may be dressed with Friars’ balsam and the tar ointment. The radical cure of corns is always practicable if taken early, but in old cases the sensible parts will always remain in a tender state, however carefully they may be treated, and will always require the defence of the bar shoe, applied as I have described. A run at grass without shoes is a great relief to a horse with corns, provided the tender heel is cut down as I have described, and the heel and quarter rasped very thin. When a radical cure is attempted, this is the most likely means of effecting it.—White.

CORNCRAKE. (Vide LANDRAIL.)

CORNEOUS, a. Horny, of a substance resembling horn.

CORNET, s. Cornet of a horse, is the lowest part of his pastern that runs round the coffin.

CORPULENT, a. Fleshy, bulky.

CORROBORANT, a. Having the power to give strength.

CORRODE, v. To eat away by degrees.

CORROSION, s. The power of eating or wearing away by degrees.

COSTIVE, a. Bound in the body; close, unpermeable.

COSTIVENESS, s. The state of the body in which excretion is obstructed.

COT, s. A small house, a hut, a bed.

COTTON, s. The down of the cotton tree; a plant; cloth or stuff made of cotton.

COUCH, v. To lie down in a place of repose; to lie down on the knees, as a beast, to rest; to lie down in ambush.

COUCHANT, a. Lying down, squatting.

COVE, s. A small creek or bay; a shelter, a cover.

COVER, v. To overspread any thing with something else; to hide by artificial appearances; to brood on; to copulate with a female.

COVER, s. Any thing that is laid over another; a concealment, a screen; shelter; a wood, a thicket or place planted with furze or brushwood; a breeding place for foxes. To draw a cover—to search it for foxes, by sending the hounds through.

Judicious huntsmen will observe where foxes like best to lie; this must, of course, vary in different countries, and a knowledge of the country will best direct them in this respect. Where there are large tracts of cover, such observation will save time in finding; generally speaking, foxes prefer covers that lie high, are dry and thick at the bottom, that are out of the wind, and are on the sunny side of hills. The cover where a fox is found, when it has remained still any time, will probably produce a second. In nutting time, furze-brakes and two or three years’ coppices are the only quiet places for a fox to kennel in; when pheasant-shooting begins, older covers are more likely. The season when foxes are most wild and strong, is near Christmas; a huntsman must, at that season, lose no time in drawing, and be as silent as possible; three or four years’ coppices, with heath or furze at the bottom, are then most likely. The male foxes, about Christmas, travel miles after the females, and, when hunted, generally run directly for the country from whence they came; the compiler has at that season, in the course of three weeks, killed two brace of dog-foxes from one cover, where the least distance was twelve, and in one of the four chases was extended to double the number of miles, from the place of unkennelling, to the spot where the fox was killed.

When a string of small covers have plenty of foxes in them, some caution is necessary to prevent their being all disturbed in one day. Foxes are said to go down wind to their kennel, but, however that may be, the huntsman should begin drawing at the farthest cover down the wind, and proceed from cover to cover up the wind, till he finds; these advantages will attend it; he will draw the covers more speedily, there will be less difficulty in getting hounds away, and as the fox most likely will run to the covers already drawn, there is the less probability of changing, and the covers which are up the wind, beyond where the fox is found, remain perfectly undisturbed.

Never hunt the small, until the large covers have been well rattled; for it would be bad policy to drive from the former to the latter to increase the number. If foxes are meant to be thinned and dispersed, hounds must throw off at the same cover, as long as a fox can be found. Hounds that come away with the first fox that breaks, do not disturb the cover, and may expect to find there again the next day; but where foxes are scarce, the same cover should never be drawn two days following.

Furze covers cannot be drawn too close, and if a fox is there found, he should never be hallooed until quite clear of them; from such places, hounds are sure to go off well with him; and it would be the height of cruelty to head him back into the hounds’ mouths.

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Much depends on the first finding a fox, who, if well found, may be said to be half killed. The huntsman should draw quietly, and up the wind; this is material; the fox, by drawing up the wind, does not hear the approach of the hounds, who by this means are also within hearing; besides, should the fox turn down the wind, as most probably he will, it lets the hounds all in. If covers are small, and from which a fox cannot break unseen, noise can then do no hurt, but late in the season foxes are wild, particularly in covers that are often hunted; and should there be any noise, they will slink their kennels and get too much advantage; the whipper-in, where this is suspected to happen, should get the opposite side of the cover, before the hounds are thrown into it.

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When foxes are numerous, there is no occasion for an early hour, and when they are weak, by hunting late, they give better chases; when foxes are strong, hounds ought then to have the advantage which hunting early affords them. When hounds go out late, they should immediately proceed where it is likely to find, which, for the most part, is that cover where hounds have been least in; if a fox is not soon found, a long and tiresome day is generally the consequence; when the cover is thick, particularly if it be furzy, it should be drawn slowly; a fox at a late hour will keep his kennel until hounds come close upon him.—Beckford.—Daniel.

COVERT, s. A shelter, a defence. Coverts of the Tail, (Uropygium, LINN.), in Ornithology, are feathers which cover the tail on the upper side, at the base.

COVEY, s. A hatch, an old bird with her young ones; a number of birds together.

COUGH, s. A convulsion of the lungs.

COUGH, v. To have the lungs convulsed; to make a noise in endeavouring to evacuate the peccant matter from the lungs.

Chronic Cough.—It may appear strange to a person unacquainted with the animal economy, that what is taken into the stomach should affect the mucous membrane of the lungs, and that of the larynx, which is the seat of chronic cough. It is in the following manner: when the stomach is distended by hay, and especially if that hay is bad, it is gradually weakened, and rendered incapable of performing its office properly; hence the chyle is crude, and unfit for the purpose it was intended for, that is, forming pure blood. By this imprudent method of feeding them, the blood is rendered impure, and of course all the secretions become so likewise. Thus it is that the bland mucous fluid, formed upon the internal membrane of the wind-pipe and its branches, for the purpose of defending and lubricating it, becomes saline and acrimonious, and a source of constant irritation: hence arises the cough. It is commonly observed, that horses with chronic cough have immoderate appetites both for hay and water; and though people have suspected some connexion between this circumstance and the cough, they have not perceived the entire dependence of the cough upon it, which they might easily have done by a very simple experiment. Let a horse affected with chronic cough be fed moderately upon green food only, and it will generally be found that the chronic cough will gradually go off. But let the horse return to his former method of feeding, and the disease will quickly reappear.

There is no occasion to say much on the treatment and prevention of this disorder, when arising from improper feeding. It may be useful, however, to observe, that when the appetite has been depraved, and the digestive power weakened by long continued improper feeding, they cannot be suddenly restored: and it will often require a steady perseverance in a careful system of feeding, and the use of diuretic medicine, in such a way, however, as to keep up only a moderate degree of increased action in the kidneys, without injuring those organs, or affecting the stomach: and this may be accomplished by giving half an ounce of nitre in a little corn twice or three times a day, or the powder described afterwards. If a horse is inclined to eat his litter, he should be muzzled during the night, and in the day time it should be taken from him.

Chronic cough is sometimes a consequence of a violent attack of catarrh or strangles, especially when there has been considerable soreness and inflammation of the throat, extending, in some degree, perhaps, to the larynx. Roaring often originates in the same cause. I have known an obstinate chronic cough cured by drenches composed of oxymel, or a syrup made with treacle and vinegar; also by a decoction of garlic with linseed oil. Barbadoes tar and oil, with balsam of sulphur, have also been employed as remedies for cough. It is not improbable that these drenches, by stimulating the throat, may improve the secretion of the mucous membrane of the larynx, or render it less irritable.

Blistering the throat externally may also be of use. In the human subject, gargles, made of infusion of Cayenne pepper, have been employed in hoarseness, and a syrup made from a decoction of horse-radish; with a view, probably, of improving the mucous secretion of the larynx. Opium will frequently put a stop to chronic cough for a day or two; but its effect, I believe, is never permanent. This seems to prove, however, that the cough depends, in some measure, on a morbid sensibility of the larynx.

REMEDIES.

COUGH BALL.

No. 1. Gum ammoniac 2 or 3 drs. Powdered squills 1 dr. Camphor 1 dr. Ginger 1 dr. Castile soap 2 drs. Oil of aniseed 20 drops. Syrup and flour enough to form the ball.

No. 2. Strained turpentine 8 oz. Yellow resin 4 oz. Olive oil 2 oz. Hard soap 8 oz.

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