The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 09 (of 10) (part 4 of 4)

The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 09 (of 10) (part 4 of 4)

Chelidon is purplish- or bluish-black, or brown, having a white rump occasionally barred with black, and white or buffish under parts; Tachycineta is similar, or greener and somewhat bronzy, in certain cases lacking the white rump, in others shewing white mottlings above. Hirundo is glossy metallic black, with a variable amount of chestnut or rufous on the head, rump, or lower surface; the last of these regions exhibiting much white or having a black pectoral band, while streaky markings are not uncommon. Cheramoeca is blue, black, white, and brown above, and white below with a black breast-patch; Procne is either entirely blue-black or has some white beneath, P. tapera alone being brown, with a longitudinal band of the same colour on the white lower surface. Atticora is blue-black or greenish above, black and white or brown underneath; Petrochelidon is steel-blue with concealed white striations, the forehead, nape, rump, and most of the lower surface being chestnut, rufous, or buff, with or without stripes; Psalidoprocne is uniform blue, green-black, or sooty, P. albiceps having a white crown and chin. Cotile, Phedina, and Stelgidopteryx are dull brown above, the first being white, grey, brown, or rufous below, the second white with longitudinal brown streaks, and the third white and rufous with yellow middle to the breast and abdomen in two species. The plumage of most Swallows is very metallic, and white spots are often prominent on the tail feathers in Hirundo, Chelidon, Cotile, and Petrochelidon. The female is duller than the male in Procne only.

The range of Hirundo and Cotile is practically worldwide, reaching from beyond the Arctic Circle in summer to South Africa, India, and Brazil in winter, not to mention resident southern species; no Swallow, however, occurs in New Zealand, nor is Cotile found in the Australian Region. Four species of Petrochelidon are found in America, two in Southern Africa, two in the Australian Region, and one in India–a remarkable distribution. Psalidoprocne, Phedina, and Cheramoeca are Ethiopian, Mascarene (with Madagascar), and Australian respectively: Tachycineta and Procne extend over the New World from its Arctic portions to Patagonia, Atticora from that country to Guatemala, Stelgidopteryx from Canada and British Columbia to Bolivia and Brazil. Chelidon is confined to the Old World, migrating in autumn to Central {524}Africa, Borneo, and Burma. The summer migrants to Britain are Hirundo rustica, the Swallow, Chelidon urbica, the Martin, and Cotile riparia, the Sand-Martin. Swallows traverse immense distances on their periodical journeys, while all perhaps shift their quarters to some extent for the winter.

Hardly any sort of country comes amiss to these birds, though the neighbourhood of water is preferred, and for some species seems necessary. Spending their life chiefly in the air and alighting comparatively little, they rapidly dart, twist, double, sail aloft, or skim the water's surface in company, at times chasing each other in sport or even fighting savagely. Insects, which form the whole of their sustenance, are habitually taken on the wing, and the young are sometimes fed, or building materials snatched up, in full flight. A few species not uncommonly perch on trees, as Hirundo rustica, Tachycineta albiventris, Petrochelidon nigricans, Psalidoprocne nitens and Procne tapera; the last-named, moreover, is exceptional in being non-gregarious, while it flits about with depressed wings and slow butterfly-like flight when not hawking. The majority are rarely seen on the ground, unless they are procuring mud for nidification; but many roost on reeds or in their nests, and just before migration they settle in crowds on branches, fences, wires, and ridges of roofs. Hirundo, Chelidon, and Psalidoprocne bask in the sun on gravelly places. The twitter or warble of Swallows–uttered on the wing or at rest–and their squeaks of anger or alarm, are well-known; the scream of Procne and the chirp of Stelgidopteryx being somewhat exceptional; when excited, however, the bill is not uncommonly snapped noisily. The nest may be cup-shaped as in our Swallow, Cotile rupestris, C. fuligula, and {525}C. concolor, and made of agglutinated pellets of mud with a lining of straw, chaff, leaves, or feathers; it may be similarly constructed but semi-ovate, with a hole near the top, as in the Martin; or retort-shaped with a tube for entrance at the side, as in several members of the genera Hirundo and Petrochelidon: in these cases it may be placed inside buildings, under eaves, against rocks or walls. Procne–when not accommodated with a box–some species of Tachycineta, Petrochelidon nigricans, and other forms, not uncommonly prefer holes in trees, lining them as usual, if at all; while many species of Cotile, Psalidoprocne, and Cheramoeca tunnel in banks, or, more rarely, choose holes in masonry. Procne furcata utilizes the holes of Conurus patachonius; P. tapera the nests of Furnarius rufus in Argentina; Tachycineta leucorrhous occasionally that of Anumbius; Atticora cyanoleuca that of the Dendrocolaptine Geositta, itself within that of a biscacha. The eggs are from four to seven in number, generally pure white in Martins, and whitish with reddish-brown, grey, and lilac markings in Swallows; but the cases are occasionally reversed. Two or even three broods are reared in a season, and tended with the greatest care. Colonies are frequently formed, especially by Bank- and Cliff-Swallows. In Britain the Sand-Martin arrives first, but the Swallow comes early in April, while individuals have even been obtained in winter.

Fam. XII. CAMPEPHAGIDAE.–The "Cuckoo-Shrikes" are commonly placed near the Laniidae, but are possibly connected with the Muscicapidae or the Corvidae. The bill is usually strong, and of moderate length, being hooked, arched, and wide at the base; it is especially stout in Artamides, decidedly weaker in Campephaga, long and thin in Edoliisoma. The metatarsus may be elongated and comparatively robust as in Pteropodocys, Lalage, and Symmorphus, or short and less powerful, as in Pericrocotus; the wings are normally long and pointed, and more particularly so in Pericrocotus, Lalage, Symmorphus, and Graucalus. The tail is also fairly long, and frequently rounded, though it may be forked, as in Pteropodocys, and to a less extent in Campechaera, or graduated as in Pericrocotus, Campephaga, and Graucalus. The plumage is soft, with characteristically stiff shafts on the lower back; the nostrils are nearly concealed by the feathers; the rictal bristles are feeble. The usual coloration is either bluish-grey with a certain amount of black and white, or chiefly black and white. The black has generally a purplish or {526}a greenish gloss; while barring occurs occasionally in the cocks, and much more commonly in the hens, where the tints are duller, the grey lighter, and the hue in some cases brown or even rufous. The Mascarene Oxynotus is almost unique among Birds in having the males of the two species alike, the females very different. Shaft-streaks on the feathers are fairly frequent; two species of Lalage have a chestnut lower surface, and one the rump similar; while Symmorphus is either brown above and whitish below, or black and white with buff rump and under parts. Campechaera is green and golden-yellow in both sexes, but shews some black, white, and grey as well; Lobotus is olive-yellow with dark green head and throat, orange-chestnut rump and breast, greenish tail, and an orange lobe at the gape. Pericrocotus is usually black, adorned with lovely scarlet, crimson, orange, or yellow markings, and with a little white, but two species lack the brilliant tints, and others replace the black by brown or grey; the females in this genus usually have yellow where the males have red, though they also shew red in two cases. Three African species of Campephaga vary from the ordinary grey or blackish coloration in being glossy bluish-black, with scarlet, orange, and yellow shoulder-patches respectively, and one in being steel-green, with purple face and neck, and steel-blue lower surface. In these forms the females have yellow markings. Finally, Graucalus azureus is azure and black, with a shade of cobalt.

The restless and active members of this Family are generally seen in small flocks in wooded country, gardens, orchards, and hedge-rows. They are found up to an altitude of ten thousand feet throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions, and even reach Amurland; Graucalus inhabits all three Regions, but Oxynotus is peculiar to Mauritius and Réunion. The flight is easy, undulating, and strong, though of brief duration; while the birds hop and frisk about the branches, or move briskly from tree to tree, as they examine the crevices of the bark or the leaves, and occasionally pluck the fruit. They may occasionally be noticed darting to the earth to secure caterpillars, of which they are extremely fond, or sallying into the air after insects, like Flycatchers. Pericrocotus is said to hang to the boughs like a Tit; Pteropodocys lives chiefly on the ground. The mellow and lively notes are of a whistling or twittering nature, varied by jarring sounds; but all the species are rather silent. The nest, {527}composed of twigs and grass, or of moss and leaves, is usually very shallow, and is covered with lichens and spiders' webs; it is placed on slender branches of trees, or more rarely in bushes. The two to five Shrike-like eggs are brownish, whitish, or apple-green, with markings of brown, rufous, or purple. Those of the isabelline-coloured Hypocolius ampelinus, which possibly belongs to the Ampelidae, are white with plumbeous spots.

Fam. XIII. DICRURIDAE.–The Drongos, usually associated with the Laniidae, range throughout the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian regions, as far east as New Britain and New Ireland {528}(Dicranostreptus). Chibia bracteata is the only species in Australia, while Buchanga leucogenys is said to reach Japan; B. waldeni is peculiar to Mayotte, and Edolius forficatus to Madagascar and Joanna Island. Both sexes are typically black, with a metallic gloss of blue, purple, or green, though a few are greyer or browner, or have a little white below. The variable bill is usually large and more or less curved, with a hooked tip, a notched maxilla, and fairly strong rictal bristles–much developed in Chaetorhynchus. The metatarsi are short, the toes small, the wings long. The tail has only ten rectrices, and is generally very deeply forked, though less so in Dicrurus, Chibia, and Chaetorhynchus. In Chibia the two outer feathers are slightly elongated and turned up, in Dissemuroïdes they are produced and recurved at the tip, in Dicranostreptus they are extraordinarily lengthened and turned to face one another. In Bhringa and Dissemurus the long bare shafts terminate in racquets, and have a twist that brings the upper side inwards in the former, and one in the racquet itself in the latter. On the forehead a large, erect tuft occurs in Edolius, a still more extensive recurved crest in Dissemurus, a bunch of long, silky hairs in Chibia hottentotta. A few similar hairs are found in C. pectoralis, and scanty plumes in C. bimaënsis; Dissemuroïdes having the one or the other. Various species exhibit a tendency to lanceolate hackles on the head and neck, while the feathers of the former are scaly-looking in Chaetorhynchus. The bill and feet are black; the eyes red, white, or brown.

These wary, active birds frequent gardens, open country, and forests up to at least eight thousand feet, more usually in pairs {529}than in companies; their flight is strong and rapid, but undulating and not sustained, while they are often seen perched on bushes or exposed branches, and occasionally hover like a Kestrel. The song or whistle is ringing and melodious, varied by harsh chattering or creaking sounds; the food consists of insects of all kinds, which are captured on the ground, on leaves or flowers, on the backs of cattle, or at times upon the wing, individuals often returning to their perches like Flycatchers. Drongos are good mimics, fight viciously, and are very courageous, mastering even Hawks and Crows. The nest is a shallow cup of twigs, roots, leaves, fine grass, lichens, hair, and cobwebs, often so slight that the contents can be seen from below: it is usually woven into a horizontal fork like that of an Oriole, but may be fixed among bamboos, and often overhangs water. The eggs, rarely more than three or four in number, are sometimes plain white, but usually pink, buff, or white, with red, brown, claret, purplish, or grey spots and blotches. Not uncommonly a second set is found in a nest whence the first has been taken. A curious instance of "unconscious mimicry" is that of Buchanga atra and the Indian Cuckoo Surniculus dicruroïdes, the plumage being exactly the same, though the feet distinguish them at once.

Fam. XIV. AMPELIDAE.–In this group most forms have a short, depressed bill, though it is longer with bristly gape in Phaenoptila, and stouter in Dulus; they have abbreviated metatarsi, not scutellated in Phaenoptila; the wings are long and pointed in Ampelis, shorter and roundish elsewhere; the tails vary from short and even in Ampelis to long and rounded in Phaenopepla, or cuneate with elongated median feathers in Ptilogenys caudatus.

Both sexes of our irregular winter-visitor the Waxwing (Ampelis garrulus) are silky greyish-brown, with blackish wings, and tail relieved by yellow and white; a black forehead, eye-stripe, and throat; chestnut under tail-coverts and basal margin of the erectile crest; and, in the adults, flattened wax-like tips to the shafts of the secondaries or even the rectrices. The young are streaked below. Breeding near the Arctic Circle, and changing its quarters erratically, it occurs in the New as well as in the Old World, while in winter it migrates southwards to at least lat. 43° N. The flight is easy, graceful, and often high; the notes are of a trilling or of a chirping nature; the food consists of insects, berries, and other fruit. The nest of twigs and fibrous lichens, or {530}of grass and bark, is placed on firs or birches, and contains from five to seven purplish-grey or drab eggs, with spots of black, brown, or lilac. The smaller North American A. cedrorum lacks the yellow and white on the wing; A. phoenicoptera, of Japan, North China, and East Siberia, has red, but not wax-like, tips to the remiges and rectrices.

Dulus dominicus, of San Domingo, is dark brown, varied with greenish and yellow, the yellowish-white lower surface shewing broad brown streaks. Several pairs often join their nests of twigs into a circular mass. Phaenoptila melanoxantha, of the Costa Rican hill-valleys, is glossy black, having an olive rump-band, and similarly coloured under parts with yellow sides and grey middle. The female is olive above with black crown. Phaenopepla nitens, of Mexico and the Southern United States, is bluish-black, with white on the primaries and vent-region; it has an erectile occipital crest. The hen is dark grey, with brown abdomen and a different distribution of white. This shy, active bird has the graceful movements of a Flycatcher, with a habit of jerking the tail; the song is plaintive or whistling; the food consists of insects and fruit. The flat nest, of fibres, grass, and down, contains from two to five greyish eggs, speckled with brownish-black and neutral tints: Ptilogenys cinereus, of the highlands of Central America, is plumbeous, with black remiges, black and white rectrices, loose broad lavender crest-plumes, and yellow under tail-coverts and flanks; the female is chiefly brown.

Fam. XV. ARTAMIDAE.–The "Wood-Swallows" constitute a group of very doubtful position, ranging from the Australian to the Indian Region and in one case (Pseudochelidon) to West Africa. In the last-named the bill is broad, but elsewhere it is {531}long, pointed, and slightly curved, with wide gape. The metatarsi are short and strong; the wings are much elongated; the tail is short and occasionally emarginate, with soft, exserted shafts to the rectrices in Pseudochelidon, which is glossy greenish-black with red beak and feet. Artamus, where powder-down patches occur on the sides, thighs, and lower back, exhibits black, brown, rufous, or grey tints, relieved by white–especially below, or towards the tip of the tail; the bill is blue with black extremity, the feet are greyish. The sexes hardly differ.

These woodland birds often float nearly motionless in the air, occasionally moving ahead with a few strokes of the wing; at other times they wheel and twist about like Swifts. They hawk for insects, or sally after them from their perches, feeding also upon the ground, on the larvae and on seeds. Congregating like Swallows, they have in Australia a curious habit of hanging in ball-like masses from the branches; the note is plaintive or chirping. The nests, often found in close proximity, are placed in forks of trees, on their side-shoots, in holes, behind loose bark, in deserted habitations of other birds, or in bushes; the outer materials being twigs and grass, those of the lining fibres and feathers. From two to four white, greenish, or flesh-coloured eggs are deposited, spotted and streaked with umber, red-brown, grey, lilac, or occasionally black.

Fam. XVI. LANIIDAE.–Few Families are more difficult to define than this. A typical Shrike is easily recognised; but such forms as Pachycephala and Hemipus are closely connected with the Muscicapidae; Calicalicus and Neolestes with the Pycnonotidae; Gymnorhina and its allies with the Corvidae; while some authors include the Campephagidae. Dr. Gadow[287] recognises five Sub-families: (1) Gymnorhininae, (2) Malaconotinae, (3) Pachycephalinae, (4) Laniinae, and (5) Vireoninae; but the last-named is here allowed Family rank, while Prionopinae is admitted in its place.

The bill is stout, notched, and often strongly hooked, while it is either curved or straight; in Falcunculus it is more than usually compressed, in Rhectes the maxilla has the edge finely serrated, in Xenopirostris the mandible is upcurved, leaving a distinct gap above it. In the Gymnorhininae the culmen is long, straight, and slightly rounded, with slit-like nostrils near {532}the middle. The variable metatarsus is very strong in the larger forms, and much weaker in the Prionopinae; it is perhaps shortest in the Malaconotinae, where–as in all the Family–the scutes tend more or less to fuse. In Calicalicus and Nicator the basal joints of the third and fourth toes are united. The wings–usually moderate–may be very long and pointed, as in Gymnorhina and Pityriasis, or abbreviated and much rounded, as in Telephonus and Laniarius; the rather short tail is rarely emarginate, but frequently has acuminate feathers; while it may be square or rounded, or at times graduated, as in Laniarius, Laniellus, Paeoptera, Telephonus, Ptererythrius, some species of Lanius, and still more Urolestes, where the two median rectrices are exceptionally elongated. Falcunculus and Oreoeca have well-developed erectile crests; Rhectes, Sigmodus, Pseudorhectes, and Melanorhectes also exhibit lengthened head-plumes; Platylophus has these feathers broad and extraordinarily long; while Prionops has in addition frontal feathers overhanging the nostrils. Pityriasis has a bare yellow crown, the ear-coverts and lower throat being covered by brown bristles with red bases: Leptopterus, Prionops, and Sigmodus have a fleshy wattle round the eye. Rictal and nasal hairs may be highly developed or absent. The sexes are generally similar, except in the Pachycephalinae, and to some extent in the Prionopinae.

Sub-fam. 1. Gymnorhininae.–The remarkable red and black Pityriasis gymnocephala inhabits Borneo; the black and white Gymnorhina Australia, with Tasmania; the black, white, and grey Strepera the same countries, Cracticus Papuasia also. Gymnorhina and Cracticus have the beak bluish-white. Strepera occurs in parties in open wooded districts or swamps, feeding chiefly upon the ground on insects, their larvae, and a little fruit; while it runs, hops, or leaps from branch to branch with great agility, but generally flies low and feebly. It is a bold bird with a shrill, ringing, oft-repeated cry. The nest, as large as that of a Crow, is placed in the fork of a low tree, and is formed of sticks and twigs with a lining of bark, grass, leaves, wool, or hair; three or four pale chocolate- or reddish-brown eggs, with faint red or lilac markings, being deposited. Gymnorhina, the Piping Crow, resembles Strepera in habits, though its single, clear notes are somewhat different, and it can be taught to whistle or mimic. G. hyperleuca of Tasmania is called the Organ-bird, as Cyphorhinus (p. 522) is in Amazonia. The eggs vary from brown to whitish, {533}bright green, or sky blue, with smears, dashes, spots, or freckles of lilac and brown. The shy Cracticus is more arboreal, and eats mice, young birds, lizards, and even crabs, in addition to insects, upon which C. destructor darts like a Flycatcher, impaling its prey subsequently after the fashion of a Shrike. The cry in this genus bears a general resemblance to that of the above forms; the eggs are equally variable, and may have zonal markings.

Sub-fam. 2. Malaconotinae.–These African and Indian birds are commonly black, white, and chestnut; Laniarius, however, is chiefly red, green, and yellow; Nicator, Neolestes, and several species of Ptererythrius shew much yellow and green; while Artamia leucocephala is greenish-black, and A. bicolor chiefly cobalt, both having the head and under parts white. The feathers of the back are very broad, soft, and fluffy. Vanga, Artamia, Xenopirostris, and Calicalicus are peculiar to Madagascar; unless Clytorhynchus pachycephaloïdes of New Caledonia and the New Hebrides be referred to Xenopirostris. Between X. polleni and Tylas eduardi (Pycnonotidae) a most curious instance of "unconscious mimicry" exists. The retiring members of this Sub-family are commonly seen hopping or climbing about thick undergrowth in search of insects and their larvae, or hunting for worms and spiders on the ground; they run well and fly fairly, while some forms, as Dryoscopus cubla and D. rufiventris, puff out their feathers until the body resembles a black and white ball. The voice of Laniarius rubiginosus has been compared to that of a Nightingale, and other species utter ringing notes, sweet or melancholy whistles, or at times loud, discordant cries or "churrs." The nest–where known–consists of twigs, grass, wool, hair, and feathers, and contains from three to five greenish-white eggs with brown spots; it is placed in a bush, or among close-growing plants. The male occasionally incubates.

Sub-fam. 3. Pachycephalinae.–This group, which extends from most of Polynesia and Australia to Tenasserim and the Great Sunda Islands, shews brown, black, white, grey, yellow, and olive hues, the yellow being somewhat characteristic. The majority of the members hop actively about leafy trees, or search the ground for insects, their larvae, and berries; Falcunculus takes short, quick flights, clings to the boughs like a Tit, and often tears off the bark; while Pachycephala simplex prefers swampy ground, and behaves like a Flycatcher. Some species have a low, mournful, reiterated note, others a continuous whistle, often ending with a {534}smacking sound, others again have a sweet song. The nest of Pachycephala is a neat, though sometimes frail, cup of twigs, roots, and grasses, often placed on horizontal boughs, and containing three or four creamy or brownish eggs, with scattered or zonal umber markings and a few lilac spots; Falcunculus usually selects a gum-tree, and uses bark, grass, and cobwebs, laying two or three elongated whitish eggs, with olive, black, and greyish dots or lines; those of Oreoeca are bluer.

Sub-fam. 4. Laniinae.–The Shrikes proper extend over the Palaearctic, Indian, and Ethiopian Regions, and alone of the Family occur in the New World, Lanius borealis and L. ludovicianus inhabiting North America. The lax plumage is either black, grey, and white, or is varied with rich red-brown. Urolestes has the feathers of the crown and neck lanceolate, and those of the sides long and fluffy; Laniellus is exceptional in being spotted. The young are browner, and are often transversely barred below, a fact also true of the Gymnorhininae. In the large genus Lanius are included all the British Butcher-Birds, L. excubitor, L. minor, L. pomeranus, L. collurio, the Great Grey, Lesser Grey, Woodchat {535}and Red-backed Shrikes, of which only the last-named breeds in our island. The Sub-family contains many of these quarrelsome, rapacious birds, often seen perched on the tops of bushes, or chasing each other along the hedge-rows. The flight is strong and rapid, but undulating and brief; the food, which may be taken on the wing, or procured upon the ground, consists of small mammals and birds, insects, snakes, lizards, frogs, or even crabs and fruit, the creatures not devoured at once being impaled on thorns or spiky leaves. The larders are usually near the nest, which is a bulky mass of twigs, grass, and the like, with a softer lining, placed in a thick bush or fairly high up a tree; the four to seven eggs vary from green to reddish-buff or whitish, and are spotted, blotched, and generally zoned, with brown, red, olive, green, or a little grey. Sometimes the male incubates. The usual note is harsh and grating, but shriller cries or sweeter songs are not uncommon, while certain species are good mimics. Pellets of the indigestible portions of the food are ejected after eating, as in Birds of prey, and elsewhere.

Sub-fam. 5. Prionopinae.–The "Wood-Shrikes" are usually dull in colour, though some have the normal browns, greys, and blacks relieved by bright chestnut, fawn, or yellowish-white, and several are black and white, or uniform black. They frequent trees and bushes, and eat molluscs and fruit; but live chiefly upon insects captured on the branches or on the ground, if not by darting into the air from a perch. Their flight, rapid but short, is commonly performed with quivering wings; they hop easily upon the ground; while their notes take the form of a rather pleasing Thrush-like song or a harsh chatter. The slight, loose nest, built in a low fork, in the hollow of a stump, or even on a rocky ledge, is made of moss, grass, bark, roots, wool, feathers, lichens, cobwebs, or downy seeds; the three eggs being white, greenish, or buff, often with brown, black, and grey blotches, dashes, freckles, or zones.

Grallina, the "Magpie-Lark" of Australia and New Guinea, doubtfully placed here, possesses vocal organs abnormal for an Oscinine bird.[288] Graceful and tame, it frequents homesteads, stream-sides, and swamps, having a heavy, flapping flight, uttering a shrill, plaintive whistle, and plastering a nest of mud and grass on some horizontal bough. The three or four eggs are white or pinkish, marked or zoned with red, brown, and lilac.

The Helmet-bird of Madagascar (Euryceros prevosti), a purplish-black {536}and chestnut species, with a compressed, swollen and hooked steel-blue beak exhibiting a pearly interior, should perhaps stand in a separate Family, Eurycerotidae, and not with the Shrikes.

Fam. XVII. VIREONIDAE.–The small group of "Greenlets" ranges from Winnipeg and Nova Scotia to Argentina. The compressed or depressed beak varies from stout and strongly hooked, as in Vireolanius and Cyclorhis, to small and comparatively weak as in Hylophilus; both mandibles being notched, and the gape bristly. The metatarsi are usually short and robust with slightly united anterior toes, but are longer and more feeble in Vireo; the wings may be elongated and pointed, as in Vireosylvia, or abbreviated and roundish, as in Vireo and Neochloe; the tail is normally short and even, with narrow feathers, but is rounded in Neochloe. The frontal feathers are somewhat erect. The coloration is olive, or green and grey above–with a black, brown, ashy, or reddish cap–and is grey, whitish, or yellow beneath; the wing frequently exhibits white bands, and the head white, dusky, or rufous stripes. White or yellow orbital rings occur in Lanivireo, a red-brown tail in Hylophilus ochraceiceps, a blue crown in Vireolanius pulchellus, a chestnut pectoral band in V. melitophrys. The bill and feet are sometimes red; the eyes white, red, or yellow. The sexes frequently differ in colour.

These active and fearless birds inhabit forests up to an altitude of ten thousand feet, as well as ravines, swamps, or even streets of towns; they are usually observed in pairs among the higher branches of trees, creeping and hanging to the twigs, or chasing one another about in play. Seldom do they seek the ground, but they take fairly long flights, and dart out after passing insects, which, with the larvae and a few berries and seeds, form the diet. The continuous song consists of loud, reiterated, flute-like notes, supposed in one case to resemble "Whip-Tom-Kelly"; some forms also utter harsher chirps or mews. The nest, a deep, firm cup of leaves, grass, bark, lichens, spiders'-webs and cottony materials, lined with fibres, fir-needles, delicate stems, or rarely down, is supported by some horizontal fork, over which the rim is commonly turned; the four or five eggs are white, generally spotted with red-brown, black, or purplish.

Fam. XVIII. SITTIDAE.–The Nuthatches, though closely allied to the Paridae, show a certain affinity to the Certhiidae (p. 571). Typically they are stout little birds with long, pointed wings, and short nearly square tails; the bill is fairly long and strong, and is straight and awl-like, being notched only in Sitella and Hypositta, and slightly upcurved in the former.

{537}[Illustration: FIG. 120.–Nuthatch. Sitta caesia. × 4/11. (From Natural History of Selborne.)]

Bristles usually occur at the gape, while the nostrils are concealed by the same or feathers. The metatarsi are short and powerful, the scutes being fused in Hypositta; the hind toe is unusually developed; the claws are long, curved, and sharp. The colours in Sitta, which ranges over nearly all the Palaearctic and Indian Regions, and throughout North America to Mexico, are slaty-blue and rusty-red of various shades, relieved by black and white; the slaty tints shewing chiefly above, often in combination with a black or brown cap. Dendrophila and Callisitta, of the Indian Region and Timor, are blue and black, with creamy or ochreous lower parts. Sitella, of Australia and New Guinea, exhibits brown, grey, black, rufous, and white, often having a white head, or a rusty or white wing-patch; Daphoenositta, of the latter country, adds to these hues pink at the base of the bill and on the graduated tail; Hypositta of Madagascar is greenish-blue, with browner head and under surface, and coral-red bill.

{538}Nuthatches are quiet, non-migratory birds, which frequent forests or open country with old timber, where they may be seen darting quickly from tree to tree with undulating flight, or creeping jerkily in Tit-like fashion up and down the trunks or over rocks. They seldom seek their food upon the ground, but search every cranny, and dig in rotten wood for insects, their larvae, and so forth, or collect nuts, acorns, beech-mast, and seeds; while the nuts are cracked by fixing them in chinks and hammering them with the whole weight of the body, which swings backwards and forwards from the hip-joint. In winter they are exceedingly tame. The spring call is a noisy, querulous "whit-whit," recalling that of the Wryneck, but sibilant sounds and sweeter cries are not uncommon, few persons being aware that the British species (Sitta caesia) has at least four sets of notes, one of which is very Thrush-like. Sitella has a weak, piping voice. In England the nesting-cavity is usually chosen in a tree, but occasionally in a wall, haystack, or the like; this is commonly lined with scales from conifer trunks, and the entrance blocked up with a plaster of clay pierced by a round hole: abroad, however, holes in rocks are often utilized, and nests made of moss, bark, hair, and feathers. The Indian species do not always plaster up their holes, and the American apparently never do so. Sitella forms a curious funnel-shaped nest with a very thin rim, in forks or on branches, using as materials bark, moss, down, cobwebs, and lichens, the bark being applied externally like shingles. The three or four greenish or bluish-white eggs, with blackish, grey, or lilac markings, are very unlike those of Sitta, which are white, with fine pinkish-red and lilac spots or blotches, and number from five to eight.

Fam. XIX. PARIDAE.–The Tits usually have a moderate and slightly decurved bill, though it is elongated in Sphenostoma and Certhiparus, abbreviated with roundish outline in Acredula, Psaltria, and Psaltriparus, more pointed in Aegithalus and Auriparus; the maxilla having little trace of a notch, or the gape of bristles. The metatarsi are short, except in Acredula, where the legs are longer and the scales tend to fuse; the robust front toes are partially united, and possess strong claws. The wings are rounded and abbreviated, especially in Aegithalus; the tail varies considerably, being short and nearly square in Parus, long and graduated in Acredula and Psaltriparus, intermediate in Psaltria and Sphenostoma, and emarginate in Aegithalus. The nostrils, generally hidden {539}by bristly feathers, are exposed in Xerophila and Sphenostoma. Crests occur in the last-named and at times in Parus.

The colour of the soft, lax plumage is commonly dull; but Parus may be glossy greenish-black and yellow, as in the Sultan-bird (P. sultaneus); black with white on the wings, tail, or lower parts, as in P. niger and a few other African species; blue and white, with a little black and grey or a yellow fore-neck, as in P. cyanus and P. flavipectus; blue, black, greenish, yellow, and white, as in the British Great and Blue Tits (P. major and P. caeruleus); olive, brown, or grey, varied with black, white, chestnut, or buff, as in our Crested Tit (P. cristatus); or lastly, the tints while including but little yellow or blue, as in our Coal and Marsh Tits (P. britannicus and P. palustris), may be greyish or olive on the back, with a black head, white cheeks, and buffish-white under parts, the former species having a white nuchal patch. Psaltria is brown, grey, white, and buff; Psaltriparus is similar; Xerophila and Sphenostoma are brown, with yellowish-white, buff, or brown and white lower surface; Certhiparus is red-brown, with a grey nape and dull white breast. Acredula, containing the Long-tailed Tits, is black and white with a more or less pronounced rosy wash, or may be rufous, or brown and grey, with pinkish or fawn under parts, two species having chestnut heads. Aegithalus and Auriparus are rufous-brown, yellow-green, or greyish above, with black and white, orange-red, or yellow heads; and are commonly rufous and white, yellow, or whitish below, occasionally with bay marks. The sexes are very similar, the young often yellower.

Titmice are ordinarily non-migratory, Parus occupying most of the globe, except South America and the Australian Region east of Lombok and Flores; Psaltria is confined to Java, Acredula to the Palaearctic and Indian countries, Aegithalus to {540}the same with the Ethiopian Region, Psaltriparus and Auriparus to North America, Xerophila and Sphenostoma to Australia, Certhiparus to New Zealand.

These familiar birds, active and often noisy, are found in flat or hilly, open or wooded districts, up to an altitude of ten thousand feet or more. They are decidedly arboreal, seldom frequenting the ground, and usually combining into flocks, except when breeding. The food consists mainly of insects, their eggs, larvae, and pupae, but at times of conifer-seeds, acorns, beech-mast, nuts, and the like; while in winter a suspended meat-bone, fat, or crumbs, prove great attractions. No doubt a certain amount of fruit is eaten in summer, and buds are plucked in spring; but the latter commonly contain injurious grubs. The Great Tit will kill smaller birds. The flight is weak and undulating, but on the trees the birds hop, climb, cling head downwards, and pry into the crannies in most workman-like style. Xerophila is, however, more terrestrial. The sharp reiterated notes are varied by sibilant sounds, those of the Blue Tit being fairly representative; yet some are harsher; others, as in the Long-tailed Tits, softer; while certain Crested Tits are credited with a song. The nest is normally a mass of moss–and sometimes grass–with a felted lining of wool, hair, or fur, containing from five or six to twelve or more white eggs, which are in most cases spotted or freckled with various shades of red, but rarely with purplish or chocolate-colour. Sometimes more than one is laid in a day. The fabric is placed in holes in trees, stumps, rocks, walls, or the ground; pumps, post-boxes, and so forth are frequently selected: nooks behind loose bark, deserted habitations of other birds, or the foundations of those of Hawks and Crows are sometimes chosen; while Sphenostoma, and occasionally Xerophila, build open nests in shrubs. Acredula, Aegithalus, and Psaltriparus make a purse-shaped structure with an entrance near the top; the first-named, thence called Bottle-Tit, placing it in hedges, bushes, undergrowth, forks of trees, or even ivy, and using as materials, moss, wool, lichens, and cobwebs, with a thick feather-lining; the two latter generally suspend it to branches and fashion it of grass, fibres, and leaves, often adding twigs externally or down internally. Aegithalus occasionally makes a tubular passage. Auriparus deposits in a similar or bulkier nest pale bluish or greenish eggs with red-brown specks, while those of Sphenostoma are blue with blackish {541}markings. Acredula apparently incubates with its tail over its back. The hen's bravery when sitting, her hissing challenge, and her speedy return when driven off, are characteristic of Tits.

Fam. XX. PANURIDAE.–Family rank is now pretty generally accorded to Panurus biarmicus, the "Bearded Tit" or "Reed-Pheasant," though its affinities are still doubtful. Dr. Gadow,[289] judging from the internal structure, inclines to the view that it is akin to the Finches, but others place it next to the Tits. The bill is short, curved, rather conical, and without a notch; the metatarsus is long and scutellated anteriorly; the wings are short and rounded, the tail is extremely long and graduated. The plumage is orange-brown above, with a grey crown and a black streak from the lores down the cheeks, where the feathers are elongated and point backwards; the wings are varied with black and white; the throat is greyish, the breast pinkish; the abdomen coloured like the back; the under tail-coverts are black, the bill is yellow. The hen has a buff head, while she lacks the black "moustache" and under tail-coverts.

This pretty species, which ranges through most of Europe, except Scandinavia and Northern Russia, and reaches Central Asia, may be seen to advantage on the Norfolk Broads, where it is resident, and still breeds in diminished numbers. In windy weather the separate pairs keep hidden, but at other times, though shy, a quiet observer may see them flitting above the reeds, uttering their clear "ping-ping," or clinging to the flowering tops. Insects and small molluscs, with seeds in winter, constitute the food. From April to August a nest of broad grasses, sedges, and the like, lined with reed-flowers, or exceptionally with vegetable-down, {542}is built in aquatic herbage, or rarely in moderately high plants, to contain the round creamy eggs with sparing brownish-black lines and scrawls. These number from four to eight, or even ten, should two hens lay together. The alarm-note is plaintive. Towards autumn the adults and young form large flocks.

Fam. XXI. ORIOLIDAE.–The Old World Orioles, not to be confounded with the so-called "American Orioles" (Icteridae), inhabit the Palaearctic, Indian, and Australian Regions, reaching eastward to Turkestan, China, and Papuasia. The bill is strong, rather long, straight, and notched, or, in Sphecotheres, curved; the metatarsus is short, the toes are small, the wings are long, the tail is moderate and slightly rounded. Sphecotheres has naked lores and orbits. The Golden Oriole (O. galbula) which breeds exceptionally in England, is orange-yellow, with black lores and mainly black wings and tail; the similar Indian Mango-bird (O. kundoo), has a black post-ocular streak; other species shew black napes or heads. O. viridis and its allies are olive-yellow or brownish, often with dusky streaks, O. steerii being white beneath with broad black stripes; O. cruentus is blue-black, with crimson wing-bar and mid-breast; O. ardens chiefly crimson, with black head and fore-neck; O. trailli maroon, with black head, throat, and wings; O. hosii black, with {543}chestnut under tail-coverts. The bill is crimson, pinkish, or bluish. Sphecotheres is yellow-green or olive-yellow, at times brighter below, and is relieved by black, grey, and white, the orbits being yellowish or flesh-coloured, the bill blackish.

These shy, restless, and quarrelsome birds frequent gardens, groves, and mangrove swamps, avoiding the ground, flying heavily but swiftly from tree to tree, and hopping among the higher branches. They eat insects and fruit; and utter flute-like notes, varied by mewing calls or "churrs" of alarm. The nest is a pocket of bark, grass, and fibres, with the rim woven over two forking twigs–leaves, moss, and hair being occasionally added. The three to five white or salmon-coloured eggs have dark purplish or brown-pink spots, and more rarely streaks; those of Oriolus viridis being more dusky with brown and lilac markings. Sphecotheres maxillaris makes a shallow nest of twigs, and lays three olive or green eggs, blotched or zoned with red-brown.[290]

Fam. XXII. PARADISEIDAE.–The Birds of Paradise have no rivals in splendour, unless it be the Humming-birds, among which, however, there is no such marvellous development of accessory plumes. They are undoubtedly allied to the Corvidae, as is evidenced in particular by Lycocorax and Manucodia, while these also connect the more typical forms with the comparatively plainly garbed Bower-birds, often placed in a separate Family, Ptilorhynchidae. Few species are as large as Crows, and some are not bigger than Thrushes. Whether known to earlier traders or not, the first undoubted account of Birds of Paradise published in Europe was that of Maximilianus Transylvanus (1523), followed by that of Antonio Pigafetta, both relating to a couple of birds brought by Magellan's company from Batchian,[291] where they were called Manukdewata, or "Birds of the gods." Natives when preserving the skins used to cut off the wings and the feet, a fact which gave rise to absurd stories of Paradise-birds (Paradisea apoda) never perching, gazing perpetually at the sun (passaros de sol), suspending themselves by the tail-feathers, and so forth. The hen was also said to lay her eggs on the back of her spouse.

{544}[Illustration: FIG. 124.–D'Albertis' Bird of Paradise. Drepanornis albertisi. × ⅖. (From Nature).]

The bill is usually short and stout, but is Crow-like in Manucodia and Lycocorax, long and decurved in Ptilorhis, Paryphephorus, Ianthothorax, Seleucides, and Falcinellus, and becomes slender and sickle-shaped in Drepanornis; the maxilla is in some cases notched, and in Scenopoeetes bidentate. The metatarsi are strong and fairly long, the outer and middle toes are slightly united, and the hallux is large. The wings are moderate or short, being especially rounded in Bower-birds; the tail may be enormously elongated and graduated, as in both sexes of Falcinellus, Astrapia, and Paradigalla; less graduated and shorter, as in Drepanornis; of medium length, {545}and square or rounded, as in many forms; or much abbreviated, as in Cicinnurus. Astrapia stephaniae has the two median rectrices concave and decurved over; those feathers in the males of Paradisea, Cicinnurus, Diphyllodes, Schlegelia, Paradisornis, and Uranornis exhibiting more or less wire-like shafts, which terminate in large racquets in Cicinnurus, smaller discs in Paradisornis. They are broader, convex above, wavy, and horny in Uranornis, and are curled outwardly in Diphyllodes and Schlegelia, while they cross each other twice in the last, but once in Cicinnurus. Pteridophora has an extraordinary streamer behind each eye. That these however, are by no means the only remarkable developments, will be seen from the following descriptions of the most striking species, all of which are confined to Papuasia and Australia, except the Moluccan genera Semioptera and Lycocorax. The feathering often extends over part of the bill.

Manucodia and Phonygammus are the only Passerine birds known to have a convoluted trachea.[292]

Ptilorhis paradisea, the Rifleman-bird,[293] is velvety-black with a purple gloss, having the head, throat, and median rectrices green, the abdomen bronzy; the crown-feathers are scale-like, and the silky flank-plumes considerably elongated. P. magnifica is somewhat similarly coloured, with a stiff pectoral shield of metallic green; Ianthothorax and Paryphephorus, with erectile nuchal collars, are near allies. Seleucides ignotus the Twelve-wired Bird of Paradise, which has six long, recurved and filiform appendages to the lax, projecting feathers of each side, is black, with purplish head, wings, and tail, bronzy back, broad erectile breast-plumes margined with emerald, yellow sides and belly. Drepanornis albertisi is rufous-brown, with green throat and ante-ocular region, white belly and dusky breast; the sides of the last exhibit dark-edged bronzy plumes, which can be expanded like a fan, succeeded by long grey decomposed feathers with lilac margins; and small bluish tufts surmount the bare orbits and post-ocular region. Falcinellus speciosus is black with rainbow-like reflexions; the broad plumes of the sides of the upper breast being banded with metallic blue and green, and having wide tips which open upwards into a fan; while the long pointed flank-feathers compose similarly coloured tufts.

{546}[Illustration: FIG. 125.–Long-tailed Bird of Paradise. Falcinellus speciosus. × ⅐. (From Malay Archipelago.)]

Astrapia nigra, the Paradise-Pie of old authors, is bronzy-black above and green below, with golden-green occiput and nape, purplish black throat, coppery fore-neck, and violet tail, the feathers round the head forming an erectile frill. A. stephaniae has the head and neck bluer, the breast purplish-bronze. The smaller A. splendidissima has a more brilliant nape-region, red fore-neck, and much buff on the tail. Macgregoria pulchra is black, with mainly orange-buff primaries, and an orange wattle covering most of the face. Paradigalla carunculata is black, with green and bronzy sheen above; the front of the head being naked, with three wattles on each side–one broad and yellow above the bill, another moderate and blue at the gape, a third small and red below it. Paradisea apoda, the Great Bird of Paradise, is rich brown, becoming purplish beneath; the head and neck are pale yellow, the forehead, lores, cheeks, and throat metallic green. The wiry median rectrices have very slight apical and basal webs, while long, thick, extensile tufts of delicate decomposed golden-orange feathers, tipped with brown, grace the sides. Of its congeners, P. minor has the mantle straw-coloured; P. raggiana has a light yellow gorget, and red lateral plumes like those of P. (Uranornis) rubra, the Red Bird of Paradise. P. (Paradisornis) rudolphi is greenish-blue and dusky above, with blackish head, neck, and under surface, and a purplish occipital patch. From the sides of the body spring two series of elongated, decomposed feathers; the outer and stiffer being ultramarine, changing terminally to lilac with a brown external tinge, the inner smaller and deeper blue. Below these come a row of short chestnut plumes and finally a set of black. The two long median rectrices are violet-black with small blue racquet-tips.

{547}[Illustration: FIG. 126.–Magnificent Bird of Paradise. Diphyllodes magnifica. × 3/7. (From Malay Archipelago.)]

Cicinnurus regius, the King Bird of Paradise, hardly seven inches long, is glossy crimson, with a metallic green band dividing the throat from the white lower parts. An expansible fan of ashy plumes tipped with emerald arises from each side, while the long median tail-wires have the terminal green inner webs coiled into discs. The feathering reaches far down the orange bill; the feet are cobalt, contrasting with the black, yellowish, or fleshy tints usual in the Family. Diphyllodes gulielmi tertii is orange-red with mainly dusky wings and tail; the long nuchal ruff being orange, the lateral neck-tufts purplish-brown, the pectoral shield green edged with emerald, the long side-plumes brown with green ends, the belly purple. D. magnifica has a brown head and under surface, green throat and breast-shield, orange-brown back surmounted by a double cape of straw-yellow upon red-brown, and long, curved steel-blue tail-wires. Schlegelia respublica is remarkable for its naked blue head, with two lines of brown feathers crossing each other at right angles, and for its blue feet. The upper parts are successively green, yellow, crimson, black, and brown; the silky gular shield is green, with metallic blue spots above and coppery marks below; the lateral breast-plumes shew coppery and green hues. Parotia sexpennis, the Six-wired Bird of Paradise, is bronzy- and purplish-black, having scale-like golden throat- and breast-feathers with green and blue reflexions. A satiny white {548}patch crosses the forehead; the occiput is green, blue, and purple, having two lateral tufts, from each of which spring three wires terminating in small black discs; while large, soft, erectile masses of black adorn each side of the body. Semioptera wallacii, the Standard-wing, is mouse-coloured, with somewhat bronzy back and violet head; the pectoral feathers have green edges; the green shield on the fore-neck extends in lateral tufts to the flanks; and two long, narrow white plumes, erected at will, adorn the bend of each wing. Lophorhina superba is black, with blue, green, and bronzy gloss on the head and neck; the bluish-green breast-shield is prolonged at the sides, and a metallic black erectile ruff graces the nape. Lamprothorax has coppery, green, purple, rosy, and brownish hues, and two long blue-green median rectrices. Phonygammus jamesi is purplish-violet, with blue-green head, under surface, lanceolate neck-feathers, and acuminate occipital tufts. The extraordinary Pteridophora alberti possesses a wonderful streamer behind each eye, twice as long as the body. This has, on the outer side only, about thirty-seven thin quadrangular enamel-like lobes, which are light blue with dusky backs. The plumage is black, with olive rump-region and ochraceous lower parts, the head and neck shewing elongated plumes.

Manucodia atra is steel-green and black, with purple reflexions; M. (Eucorax) comrii has the head and neck-feathers curly, M. chalybeata those of the fore-neck. The Crow-like Lycocorax pyrrhopterus is greenish-black with brown wings; Xanthomelus aureus is orange-yellow, and has a deeper-coloured crested head and neck, black throat, tail, and part of wings and back, and a cape of hackled plumes falling over the last.

Of the Bower-birds, Prionodura newtoniana is bright orange, olive, and brown; Cnemophilus macgregori is golden-yellow above and black below, with brownish wings and tail; the thin recurved {549}crest merging into a compressed frontal ridge, whence chestnut feathering extends over the culmen. Loria loriae is chiefly purplish-black with an iridescent violet nasal shield of scale-like feathers. Loboparadisea sericea is rufous-brown and yellow, with a wattle, apparently bluish, extending upwards from the gape on each side. Amblyornis inornata and A. subalaris are respectively olive and reddish-brown, with a huge orange-red crest. A. flavifrons has the crest yellower. Sericulus melinus, the Regent-bird, is black, with orange head, neck, and most of the remiges; Ptilorhynchus violaceus, the Satin-bird, is purplish-black, with much feathered culmen; Scenopoeetes dentirostris is olive-brown above, and fulvous with dusky streaks below. Aeluredus viridis, the Cat-bird, not to be confounded with that of America (p. 519), is bright green, with a blue wash on the back, and with white streaks, bars, or spots on the nape, wings, tail, and yellowish under parts. Other species of the genus have mainly black or brown heads, while some have white throats with black markings. Chlamydodera nuchalis has grey-brown plumage above with whitish tips, a lilac nuchal band backed by stiff feathers, and a yellow-grey lower surface.

Female Paradise-birds generally have brown upper parts with lighter markings, though they are occasionally blacker, as in Astrapia {550}and Paradigalla; below the colour is rufous, buff, grey, yellowish or white, with bars, stripes, or chevrons of blackish or brown. In the female of Schlegelia the bare head is duller than in the male, while a little red and gold shews above; the hen of Ptilorhynchus exhibits grey-green and brown tints; the sexes are almost alike in Phonygammus, Manucodia, Lycocorax, and Aeluredus; in Paradisornis the female has blue wings and tail. Young birds usually resemble their mother; but with regard to their progress to maturity, the elongation and abrasion of the webs of the median rectrices, and the growth of the decorative tufts, the works of Mr. Wallace,[294] Dr. Guillemard,[295] and Mr. Rothschild[296] should be consulted.

Except in the Bower-birds the habits vary but little. Paradise-birds are lively and active, shy though curious, taking refuge in the thick foliage when disturbed; small flocks are not unfrequently observed, usually of one species, while for considerable periods the males appear to live apart. Closely wooded hills and ravines are the chief resorts, Falcinellus, Astrapia, Lophorhina, Diphyllodes, and the like preferring the inland heights of New Guinea up to an altitude of about nine thousand feet; Parotia of that country and Scenopoeetes of Queensland range to about four thousand feet; but such forms as Cicinnurus, Xanthomelus, Phonygammus, Ptilorhis, and the Australian Cat-birds and Bower-birds, occupy lower elevations on the coast or elsewhere. Falcinellus, Astrapia, Paradisea, Parotia, Ptilorhis, Sericulus, and doubtless others, love high tree-tops; Semioptera, Cicinnurus, and so forth, live nearer to the ground. The brief flight is rapid, though undulating and often heavy; in Cicinnurus it is noisy, in Ptilorhis the sound produced resembles the rustling of silk. Most species hop constantly about the boughs; Paradigalla often rests on dead trees; Drepanornis, Seleucides, Semioptera, and Ptilorhis, search under the bark for insects, and move about like Creepers. The pugnacious males of Paradisea collect to "dance" on favourite trees at the breeding season, when they fly about with elevated and vibrating plumes; while in the Family generally the cock courts the hen in Pigeon-like fashion, Diphyllodes making meanwhile a complete circle of its expanded mantle- and throat-plumes. Parotia scratches and rolls in the dust like a Fowl.

The voice may be a shrill reiterated "wake-wake," as in Paradisea; a harsh or sonorous cry, as in Falcinellus, Chlamydodera, {551}Phonygammus, Ptilorhynchus, Sericulus, Seleucides, and Semioptera; a long, grating or triple sound, as in Ptilorhis; a mewing or flute-like note, as in Cicinnurus; or a sharp whistle, as in Aeluredus; the last-named and Amblyornis being especially excellent mimics. The diet consists largely of berries, seeds, fruits of Pandanus, and Freycinetia, the fig, nutmeg, and so forth; frogs, lizards, worms, snails, and caterpillars, however, are also eaten; insects are in great request; and Seleucides sucks honey from the flowers. The nest and eggs of several species have now been discovered; the former being a loose, open fabric of sticks and leaves in Ptilorhis, Ptilorhynchus, Sericulus, and Phonygammus; or of twigs, roots, moss, and grass in Eucorax, Chlamydodera, Prionodura, Aeluredus, and Drepanornis; it is placed in bushes, if not in low or even high trees. The eggs are glossy reddish-buff, with dark rufous or chestnut blotches and streaks, and a few black spots, in Paradisea apoda, P. augustae victoriae, P. raggiana, and Ptilorhis victoriae; similar or whiter, often with purplish or purplish-grey markings in Eucorax, Manucodia, and Drepanornis cervinicauda; yellower with additional wavy scrolling in Ptilorhynchus violaceus; yellowish-grey with pale brown freckles and blotches in Prionodura newtoniana; bluish or greenish-white, with or without red-brown dots and lines, in Aeluredus maculosus and Ae. viridis; greenish-white with a network of narrow brown and black lines in Chlamydodera maculata and C. cerviniventris; pale lavender with sienna and lilac spots and scrawls in Sericulus melinus. The number of eggs found varies from one to three.

Parotia lawesi, Aeluredus viridis and Scenopoeetes dentirostris, though not said to form bowers, make clear spaces where from six to eight males meet to sport, the last two species decorating them with green or coloured leaves, berries, and flowers. Prionodura fashions a bower or play-place of from four to six feet high by eight broad, piling sticks round two trees and roofing over the intervening space with creepers; white moss, ferns, and green fruit serving as ornaments. Small structures of over-arching grass capped with twigs are often observable close by. Amblyornis inornata heaps a cone of moss round a sapling, leaving a circular gallery between this and an outer conical cover of sticks two feet high, covered with orchid sprays. Before the entrance lies a bed of green moss decked with bright flowers and berries, which are renewed daily, the withered decorations being piled at {552}the back. A. subalaris fashions a domed bower of sticks and moss, with one or two openings, round a shrub which is itself entwined with twigs; the centre of the floor shewing a cheese-like mass of moss ornamented with flowers and seeds. Sericulus melinus builds a run about a foot long on a platform of sticks, composing it of arched twigs and decorating it with shells, berries, and leaves. Ptilorhynchus violaceus makes a like structure of twigs and grass, which scarcely meet above, and adorns it with bright feathers; scattering other feathers, bones, shells, rags, berries, and the like over the space which Bower-birds habitually clear in front. In Chlamydodera nuchalis the similar bower, about three feet long, is lined with grasses, a large heap of ornaments lying before each entrance.

Paradise-birds are shot with blunt arrows, snared, caught in nets, in cloths, or with bird-lime; they have been kept in captivity by the Zoological Society of London, and in Italy.

Fam. XXIII. CORVIDAE.–The Crows and their kin compose a fairly uniform tribe, often divided into the Sub-families Corvinae (Crows), Garrulinae (Magpies and Jays), and Fregilinae (Choughs).

The bill is generally stout and fairly straight, with no distinct notch, being very strong in Corvultur and Corvus corax, but more or less curved in Gazzola, Microcorax, Macrocorax, Urocissa, Garrulus, Callaeas (Glaucopis), Struthidea, and Pyrrhocorax; while in the last-named and Heterocorax it is exceptionally long and slender, and in Nucifraga subulate and of diverse proportions. The metatarsus is usually strong; the wings are long and pointed in Crows and Choughs, shorter in Jays and Magpies, and decidedly rounded in Corcorax, Callaeas, and Struthidea. The variable tail is very long and much graduated in Pica, Cyanopica, Urocissa, Cryptorhina, Dendrocitta, Crypsirhina, Cissa, and Calocitta, the two median rectrices often exceeding the others; but it is usually moderate, though at the same time graduated in some Jays.

Crests occur in Cyanocitta, Platysmurus, Cyanocorax, Uroleuca, and Calocitta, those of the last two being recurved, and Calocitta having the plumes widened; sometimes the crown-feathers are dense and erectile, as in Garrulus. The head of Picathartes is bare and yellow, with a broad black patch behind each eye; Gymnocorax shews a large yellowish or whitish naked space on the face; the adult Rook (Corvus frugilegus) has whitish skin over the forehead, lores, and throat; in C. pastinator the throat is feathered. Pica mauritanica has a blue, and the yellow-billed {553}P. nuttalli a yellow, ear-patch; Cissa a fleshy vermilion orbital outgrowth; Callaeas an orange rictal wattle with blue base in one species, a blue wattle in the other.

This Family occupies nearly all the globe, except the Australian Region east of the Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, and New Zealand; while the members are less plentiful in America, and from Panama to Uruguay only a few genera akin to the Jay occur. The sexes are similar, the young usually duller.

True Crows are generally black with a purplish or greenish gloss, and frequently with white at the base of the feathers; some, however, are browner, while the silvery-grey hind-neck of the Jackdaw and the grey back and lower parts of the "Hooded" Crow are well known. The Chinese Corvus torquatus and the Ethiopian C. scapulatus have white collars behind, and white on the breast; in Gazzola of Celebes that colour extends further; but the African Corvultur has the white collar only. The throat sometimes exhibits hackles, and in the Antillean Microcorax leucognaphalus the feathers have hair-like extremities. Our visitor the Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) is brown, with whitish dorsal and pectoral spots, and blackish quills; three or four other species of the genus, with most variable bills, inhabit conifer woods in the Palaearctic Region; and a near ally (Picicorvus columbianus) those of the western Rocky Mountains. Choughs (Pyrrhocorax), which occur in the Palaearctic and the extreme north of the Ethiopian Region, are glossy black, with brilliant red feet, and red or yellow bill.

Pica rustica, the well-known Magpie, needs no description, nor do its black and white congeners, P. mauritanica, distinguished by a naked blue spot behind the eye, and P. nuttalli with this spot and the beak yellow. P. rustica extends through the Palaearctic Region, and reaches Formosa and North America; the other species are found respectively in Algeria and Morocco and in California. Platysmurus aterrimus of Borneo, and Temnurus truncatus of Cochin China are instances of uniform glossy black forms in this section; Psilorhinus, from the centre of America, is a dull brown Jay. Cyanopica cooki, of Southern Spain, represented in Eastern Asia and Japan by C. cyana, is a blue Magpie, having cobalt wings and tail, an ashy body, and a black head; while the Indo-Chinese and Sumatran genus, Dendrocitta, shews brown, orange, buff, and grey tints, mingled with black and usually white. Cissa contains three species from India, Burma, {554}Sumatra, and Java, of lovely green and blue, or cobalt and ultramarine hues, with some red-brown on the wing, a white tip to the tail, coral-red bill and feet, and–in two cases–a black nape. Our soft-plumaged Jay (Garrulus glandarius), with its black and white crest and wings, black tail, reddish-fawn upper and buff under parts, and patch of blue, white and black bars on the wing-coverts, may represent a genus ranging over the Palaearctic Region, and through the Himalayas, to the Burmese districts and Formosa. In Japan alone four species are found. Aphelocoma and Calocitta of the central parts of the New World; the Blue Jays (Cyanocitta) of North America; Urocissa, a Magpie with red or yellow bill and feet, from India, Burma, and China; and the Central and South American Cyanocorax, all shew more blue than Garrulus, not uncommonly on the under surface. Perisoreus infaustus, the Siberian Jay, is brown, grey, and olive, with much chestnut on the wings, tail, and abdomen, its congeners being plain brown, grey, and white. Lastly, Xanthura luxuosa, the Green Jay of South Texas and Mexico, is green, with yellow on the abdomen and lateral rectrices, and a black and blue head; some species of the genus, which reaches southwards to Venezuela and Bolivia, having the lower surface entirely yellow or black, and others being almost blue with black on the head.

The habits of the cunning voracious Crows, the gregarious Rooks, the astute but bold Magpies and Jackdaws, and the more shy or retiring Jays and Choughs are well known; yet the habit of posting sentinels in the Rook, the tumbling in mid-air of that bird, the Raven, and the Jackdaw, the scolding pursuit of intruders by Magpies and Jays, and the breaking of clams, bones, and the like by dropping them from aloft, by the Raven, Carrion-Crow, and Corvus caurinus require passing mention.

{555}[Illustration: FIG. 130.–Raven. Corvus corax. × 3/17.]

Crows generally inhabit wooded country, but also bare moorlands or sea-coasts; the Nutcracker requires pine-forests–commonly at considerable elevations; and Magpies haunt woods, yet not so invariably as Jays. The whole Family hop, and most forms, except perhaps Jays, walk or run also. All are active birds and fly well, the Chough, Jay, and Nutcracker in more undulating fashion: while soaring is a common practice. Ravens have very deep voices, and croak, "bark," or "grunt"; Jackdaws utter a clear jake-jake; Choughs a ringing, metallic note or a hoarse "chough-chough"; Nutcrackers a "churr-churr"; Magpies a continuous rattle or "chatter." Jays vary their harsh, grating utterances by mimicking other species, the American Blue Jays being notorious adepts, and exhibiting meanwhile fantastic contortions of the head, wings, and tail. Many species, such as Ravens, Magpies, and Jackdaws, learn to imitate sounds when tamed. The Corvidae {556}are almost omnivorous, Ravens and other strong species even attacking weakly ewes or lambs, and preying on small mammals, birds, and reptiles; Hooded and Carrion Crows, Rooks, Magpies. Jackdaws, and Jays suck eggs; while Rooks, though undoubtedly beneficial, also grub up seed-corn and potatoes. An immense amount of insect-life is, however, destroyed, and the larger forms dispose of carrion; the American Corvus ossifragus and C. corone, moreover, will catch living fish. Magpies and Jays feed largely upon the ground, and eat slugs, snails, worms, insects, nuts, acorns, grain, seeds of conifers, and other fruits; Nutcrackers devour quantities of the last; Corvus tropicus, Macrocorax, and Gymnocorax relish fruit. Jays store provisions, and Jackdaws pick insects off cattle. The nests of Crows and Nutcrackers are bulky structures of sticks, lined with soft materials; the rough domed fabric of the Magpie is neatly lined with roots upon a layer of clay; the slighter nests of Choughs and Jays are inlaid with roots and fibres–more rarely with moss, hair, or wool–and every variety is found between these limits. The larger species build in forks and holes in trees, in crevices of rocks and masonry, or rarely in or on the ground; the Chough never chooses trees; Jays nest comparatively low, and often in bushes. Crows' eggs are normally greenish, mottled with darker green, olive, or brownish, but Heterocorax capensis has them pinkish with red spots, while other Crows, Ravens, and Dendrocitta sometimes shew a similar tint. Jackdaws' eggs are bluish-green or white, with dark olive or black markings interspersed with grey; those of Magpies and Nutcrackers have a like ground-colour with greenish-olive and faint brownish spots respectively; those of Jays are greenish, or even bluish, with close olive-green frecklings or zones, and occasional black scrawls at the larger end; those of Choughs are yellowish-white, with light brown and grey markings. The number laid varies from two or three, to as many as nine in Magpies, but is usually four or five. The hens sit rather closely. Ravens sometimes will even attack man at the nest.

{557}[Illustration: FIG. 131.–Huia. Heterolocha acutirostris. × ⅓. (From Nature.)]

Of genera doubtfully included in the Family, Picathartes of the Gold Coast is slaty-grey, with brown quills, white under parts, and bare yellow head, shewing black behind each eye; it builds among rocks near forest-streams, and feeds upon reptiles and molluscs. The egg is whitish, clouded and dotted with brown. Callaeas (Glaucopis) cinerea, which is blue-grey, with black on the head, and an orange and blue rictal wattle, and its congener C. wilsoni, with entirely blue wattle, inhabit the lower hill-forests of the South and North Islands of New Zealand respectively. They have deep, rich, long-drawn notes, diversified by "cackles," mews, or "bell-like" sounds, the male performing antics when courting. The food consists of fruit, flowers, and insects; the flight is feeble. The large nests of twigs, moss, and grass are placed in trees; the two or three eggs being purplish-grey with brown blotches or frecklings. Corcorax and Struthidea are peculiar to Australia, the former being glossy black with white on the wing, the latter brownish-grey with black tail.[297] Corcorax haunts open forests, brook-sides, and lagoons in little flocks, running about actively, or leaping upon the boughs with motile, outspread tail. The food consists of insects; the note is grating or mournful; while {558}the male courts the female like a Pigeon. The nest, a sort of basin of mud with a straw lining, is fixed on a horizontal branch, and contains from four to seven yellowish-white eggs with olive and purplish-brown markings. Struthidea frequents pine tracts, and has similar habits and nest, the eggs being white with red-brown and grey blotches. In Heteralocha[298] acutirostris, the New Zealand Huia, the female has a remarkably long, curved bill, that of the male being short, stout, and nearly straight. The plumage is greenish-black, with a white-tipped tail; the bill is whitish, the feet are blue-grey, the large rictal wattles orange. This bird frequents wooded gullies in the North Island, seldom flying above the foliage, but bounding or hopping along the ground or upon the branches. Natives attract and noose it by imitating the whistling note. The cock chisels away the decayed bark, and the hen probes the crevices for insects; "huhu" caterpillars and berries varying the main diet. The nest, of dry grass, leaves, and stalks, is placed in hollow trees, the eggs being apparently whitish, with or without brown and grey spots. Creadion carunculatus, the Saddle-back of the same country, is black, with chestnut back, rump, wing- and tail-coverts, and small yellow or red gape-wattles. It haunts wooded hills, hopping actively or moving spirally up the trunks and branches, while the flight is short, rapid, and laboured. The notes may be soft and sweet, or noisy and shrill; the food resembles that of Heteralocha. The nest of dry leaves, ferns, fibres, moss, and bark is built in hollow trees or large ferns, the three or four greyish-white eggs shewing purplish-brown markings.

Podoces includes four desert species, with elongated, strong, curved, and pointed bills; long, stout legs; short, rounded wings; and moderate square tails. The colour is fawn, grey, and brown, generally with black and white wings and black tail; P. hendersoni and P. biddulphi have a black cap, the former shewing white spots on it, P. panderi has a black throat-patch, P. humilis is brown with whitish nape and lower parts. They haunt sand-hills covered with saxaul (Anabasis ammodendron) or tamarisk, from Transcaspia to Tibet, running swiftly, occasionally flying like a Jay, feeding on the ground upon insects, their larvae, and seeds, uttering harsh reiterated Woodpecker-like cries, and making a nest of twigs lined with bark, grass, and hair in low trees, bushes, or rarely holes in the ground. The four eggs are greenish-grey {559}with olive spots. P. humilis frequents more grassy ground up to eleven thousand feet.

Fam. XXIV. STURNIDAE.–The Starlings, apparently connecting the Corvidae and the Icteridae, are divided by Mr. Oates[299] and Dr. Sharpe[300] into Eulabetidae (Tree-Starlings) with rictal bristles, more arboreal habits, and usually spotted eggs, and Sturnidae (Starlings proper) where the contrary holds good.[301] To these Buphaga may be added for the present, in default of a better position.

The bill is generally long and pointed–especially in Sturnopastor,–but is exceptionally slender in Cinnamopterus, shorter and stouter in Basilornis, Buphaga, Pastor, Pholidauges, and Aplonis; being curved in the last three, and also in Fregilupus and Necropsar; where it is longer. The anteriorly scutellated metatarsus is ordinarily strong, and is shortest in the Tree-Starlings. The wing is usually moderate, with small first primary, though it is more elongated and pointed in Sturnus and Dilophus, rounded in Sturnopastor, Temenuchus, and so forth, short in Coccycolius and Buphaga; the secondaries have long filamentous basal appendages in Psaroglossa, and loose hair-like exterior webs in Onychognathus. The tail varies from short to long, from square to much graduated; it is forked in Sturnia, and may have acuminate feathers; while Macruropsar and Lamprotornis possess exceptionally developed rectrices, L. caudatus having the broad median pair longer than the body. Lanceolate feathers commonly adorn the neck and breast; bushy crests occur in Pastor and Temenuchus, smaller tufts in Sturnia, Basilornis, Enodes, Fregilupus, Graculipica, Sturnornis and Acridotheres cristatellus; recurved plumes may cover the nostrils, as in Acridotheres, Ampeliceps, and Basilornis; while bare chins, orbits, or ear-patches of brown, yellow, and the like are frequent. Charitornis has the throat and cheeks naked; Dilophus the head and throat bare, with two erect wattles above and one below; Sarcops dull-red naked orbits, and merely a narrow feathered line down the crown; Eulabes a yellow post-ocular lappet forking to the back of the eye and the eyebrow, and a yellow patch below; Enodes a broad, superciliary wax-like red line; and Scissirostrum similar crimson feathers on the rump.

{560}[Illustration: FIG. 132.–Starling. Sturnus vulgaris. × ½. (From English Illustrated Magazine.)]

Most of the brighter species exhibit purple, coppery, blue and green reflexions, our familiar Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) being iridescent black, with buff marks above, and, after the autumn moult, white spots below. The female is duller, but in this Family the sexes usually differ little. S. unicolor is unspotted. Spodiopsar burmanicus has grey upper and pinkish under parts, with brownish wings and tail, white head, and white-tipped rectrices; Sturnopastor contra is blackish-brown and white above, and greyish beneath, with green-black head and throat and white cheeks; Pastor roseus, which wanders to Britain, is glossy black, with pink back and abdomen; Graculipica melanoptera is almost pure white, with black or bronzy remiges and rectrices. Eulabes religiosa, the Myna,–a name also popularly applied to Acridotheres (sacred to the god Ram Deo) and several other Indian forms,–is black, with purple and green reflexions, and a white patch on the wing-quills; Cinnamopterus tenuirostris is more highly coloured, with mainly chestnut primaries; Melanopyrrhus orientalis adds to its metallic black hue an orange head, neck, rump, and breast; Lamprotornis and the shorter-tailed Lamprocolius exhibit lovely greens, purples, and peacock-blues, relieved by golden-bronze; Coccycolius is golden-green with purple cheeks and abdomen. Pholidauges leucogaster is rich purplish-violet with white belly, {561}the female being brown and buff above, and whitish below with dusky striations; Calornis and Aplonis are usually dullish green; while the extinct Fregilupus varius was ashy-brown, grey, and white. Falculia is white with blue-black back, wings, and tail. It frequents trees or streams, and utters plaintive, melodious notes. Buphaga is dull-brown, with fulvous rump and lower surface. The bill is commonly black throughout the group, but is sometimes red, pinkish, bluish, greenish, orange, or yellow; the feet also vary in colour. Albinos are rather frequent.

This Family occupies almost all the Old World, but not America proper, though Sturnus vulgaris has strayed to Greenland; the headquarters lie in the Indian and Ethiopian Regions, wherein several forms have a very restricted distribution. Instances of this are Charitornis of the Sula Islands, Scissirostrum, Enodes, and Streptocitta of Celebes, Hagiopsar of the Dead Sea and Sinaitic districts, Hartlaubius and Falculia of Madagascar, Sarcops of the Philippines, Mino of Papuasia, Melanopyrrhus and Macruropsar of New Guinea and its islands, Aplonis of the Pacific and the Tenimber group. Fregilupus, of which only a few examples exist in collections, was confined to Réunion, Necropsar is an extinct form from Rodriguez. Calornis alone inhabits Australia.

Lamprotornis, Spodiopsar, and the Eulabetidae in general, rarely leave the trees they haunt; on the other hand, some forms, as our Starling, spend much time upon the ground, or roost in huge flocks on shrubs, reeds, and the like. The habits are wary, and seldom as sociable as those of our British species, hills being often preferred to more wooded districts or the neighbourhood of houses. Aethiopsar reaches an altitude of seven thousand feet. The flight is strong, straight, and rapid, though heavier in Buphaga; while flocks of Starlings turn, sweep along, and gyrate in remarkable fashion, and soaring is not uncommon. The more terrestrial forms walk and run excellently, often stopping suddenly to probe the soil for worms or larvae, which, with insects generally, and molluscs, provide the chief sustenance. A large amount of fruit is also consumed, including berries and seeds; frogs and, as some say, callow nestlings are also devoured; Pastor, Dilophus, and Acridotheres destroy locusts; Eulabes and its allies prefer vegetable food; Buphaga is termed Ox-pecker or Rhinoceros-bird, from clearing ticks off those animals. Certain species disgorge nutriment for their young. The voice is commonly varied and pleasing, becoming {562}a rich song in Eulabes; but most forms whistle, chatter, or utter harsh sounds; and many are extraordinary mimics, or even talk, like the Starling and the Myna, under tuition. By the more typical forms a rough nest of straw, twigs, rags, wool, or feathers is placed in holes in trees, walls, or banks; under eaves; in burrows or stone-heaps: from four to seven uniform light blue or whitish eggs being deposited. Sturnopastor, alone or in societies, affixes a huge structure to the outer branches of trees or bushes; Dilophus makes a neater cup in similar situations; Calornis, which usually forms colonies, suspends from the boughs a bulky bottle-shaped structure with a side-entrance, and so forth. Even our Starling at times builds an open nest. The Eulabetidae generally lay spotted eggs, Dilophus occasionally; Calornis has them greenish with reddish-brown marks.

Fam. XXV. DREPANIDIDAE.–According to the latest views, namely those of Dr. Gadow,[302] this group contains only the curious forms below, which are all peculiar to the Sandwich Islands. In most of them the semi-tubular tongue is dorsally frayed out into a single brush, but in several thick-billed species it is but slightly tubular, and is split or frayed. The non-serrated beak varies greatly, being elongated and arched in Vestiaria; very long and curved with projecting maxilla in Drepanis and Hemignathus; and similar, but with the upcurved or straight mandible only about half as long as the maxilla in Heterorhynchus. In Himatione, Oreomyza, Loxops, Palmeria, Ciridops, and Chrysomitridops it is much shorter and little decurved; in Psittacirostra, Loxioïdes, Chloridops, and Rhodacanthis it is stout, Finch-like, and hooked, being enormously developed in the last two; in the extraordinary Pseudonestor it is Parrot-like. In Loxops the mandible is twisted indifferently to either side, possibly by constant use. Over the nostrils an operculum is often present; but bristles of all kinds are absent. The scutes of the moderate metatarsus shew a tendency to fusion; the wings are of medium length, with a hardly visible outer primary. The tail is rather short and nearly square, having pointed rectrices in Vestiaria and Drepanis; and exhibits a tendency to forking. Fluffy feathering constantly characterizes the back, flanks, or axillary region. There is a more or less {563}decided crop, as in many Finches. In some species the females appear to have shorter bills.

Drepanis pacifica is black, with golden rump, upper and under tail-coverts, tibiae, and bend of wing, a little white shewing on the wings and tail; D. funerea is almost entirely black. Vestiaria coccinea is vermilion, with black remiges and rectrices, and some white on the wing-coverts; the bill and feet being red. Hemignathus and Heterorhynchus are greenish-olive above, with black lores, brownish remiges, and usually yellowish or creamy lower surface; but the head is occasionally yellow. Palmeria dolii has blackish plumage with scarlet or orange tips, a brilliant scarlet-orange nape, an orange space round the eye, similarly coloured tibiae, a grey throat, and a dirty white crest curving over the culmen. Himatione is generally yellow-green, with browner wings, yellow under parts, and sometimes black lores; the very closely allied Oreomyza may be duller or greyer, with buff and white below. H. sanguinea is crimson, with black and red wings, and black tail. Loxops, which in one species is dimorphic, is scarlet or orange, with brown on the remiges and rectrices; Chrysomitridops is yellowish-olive, with yellow crown and lower surface, black on the wings and tail, and bluish bill. Psittacirostra is greenish with yellow head; Rhodacanthis is reddish-orange with browner back, or in one case yellow head, while the female is green. Ciridops is red, with black throat, tail, and most of the wings, grey nape and cheeks; it approaches Cyanospiza ciris (p. 585) in colour.

{564}Hens are ordinarily duller (often brownish or green), except in Vestiaria and Himatione sanguinea; the young are greenish-yellow relieved by black in Vestiaria, brown and buff in Palmeria and Himatione sanguinea, and assume the red or orange gradually.

These forms now chiefly haunt high damp hill-forests, though Vestiaria still occurs near the coast; they fly comparatively little, but spend much of their time creeping quietly and rapidly over the trunks and branches of acacia, "ohia," "mamane," and other trees, where they hunt for insects below the bark or on the leaves. None habitually seek the ground. The long-billed species delight in probing the decayed wood, and insert their mandibles into the crevices in search of food, which consists partly of lepidopterous larvae and spiders. Fruit is largely eaten, pods being split to obtain seeds, and honey is sucked either for its own sake or for the insects it attracts. The stomach at times contains grit. Most forms have a sweet song, the call-note being a reiterated "tweet" or metallic chirp; Rhodacanthis, moreover, whistles. Himatione virens makes a nest of roots and decayed leaves in trees, Loxops aurea apparently does the same; the former lays whitish eggs freckled and streaked with purplish-brown, but little is known of the reproduction. The splendid feather-cloaks of the Hawaiian kings, the "leis" (wreaths), waist-bands, and mask-decorations, were of old chiefly composed of the plumage of the "Mamo" (Drepanis pacifica), and the Iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea); but when the former became scarce, the lighter yellow tufts (p. 565) of the O-o (Acrulocercus) were utilized to pay the feather tax, though the cloaks were still called "Mamo." Himatione sanguinea was also laid under contribution, as was in later times the domestic cock.

Fam. XXVI. MELIPHAGIDAE.–The Honey-eaters, seldom bigger than a Thrush, are remarkable for their extensile quadruple or multiple tongue, which is frayed out latero-dorsally. They occupy the Australian Region, from which Ptilotis limbata alone crosses Wallace's line (p. 16) to Bali, and often have very restricted ranges. Two Sub-families may be recognised, Myzomelinae and Meliphaginae. The thin curved bill is commonly long, with prominent culmen and wide base; Melithreptes and Plectrorhynchus, however, have it short, and the latter straight. The maxilla is nearly always notched and serrated, several species of Philemon exhibiting a basal protuberance. The metatarsi may be long, as in Acrulocercus, or abbreviated as in Manorhina, the short anterior toes being partially {565}connected; the wings are variable in length, Melithreptes possessing comparatively small secondaries, Anthornis an abruptly narrowed second primary. The tail also varies in size; it is much rounded in Melidectes and Meliphaga, square in Acanthorhynchus, emarginated in Anthornis, and particularly long and graduated with pointed rectrices in Acrulocercus and Chaetoptila–A. nobilis having the median pair produced and spirally twisted, A. apicalis the ends upturned. Pogonornis has strong rictal bristles.

The Myzomelinae are usually habited in scarlet and black, as in the Soldier-bird of Australia (Myzomela sanguinolenta), with or without white or yellowish below; some, however, are chiefly or entirely olive or greyish-brown, while the females generally differ from the males, and the former occasionally shew red when the latter do not. A second genus, Acanthorhynchus, or Cobbler's Awl, is brown, chestnut, buff, black, and white. In the Meliphaginae the sexes are commonly alike, and exhibit a mixture of brown, olive, yellow, black, white, grey, rufous, and buff; the under parts frequently, and the upper rarely, being streaked or spotted. Metallic hues are rare, but Anthornis has a purplish gloss on the head. Leptornis, Entomyza, Philemon, Melitograis, and Pycnopygius are instances of dusky or olive coloration with lighter lower surface; Prosthemadera and Certhionyx leucomelas are black and white; Plectrorhynchus is brown and white; Meliphaga is yellow and black, spotted and barred below. The Hawaiian Acrulocercus is black or brownish, with a little white on the wings or tail, and possesses yellow axillary tufts and under tail-coverts, save in A. braccatus, where the tufts are grey-buff, the tibiae are yellow, the throat is barred with white, and the lower parts are streaky. A. bishopi has yellow ear-tufts. Their close ally, Chaetoptila, of the same islands, is light brown and yellowish above, with white spots, and a black cheek-stripe; the under surface being white with brown streaks, and the rump and flanks ochreous. The neck- and breast-plumage is lanceolate and decomposed. Many species of Ptilotis have white or yellow ear-tufts; the male of Pogonornis possesses white erectile post-ocular feathers; that of Prosthemadera two gular patches of curled white filamentary plumes, which give it the name of Parson-bird, as well as pointed white feathers curving forward from the sides of the neck. In two members of Meliornis white fan-like shields spring from the cheeks; Glycyphila albifrons has a white circum-ocular ring; while many forms have peculiar {566}cheek-feathers, fluffy chests, rumps or sides, and lanceolate or bristly plumage on the neck, cheeks, or throat. Naked blue, green, scarlet, yellow, lilac, pink, or whitish areas on the head, and pendant rictal or facial wattles, are frequent, especially in Meliphaga, Ptilotis, Entomyza, Philemon, Melidectes, Acanthochaera (Wattle-bird) and Melirrhophetes. The bill and feet vary from black to red, yellow, blue, or green.

The habits are fairly uniform, though certain species are comparatively shy. Small flocks often gather together, the haunts being dense forests, or open wooded country whether inland or littoral; some forms prefer the tree-tops, others low bushes and shrubs. These active, pugnacious birds dart about in zigzag fashion, or take powerful undulating flights, the tail meanwhile being frequently thrown back or expanded; at times they hover, or fall from aloft with closed wings.

{567}[Illustration: FIG. 135.–Tui. Prosthemadera novae zealandiae. × ⅓.]

Constantly seen hopping among the boughs, or climbing and hanging to the twigs, in search of the insects which constitute so much of their diet, they occasionally feed upon the ground–especially in the case of Ptilotis; while Meliornis and Entomophila will dart after their prey like Flycatchers. Figs and bananas, with other fruits and buds, are also eaten; honey is sucked from the flowers of Eucalyptus, Acacia, Epacris, and the like, in considerable quantities, the insects it attracts being perhaps the chief object; and Philemon batters large insects upon the branches before swallowing them. The voice is commonly loud, rich, and shrill, but varies from a whistle or a pipe to a chirp; some species, however, are more quiet, others give vent to slow, plaintive cries, quickly reiterated notes, or comparatively harsh sounds. The Tui, or Parson-bird, utters a wild song, laughs, coughs, sneezes, and mimics generally; Acrulocercus gets the name of O-o from its harsh double call; Pogonornis that of Stitch-bird from its clicking cry, though it also whistles; while Philemon corniculatus is sometimes called "Four-o'clock," "Poor Soldier," or Pimlico, from its note. Anthornis, the New Zealand "Bell-bird," usually heard in chorus, has a voice like the tinkling of a silver bell.[303] The nest, normally a slight structure of twigs, roots, bark, grass, and spiders' webs, lined with woolly materials, fur, or feathers, is placed in bushes, trees, or even tall grass, and generally has the rim woven over a supporting fork. A few species, however, including the New Zealand forms, Pogonornis, Anthornis, and Prosthemadera, build a solid fabric of twigs and rough materials {568}among the branches. The eggs, two, three, or rarely four in number, are buffish-white, salmon-coloured or, exceptionally, olive, with spots, freckles, zones, and occasionally lines, of red-brown, rufous, bright red, blackish and grey. Two or three broods are reared annually. Entomyza cyanotis, the Blue-eye, re-lines deserted birds' nests, or utilizes the top of that of Pomatostomus; Glycyphila modesta and G. fasciata make hanging domed fabrics. The mimicry between Philemon–called Friar-bird, Monk, or Leather-head, from the bare head and ruff of some species–and Mimeta has been already noticed (p. 543). Cloaks are fashioned from the Stitch-bird's feathers, as well as from those of the O-os (p. 564).[304]

Fam. XXVII. ZOSTEROPIDAE.–The "White-eyes," so denominated from the white ring usually surrounding the eye, form a single genus, Zosterops, of doubtful position. They range through parts of the Ethiopian Region, with Madagascar and the Comoros, and occupy most of the Indian and Australian Regions, whence they reach to Amur-land and Japan. The straight or slightly curved bill has the maxilla serrated and nearly always notched; the metatarsus is of medium length; the outer and middle toes are partially united; the wings are rather short with little or no exterior primary; the tail is moderate, broad and square, or even emarginated. Dr. Gadow[305] pronounces the protractile tongue to be forked and smooth in Z. lateralis; Mr. Beddard[306] finds the margins folded, and the tip frayed out in Z. simplex and Z. japonica. The sexes are alike, the coloration being principally olive and yellow, relieved by brown, grey, fawn, or white. The habits are similar to those of the Meliphagidae; the eggs, however, are pale blue. Z. caerulescens, the New Zealand "Blight-bird," destroys the "American Blight" (Schizoneura lanigera), a scale-insect.

Fam. XXVIII. NECTARINIIDAE.–The Old World Sun-birds, recalling the non-Passerine Humming-birds by their brilliant metallic coloration, are actually given the latter name in India, whence they extend through Southern Asia to Papuasia and North Australia. They also occupy the whole Ethiopian Region, while Cinnyris osea inhabits Palestine, C. brevirostris Baluchistan and South Persia, and an undetermined species the Muskat district in Arabia. Promerops is a doubtful member of the Family.[307]

{569}[Illustration: FIG. 136.–Splendid Sun-bird. Cinnyris splendidus. × ½.]

The long slender bill, without bristles of any kind, is much produced and curved in Neodrepanis; both mandibles being terminally serrated, except in Promerops and Chalcoparia, of which the former has the maxilla notched. The extensible tongue is bifid, with each half frayed out medio-ventrally, save in Promerops, where it is a semi-canal with dorso-laterally frayed edges. The metatarsi are moderate, the claws curved and acute. Arachnothera has both the bill and the feet stouter. The more or less rounded wings are of medium length; the tail varies from square or nearly so to graduated, and has two narrow elongated median rectrices in the males of Hedydipna, Nectarinia, Anthobaphes, Aethopyga, Urodrepanis and Drepanorhynchus. That of Promerops is extraordinarily long and graduated in both sexes. Arachnothera chrysogenys has the loral region naked, and the male of Neodrepanis bluish circum-ocular wattles.

It is impossible to describe shortly the diverse coloration of the various species; some shew much green, black, brown, or olive; nearly all exhibit brilliant, if not metallic, red, blue, lilac, copper, yellow, or orange tints; a few are chiefly purple; many are longitudinally streaked below; in others the breast is white, or exhibits red or orange bands, while the fore-neck may be vermilion striped with lilac. The sides of the back frequently possess long downy feathers, and pectoral tufts are common. In Arachnothera both sexes are greyish or greenish, relieved by a little yellow or orange. Females, however, are usually sombre, the young being similar. The bill is black or brown, the feet vary in hue.

These small graceful forms, restless, though not shy, are rarely seen in companies, but usually in pairs; they frequent groves and forests up to an altitude of about a thousand feet, resorting to more open country and gardens when the shrubs are flowering. The food consists mainly of insects–sometimes taken on the {570}wing–with their larvae and spiders; while the birds hop actively about, and cling to the branches and trunks of trees, like Tits or Creepers, or even to bushes and grass. They rarely hover before flowers as Humming-birds do, though frequently sucking honey. When feeding or singing the wings are often opened and shut alternately. The quick, direct flight is accompanied by rapid pulsations of the pinions, and the males chase their rivals angrily. The shrill, but pleasing and varied notes recall those of the Willow-Warbler. The pear-shaped or oval nests, woven or attached by cobwebs to the ends of boughs, to the under surfaces of leaves, or more rarely to reed-stems, are composed of grass, moss, roots, and the like, lined with hair, feathers, and down, and usually have a projecting porch. Beneath are attached as decorations leaves, twigs, lichens, shreds of bark, paper, and cloth, wood-borings, or caterpillars' excreta. Arachnothera magna, at least occasionally, builds an open nest. The two or three eggs are commonly greenish- or brownish-grey, with purplish, reddish-brown, yellowish, or dusky dots and spots; some, however, are whiter, with blackish markings, dark zones, or hair-streaks; while those of Arachnothera magna are brownish, very thickly speckled with purplish-black. Promerops cafer makes a cup of grass, fibres, and softer materials in forks of bushes, and lays creamy eggs like those of Buntings, with wavy lines or irregular blotches of dark brown or purplish.

Fam. XXIX. DICAEIDAE.–The "Flower-peckers" inhabit the Indian and Australian Regions as far eastwards as the Low Archipelago, a few possibly kindred species occupying West Africa. The bill is usually short, broad, and depressed, but is especially slender in Pholidornis, stout and Finch-like in Prionochilus; while both mandibles shew minute terminal serrations. Feathers cover the nostrils in Pardalotus, and in life Lobornis has three small white rictal outgrowths. The tongue is separated into four semi-tubular fringeless projections. The metatarsus is never long; the wings are fairly so; the tail is generally short and even, but is rounded in Prionochilus vincens, longer in most Papuasian forms, and sometimes graduated, as in Pristorhamphus. Many species exhibit vivid combinations of blue or purple with black, relieved by a scarlet or an orange head, rump, or chest-patch, the lower surface being yellow, greyish, or greenish-white; some, however, replace the blue shades by green, brown, or olive; others are quite plain; and Melanocharis unicolor is perfectly black. The {571}Diamond-bird (Pardalotus) has scattered white dots above, and scarlet or yellow tips to the primary coverts; Dicaeum often shews a longitudinal black band below; while bars and streaks occur not infrequently. The bill is blackish, or in Dicaeum erythrorhynchum reddish. The female is almost invariably duller.

These small birds frequent woods and gardens, the little flocks often haunting lofty trees near rivers; they hop briskly among the boughs, dart from bush to bush, creep about and cling like Tits, and utter a long, low warble, or in Pardalotus a harsh monotonous piping note. The food consists of insects, varied by spiders, fruit, buds, seeds, and perhaps honey. Dicaeum and Prionochilus suspend from some twig a domed, pear-shaped nest of white cottony material, frequently covered with grass or moss, and decorated with caterpillars' excreta; Pardalotus chooses old Swallows' nurseries, or holes in trees and walls, or even tunnels a short way into banks, making within a spherical fabric of roots, grass, bark, and feathers. The two to five eggs are commonly white, but in Prionochilus (Piprisoma) squalidus they are redder, with dense brown-pink or claret-coloured blotches or specks.

Fam. XXX. CERTHIIDAE.–The Creepers, a small, though widespread group, occupy most of the Palaearctic and Nearctic Regions; Africa from Benguela to Mashona-Land; Australia and New Guinea. The bill is long and generally decurved, but shorter and straighter in Climacteris; while nasal and rictal bristles are absent. The metatarsi are of medium length and slender, though stouter in Salpornis; Tichodroma and Climacteris have the scutes fused; and the toes–especially the hallux–have long, curved claws. The wings vary from moderate and rounded to elongated and pointed; the tail is usually short and square, or very nearly so, but has stiff, graduated, acuminate feathers in Certhia. The coloration of both sexes is brown, black, rufous, buff, grey, and white, except in Tichodroma, which exhibits crimson wing-patches on its grey, black, and white plumage. Bars and spots are frequent, particularly beneath.

The majority are tame birds, inhabiting thinly wooded districts, often close to dwellings; but the European and Asiatic Tichodroma muraria, which has strayed to Britain, haunts mountain cliffs, and, when on migration, walls also. They utter shrill cries, or, more commonly, low reiterated notes, which in our Creeper (Certhia familiaris) are varied by a sweet and fairly loud song; {572}the food consists of insects and their larvae, ants, and spiders. Beginning at the bottom of a trunk the birds work actively but jerkily upwards in zigzags or spirals, flitting from the higher branches to the base of another tree; sometimes, however, they take protracted, undulating flights, or accompany flocks of Tits in winter. Certhia uses the rigid rectrices as Woodpeckers do (p. 457), though the soft-tailed forms also climb well, while Climacteris is exceptional in spending much time hopping or shuffling along the ground. Seeds of conifers occasionally vary the diet. The nest, composed of twigs, with the addition of grass or moss, and lined with bast, hair, wool, or feathers, is placed behind loose bark, under tiles, in crevices of trees or walls, in piles of bricks, hollow branches, or even the base of large birds' habitations. The three to nine eggs are ordinarily white with red and lilac spots; but in Climacteris the ground-colour is sometimes reddish, in Salpornis the spots are blackish. The last-named fixes a cup-shaped fabric of leaves, bark, and cobwebs to some horizontal bough.

Fam. XXXI. COEREBIDAE.–The Quit-quits have the extensible tongue bifid, and frayed out terminally. The bill may be conical, but is usually slender, with a notch and sometimes with rictal bristles, while the long maxilla is hooked in Diglossa and Diglossopis; the metatarsi, wings, and tail are moderate, the last being sometimes forked. These small, active, and restless birds frequent bushy places and the outskirts of forests, from South Florida to the Bolivian Andes and South-East Brazil, several species being peculiar to the Antilles, and Certhidea to the Galápagos. Though companies are seldom formed, the flight and habits are Tit-like, and individuals are often seen hopping about or clinging to the branches in search of the insects which, with fruit, form the usual food. They probe the flowers in company with Humming-birds, and probably suck the honey, while some forms dart after flies like Flycatchers. Several have a fine voice, but the common note is a feeble "quit-quit." The domed {573}nest, made of grass, moss, roots, and fibres, occasionally has a projecting porch, and is frequently lined with down or feathers; the two to four eggs being white or greenish-blue, with dull-red or yellowish-brown blotches or specks. In the Antilles Certhiola weaves a domed structure of similar materials, hair, and spiders' webs, between the outermost twigs of bushes. Many nests are built without being used.

The coloration varies from black, grey, or purplish, relieved by rufous and white, to brilliant blue, purple, or green, with the quills only black, or with further yellow, chestnut, and exceptionally scarlet, decorations. Uniform black, or olive and brown hues are unusual, save in females, which, however, are often bright green, with the addition of a little blue or yellow.

Fam. XXXII. MNIOTILTIDAE.–The "American Warblers," almost replacing the Sylviinae in the New World, are a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of rather small birds, of which Granatellus is perhaps Tanagrine. They frequent localities of all descriptions in North and South America, being commonest in the middle portions. Teretistris is peculiar to Cuba, Leucopeza to St. Lucia and St. Vincent; Ergaticus occupies the Central American highlands, while two or three species wander to Greenland.

The bill is usually slender and straight, but varies in length and curvature, that of Setophaga and Myiodioctes being broad and depressed with bristly gape, that of Icteria (doubtfully referred here) very stout and compressed, and so forth. Other species also exhibit bristles, or have notched beaks. The tongue is frequently bifid and fringed in Dendroeca, and in D. (Perissoglossa) tigrina is semitubular. The metatarsi are naturally longest and strongest in the more terrestrial forms, such as Geothlypis and Siurus; Icteria has partly feathered legs, Mniotilta particularly long toes. The wings may be concave and roundish, as in Leucopeza and Geothlypis, or elongated and pointed, as in Protonotaria and Peucedramus; the moderate tail is square, rounded, or emarginate, or, as in Setophaga, broad and graduated. The general coloration is {574}olive-green, grey, or slaty-blue, with yellow or rarely orange under parts; chestnut marks, white wing-bands, and the like, occasionally relieving the plumage. The head is often particularly dark or streaky. Mniotilta exhibits black and white stripes; Ergaticus shews chiefly crimson and white; Granatellus is grey, black, and white above, but red and white with black collar below. Setophaga, the "American Redstart," is mainly red and black, or red and plumbeous; Cardellina is grey, black, and white with crimson cheeks and throat; Siurus has olive-brown upper, and whitish under parts, with dusky striations. The bill is black or brown, commonly with pinkish, yellowish, or bluish mandible.

These active, restless, and often shy birds either seek their food, consisting chiefly of insects and their larvae, worms, spiders, and even molluscs, upon the ground or upon the bark of trees. Many forms resemble Tits in their actions; Mniotilta and others ascend the trunks spirally like Creepers; Setophaga and its allies–and exceptionally Dendroeca–sally after insects like Flycatchers; D. palmarum and Siurus run along with the tail in motion, the former recalling a Titlark, the latter gaining, from its appearance and habit of wading, the name of Water-Thrush. The flight is usually swift, easy, and graceful, yet brief and frequently undulating; Myiodioctes and Setophaga flit about alternately opening and closing the rectrices. Fruits, including conifer- and grass-seeds, vary the diet. Small parties collect in winter. A few species, such as Basileuterus, Setophaga, Myiodioctes, and Siurus have fine clear songs, but the usual utterances are feeble warbles, sweet whistles, reiterated "chirrups," or mournful trills. The majority build their cup-shaped nests in trees, bushes, and thickets generally, Dendroeca in some districts choosing a fir; they are {575}made of grass, bark, leaves, roots, moss, hair, fur, lichens, and spiders' webs, or even twigs, sedges, and feathers, and contain from two to six creamy or, exceptionally, greenish or purplish eggs, more or less spotted or blotched with red-brown, grey, and lilac, or sometimes, as in Myiodioctes, scrawled with black.

Fam. XXXIII. TANAGRIDAE.[308]–The Tanagers form a New World group, hardly distinguishable from the Fringillidae, except by their more feeble conformation and their exposed nostrils. The coloration is often particularly gorgeous, but their habits are comparatively little known. The bill varies much in length and thickness, the hooked tip being highly developed in Lamprotes and Sericossypha, while Procnias has a wide Swallow-like gape. The metatarsi are short and stout; the toes are large, with sharp curved claws in Lamprotes and Sericossypha; the wings are moderate and somewhat pointed, being unusually long in Procnias; while the tail may be very short as in Euphonia, but is rarely long and graduated as in Cissopis, and only occasionally forked.

These birds are characteristic of the forests and wooded country of the Neotropical Region, whence four species of Pyranga extend to the United States, and two reach Canada and British Columbia respectively; several forms, moreover, are peculiar to the Antilles. They are chiefly of small size, Euphonia possessing the least and Pitylus or Saltator the largest members of the Family; the sexes are commonly similar, but the female is often duller, or even quite different from the male, as in Rhamphocoelus and Pyranga. A short crest occurs rarely, as in Eucometis and Stephanophorus. The prevailing colours are black and red or uniform red in Pyranga, Phlogothraupis, and most species of Rhamphocoelus and Calochaetes; blue or purplish-black and yellow in Buthraupis, Iridornis, and their nearest allies; blue and black in Procnias and Pseudodacnis; orange or yellow, with black and white in Spindalis and Lanio; black and white in Lamprospiza and Cissopis; olive and brown in Chlorospingus; chestnut and brown in Orchesticus; grey, olive, yellow, or green, with more or less blue in Thraupis (Tanagra). Buarremon and several other forms are comparatively dull; Tanagra (Calliste) exhibits a beautiful mixture of all the above hues; Euphonia is also varied, but lacks scarlet tints; Chlorochrysa is brilliant green, relieved by orange, chestnut, blue, and black. The bill may be red, black, yellow, {576}leaden or horn-coloured. Roughly speaking, Tanagra contains sixty species, Euphonia, Chlorospingus, and Buarremon each over thirty.

The flight of these bold, lively, and restless birds–often met with in small parties–is Finch-like and not uncommonly brief; the song, frequently heard in chorus, is mellow and pleasing, accompanied by chattering, whistling, and chirping notes; the diet consists of insects and fruits, even the latter being occasionally snatched upon the wing; while worms, larvae, and molluscs are eaten, and some species scratch for food among fallen leaves. The nests are usually shallow fabrics of grass, roots, fibres, moss, and lichens, lined with hair or down; twigs, broad leaves, or fern-stems being commonly added below: they are sometimes placed in forks of trees or bushes, if not at the ends of branches; sometimes in masses of creepers, or even upon the ground; that of Pyrrhuphonia is domed, while that of Rhamphocoelus brasilius is built in tall grass in marshy places. The two to four eggs are white, bluish, greenish, grey, salmon-coloured, or rich brown, being at times uniform, but generally blotched, spotted, freckled, lined, or scrolled with brown, lilac, red, purple, or black. Procnias is said to lay three or four white eggs in holes in trees or in the soil, upon a bed of roots and plant-stems.[309]

Fam. XXXIV. PLOCEIDAE.–The Weaver-birds, closely allied to the above, and hardly to be distinguished from the Fringillidae except by the tenth primary being distinctly developed, may be divided[310] into the Sub-families Viduinae, occurring in the Ethiopian, Indian, and Australian Regions, in which this quill is small {577}and falcate, and Ploceinae, peculiar to Africa and its islands–with the exception of the genera Ploceus and Ploceëlla of the Indian Region–in which it is larger. The former group includes the long-tailed Widow-birds, the red-beaked Wax-bills, and so forth; the latter the more typical Weaver-birds; Africa furnishing by far the greatest number of species. The bill is normally strong and conical, but is unusually long and slender in Emblema, and particularly stout with ridged culmen in Amblyospiza; the maxilla may be toothed, as in Pyrenestes, or festooned, as in Spermestes. The metatarsus is moderate, and the hind claw sometimes lengthened, as in Icteropsis. The rounded or pointed wings have very long secondaries, and the tail shews a slight fork; while in the breeding season the four median rectrices in the males of Vidua and several allied genera are extraordinarily elongated, being then either broad or tapering, and reduced to threads at the extremity, or bare-shafted with racquet tips.[311] Crests are uncommon, hair-like plumes on the nape more frequent, while Pyromelaena and Urobrachya have a neck-frill in summer.

The coloration of these rather small birds is most striking, though the females are usually much duller than the males, which have in some cases a sober winter garb. Vidua principalis is black and white; Penthetria ardens is black with scarlet gorget; Philetaerus socius is brown, buff, black, and white; Zonaeginthus bellus is brown above, with transverse black lines and crimson rump, but silver grey below with black bars; Hypochera ultramarina is entirely purplish-blue; Sporaeginthus amandava, the Amadavat, is chiefly crimson with white dots; Munia oryzivora, the "Java Sparrow," is blue-grey and black with white cheeks. M. punctulata, the Cowry- or Nutmeg-bird, is brown, {578}with white streaks above and spots below, a yellow rump, and a white middle to the under parts. Poëphila mirabilis, one of the Grass-finches, shews a beautiful combination of pale green, blue, lilac, scarlet, yellow, black, brown, and white; Neochmia phaëton is crimson, brown, and black; Foudia is generally crimson and black; Hyphantornis cucullatus is golden-yellow, black, and chestnut; Ploceus baya is yellow and brown; Textor albirostris is entirely black. The bill is not uncommonly coral-red, as in Estrelda and other "Wax-bills;" but it varies from red to horn-coloured in Vidua, and may be whitish, as in Textor albirostris, as well as black, grey, rose-tinted, brownish, orange, or nearly blue. The feet may also be red, brown, purplish, dusky, or flesh-coloured.

Weaver-birds are generally tame, and often approach habitations; the larger species frequenting woods and gardens, open country, sugar-cane fields, or reed-beds, but many of the smaller preferring grassy flats, bushy places, or even stony hills. They are usually social, and frequently pugnacious. The flight, though somewhat brief and heavy, is fairly rapid; Chera and Vidua rise with arched tail, and hover with flapping wings, at times soaring almost out of sight to descend again with great velocity. Sycobrotus climbs especially well, Donacicola hangs to the reeds like a Bunting, and indeed it is doubtful whether the Australian forms are not really generalized Finches. The usual utterance is a harsh churr, a shrill piping cry, a chattering or a twittering noise, often preceded by a single mournful note; but some species sing fairly well in chorus. The food, generally procured upon the ground, consists mainly of seeds, but is varied by insects–occasionally taken on the wing,–fruits, and flowers; while the birds play havoc with rice and other crops, often clinging to the stems until they have eaten every grain from the head.

The nest is almost invariably a large mass of roughish grass or flags, bristling with the thicker ends of the stalks; it is usually lined with finer stems, but sometimes with feathers, down, and wool, while sticks, twigs, roots, and the like may be added exteriorly. The fabric is normally "retort-shaped," that is to say, globular with a "spout" or tubular passage, which curves downwards either from the middle or from the top of one side; but some of the structures resemble flasks placed horizontally; others have little or no spout, or hang by a sort of rope; and occasionally the materials do not quite meet above. Weaver-birds, especially the more typical {579}species, commonly build in colonies, the most remarkable instance being that of Philetaerus, where an umbrella-shaped mass of sticks and straw is formed among the branches of a tree, and in its flat under surface holes for as many as three hundred nests are excavated. Textor makes a somewhat similar joint fabric. In certain cases the hen is said to sit in the roughly-fashioned shell, and to receive the thin ends of the straws from her mate, as he, clinging to the outside, pushes them through with his beak; she then passes them through to him again, and so the process is repeated in true webster fashion. An inner partition is often made to prevent the eggs from rolling out. The structures are placed in trees or bushes, frequently overhanging water, in sugar-canes, reeds, foundations of Eagles' eyries, or–especially by the smaller species–in long herbage. Exceptionally they are found under eaves. Ploceipasser mahali makes two "spouts," Ploceus baya counterpoises its pensile nursery with lumps of clay. The males add to the fabric after their consorts begin to incubate, and are asserted to make nests to sit in; the hens occasionally lay together, though the cocks are not proved to be polygamous. Munia, Stictospiza, Sporaeginthus, and in fact most Indian and Australian forms, deposit from five to seven dull white eggs; Ploceus lays two of a like description; Ploceëlla two, which have a whitish or greyish ground with brown frecklings; the Ethiopian species about five, either plain white, blue, or green, or of the same colours, spotted and blotched with red or purplish-brown. In nests of Hyphantornis and Pyromelaena very diverse specimens are often found.

Fam. XXXV. ICTERIDAE.–This New World group comprises the "American Orioles" or "American Starlings," which are certainly not Orioles, though analogous to the Starlings, and allied through Dolichonyx to the Buntings. From the Fringillidae they are distinguished by the more elongated bill, which has no notch, and by the absence of rictal bristles. Dr. Sclater[312] recognises five Sub-families: Cassicinae, with long, straight, and often large bills, widening to a frontal shield; Agelaeinae, where they are conical with flattened culmen, being shortest in Dolichonyx and Molobrus; Sturnellinae, where they are more slender; Icterinae and Quiscalinae, where the culmen is rounded, the length and curvature varying more than elsewhere. Aphobus and Curaeus have grooved mandibles, Gymnostinops a naked space at their base, Clypeïcterus {580}a horny swelling there. The legs are stout, being long in the terrestrial Agelaeinae, Sturnellinae, and Quiscalinae, and not much shorter in the Icterinae and Cassicinae; Dolichonyx has the middle toe, and the Sturnellinae the hallux elongated. The wings are long or moderate, being often pointed with far-extended outer secondaries in the Sturnellinae. The tail varies in length and form, but is much graduated in the Quiscalinae (Boat-tails), which usually carry it in flight with the outer feathers uppermost; it has acuminate rectrices in the Sturnellinae, Leistes, and Dolichonyx, while in the last-named it is forked. Cassiculus, Eurycorystes, and some species of Ostinops have crests, the male of Cassidix a neck-frill, Lampropsar erect frontal plumes, the Sturnellinae bristly crown-feathers, Hypopyrrhus, Curaeus, and Aphobus lanceolate feathers on the head. Gymnomystax possesses naked orbits.

The Cassicinae, or Cassiques, are sometimes uniform black, sometimes black relieved by chestnut, yellow, green, or scarlet; the bill being frequently white, instead of the usual black or brown. The Agelaeinae are generally black, varied with red and yellow, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, the Bobolink, being, however, black, brown, buff, and white, with a duller plumage in winter. The Sturnellinae are brown, variegated with black; having scarlet or canary yellow under parts, and in Sturnella magna, the "Meadow-Lark," a black gorget. The Icterinae (all but one of which belong to the extensive genus Icterus) are glossy black, with yellow, bay, or orange patches–especially upon the rump and lower surface–and often some white on the wing. The Quiscalinae are black, occasionally with metallic gloss, and scarlet or brown markings. The females are commonly similar to the males, especially in the Cassicinae, but are sometimes comparatively sombre. Agelaeus phoeniceus, the "Red-winged Starling," several males of which have been captured in Britain, Icterus baltimore, the "Baltimore Oriole" and Quiscalus versicolor, the "Crow-Blackbird," are good examples of their respective groups. The curious resemblance of Sturnella and Macronyx has already been mentioned (p. 500).

{581}[Illustration: FIG. 142.–"Baltimore Oriole." Icterus baltimore. × ½.]

Some of the Family are large birds for Passeres, Gymnostinops, for instance, being the size of a Rook; they are commonly gregarious, and frequent forests or wooded country, the Agelaeinae and Sturnellinae in particular preferring open grassy places and marshes, and all seeming fond of the neighbourhood of water. The Cassicinae only range from South Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia; but the other Sub-families occupy most of America, except the extreme north, the Quiscalinae extending to Chili and Argentina, the Sturnellinae to Patagonia. Several species are peculiar to the Antilles. The flight is sufficiently strong and swift, flocks of Agelaeus and Quiscalus performing evolutions like Starlings; while these forms, Dolichonyx, Scolephagus, Xanthocephalus, and others roost in huge companies on migration. These lively, active, and fairly tame birds differ considerably in habits, Dolichonyx sitting continually on fences, clinging to plant-stems, or hovering in the air, Sturnella sailing or fluttering with jerky movements, the Icterinae and Cassicinae being particularly accustomed to perch, and many forms walking well or even gracefully. The members of the genus Icterus have melodious voices, those of I. vulgaris and I. baltimore being especially rich and varied; they are therefore favourite cage-birds. Dolichonyx, perhaps the finest of American songsters, often sings in chorus; Sturnella produces tuneful, wild, but not powerful notes; the Cassicinae utter loud discordant cries or sweeter strains; while many forms chatter, chuckle, squeak, scream, or whistle more or less harshly, whether in the air, in the trees, or on the ground. The food in the breeding season consists almost entirely of insects, their larvae, and small molluscs; but fruit is also eaten, and havoc wrought in maize- and corn-fields, Quiscalus even pulling up the shooting blades. The terrestrial species often {582}scratch amongst the soil, but the Icterinae and Cassicinae rarely feed upon the ground.

The Agelaeinae build cup-shaped nests of grass, sedge, or rushes, sometimes lined with hair, in bushes or reeds, generally in damp or marshy spots; and lay five or six white, drab, greenish, bluish, or reddish eggs, with purple, black, red, or brown blotches, dots, and lines: the Quiscalinae deposit similar eggs in rougher structures of twigs, grass, and the like, placed in tree-forks or bushes. Both these groups often form societies. Sturnella hides its deep fabric in grass or rushes, the eggs being speckled rather than spotted; the Icterinae, or "Hang-nests," usually weave pensile nests of plant-stems, tendrils, grasses, or even rags, lined with wool, down, and so forth, which are rarely domed, and generally contain five or six eggs of a more delicate colouring than those of their kindred, varied by marblings, zigzags, streaks, and spots of brown, purple, black, or red. The Cassicinae commonly join in colonies and hang their elaborate, purse-like nurseries of grass or palm-fibres, Tillandsia, Bromelia, or lichens, lined with feathers, from branches above water; the two to five eggs are plain white, or greenish- bluish- or reddish-white, blotched, dotted, dashed, or scrawled with purplish- or reddish-brown and black.[313]

The gregarious Cow-birds (Molobrus), included in the Agelaeinae, lay eggs varying from white to pinkish, greenish, bluish, or brownish, often spotted or streaked with red, brown, and grey; one or more of these are by most species foisted in Cuckoo fashion upon other birds, the young of which disappear at an early date. It is a curious fact that M. rufo-axillaris is ordinarily parasitic on its congener M. badius, which itself seizes and uses other birds' nests. Many eggs are destroyed by the males, or are dropped promiscuously by the females, several of the latter often laying together. Cow-birds perch on cattle or follow the plough for insects, and utter ringing screams in concert.[314]

Fam. XXXVI. FRINGILLIDAE.–The Finches are small birds very closely allied to the Tanagridae and the Ploceidae; while the Buntings are here included in the Family, though often separated as Emberizidae. The most evident points of distinction in the {583}last-named are the considerable deflection of the posterior portion of the angular gape and the bony knob often present on the palate; a gap, moreover, commonly occurs between the edges of the maxilla and the mandible. Extreme forms are thus easily recognised, but it seems almost impossible to draw an exact line of demarcation, even when the more Lark-like nest of Buntings and their streaky eggs are taken into consideration. The Fringillidae predominate in the Palaearctic Region, but are fairly plentiful elsewhere, except in the Australian Region, whence few are as yet recorded; many forms, however, have very limited ranges; while some are peculiar to certain islands, as Geospiza, Camarhynchus, and Cactornis to the Galápagos, Passer jagoënsis to the Cape Verds, Chaunoproctus to the Bonin Islands and Telespiza to the Laysan group, Nesospiza to Tristan da Cunha, Melopyrrha to Cuba, Rhynchostruthus and Passer insularis to Socotra.

The bill is usually stout and cone-shaped, often with a notched maxilla, occasionally with a ridged culmen; it is enormous in Geospiza, Camarhynchus, Chaunoproctus, and some other forms, and highly developed in Coccothraustes, Pyrrhula, and elsewhere; but is at times either remarkably short, or longer and more slender, as in Cactornis, Chrysomitris, and Carduelis. Frequently it is curved, with overhanging tip, while a peculiar crossing of the mandibles at their extremities marks the genus Loxia. An excessive summer growth has been especially noticed in Redpolls, which is worn down by hard food in winter. The beak is seldom abnormal in Buntings. The metatarsus is moderate; but in Calcarius, Plectrophenax, Nesospiza, and Chamaeospiza the hind claw is elongated, as is the mid-claw in Phonipara. The wings, which have a minute outer primary, vary from very long, as in Hesperiphona, to short as in Passer, and from pointed, as in Plectrophenax, to rounded as in Ammodramus; the secondaries are shaped like a bill-hook in Coccothraustes, while the inner are much lengthened in Emberiza fucata. The tail is fairly normal, but may be long or decidedly short, square, round, graduated, or forked; the rectrices are unusually acute in Spiza, Coryphospiza, and Emberizoïdes. Many species possess a crop. Bristles generally occur at the gape, and the nostrils are concealed by feathers or by a membrane.

{584}[Illustration: FIG. 143.–House-Sparrow. Passer domesticus. × ⅖. (From English Illustrated Magazine.)]

The sexes may be similarly coloured or very different, the hues being commonly sober, but sometimes particularly brilliant. Cardinalis, Paroaria, Gubernatrix, Melophus, Pyrrhuloxia, Schistospiza, Lophospingus, and Tiaris have fine crests; Catamblyrhynchus exhibits stiff crown-feathers. The feet are usually dull, but occasionally pinkish, as in Embernagra and Pycnorhamphus; the bill may be blackish, yellowish, dusky, or even red, as in Cardinalis (except one form). Of British species, the Greenfinch (Ligurinus chloris), the Goldfinch (Carduelis elegans), the Sparrow (Passer domesticus), the Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), the Brambling (F. montifringilla), the Linnet (Linota cannabina), the Redpoll (Aegiothus rufescens), the Bullfinch (Pyrrhula europaea), the Reed-Bunting (Emberiza schoeniclus), the Corn-Bunting (E. miliaria), and the Yellow Hammer (E. citrinella) hardly need description; while several others occur more rarely in our islands or breed with us in limited numbers, such as the Hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris), which is bay, black and white; the Siskin (Chrysomitris spinus) and the Serin (Serinus hortulanus), which are chiefly greenish-yellow; the Pine-Grosbeak (Pyrrhula enucleator) and the Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), which are mainly red in the adult male, and respectively yellow and greenish-orange in the female; the Ortolan Bunting (Emberiza hortulana), which is brown, green, and yellow; and the Snow-Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis), with its black, chestnut, and {585}white plumage, that becomes black and white in summer. The Rose-Finches (Carpodacus) of the Eastern Palaearctic, the Nearctic, and the Indian Regions exhibit fine crimson or rosy tints; the Central and South American Pheucticus, and the Western North American Hesperiphona, much black and yellow; the Cardinals (Cardinalis), of North America, Venezuela, and Trinidad, bright red with black forehead and throat; Paroaria, which replaces the last-named genus southwards, somewhat like colours. Guiraca of most of America, except the extreme north and south, is mainly blue; Cyanospiza cyanea, ranging from the Eastern United States to Panama, is even more brilliant; while the Painted Bunting (C. ciris), of similar range, shews a beautiful combination of blue, red, brown, and yellowish-green. Volatinia of Central and South America is black; Geospiza, Camarhynchus, and Cactornis are the same, or decidedly dull; Petronia brachydactyla and Passer simplex, of the deserts from North Africa to Persia, resemble the sand in tint. The wild Canary (Serinus canarius) of Madeira, the Azores, and the Canaries–not to be confounded with the Cape Canary (S. canicollis)–is greenish above with brown striations, and yellowish below. Finally, many sober-hued North American genera, such as Pipilo, Peucaea, and Junco, lead up to the brown-streaked Bunting forms.

The crimson tints exhibited by the adult male Linnet, when in breeding plumage, afford a well-known instance of seasonal change of colour. It is in consequence indifferently called the Red, Brown, or Grey Linnet.

{586}The members of this Family generally frequent wooded districts and open grassy spots, Finches on the whole preferring the former, Buntings the latter; a few occupy sandy deserts; Petronia haunts rocks; Ammodramus resorts to the shore. This bird clings to the reeds like a Tit, a habit well-known to be shared by various other marsh-loving species. Camarhynchus and Geospiza accompany flocks of Doves to dry bushy and rocky spots near the sea in the Galápagos. The majority are active and lively birds, social and seldom shy, which flock in winter to feed or roost; while the pugnacity of the Sparrow is rather exceptional. They not only dust themselves in dry spots, but bathe freely. Montifringilla breeds in mountainous places, Leucosticte and Plectrophenax in similar situations, or on rocky Arctic shores. The flight is ordinarily strong and rapid, some species of Sycalis, Phrygilus, and Calamospiza soaring, and descending with outspread wings; Cactornis climbs with ease about the prickly pear (Opuntia), while many Finches hop well, and others run readily and swiftly. The song is often exceptionally fine, as in the Canary, Linnet, Cardinal, American Song-Sparrow (Melospiza), Chondestes, Zonotrichia, and elsewhere; the Bullfinch in the wild state has a plaintive pipe; while the chirp of Sparrows may be contrasted with the Cricket-like strain of Petronia brachydactyla, the whistling cry of the Snow-finch (Montifringilla nivalis), the long-drawn note of the Corn-Bunting, or the sibilant sound at times made by the Crossbill. The food consists mainly of seeds, but other fruits, buds, leaves, insects and their larvae, are also eaten, not to mention peas, crocus flowers, and the like; Crossbills and some other forms cleverly extract the seeds of fir-cones, Camarhynchus and Geospiza scratch about upon the ground, and Cactornis devours seeds and flowers of the Opuntia. The nest varies from the huge, untidy domed mass of straw and feathers fashioned by Sparrows to the small compact cup of moss, wool, hair, down, lichen, and such materials, formed by the Goldfinch, Redpoll, or Chaffinch; Hawfinches and Bullfinches make shallow structures chiefly composed of twigs and lined with roots; the British Buntings build with grass and horse-hair if possible; Phonipara and other species sometimes make covered fabrics; Sycalis pelzelni occasionally utilizes nests of other birds. The site may be in a tree, bush, rock, building, or on the ground, some forms nidificating under cover, some in the open. Sparrows have black, grey, and white eggs; those of {587}the Linnet, the Goldfinch, and their allies are blue, bluish-white, or greenish, with reddish or brownish spots; those of Buntings are whitish, greenish, or ruddy, with brown, blackish, or rufous marks, ordinarily including streaks and scrawls; those of Petronia brachydactyla are white with blackish blotches; those of the Hawfinch green with olive and umber spots or lines; those of the Snow-finch white; those of Spiza guiraca and some other American species plain bluish or greenish.

With the Fringillidae this volume ends, according to the Classification which has been here adopted; but it may be well to take the opportunity of again reminding the reader that the "Families" of Oscines are not of equal rank to those of the Orders which precede them; and that, as regards the arrangement of these "Families," few writers will be found to agree; the truth being that there never can be a perfectly satisfactory linear system, since affinities point in so many different directions. When all these affinities have been finally investigated by anatomists, if ever that time should come, they may very possibly necessitate an alphabetical arrangement of the groups, with indications of their various relationships under each head.

{589}INDEX

Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or species; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in following page or pages; n. = note.

Abbott, on Penguins, 57 n., 59 n. Abdimia abdimii, 99 Abdomen, 20 Abou-Hannes, 102 Aburria, 195; A. carunculata, 197 Acanthidositta, 472; A. chloris, 472, 545 Acanthiza, 355, 514, 518 Acanthochaera, 566 Acanthopneuste, 514 Acanthoptila, 502 Acanthorhynchus, 565 Accentor, 509, 510; A. collaris, 512; A. modularis, 512 Accentor, alpine, 512, 517 Accentorinae, 509 Accipiter, 156, 157; plumage of young, 157; A. bicolor, 158; A. chilensis, 159; A. chionogaster, 158; A. cirrocephalus, 159; A. collaris, 159; A. cooperi, 159; A. erythrauchen, 158; A. erythrocnemis, 158; A. fuscus, 159; A. guttatus, 159; A. hartlaubi, 158; A. madagascariensis, 159; A. melanoleucus, 158; A. minullus, 159; A. nisoïdes, 158; A. nisus, 157, 158; A. ovampensis, 158; A. pectoralis, 159; A. pileatus, 150, 159; A. rhodogaster, 158; A. rubricollis, 158; A. rufiventris, 158; A. subniger, 159; A. tinus, 159; A. ventralis, 158; A. virgatus, 158 Accipitres, 137 f., 140 f., 397; cere, 11; claws on manus, 48; powder-down, 147 Accipitrinae, 146, 147, 153 Accipitrine, 141, 146, 156, 157 Aceros, 390; A. nipalensis, 393 Acestrura, 438 Acetabulum, 9, 9 Acomus, 199, 215; A. erythrophthalmus, 215; A. inornatus, 215; A. pyronotus, 215 Acredula, 538-541 Acridotheres, 559-561; A. cristatellus, 559 Acrocephalus, 515-518 Acromyodi, 467 Acropternis, 490 Acrulocercus, 564-567; A. apicalis, 565; A. bishopi, 565; A. braccatus, 565; A. nobilis, 565 Acryllium, 199, 201; A. vulturinum, 204 Actiornis anglicus, fossil, 86 Actitis hypoleucus, 286; A. macularius, 286 Adams, on Tringa maculata, 281 n. Adelomyia, 427 Adjutant, 96, 97 Aechmophorus, 49; A. major, 53; A. occidentalis, 53 Aechmorhynchus cancellatus, 283; A. parvirostris, 283 Aedon, 517, 518 Aedonopsis, 513 Aegialitis, 268, 269; A. asiatica, 274; A. bicincta, 274; A. bifrontata, 274; A. cantiana, 273; A. curonica, 273; A. falklandica, 271; A. hiaticola, 273, 273; A. monachus, 274; A. nivosa, 274; A. novae zealandiae, 274; A. placida, 274; A. sanctae helenae, 274; A. semipalmata, 274; A. vocifera, 274 Aegialornis, fossil, 315, 426 Aegiothus rufescens, 584 Aegithalus, 538-540 Aegithina, 505, 506 Aegotheles, 415, 417, 419; A. wallacii, 417 Aeluredus, 550, 551; A. maculosus, 551; A. viridis, 549, 551 Aepyornis, 43 f. Aepyornithes, 26, 43 f. Aepyornithidae, structure, etc., 43 f. Aepypodius, 190 f.; A. arfakianus, 192; A. bruijni, 192 Aesacus magnirostris, 297; {590} A. recurvirostris, 297 Aesalon columbarius, 178; A. regulus, 177; A. ruficollis, 178; A. typus, 178 Aethiopsar, 561 Aethopyga, 569 Aethorhynchus, 504-506 Aex, 111, 112; A. galericulata, 114, 133; A. sponsa, 133 Aftershaft, of feathers, origin of, 3; absent, in Alcedinidae, 383; in Apteryx, 39; in Hornbill, 390; in Mesites, 187; in Ostrich, 27; in Owls, 399; in Pandion, 180; in Rheidae, 30; in Struthionidae, 27 Agami, 258 Agamia agami, 91 f. Agapornis, 364, 368; A. cana, 368; A. pullaria, 368; A. roseicollis, 368; A. taranta, 368 Agelaeinae, 579 f. Agelaeus, 581; A. phoeniceus, 580 Agelastes, 201; A. meleagrides, 205 Aglaeactis, 437 Agnopterus, fossil, 108 Agriornis, 473, 475 Air-cells, in Sula, 72 Air-sac, 21; in Tetraoninae, 201 Aithurus, 426, 430; A. polytmus, 433, 433 Ajaja, young, 105; A. rosea, 105 Ala, 21 Alaemon, 497, 498; A. alaudipes, 497 Alar bar, 21 Alaska, to which region belonging? 16 Alauda, 497; A. arvensis, 496, 497 Alaudidae, 494, 496 f.; habits, 498 Alaudula raytal, 498 Albatros, 59 f., 61-63, 81, 148; Wandering, 63 f., 64 Albinism, its cause, 4 n. Alca, 315, 320; A. impennis, 315, 320, 321; A. torda, 320 f. Alcae, 268, 315 f. Alcedinidae, 376, 382 f.; habits, 383 f. Alcedininae, 382, 386 Alcedo, 383; A. beryllina, 387; A. ispida, 387 Alcidae, 49, 268, 315 f.; bill-sheath and outgrowth shed, 5 n., 317 f.; habits, 315 f. Alcippe, 503 Alcurus, 504 Alcyone, 383, 384; toes, 10, 383; A. azurea, 386 Alectorides, 243 Alectoroenas, 326, 346; A. madagascariensis, 346; A. nitidissima, 346; A. pulcherrima, 346; A. rodericana, fossil, 350; A. sganzini, 346 Alectoromorphae, 182 Alectoropodes, 186 Alectrurus, 473, 475, 477; A. risorius, 473, 474; A. tricolor, 473, 475 Alethe, 513 Aletornis, fossil, 256 Alexandrine–see Parrot Alisphenoid, 11 Allantois, 21 Altham, E. and H., on Dodo, 330 Altrices, 21 Alucinae, 398 n. Alula spuria, 9, 20 Amadavat, 577 Amaurornis, 249; A. phoenicura, 249 Amazilia, 435; A. cyanura, 435; A. pristina, 435 Amblyornis, 551; A. flavifrons, 549; A. inornata, 549, 551 f.; A. subalaris, 549, 552 Amblyospiza, 577 Âme damnée, 66 Ameghino, on "Stereornithes," 44 Ammodramus, 583, 586 Ammomanes, 497, 498 Ammoperdix, 202; A. bonhami, 228; A. cholmleyi, viii; A. heyi, 228 Amnion, 21 Ampeliceps, 559 Ampelidae, 529 f. Ampelion, 480 Ampelis, 529; A. cedrorum, 530; A. garrulus, 529, 530; A. phoenicoptera, 530 Amphicoelous, 6 Amphimorphae, 105 Amphipelargus, fossil, 99 Amurolimnas, 244 Amytis, 517 Anaeretes, 474 Analogous, meaning, 5 Anarhynchus, 268; A. frontalis, 274, 274 Anas, 112; fossil, 136; A. aberti, 127; A. boscas, 114, 127; skull, 11; A. cristata, 128; A. diazi, 127; A. fulvigula, 127; A. laysanensis, 127; A. luzonica, 127; A. maculosa, 127; A. melleri, 127; A. obscura, 127; A. poecilorhyncha, 127; A. sparsa, 127; A. specularis, 128; A. superciliosa, 127; A. undulata, 127; A. wyvilliana, 127; A. zonorhyncha, 127 Anastomus, 95, 97; sifting apparatus of bill, 12; A. lamelligerus, 97; A. oscitans, 97 Anatidae, 108, 111 f.; habits, 113 f.; shed wing-quills simultaneously, 4; young, 114 Anatinae, 111, 112, 123 Ancistrops, 484 Andigena, 456; A. bailloni, 456; A. laminirostris, 453, 456 Andrews, on Aepyornis and Mullerornis, 43 n.; on fossils from Madagascar, 136, 137 n.; {591} on "Stereornithes," 44 Androdon, 426; A. aequatorialis, 432 f. Andropadus, 504 Angular, 11 Ani, 359; habits, 359; White, 359 Anna, 242 Anodorhynchus, 364, 371 Anomalopteryginae, 42 Anomalopteryx, viii, 42; A. parva, 42 Anomalornis, viii Anorhinus, 391 Anous, 301, 303; A. caeruleus, 311; A. cinereus, 311; A. galapagensis, 311; A. hawaiiensis, 311; A. leucocapillus, 311; A. stolidus, 310; A. tenuirostris, 311 Anseranas, 111-113; A. semipalmata, 135 Anseranatinae, 111, 135 Anseres, 108 f., 110 f., 112; bill-sheath, 11; claws on manus, 48; fossil, 136; fusion of tracheal rings, 13; lamellae of bill, 12; A. albifrons, 132; A. brachyrhynchus, 132; A. cinereus, 132; A. erythropus, 132; A. gambeli, 132; A. grandis, 132; A. indicus, 132; A. middendorfi, 132; A. rubrirostris, 132; A. segetum, 132 Anseriformes, 70, 108 f. Anserinae, 111, 112, 131 f. Ant-bird, 488 f. Anterior limbs, 8 Antigone australasiana, 252, 254; A. collaris, 254 Anthinae, 494, 498 f.; habits, 500 f. Anthobaphes, 569 Anthocincla, 469; A. phayrii, 470 Anthornis, 565, 567 Anthracoceros coronatus, 395; A. malabaricus, 391 Anthropoïdes, 252; A. virgo, 255 f. Anthus, 499; A. antarcticus, 499; A. bertheloti, 499; A. bogotensis, 499; A. campestris, 500; A. cervinus, 500; A. chloris, 500; A. correndera, 501; A. obscurus, 500; A. pratensis, 500; A. richardi, 500; A. rosaceus, 500; A. rufulus, 501; A. spipoletta, 500; A. tenellus, 500; A. trivialis, 500 Antrostomus carolinensis, 417; A. vociferus, 417 Anumbius, 484, 487, 525; A. acuticaudus, 477; nest, 487 Apatornis celer, 49 Aphanapteryx, 244; A. broecki, fossil, 251 Aphelocoma, 554 Aphobus, 579, 580 Aphriza virgata, 276 Aplonis, 559, 561 Aprosmictus, 364 Aptenodytes, 55; A. forsteri, 55, 56; A. patagonica, 57; A. pennanti, 56 Apteria, or unfeathered spaces, 2 Apteryges, 26, 38 f.; finger, 9 Apterygidae, structure, etc., 38 f. Apterygiformes, of Parker, 38 Apteryx, 182; feathers, 41; pelvis, 9; A. australis, 39, 39; A. haasti, 39; A. lawryi, 39; A. mantelli, 39; A. maximus, 39; A. occidentalis, sub-species, 39; A. oweni, 39 Aptornis, 244; A. defossor, fossil, 251; A. otidiformis, fossil, 251 Aquila, 146-148, 160, 161 f.; fossil, 181; A. adalberti, 163; A. chrysaëtus, 161; A. clanga, 162; A. fulvescens, 163; A. hastata, 162; A. mogilnik, 163; A. naevioïdes, 163; A. nipalensis, 162; A. pomarina, 162; A. rapax, 163; A. verreauxi, 163; A. vindhiana, 163; A. wahlbergi, 162 Aquilinae, 146, 159 f. Aquiline, 147 Ara, 363, 364, 371; A. ararauna, 371; A. chloroptera, 371; A. macao, 371; A. militaris, 371; A. severa, 371 Arabia, to which Region belonging? 16 Araçari, 456 Arachnothera, 569; A. chrysogenys, 569; A. magna, 570 Aramidae, 243, 256 f.; habits, 257 Aramides, 247; A. ypecaha, 247 f. Aramus pictus, 256 f.; A. scolopaceus, 257 Arboricola, 199, 222; A. ardens, 222; A. chloropus, 222; A. javanica, 222; A. torqueola, 222 Arch of vertebra, 6 Archaeopteryx, 2; claws, 9; fingers, 9; rib, 6; teeth, 12; vertebrae, 6; A. lithographica, 23 f., 24; A. macrura, 25; A. siemensi, viii Archaeornithes, a sub-class, 23 f.; difference from Neornithes, 25 Archibuteo, 147, 164; A. ferrugineus, 164; A. hemiptilopus, 164; A. lagopus, 164; A. sancti johannis, 164; A. strophiatus, 164 Arctogaea, 15 Arctonetta, 114; A. fischeri, 119 Ardea, 91; fossil, 95; young, 93; A. agami, 91 f.; A. alba, 92; A. ardesiaca, 91; A. asha, 91; A. bubulcus, 88, 91; A. caerulea, 91; A. candidissima, 92; A. cinerea, 92, 93; A. cocoi, 93; A. coromanda, 91; A. egretta, 92; A. garzetta, 92; A. goliath, 89, 93; A. greyi, 91; A. gularis, 91; A. herodias, 93; A. nigripes, 92; A. occidentalis, 93; A. pacifica, 91; A. pealii, 91; A. picata, 91; A. purpurea, 93; A. ralloïdes, 91; A. rufa, 91; A. sacra, 91; A. tricolor, 91; A. würdemanni, 93 n. Ardeae, 70 f., 86 f. Ardeidae, 70, 86 f.; habits, 87 f. Ardeinae, 86 Ardeola ralloïdes, 91 {592} Ardetta, 87, 88, 89; A. cinnamomea, 89; A. minuta, 89 Argillornis, fossil, 86 Argus, 199; A. ocellatus, 208 Argus, 217 Argusianus, 199, 200; A. argus, 207; A. bipunctatus, 207; A. greyi, 207 Argya, 502-504 Arses, 507 Artamia, 533; A. bicolor, 533; A. leucocephala, 533 Artamidae, 530 f. Artamides, 525 Artamus, 494, 531; powder-down, 531 Articular, 11; process of vertebra, 6 Arundinax, 513 Asarcornis, 112; A. scutulata, 134 Asio, 399, 401-403; fossil, 415; A. accipitrinus, 400, 406 f.; A. americanus, 406; A. capensis, 406; A. grammicus, 406; A. madagascariensis, 406; A. mexicanus, 406; A. otus, 402, 406; A. stygius, 406; A. wilsonianus, 406 Aspatha, 380; A. gularis, 381 Asthenopterus minutus, fossil, 181 Astrapia, 544, 549, 550; A. nigra, 545; A. splendidissima, 545; A. stephaniae, 544, 546 Astur, 156, 166; A. alphonsi, fossil, 181; A. atricapillus, 157; A. badius, 156 f.; A. brutus, 157; A. cinereus, 157; A. franciscae, 157; A. hensti, 157; A. leucosomus, 157; A. novae hollandiae, 156, 157; A. palumbarius, 156; A. pusillus, 157; A. tachiro, 156 f.; A. trinotatus, 157; A. trivirgatus, 157 Asturina, 166 f.; A. nitida, 167; A. plagiata, 166 f. Asturinula monogrammica, 156 Asyndesmus torquatus, 461 Atelornis, 378; A. crossleyi, 378; A. pittoïdes, 378 Atlas, 5, 390 Atmore, on Secretary-bird, 142 Atrichornis, 491, 493; A. clamosa, 493; A. rufescens, 493 Atrichornithidae, 491, 493 Attagis chimborazensis, 296; A. gayi, 296; A. malouina, 296 Atticora, 523; A. cyanoleuca, 525 Attila, 479 Attilinae, 479 f. Audubon, on Humming-birds, 432 Augastes, 432; A. lumachellus, 432 Auk, 49, 54, 268, 315 f., 316; habits, 315 f.; Great, 315, 317, 320, 321; Little, 316, 321; Parrot, 318; Razorbill–see Razorbill Auklet, Cassin's, 318; Crested, 318; Knob-billed, 317; Least, 317, 318; Rhinoceros, 317 f.; Whiskered, 318 Aulacorhamphus, 453, 456 f.; A. prasinus, 455; A. wagleri, 455 Aulia, 480 Auriculars, 20 Auriparus, 538-540 Australasia, as a Region, 15 Australian Region, 15 f.; its contents, 16 Austro-Columbia, 15 Austro-Coraces, 531 n., 557 n. Autumn moult, 4 f. Aves, as a Class, 23 Avestruz, 30 Avocet, 278 Avocetta, 268 Avocettula recurvirostris, 433 Axis, 5 Azara, on Toucan, 454

Back, 20 Badiostes, fossil, 415 Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway, on Rhynchops, 304 n.; on Melanerpes, 461 n. Baker, 486 Balaeniceps, 86, 87; B. rex, 93, 94 Balaenicipitinae, 86 Balearica, 251, 252; B. chrysopelargus, 256; B. gibbericeps, 256; B. pavonina, 255, 256 Bambusicola fytchii, 218; B. sonorivox, 219; B. thoracica, 219 Baptornis, 25, 46, 47 Barbatula, 450; B. minuta, 450; B. pusilla, 449 Barbet, 445, 448 f.; habits, 448 f. Barbicels, 3 Barbs, 2, 3; absence of, 3 Barbules, 2, 3 Bargander, 128 Barrel of feathers, or quill, 3 Barrère, on Trochilus, 426 Barrett-Hamilton, on Sterna longipennis, 313 n. Bartlett, A. D., on Catheturus, 192 n.; on Flamingo ejecting blood-like liquid, 86 n.; on Hornbill, 392 n.; on moult of Penguin, 55 n.; on Plotus, 81 n.; on Rhinochetus, 263 n., 265 n. Bartlett, E., on Furnarius, 486; on Mesites, 187 Bartramia longicauda, 285 f. Baryphthengus, 380 Basileuterus, 574 Basilornis, 559 Basitemporal, 11 Bastard wing, 9, 20 Batara, 488, 489 Bates, on Eurypyga, 266; on Humming-birds, 432 Batis, 509 Batrachostomus, 415-417, 419 Baza, 146, 173; B. borneensis, 173; B. ceylonensis, 173; B. cuculoïdes, 173; B. erythrothorax, 173; {593} B. leucopais, 173; B. lophotes, 173; B. madagascariensis, 173; B. magnirostris, 173; B. reinwardti, 173; B. rufa, 173; B. subcristata, 173; B. sumatrensis, 173; B. timorlaensis, 173; B. verreauxi, 173 Beak, 11 f. Bearcoot, 162 Beddard, on trachea of Paradise-bird, 545 n.; on Zosterops, 568 Bee-eater, 376, 387 f., 389; habits, 388; Blue-tailed, 389 Belding, on Harlequin Duck, 120 Bell-bird, 482, 482, 567, 567 n. Belly, 20 Bendire, on habits of Canachites, 236 Berenicornis, 391, 393; B. comatus, 393 Bergut, 162 Berlepsch, on Humming-birds, 432 Bernicla, 131; B. brenta, 131; B. canadensis, 131 f.; B. hutchinsi, 132; B. leucopsis, 131; B. minima, 132; B. nigricans, 131; B. occidentalis, 132; B. ruficollis, 131, 132 Bernieria, 503 Bevies, 221 Bhringa, 528 Bhund-Moorg, 208 Bias, 506 Biconcave vertebrae, in Ichthyornis, and probably in Archaeopteryx, 6, 49; perhaps in Enaliornis, 49 Bill, 11 f.; arched, 12; of Balaeniceps and Cancroma, 86; scissor-like, 12; wedge-like, 12 Bill-sheath, 11; in Chionis, 268; nature of, 2 n.; shed, in Auks, 317, 318 Bird, definition, 1; differences from other Vertebrata, 1 f.; derivation from Reptiles, 14 Bird of Paradise, 543 f.; D'Albertis', 544; fables concerning, 543; habits, 550 f.; Great, 546; Long-tailed, 546; King, 547; Magnificent, 547; Twelve-wired, 545; Red, 546; Six-wired, 547 f., 548 Birds'-nest soup, 423 Birds of passage, 17 Birds of prey, 108; cere, 11; moult, 5 Birds of the Gods, 543 Bittern, 70, 90; habits, 87 f.; Common, 89; Little, 88 Biziura, 111, 114; fossil, 136; B. lobata, 117, 117 Blacicus, 474 Blackbird, 510, 515 Blackburn, on Cuckoo, 354 Black-Cock, 237 f. Black Witch, 359 Blake, on Flamingo, 107 Blight-bird, 568 Blind-sacs, 12 Blue-bird, Fairy, 505 Blue colour in birds, its nature, 3 n. Blue Darr, 314 Blue-eye, 568 Blue-throat, 512, 516 Boatswain-bird, 72 Boat-tail, 580 Bobolink, 580 Bob-White, 204, 232 Bonasa, 199, 201; B. griseiventris, 233 f.; B. severtzovi, 234; B. sylvestris, 233; B. umbellus, 233 Bontekoe, figure of Didus borbonicus, 330 Bonxie, 304 Booby, 74, 82 Booted, 10 Bostrychia carunculata, 102 Botaurus, 87, 88; B. lentiginosus, 89; B. pinnatus, 89; B. poeciloptilus, 89; B. stellaris, 89 Bourdons, 426 Bower-bird, 543, 548 f., 550; habits, 551 f.; Satin–see Satin-bird Brachygalba, 446; B. albigularis, 445; B. melanosterna, 445 Brachypteracias, 378; B. leptosomus, 378 Brachypteryx, 502 Brachyrhamphus craveri, 319; B. hypoleucus, 319; B. kittlitzi, 318; B. marmoratus, 318 Bradypteri, of Sharpe, 513 Bradypterus, 514 Brambling, 584 Branta, fossil, 136 Breast, 20 Breast-bone, 6 Brewer–see Baird Brigade, vi (Preface) Brisson, on Bucco (including Barbet), 448; on Strigidae, 398 n. Bristle-feathers, 3 Bristles, nature of, 2 n. Broad-bill, 467; habits, 469 Broderip, on Toucan, 454 n. Brodrick–see Salvin, F. H. Bromvogel, 392 Bronchi, 13 Bronchial syrinx, 21 Bronn's Thier-reich, 14, 23 Brontornis, 45; B. burmeisteri, 45 Bronze-wing–see Pigeon Brown colour in birds, its nature, 3 n. Buarremon, 575, 576 Bubo, 398-403; fossil, 415; B. abyssinicus, 414; B. ascalaphus, 414; B. bengalensis, 414; B. blakistoni, 414; B. capensis, 414; B. cinerascens, 414; B. coromandus, 403, 414; B. dorriesi, 414; B. ignavus, 413 f.; B. lacteus, 414; B. lettii, 414; B. leucostictus, 414; B. maculosus, 414; B. magellanicus, 414; B. milesi, 414; {594} B. nigrescens, 414; B. nipalensis, 414; B. orientalis, 414; B. philippensis, 414; B. poënsis, 414; B. shelleyi, 414; B. turcomanus, 413; B. virginianus, 402, 414 Buboninae, 398, 404 Bucco, 447, 448; B. bicinctus, 447; B. chacuru, 447; B. collaris, 447; B. dysoni, 447; B. hyperrhynchus, 447, 447; B. maculatus, 447; B. striatipectus, 447 Bucconinae, 445, 446 f. Buceros, 390; B. rhinoceros, 395 Bucerotidae, 376, 390 f.; habits, 390 Bucerotinae, 390 Buchanga leucogenys, 528; B. atra, mimicry, 529; B. waldeni, 528 Buck–see Chapman Buckley, T. E., on Red Grouse, 238 n. Bucorax, 395 Bucorvinae, 395 Bucorvus, 390, 392, 393, 395; B. abyssinicus, 392, 395; B. cafer, 392, 395 Budgerigar, 367 Buffel-head, 121 Bugeranus, 252, 255 Bulbul, 504 f.; habits, 505 f.; of poets, 506 Bulla ossea, 13, 113 Bull-bat, 416 Buller, on Meliphagidae, 568 n.; on Phalacrocorax, 77; on Spheniscus minor, 57 n.; on Stringops, 367 n. Bullfinch, 584, 586 Bulweria, 60; B. bulweri, 67; B. macgillivrayi, 67 Bunting, 578, 579, 582 f.; Corn-, 584, 586; Ortolan, 584; Painted, 585; Reed-, 584; Snow-, 584, 585; Yellow Hammer, 584 Buphaga, 559 Buphus bubulcus, 91 Burgomaster, 306 Busarellus, 146; B. nigricollis, 168 Bustard, 170, 243, 260 f.; habits, 262 f.; Great, 261-263, 261; Little, 262, 263; Ruffed, 262 Butastur indicus, sub-species, 167; B. liventer, 167; B. rufipennis, 167; B. teesa, 167 Buteo, 146, 164 f., 166, 172; fossil, 181; B. abbreviatus, 166; B. albicaudatus, 166; B. augur, 166; B. auguralis, 166; B. borealis, 166; B. brachypterus, 166; B. desertorum, 165 f.; B. exsul, 166; B. ferox, 166; B. galapagensis, 166; B. jakal, 165, 166; B. leucocephalus, 166; B. plumipes, 166; B. poliosomus, 166; B. solitarius, 165; B. swainsoni, 166; B. vulgaris, 165, 166 Buteogallus aequinoctialis, 168 Buteola brachyura, 166; B. leucorrhoa, 166 Buteoninae, 146, 164 f. Buthraupis, 575 Butorides, 88-90; B. atricapilla, 90; B. mauritianus, fossil, 95; B. virescens, 90 Butreron capellii, 349 Buzzard, 146, 148, 160, 162, 164 f., 169, 170; habits, 165; Common, 165; Honey, 148, 172; Rough-legged, 164 Bycanistes buccinator, 393

Cabalus, 244-246; C. modestus, 246, 247; C. (Ocydromus) sylvestris, 245 Cabanis, classification, 14; on classification by song-muscles, 466 Cacatua, 362-364; C. galerita, 364, 372; C. leadbeateri, 372, 372; C. roseicapilla, 372 Cacatuinae, 362 f., 364, 372 f. Caccabis, 198, 202; C. chukar, 228; C. magna, 228; C. melanocephala, 228; C. petrosa, 228; C. rufa, 228; C. saxatilis, 228; C. spatzi, 228 Cachalote, 487 Cacomantis passerinus, 355; C. virescens, 355 Cactornis, 583, 585, 586 Caeca, 12 Caica melanocephala, 369 Cairina, 111; C. moschata, 134 Calamospiza, 586 Calamus, 3 Calandrella, 497, 498; C. brachydactyla, 497 Calandria, 519 Calao, 390 Calcarius, 583 Calicalicus, 531-533 Calidris, 269; C. arenaria, 282 Callaeas, 552, 553; C. cinerea, 556 f.; C. wilsoni, 557 Callene, 513 Calliope, 509; C. camtschatcensis, 512; C. pectoralis, 512; C. tschebaiewi, 512 Callipepla, 200; C. squamata, 230 Callisitta, 537 Calliste, 575 Callocephalon galeatum, 373 Calloo, 120 Calochaetes, 575 Calocitta, 552, 554 Calodromas, 183; C. elegans, 185 Caloenas, 326-328; C. nicobarica, 334; C. pelewensis, 334 Caloenatinae, 325 Calopelia puella, 338 Caloperdix, 199; C. borneensis, 221; C. oculea, 221 Calopezus, 182; C. elegans, 185 Calopsittacus novae hollandiae, 373 Calorhamphus, 448; C. fuliginosus, 450; C. hayi, 450 Calornis, 561, 562 {595} Calothorax lucifer, 438 Calypte annae, 438; C. costae, 438; C. helenae, 438 Calyptomena, 468, 469; C. viridis, 468; C. whiteheadi, 468 Calyptorhynchus, 364, 373 Calyptura, 479, 480 Camarhynchus, 583, 585, 586 Camascelus, fossil, 300 Campanero, 482 Campechaera, 525, 526 Campephaga, 525, 526 Campephagidae, 494, 525 f., 531; habits, 526 f. Campethera, 460; C. punctata, 460 Campophilus, 463; C. principalis, 463 Camptolaemus, 114; C. labradorius, 119 Campylopterus, 435 Campylorhynchus, 521, 522 Canace canadensis, 236 Canachites canadensis, 236; C. franklini, 236 Canary, 585, 586; Cape-, 585 Cancroma, 86, 87; C. cochlearia, 90 f.; C. zeledoni, 91 Canirallus kioloïdes, 248 Cannon-bone, 9 Cape-Hen, 67; -Penguin, 57; -Pigeon, 61, 66 Capercaillie, 202, 203, 236 Capito, 448, 449, 451; C. niger, 451; C. salvini, 451 Capitonidae, 445, 448 f. Capitoninae, 448 f.; habits, 448 f. Capitulum of rib, 6 Caprimulgi, 376, 398, 415 f.; toes, 415 Caprimulgidae, 172, 415, 417 f.; habits, 416 f. Caprimulginae, 415, 418; toes, 10, 415 Caprimulgus, operculum of nostrils, 11; C. aegyptius, 418; C. europaeus, 418, 418; C. parvulus, 415; C. ruficollis, 418 Capsiempis, 473; C. orbitalis, 474 Caracara, 152 Carancho, 152, 153 Carau, 257 Carcineutes, 383; C. pulchellus, 386 Cardellina, 574 Cardinal, 585, 586 Cardinalis, 583-585 Carduelis, 583; C. elegans, 584 Cariama, 44, 110, 258, 260; C. cristata, 258, 259 Cariamidae, 243, 258 f.; habits, 259 f. Carina, 6 Carinatae, meaning, 6; a subdivision of Neornithes, 23 f. Carine, 400, 401, 403; C. bactriana, 411; C. brama, 411; C. glaux, 402; C. noctua, 403, 410 f.; C. plumipes, 411; C. spilogastra, 411; C. superciliaris, 411 Carpal spurs in Palamedeidae, 109 Carphibis, 99; C. spinicollis, 102 Carpococcyx radiatus, 358, 358; C. viridis, 358 Carpodacus, 585 Carpodectes, 479, 480 Carpometacarpus, 8 Carpophaga, 327, 328, 345; C. aenea, 345; C. basilica, 345; C. concinna, 345; C. cuprea, 345; C. griseipectus, 345; C. latrans, 326, 345; C. pacifica, 345; C. pinon, 345; C. poecilorrhoa, 345; C. rubricera, 345 f.; C. zoeae, 345 Carpus, 8, 8, 22 Carré, on Didus borbonicus, 330 Carrion-Crow, 140 Carrion-Hawk, 137, 146, 151 f., 153 Casarca cana, 129; C. rutila, 129; C. tadornoïdes, 129; C. variegata, 129 Cashew-bird, 197 Casque, of Cassowary, 33 f. Cassicinae, 579 f. Cassiculus, 580 Cassidix, 580 Cassiques, 580 Cassowary, 26; feathers, 35; structure, etc., 32 f.; aftershaft, 3; breast-bone, 7; nestlings, 34 Casuariformes of Parker, 38 Casuarii (= Megistanes), 32 f.; finger, 9 Casuariidae, structure, etc., 32 f. Casuarius australis, 33; C. beccarii, 33; C. bennetti, 34; C. bicarunculatus, 33; C. galeatus, 33; C. occipitalis, 34; C. papuanus, 34; C. picticollis, 34; C. tricarunculatus, 33; C. uniappendiculatus, 34, 35 Catamblyrhynchus, 584 Cataract-bird, 517 Cat-bird, 519, 549, 550 Catharista, 140; C. atratus, 140 Cathartae, 137 f.; claws on manus, 48 Cathartes, 140 Cathartidae, 70, 137 f., 143; fossil, 140; fossil, Dryornis belongs here, 44; habits, 137 f. Catharus, 509, 510, 516 Catherpes, 521, 522 Catheturus, 190 f.; C. lathami, 192, 193 Catreus, 203; C. wallichi, 212 Cedar-bird (Ampelis cedrorum), 530 Celeomorphae, 457 Celeus, 462 f.; C. flavus, 463 Centrites, 473, 475, 477; C. niger, 477 Centrocercus, 199, 200, 203; air-sacs, 201; C. urophasianus, 234 Centropelma micropterum, 53 Centropodinae, 351, 356; habits, 356 f. Centropus, 351, 356; C. sinensis, 356; C. toulou, 357; C. unirufus, 356 Centrornis majori, fossil, 136 f. {596} Centrum of vertebra, 6; in Archaeopteryx, 24 Cephalolepis, 431; C. delalandi, 437 Cephalopterus, 480, 482, 483; C. glabricollis, 481; C. ornatus, 481, 481, 482; C. penduliger, 481 Cepphus carbo, viii, 319; C. columba, viii, 319; C. grylle, 319; C. mandti, 319; C. snowi, viii Ceratogymna, 393; C. elata, 394 Ceratopipra, 477, 478; C. cornuta, 478 Cercibis, 100; C. oxycerca, 101 Cercomacra, 488, 489 Cere, 20; in Anseriformes, 109, 111; in Falconiformes, 137; in Psittaci, 362; in Strigidae, 398 Cereopsinae, 111, 133 Cereopsis, 111, 112; C. novae hollandiae, 133 Ceriornis, 199-201, 216; C. blythi, 216; C. caboti, 216, 217; C. melanocephalus, 216; C. satyrus, 216; C. temmincki, 216 Cerorhyncha monocerata, 317 f. Certhia, 457, 571, 572; C. familaris, 571, 572 Certhidea, 572 Certhiidae, 494, 536, 571 f. Certhilauda, 497, 498 Certhiola, 573; C.flaveola, 573 Certhionyx leucomelas, 565 Certhiparus, 538-540 Cervix, 20 Ceryle, 383, 387; C. alcyon, 387; C. amazona, 384, 387; C. rudis, 384 Cetn, 165 Cettia, 517, 518 Ceyx, 383, 384, 386; C. euerythra, 386; toes, 10, 383 Chaetobias, 502 Chaetocercus bombus, 438 Chaetops, 502, 503 Chaetoptila, 565 Chaetopus, 226 Chaetorhynchus, 528 Chaetura, 422; C. acuta, 423; C. boehmi, 423; C. cassini, 423; C. caudacuta, 422; C. grandidieri, 423; C. novae guineae, 422 f.; C. pelagica, 422; C. ussheri, 423; C. zonaris, 422 Chaeturinae, 420, 422 Chaffinch, 584, 586 Chajá, 109, 110 Chaka, 109 Chalcococcyx, 352; C. lucidus, 354, 355 Chalcoparia, 569 Chalcopelia, 335; C. afra, 339; C. chalcospilus, 339 Chalcophaps, 338; C. chrysochlora, 338; C. indica, 338; C. mortoni, 338; C. natalis, 338; C. sanghirensis, 338; C. stephani, 338 Chalcopsittacus, 364, 374 Chalcurus inocellatus, 208 Chamaea, 495, 522; C. fasciata, 522; C. henshawi, 522 Chamaeidae, 522 Chamaeospiza, 583 Chamaepetes, 195; C. goudoti, 197 f.; C. unicolor, 198 Chamaeza, 489 Channel-bill, 356 Chapman, Abel, on Flamingo, 107; on Woodpecker, 459 n. Chapman and Buck, on Bustard, 263 n.; on Egyptian Vulture, 145 n.; on nestling of Gyps, 143 n. Chapparal-Cock, 357 Charadriidae, 268, 272 f.; operculum C. nostrils, 11 Charadriiformes, 268 f. Charadriinae, 268, 269, 272 f. Charadrius, 268, 269; fossil, 300; C. dominicus, 272; C. fulvus, 272; C. obscurus, 273; C. pluvialis, 272 Charata, 197 Charitornis, 559, 561 Charmosyna, 364 Chasiempis, 507, 509 Chasmorhynchus, 479, 480, 482, 567 n.; C. niveus, 481, 482, 482; C. nudicollis, 481; C. tricarunculatus, 481; C. variegatus, 481 Chat, 511, 512, 515-517 Chaulelasmus, 111; C. couesi, 127; of streperus, 127 Chauna, 109; C. chavaria, 110; C. cristata, 109, 110, 110; C. derbiana, 110 Chaunoproctus, 583 Cheer, 212 Chelidon, 522-524; C. dasypus, 522; C. urbica, 524 Chelidoptera brasiliensis, 448; C. tenebrosa, 448 Chelidorhynx, 506, 509 Chen caerulescens, 133; C. hyperboreus, 133; C. nivalis, 133; C. rossi, 111, 133 Chenalopex, 112, 113; fossil, 136; C. aegyptiaca, 129; C. jubata, 129; C. sirabensis, fossil, 137 Chenonetta jubata, 130 Chenonettinae, 111, 112, 130 f. Chenopis, fossil, 136; C. atrata, 135 Chenornis graculoïdes, fossil, 136 Chera, 578 Cheramoeca, 523, 525 Chest, 21 Chettusia gregaria, 275 f.; C. leucura, 276 Cheu-can, 490 Cheu-gui, 490 Chibia, 528; C. bimaënsis, 528; C. bracteata, 528; C. hottentotta, 528; {597} C. pectoralis, 528 Chicquera ruficollis, 178; C. typus, 178 Chimarrhornis, 516 Chionididae, 268, 269, 292 f. Chionis, 269, 270; C. alba, 293; C. minor, 293 Chirocylla, 480 Chiromachaeris, 478, 479; C. aurantiaca, 478; C. manacus, 479 Chiroxiphia, 478; C. caudata, 479; C. linearis, 478, 479; C. pareola, 478 Chlamydodera, 550, 551; C. cerviniventris, 551; C. maculata, 551; C. nuchalis, 549, 552 Chleuasicus, 502 Chloëphaga, 113, 114; C. hybrida, 130; C. inornata, 130; C. magellanica, 130 f.; C. melanoptera, 130, 131; C. poliocephala, 130; C. rubidiceps, 131 Chloridops, 562 Chlorochrysa, 575 Chloronerpes, 460; C. rubiginosus, 460 Chloropeta, 506 Chloropipo, 477, 478; C. flavicapilla, 478 Chloropsis, 505, 506; C. cyanopogon, 505; C. flavipennis, 505 Chlorospingus, 575, 576 Chlorostilbon, 430, 433 Cholornis, 10, 502 Chondestes, 586 Chordiles, 416; C. virginianus, 416 Chorion, 21 Chosornis praeteritus, fossil, 194 Chotorhea, 450 Chough, 552-556 Chrysococcyx, 352; C. cupreus, 355; C. smaragdineus, 355 Chrysoenas, 326, 327, 347; C. luteovirens, 347; C. victor, 347; C. viridis, 347 Chrysolampis mosquitus, 434 Chrysolophus, 199-201; C. amherstiae, 210; C. pictus, 200, 209 f. Chrysomitridops, 562, 563 Chrysomitris, 583; C. spinus, 584 Chrysophlegma, 460 f.; C. flavinucha, 460 f.; C. miniatum, 461 Chrysotis, 362, 364, 370; yellow varieties, 370; C. aestiva, 370 Chthonicola, 518 Chuck-Will's-widow, 417 Chueké, 30 Chunga, 258, 260; C. burmeisteri, 259 Chuñia, 243, 259 Chupa-myrta, 426; -rosa, 426 Church, on Turacin, 360 n. Cichladusa, 513 Cichlherminia, 515 Cichlopsis, 513 Cicinnurus, 545, 550, 551; C. regius, 547 Ciconia, 95; C. abdimii, 96, 99; C. alba, 98, 99; C. boyciana, 99; C. nigra, 96, 99 Ciconiae, 70 f., 95 f. Ciconiidae, 70, 95 f.; habits, 96 Ciconiiformes, 59, 70 f., 108 Cinclidae, 519 Cinclodes, 486 Cinclorhamphus, 502, 503 Cinclosoma, 503 Cinclus, 519; C. albicollis, 519, 520; C. aquaticus, 519, 520; C. ardesiacus, 519; C. leucocephalus, 519; C. leuconotus, 519 Cinnamopterus, 559; C. tenuirostris, 560 Cinnicerthia, 521 Cinnyris brevirostris, 568; C. osea, 568; C. splendidus, 569 Circaëtinae, 153 Circaëtus, 153; C. beaudouini, 153; C. cinerascens, 153; C. cinereus, 153; C. fasciolatus, 153; C. gallicus, 153 Circus, 146, 147, 154; fossil, 181; habits, 154 f.; C. aeruginosus, 155; C. approximans, 155; C. assimilis, 155; C. cineraceus, 155; C. cinereus, 155; C. cyaneus, 155; C. gouldi, 155; C. hudsonius, 155; C. humbloti, 155; C. jardinii, 155; C. macrosceles, 155; C. maculosus, 155; C. maillardi, 155; C. maurus, 155; C. melanoleucus, 155; C. ranivorus, 155; C. spilothorax, 155; C. spilonotus, 155; C. swainsoni, 155; C. wolfi, 155 Ciridops, 562, 563 Cirrhopipra, 478; C. filicauda, 478; C. heterocerca, 478 Cissa, 376, 552, 553 f. Cissopis, 575 Cisticola, 514, 518 Cisticolae, of Sharpe, 513 Cistothorus, 521 Cittocincla, 510, 513, 517 Cittura cyanotis, 385 Cladorhynchus pectoralis, 278 Clamator, 226 Clamatores, 467, 469 f. Clangula albeola, 121; C. glaucion, 113, 121; C. islandica, 121 Clark, on bones of Dodo, 330 Clarke, W. E., Digest of Migration Reports, 19 n. Classification, 13 f. Claudia squamata, 425 Clavicle, 7, 8, 21, 187–see also Furcula Claws, nature of, 2 n.; of recent Birds, 9; serrated, 10; in Archaeopteryx, 9, 25; on manus of Carinatae, 48; in Grouse, 199; shed in Ptarmigan, 203; in Ratitae, 26 Clibanornis, 484 Climacteris, 571, 572 Clitonyx, 502, 503 {598} Clucking Hen, 256 Clypeïcterus, 579 f. Clytoceyx rex, 386 Clytoctantes, 488 Clytorhynchus pachycephaloïdes, 533 Cnemiornis, 133; fossil, 136; breast-bone, 7; very little keel to sternum, 26, 133 Cnemophilus macgregori, 548 f. Cnipolegus, 473, 474, 476; C. unicolor, 475 Coach-whip bird, 503 Cobbler's Awl, 278, 565 Coccothraustes, 583; C. vulgaris, 584 Coccycolius, 559, 560 Coccystes, 352, 355; C. americanus, 356; C. coromandus, 355; C. erythrophthalmus, 356; C. glandarius, 355; C. occidentalis, 356; C. serratus, 355 Cochoa azurea, 510; C. purpurea, 510; C. viridis, 510 Cock, 203 Cock of the Rock, 480 Cockatoo, 351, 364, 365, 372 f.; Great Black, 364, 373; Leadbeater's, 372, 372 Cockatoo-Parakeet, 373 Coël, 356 Coerebidae, 572 f. Colaptes, 458; C. agricola, 460; C. auratus, 460; C. mexicanus, 460 Colibri, 426 Colii, 376, 439 f. Coliidae, 439 f. Colin, 231 Colius, 440 f.; toes, 10; C. capensis, 440, 441; C. castanonotus, 441; C. erythromelon, 441; C. leucocephalus, 441; C. leucotis, 441; C. macrurus, 441; C. nigricollis, 441; C. striatus, 441 Collar-bone, 8 Collingwood, on Sooty Tern, 312 Collocalia, 421-423 f.; fossil, 426; C. francica, 424; C. fuciphaga, 423 f. Colopterus, 473, 474 Colour of feathers, 3 f. Columba, 328, 343; fossil, 350; C. affinis, 344; C. araucana, 344; C. arquatrix, 344; C. bollii, 343, 344; C. grisea, 344; C. guinea, 326, 344; C. gymnophthalma, 326, 344; C. ianthina, 344; C. intermedia, 344; C. laurivora, 343, 344; C. leucocephala, 344; C. leucomela, 344; C. leuconota, 344; C. livia, 344; C. metallica, 344; C. oenas, 344; C. palumboïdes, 344; C. palumbus, 343, 344; C. phaeonota, 328; C. polleni, 344; C. rufina, 344; C. schimperi, 344; C. speciosa, 344; C. torringtoniae, 344; C. trocaz, 343, 344 Columbae, 268, 322, 325 f.; operculum of nostrils, 11 Columbidae, 268, 325 f., 333 f.; habits, 327 f. Columbigallina, 325, 327, 328, 335, 340; C. buckleyi, 340; C. cruziana, 340; C. minuta, 340; C. passerina, 340; C. rufipennis, 340; C. talpacoti, 340 Columbinae, 325 f., 342 Columbula picui, 340 Coly, 439 f.; Cape, 440, 441 Colymbi, 49 Colymbidae, habits, 51 f.; structure, etc., 49 f. Colymbiformes, 49 f. Colymboïdes, fossil, 50 Colymbomorphae, 48 Colymbus adamsi, 50; C. arcticus, 50; C. glacialis, 50, 51; C. pacificus, 50; C. septentrionalis, 50 Coly-Shrike, 527, 527 Comatibis, 100; C. comata, 102 Comet, Sappho, 434 Compressed, 21 Compsotis, 262 Condor, 138, 139, 139 Conopophaga, 489, 490 Conopophagidae, 469, 489 f. Contopus, 473, 474; C. ardesiacus, 476 Contour-feather, 2 Conurus, 363, 365; C. carolinensis, 365, 371; C. guarouba, 371; C. patachonius, 525; C. pertinax, 366; C. solstitialis, 371 Coot, 243-246 Copper-smith, 449 Copsychus, 510, 513, 516 Copurus, 473, 477 Coraciae, 376 f. Coracias, 376; C. abyssinicus, 377; C. garrulus, 376 f.; C. naevius, 377; C. spatulatus, 377; C. temmincki, 376 Coraciidae, 376 f. Coraciiformes, 376 f. Coraciinae, 376; habits, 377 f. Coraciomorphae, 351 Coracoid, 7, 7, 8, 8; unites with furcula and scapula in Fregata, 72 Coracomorphae, of Huxley, 466 Coracopitta, 469; C. lugubris, 471 Coracopsis, 364; C. barklyi, 369; C. comorensis, 369; C. mascarinus, 365 f.; C. nigra, 369; C. sibilans, 369; C. vasa, 369 Corcorax, 552, 557 f. Cordeaux, W. W., on Ibidorhynchus, 277 n. Corethrura, 246, 248; C. pulchra, 246 Coriphilus, 364; C. taitianus, 373; C. ultramarinus, 373 Cormorant, 70, 75; fishing with, 79; habits, 78; Common, 75, 76; Green, 77; Pigmy, 78 Cornay, classification, 14 Corn Crake–see Crake, Corn Corneous, 11 Corvidae, 495, 525, 531, 543, 552 f.; {599} habits, 554 f. Corvinae, 552 f. Corvultur, 552, 553 Corvus, fossil, 496; C. caurinus, 555; C. corax, 552, 555; C. cornix, 355; C. corone, 556; C. frugilegus, 552; C. ossifragus, 556; C. pastinator, 552; C. scapulatus, 553; C. torquatus, 553; C. tropicus, 556 Corydon, 468; C. sumatranus, 468 Coryphistera, 484, 485 Coryphoenas, 326; C. crassirostris, 342 f. Coryphospiza, 583 Corythaeola, 360 Corythaix fischeri, 361 Corythopis, 489, 490 Corythornis cristata, 386 f. Coscoroba candida, 135 Cosmonetta, 112; C. histrionica, 120 Cossypha, 513, 516; C. caffra, 512 n.; C. natalensis, 510 Cotile, 523, 525; C. concolor, 525; C. fuligula, 524 f.; C. riparia, 522, 524; C. rupestris, 524 f. Cotinga, 480; C. amabilis, 480 Cotingidae, 469, 477, 479 f., 567 n.; habits, 482 f. Cotinginae, 479 f. Coturnix, 198-200, 202; fossil, 240; C. capensis, 220; C. communis, 220; C. coromandelica, 220; C. delegorguii, 220; C. japonica, 220; C. novae zealandiae, 220; C. pectoralis, 220 Coua, 351, 352, 357; C. caerulea, 357 Coucal, 356; habits, 356 f. Courlan, 257 Courser, 268, 294 f.; Cream-coloured, 294 Covert, 20, 21; Greater, 21; Lesser, 21; Median, 21; Upper, 21 Cow-bird, 582 Cowry-bird, 577 Crab-Plover–see Plover, Crab Cracidae, 186, 194 f.; habits, 195; replace Pheasants, etc., 192 Cracinae, 194-196 Cracticus, 532, 533; C. destructor, 533 Crake, 243, 246; Baillon's, 248; Corn, 245, 248; Little, 248; Spotted, 245, 248 Crane, viii, 148, 243, 251 f., 263; habits, 252 f.; trachea enters keel of sternum, 13; young, 256; Asiatic White, 253, 254; Common, 254; Crowned, 253, 255, 256; Demoiselle, 255; of Japan, 254; Kaffir, 256; Sandhill, 254; Sarus, 253, 254; Wattled, 255; Whooping, 253, 254 Cranorhinus cassidix, 394 f. Crapaud-volant, 419 n. Crateropodes, of Sharpe, 502 Crateropus, 355, 504; C. kirki, 503 Crax, 194 f.; C. alector, 196, 196; C. fasciolata, 196, 197 Crazy Widow, 257 Creadion carunculatus, 558 Creciscus, 246; C. levraudi, 246 Creeper, 571 f.; Tree-, 457, 572 Cretaceous epoch, Birds of, 2 Crex pratensis, 245, 248, 248 Criniger, 504-506 Crissum (vent-region), 20 Crocodile-bird, 295 Crocopus, 349; C. chlorigaster, 349 Crop, 12; in Galliformes, 186; in Humming-birds, 427; in Opisthocomus, 241; in Phasianidae, 200; in Sand-grouse, 322; in Thinocorythidae, 270; in Tinamidae, 183 Crossbill, 584, 586 Crossleyia, 503 Crossoptilon, 199, 200, 203, 214; C. auritum, 214; C. harmani, 214; C. leucurum, 214; C. manchuricum, 214; C. tibetanum, 214 Crotophaga, 351, 352; C. ani, 359; C. major, 359; C. sulcirostris, 359 Crotophaginae, 351, 359; habits, 359 Crow, 149, 175, 356, 552-556; -Blackbird, 580; Carrion-, 554, 556; Grey, 355; Hooded, 553, 556 Crown, 20 Crypsirhina, 552 Cryptolopha, 506, 514, 518 Cryptorhina, 552 Cryptornis, fossil Hornbill in France, 395 Crypturi, incisura ischiadica, 9; no pygostyle, 6 n. Crypturidae, 182 f. Crypturus, 183, 184; C. tataupa, 184, 185 Cubitals, 21, 22 Cuckoo, 351, 352 f., 353; habits, 353 f.; Hawk, 353; migration, 19; Opisthocomus related to, 186; parasitic habits, etc., 354; toes, 10; Black-billed, 356; Great Spotted, 355; Radiated Ground-, 358; Yellow-billed, 356 Cuckoo-Shrike, 525 f.; habits, 526 f. Cuckoo's-mate, 465 Cuculi, 351 f., 376 Cuculidae, 351 f.; toes, 10 Cuculiformes, 351 f. Cuculinae, 351, 352; habits, 353 f. Cuculus canorus, 352 f., 353; C. clamosus, 352 Culicicapa, 507 Culicivora, 473 Culmen, 20 Cuneate, 21 Cunningham, on Tachyeres, 121 n. Curaeus, 579, 580 Curassow, 186, 194, 241; {600} habits, 195; Crested, 196 Curlew, 282, 287 f., 288; bill, 12; Eskimo, 288; Stone-, 268, 297 Cursorius, 269, 270, 293, 294 f.; C. albifasciatus, 295; C. bicinctus, 295; C. bisignatus, 295; C. bitorquatus, 295; C. chalcopterus, 270, 295; C. cinctus, 295; C. coromandelicus, 295; C. gallicus, 294; C. hartingi, 295; C. rufus, 294 f.; C. seebohmi, 295; C. senegalensis, 295; C. somalensis, 294; C. temmincki, 295 Cushat, 344 Cutis, 2 n. Cutting edges of bill, 20 Cyanecula, 516; C. leucocyana, 512; C. suecica, 512; C. wolfi, 512 Cyanochen cyanoptera, 130 Cyanocitta, 552, 554 Cyanocorax, 552, 554 Cyanolesbia gorgo, 434 Cyanolyseus, 365; C. patagonus, 365, 371 Cyanomyias, 506; C. verticalis, 435 Cyanophaea caeruleigularis, 435 Cyanopica, 552; C. cooki, 355, 553; C. cyana, 553 Cyanops, 450; C. faber, 449 Cyanopsittacus, 364, 371 Cyanorhamphus erythrotis, 365 Cyanospiza ciris, 563, 585; C. cyanea, 585 Cyanotis, 475-477; C. azarae, 474 Cybernetes, 473, 475 Cyclopsittacinae, 362 f., 373 Cyclopsittacus, 373 Cyclorhis, 536 Cyclorhynchus, 316; C. psittaculus, 318 Cycnopsis cycnoïdes, 111, 132 Cygninae, 111, 112, 135 f.; young, 114 Cygnus, fossil, 136; C. bewicki, 112, 135, 136; C. buccinator, 112, 135; C. columbianus, 112, 135; C. melanocoryphus, 111, 135; C. musicus, 112, 135; C. olor, 111, 135, 136 Cymbilanius, 488 Cymborhynchus macrorhynchus, 468 Cymodroma, 60, 65 Cyphorhinus, 521; C. cantans, 521 Cypseli, 376, 419 f. Cypselidae, 315 n., 419 f.; toes, 10, 420 f.; habits, 421 f. Cypselinae, 420, 424 Cypseloïdes, 420, 422, 423; C. brunneitorques, 423; C. niger, 423; C. rutilus, 423 Cypselomorphae, 419 n. Cypselus, 424; fossil, 426; toes, 10; C. affinis, 421, 424; C. andicola, 421, 425; C. apus, 424, 425; C. caffer, 421, 424 f.; C. horus, 421, 425; C. melanoleucus, 421 n., 424, 425; C. melba, 424; C. montivagus, 425; C. murinus, 424; C. pacificus, 425; C. pallidus, 424; C. squamatus, 424; C. unicolor, 424 Cyrtonyx, 199, 231 f.; C. montezumae, 231 f.

Dabchick, 52 Dacelo, 383, 384; D. gigas, 386 Dactylortyx, 199; D. thoracicus, 232 Dafila, 112, 114; D. acuta, 125; D. eatoni, 125; D. spinicauda, 125 D'Albertis, on Macropteryx, 421 n. Dal-riporre, 239 Dames, on Archaeopteryx, 23 n.; on Scaniornis, 108 n. Dampier, on Flamingo, 107; on Goura, 334 Dance of Cranes, 252 Dancing of Kagu, 265; of Sun-bittern, 266; of Vanellus cayennensis, 275 n. Daphoenositta, 537 Daption, 60, 61; D. capensis, 66 Darters, 70, 79 f.; habits, 80 f.; Indian, 80 Darwin, on breeds of Pigeons, 327 n.; on Patagona gigas, 430; on Pelecanoïdes, 69; on Tachyeres, 121 Dasornis, 45 Dasylophus, 352 Dasyptilus, 364; D. pesqueti, 369 Daulias, 510; D. hafizi, 506, 512; D. luscinia, 512; D. philomela, 512 De Bry, on Dodo, 329 Decomposed feather, 3 Decorative plumes, 5 Defilippia crossirostris, 276; D. leucoptera, 276 Deglutition, organs of, 12 Demiegretta sacra, 91 Dendragapus, air-sacs, 201; D. fuliginosus, 235; D. obscurus, 235; D. richardsoni, 235 Dendrobates, 462 Dendrocitta, 552, 553, 556 Dendrocolaptidae, 469, 483 f.; habits, 485 f. Dendrocolaptinae, 457, 484 f. Dendrocoptes, 462 Dendrocopus brunneifrons, 461 f.; D. leuconotus, 462; D. major, 458, 461; D. medius, 462; D. minor, 461, 462 Dendrocycna, 111-113, 129; fossil, 136; D. arborea, 129; D. arcuata, 130; D. autumnalis, 129; D. discolor, 120; D. eytoni, 130; D. fulva, 129, 130; D. guttata, 129; D. javanica, 130; D. viduata, 129 Dendroeca, 573, 574; D. palmarum, 574; D. tigrina, 573 Dendrophila, 537 Dendrortyx, 198, 230; D. macrurus, 230 Dentary, 11 Depressed, 21 Derma, 2, 2 n. {601} Deroptyus, 364 Desjardins, on Solitaire, 331 Desmodactyli, 466 f. Deviling, 424 De Vis, on "Dinornis queenslandiae," 42; on Metapteryx, 40 D'Heguerty, on Solitaire, 330 Diamond-bird, 570 f. Diaphorapteryx, 244; D. hawkinsi, fossil, 251 Diaphorophyia, 506, 507 Diatryma, 45 Dicaeidae, 570 f. Dicaeum, 571; D. erythrorhynchum, 571 Dichoceros bicornis, 391, 393, 395 Dicholophus, 44 Dichromanassa, young, 93; D. rufa, 91 Dicranostreptus, 528 Dicrocercus, 387 Dicruridae, 353, 527 f.; habits, 528 f. Dicrurus, 528 Dididae, 268, 325 f., 328 Di-dric, 355 Didunculidae, 268, 325 f., 331 Didunculus, 325, 326, 328; D. strigirostris, 331 f., 332; habits, 332, 333 Didus, breast-bone, 7; coracoid and scapula fused, 8; little keel to sternum, 26; D. borbonicus, 328, 330; D. ineptus, 328 f., 329 Digestion, organs of, 5 f., 12 Digits, 8, 8; of foot, 8 Diglossa, 572 Diglossopis, 572 Dilophus, 559, 561, 562 Dinornis, 42; D. maximus, 42; "Dinornis queenslandiae," 42 Dinornithes, 26, 41 f. Dinornithidae, 41; structure, etc., 42 Dinornithinae, 42 Diomedea, 63; fossil, 69; D. albatrus, 64; D. anglica, fossil, 69; D. bulleri, 65; D. cauta, 65; D. chionoptera, 64; D. chlororhyncha, 65; D. culminata, 63, 65; D. exulans, 61, 63 f., 64; D. immutabilis, 65; D. irrorata, 64; D. layardi, 65; D. melanophrys, 65; in England and Faeroes, 65; D. nigripes, 64; D. regia, 64; D. salvini, 65 Diomedeinae, 59, 60, 63 Diphlogaena iris, 434 Diphyllodes, 545, 550; D. gulielmi tertii, 547; D. magnifica, 547, 547 Diplopterinae, 351, 358 Diplopterus, 352; D. naevius, 358 f. Dipper, 519 f., 520 Disconnected web, 3 Discura, 427 Dissemuroïdes, 528 Dissemurus, 528; D. paradiseus, 528 Dissodectes ardesiacus, 174; D. dickinsoni, 174; D. zoniventris, 174 Dissura, 96; D. episcopus, 98 f.; D. maguari, 97, 99 Distal, 21 Diver, 54, 267; habits, 51 f.; structure, etc., 49 f.; Black-throated, 50 f.; Great Northern, 50, 51; Red-throated, 50 f. Docimastes ensifer, 436 Dodaars, 329 Dodo, 325, 328 f., 329; breast-bone, 7; habits, 330 Dolichonyx, 579-581; D. orizivorus, 580 Doliornis, 479, 480 Dollar-bird, 377 Donacicola, 578 Donacobius, 515, 519 Dormant action of formative substance of feather, 4 Dorsal, 21 Dorsum, 20 Dotterel, 272; Ring-, 273 Double moult, 4 f. Dove, Beetle-wing, 338; Cinnamon-, 337; Collared Turtle-, 328; Cordillera-, 339; Cuckoo-, 343; Emerald-, 338; Ground-, 328, 340; Lemon-, 337; Mountain-, 342; Mourning, 342; Pea-, 342; Ring-, 344; Rock-, 327, 328; Scaly, 341; Stock-, 328, 344; Turtle-, 327, 341 Dowitcher, 289 Down-feather, 2 Down of young suppressed, 3 Drepanididae, 562; habits, 564 Drepanis, 562; D. funerea, 563; D. pacifica, 563, 563, 564 Drepanoptila, 325, 326; D. holosericea, 346 f. Drepanorhynchus, 569 Drepanornis, 544, 550, 551; D. albertisi, 544, 545; D. cervinicauda, 551 Dresser, on Bustards, 263 n.; on Double Snipe, 291 n.; on Francolin, 226 n.; on Grouse, 240 n.; on Pelecanus onocrotalus, 83; on Quail, 221 n. Dromadinae, 296 Dromaeidae, 36; structure, etc., 32 f. Dromaeocercus, 514 Dromaeus, 182; D. ater, extinct, 38; D. gracilipes, fossil, 38; D. irroratus, 36; D. novae hollandiae, 36, 37; D. patricius, fossil, 38 Dromas, 269, 270, 292; D. ardeola, 296 Dromococcyx, 352, 359 Dromornis australis, fossil, 38 Drongo, 353, 527 f., 528; habits, 528 f. Dronte, 329 Drumming or booming of Grouse, 233-238; of Snipe, 291; of Woodpeckers, 458 f. Drum-stick, 9 Drymornis, 487; D. bridgesi, 485 Dryolimnas cuvieri, 248 {602} Dryonastes, 504 Dryornis, 44, 140 n. Dryoscopus cubla, 533; D. rufiventris, 533 Dryotomus pileatus, 463 Dryotriorchis, 154 Du Bois, on Didus borbonicus, 330 Duck, 114; habits of, 113 f.; fusion of tracheal rings, 13–see Sheld-Drake; Black, 119; Blue, 116; Brahminy, 129; Buffel-head, 121; Canvas-back, 122; Eider, 118 f.; Gadwall, 127; Garganey 125; habits, 126; Golden-Eye, 121; Harlequin-, 114, 120; King-Eider, 118 f.; Lake-, 117; Logger-head, 121; Long-tailed, 120 f.; Mallard, 127; Mandarin-, 114, 133; Muscovy, 134; Musk-, 117, 117, 134; Pied, 119; Pink-eyed, 124; Pink-headed, 114; Pintail, 125; Red-crested, 123; Shoveller–see Shoveller; Spectacled Eider, 119; Steamer-, 113, 121; Summer-, 133; Teal, habits, 126; Torrent-, 116; White-eyed, 122; Wigeon, 126; Wild, 127; skull, 11 Dulus, 529; D. dominicus, 530 Dumetia, 502 Dunbird, 122 Dunlin, 279 Durnford, on Creciscus, 249 n.

Eagle, 137, 146, 148-150, 160, 161 f., 179; Bald, 164; Black, 161; Bonelli's, 161; Booted, 161; Chilian Sea-, 167; Golden, 148, 151, 162, 163, 165; habits, 161 f.; Harrier–see Harrier Eagle; Hawk-, 160; Imperial, 163; in Falconry, 162; Pondicherry, 168; Sea-, 149, 161-163; Spotted, 162; Steppe-, 162; Tawny, 163; White-shouldered, 163 Ear, in Owls, 399 Ear-coverts, 20 Eaton, on Penguins, 57 n.; on Petrels, 65 n., 67 n. Eclectus, 364, 369; bright colour of hen, 4, 369; E. pectoralis, 369 Eclipse, in Anatidae, 4, 113 Ectopistes, 326, 328; E. migratorius, 342 Edoliisoma, 525 Edolius, 528; E. forficatus, 528 Eggs, burnished in Tinamidae, 183 Egg-tooth of embryo, 12 Egret, 88; Little, 92 Egypt, to which region does it belong? 16 Egyptian Goose, 129 Eider–see Duck Elainea, 474, 476; E. pagana, 474; E. strepera, 476 Elaineinae, 473 f. Elanoïdes, 146, 147, 171; E. furcatus, 170 f. Elanus, 146, 147; E. axillaris, 171; E. caeruleus, 171; E. hypoleucus, 171; E. leucurus, 171; E. scriptus, 171 Elaphrocnemus, fossil, 251 Elasmonetta, 111; E. chlorotis, 125 Eleutherodactyli, 467 Elliot, on Birds of Paradise, 543 n.; on Grouse, 240 n.; on Humming-birds, 432 Elminia, 506 El Turco, 491 Ema, 30, 36 Emarginate bill, 12 Emberiza citrinella, 584; E. fucata, 583; E. hortulana, 584; E. miliaria, 584; E. schoeniclus, 584 Emberizidae, 582 Emberizoïdes, 583 Embernagra, 584 Emblema, 577 Embryo, 21 Emeinae, 42 Emen, 26, 36, 37, 170; aftershaft, 3; breast-bone, 7; structure, etc., 32 f. Emeus, 42 Empidonax, 474; E. flaviventer, 476; E. minimus, 475 Enaliornis, vertebrae, 25; E. barretti, 47; E. sedgwicki, 47 Enaliornithes, 25, 46 Endaspidean, 484 Engyptila, 336 Enodes, 559, 561 Entomophila, 567 Entomyza, 565, 566; E. cyanotis, 568 Eopsaltria, 509 Eos, 364, 374; E. fuscata, 374 Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis, 98 Ephthianura, 512 f. Epidermis, 2, 2 n. Epops, fables concerning, 396 Ereunetes pusillus, 282 Ergaticus, 573, 574 Eriocnemis, 426, 437 f.; E. cupreiventris, 438 Erismatura, 111, 112, 117; E. aequatorialis, 118; E. australis, 118; E. dominica, 118; E. ferruginea, 118; E. jamaicensis, 118; E. leucocephala, 118; E. maccoa, 118; E. vittata, 118 Erismaturinae, 111, 112, 117 Erithacus, 509, 510; E. akahige, 512; E. hyrcanus, 512; E. komadori, 512; E. rubecula, 512 Erne, 163 Erythrism, 4 n. Erythrobucco, 449 Erythrogonys cinctus, 272 Erythromachus, 244; E. leguati, fossil, 251 Erythromyias, 507 Erythropus, 147; E. amurensis, 176; E. vespertinus, 176 Erythrosterna parva, 507 {603} Erythrotriorchis radiatus, 159 Estrelda, 578 Ethiopian Region, 15 f. Ethmoid, 11 Eucichla, 469 Eucometis, 575 Eucorax, 548, 551 Eudocimus, 100; young, 103; E. albus, 100; E. ruber, 100 Eudromias, 270; male incubates, 271; E. australis, 272; E. modestus, 272; E. morinellus, 272; E. veredus, 272 Eudynamis, 355; E. honorata, 356; E. melanorhyncha, 356 Eudyptes, 55, 57 f.; E. antarcticus, 57, 59; E. antipodum, 59; E. atratus, 59; E. chrysocome, 58, 58; E. chrysolophus, 58; E. pachyrhynchus, 59; E. schlegeli, 59; E. sclateri, 59; E. serresianus, 59; E. vittatus, 59 Eudyptula minor, 57 Eugenes fulgens, 435; E. spectabilis, 435 f. Eulabeornis, 244 Eulabes, 559, 561, 562; E. religiosa, 560 Eulabetidae, 496, 559, 561, 562 Eulampis, 427; E. holosericeus, 433 f.; E. jugularis, 429, 434 Euler, on Procnias, 576 n. Eumomota superciliaris, 381 Eunetta, 112, 114; E. falcata, 127 Euornithes, 46 Eupetomena macrura, 435 Euphonia, 575, 576 Euplocamus, 198, 213 n. Eupodotis, 260; E. arabs, 262; E. australis, 261, 262; E. edwardsi, 261, 262; E. kori, 261-263 Euprinodes, 514 Eupsychortyx cristatus, 231 Euptilotis, 441, 442; E. neoxenus, 444 Euryceros prevosti, 535 f. Eurycerotidae, 496, 536 Eurycorystes, 580 Eurylaemidae, 467; habits, 469 Eurylaemus, 468; E. javanicus, 468 Eurynorhynchus, 268; bill, 12; E. pygmaeus, 282 Eurypyga, 186, 263, 265 f.; E. helias, 265 f., 266; E. major, 265 f. Eurypygidae, 243, 265 f. Eurystomus, 376, 377; E. australis, 377; E. glaucurus, 377; E. orientalis, 377 Euscarthmus, 473; E. orbitatus, 474; E. zosterops, 474 Eustephanus fernandensis, 428, 435; E. galeritus, 427, 428, 434 f.; E. leyboldi, 428, 435 Eutoxeres, 430, 435 Eutriorchis, 154 Eutrygon, 335; E. leucopareia, 335; E. terrestris, 335 Evans–see Wilson Evolution, 15 Exaspidean, 473 Excalphatoria, 199, 200, 218 n., 219; E. adansoni, 219; E. lepida, 219; E. sinensis, 202, 219 Excrescence on bill shed by Pelecanus erythrorhynchus, 83 Exoccipital, 11 Eyelashes, distinct in Opisthocomus, 241; in Hornbills, 3, 390

Facets of vertebra, 6 Fachach, 63 Faisan, 198 Falcinellus, 544, 550; F. speciosus, 545, 546 Falcipennis, 199; F. hartlaubi, 236 Falco, 175, 177; fossil, 181; plumage of young, 178; see Gennaea and Hierofalco; F. atriceps, 179; F. babylonicus, 178; F. barbarus, 178; F. biarmicus, 179; F. cassini, 178; F. ernesti, subspecies, 178; F. feldeggi, 179; F. melanogenys, sub-species, 178; F. minor, 178; F. peregrinator, 179; F. peregrinus, 178 f.; F. punicus, 178; F. tanypterus, 179 Falcon, 137, 146, 148, 149, 178; for nomenclature of parts, 20; skeleton of trunk, 7; flown at Herons, 89; Arctic, 180; Desert-, 179; Finch-, 147, 173; Gentle, 156; Greenland-, 180; Gyr, 180; Iceland, 180; Jer, 180; Peregrine, 148, 174, 178-180; Prairie-, 179 f.; Red-footed, 147, 176; Royal, 179; Stone-, 177 Falconidae, 137, 146-150; habits, 147 f.; markings of young, 147 Falconiformes, 108, 137 f. Falconinae, 146, 147, 173 f. Falconine, 156 Falconry, 148 n., 178, 179; use of Eagles in, 162 Falculia, 561 Falcunculus, 531-534 False rib, 6 Fandango-bird, 479 Fantail, 506 Father John, 102 Feathered spaces or pterylae, 2 Feathers, nature, growth, etc., 2 f. Female, and young duller in most birds, 4; brighter and larger than male in Rhynchaea, 270 f.; in Turnix, 188; in Phalaropus, 278; larger than male in Apteryx, 33; in Cassowaries, 33; in Emeus, 33; in Falconiformes, 137 Femur, 8, 9 Fenestrae, 8 Fern-Owl, 418 Festooned bill, 12 Fibula, 8, 9 {604} Fieldfare, 510 Filoplumes, 21 Finch, 355, 578, 582 f.; habits, 586; see Chaffinch, Bullfinch, Hawfinch, Serin; Gold-, 584, 586, 587; Grass-, 578; Green-, 584; Rose-, 585; Snow-, 586, 587 Finfoot, 243, 267 f.; habits, 267 Fingers, 8 Fireback, 214 f. Fire-wood gatherer, 487 Fjeld-riporre, 240 Flamingo, 70, 105 f., 106 Flanks, 21 Flicker, 460 Flight, speed of, 20 Flightless, Birds, 25; state, of Anatidae, 4, 113, 125; of Dodo, 328; of Great Auk, 315, 321; of Moorhen, 4; of Phoenicopteridae, 4, 107; of Rails, 4, 245 f. Florican, 262; Lesser, 262 Florida caerulea, 91; young, 93 Florisuga mellivora, 436 Flower, on Hornbill, 392 n. Flower-pecker, 570 f. Fluvicola, 475-477 Flycatcher, 467, 473, 506 f.; habits, 508; Paradise-, 507, 508; Pied, 507-509; Spotted, 507, 508 Foetopterus ambiguus, fossil, 181 Foot, 9 Foramen, 9; for optic nerve, 11; for trigeminal, 11 Forbes, H. O., on Frigate Bird, 82 n.; on Phalacrocorax, 77 n. Forbes, W. A., on classification, 14; on Barbets and Toucans, 448; on classification of Petrels, 59 n.; on Galbulidae, 445; on Mesites, 186 f.; on Metopidius and Hydralector, 269 n.; on trachea of Paradise-bird, 545 n.; on Passeres, their song-muscles, 466; on Plotus, 72 n., 81 n. Fore-arm, 8 Forehead, 20 Fore-neck, 20 Foreteller, by day, 357; at night, 356 Fork-tail, 501 Formicariidae, 469, 479, 488 f.; habits, 489 Formicariinae, 488 f. Formicarius, 488, 489 Formicivora, 488; F. caudata, 488; F. ferruginea, 488 Fossil Birds, viii, 1 f. Foudia, 578; fossil, 496 Four-o'clock, 567 Fowl, 186, (Gallus) 203 Francolins, called Pheasants, 226; Naked-throated, 225 Francolinus, 198, 202, 226 f.; F. adspersus, 227; F. albigularis, 227; F. levaillanti, 226; F. pondicerianus, 227; F. sinensis, 227; F. vulgaris, 226 Franklinia, 518 Fratercula arctica, 317; F. corniculata, 317; F. glacialis, 317 Freeman and Salvin, on Falconry, 148 n.; on fishing with Cormorants, 79 n. Fregata, 70-72; coracoid and scapula fused, 8; habits, 81 f.; F. aquila, 81, 82; F. minor, 81 Fregatidae, 55, 70, 81 Fregilinae, 552 f. Fregilupus, 559, 561; F. varius, 561 Friar-bird, 568 Frigate-bird, 70, 82; habits, 81 f. Fringe lost, in feathers, 5 Fringilla, fossil, 496; F. coelebs, 584; F. montifringilla, 584 Fringillidae, 439, 494, 575, 576, 579, 582 f.; fossil, 496; habits, 586 Frog-mouth, 419 Frons, 20 Frontal, 11 Fulica, 244, 246, 250 f.; F. alai, 250; F. americana, 251; F. atra, 250 f.; F. australis, 251; F. cornuta, 244, 251; F. cristata, 244, 251; fossil, 251; F. gigantea, 245, 251; F. lugubris, 251; F. minor, fossil, 251; F. newtoni, fossil, 251; F. prior, fossil, 251 Fulicariae, 243 Fuligula, 112, 121; fossil, 136; habits, 123; F. affinis, 122; F. collaris, 122; F. cristata, 122; F. marila, 121 f.; F. novae zealandiae, 122, 123 Fuligulinae, 111-114, 118 Fulmar, 61-63, 65 Fulmarus, 60, 61; F. glacialis, 65; F. glupischa, 65; F. rodgersi, 65 Fürbringer, on classification, 14; on classification of Passeres, 467 Furcula, 7, 8; absent in Apterygidae, 39; absent in Dinornithidae, 42; absent in Rheidae, 30; absent in Struthionidae, 27; ancylosed with sternum in Gruidae, 252; in Otididae, 261; in Heliornithidae, 267; coalesces with coracoids in Fregata, 72; ossifies with keel of sternum, 8–see also Clavicle Furnariinae, 484 f. Furnarius, 477, 484, 485; nest, 485; F. cinnamomeus, 486; F. cristatus, 485; F. figulus, 486; F. leucopus, 485; F. minor, 486; F. rufus, 486, 525; F. torridus, 486

Gabianus pacificus, 306 Gadow, on classification, 14, 23; on classification of Passeres, 467; on classification of Petrels, 59 n.; definition of Bird, 1; on skeleton, 5 f.; on Archaeornithes and Neornithes, 25; on Bucerotidae and Upupidae, 390; {605} on Columbae, 325; on Cuculiformes, 351; on Drepanididae, 562; on Gallinaceous Birds, 198; on Laniidae, 531; on Mesites, 187; on Nightjars, 417 n.; on Odontornithes, 46; on Opisthocomus, 186; on Oscines, 495; on Owls, 397; on Palaelodus, 70; on Panurus, 541; on Pici, 445; on Psittaci, 362; on Pterylosis, 2; on Ratitae, 26 n.; on Sand-Grouse, 322; on Steganopodes, 70 n.; on "Stereornithes," 43 f.; on Tinamidae, 182; on Zosterops, 568; see Newton, E. Gadwall–see Duck Galbalcyrhynchus, 445; G. leucotis, 446 Galbula, 446; G. albirostris, 445, 446; G. chalcothorax, 446; G. cyaneicollis, 445 Galbulidae, 445 f.; habits, 446 Galbulinae, 445 Galeoscoptes, 514; G. carolinensis, 519 Galerita, 497; G. cristata, 497, 498; G. isabellina, 497 Galli, 186, 190, 322; claws on manus, 48 Gallicrex, 244, 246; G. cinerea, 249 Galliformes, 186 f. Gallinaceous Birds, 186 Gallinae, early attain power of flight, 4 Gallinago, 268, 290; fossil, 300; G. aequatorialis, 291; G. aucklandica, 291 f.; G. australis, 291; G. bernieri, 291; G. caelestis, 290 f.; G. delicata, 291; G. frenata, 291; G. gallinula, 292; G. gigantea, 291; G. imperialis, 291; G. jamesoni, 291; G. macrodactyla, 291; G. major, 291; G. megala, 292; G. nemoricola, 291; G. nigripennis, 291; G. nobilis, 291; G. paraguaiae, 291; G. sabinii, 290; G. solitaria, 291; G. stenura, 292; G. stricklandi, 291; G. undulata, 291; G. wilsoni, 291 Galline Birds, habits, 202 f. Gallinita, 451 Gallinula, 244, 246, 249; G. angulata, 249; G. chloropus, 249; G. comeri, 244, 249; G. dionysiana, 249; G. frontata, 249; G. galeata, 249; G. nesiotis, 244, 249; G. peralata, fossil, 251; G. pyrrhorhoa, 249; G. sandvicensis, 249; G. strenuipes, fossil, 251; G. tenebrosa, 249 Gallinule, 243-245, 249 f.; Purple, 245 Gallirex, 359, 360; G. chlorochlamys, 360 Gallito, 491 Galloperdix, 218; G. bicalcarata, 218; G. lunulata, 218; G. spadicea, 218 Gallophasis, 213 n. Gallus, 199-201, 203, 204, 208; fossil, 241; G. bankiva, 208 f.; G. ferrugineus, 208 f.; G. lafayettii, 209; G. sonnerati, 209; G. stanleyi, 209; G. varius, 209 Game-birds, 186 Game-fowl, Black-breasted, 208 Gampsonyx swainsoni, 171 Gampsorhynchus, 502 Gannet, 70, 73, 74, 75; habits, 75–see Goose, Solan Gare-fowl, 321;–see Auk, Great Garganey–see Duck Garrod, on classification, 14; on Barbets and Toucans, 448; on Galbulidae, 445; on Passeres, their song-muscles, 466; on Tantalus ibis, 96 Garrodia, 60, 65 Garrulax, 503, 504 Garrulinae, 552 f. Garrulus, 552, 554; G. glandarius, 554 Garzetta, 92 Gastornis, 45; G. edwardsi, 45; G. klaasseni, 45; G. parisiensis, 45 Gätke, on speed of flight, 20 Gauropicoïdes rafflesi, 461 Gazzola, 552, 553 Gecinus, 458; G. viridis, 458, 460 Geese, 105, 107; habits, 113 f.; Black, 131; habits, 131; Grey, 132; habits, 132; Pigmy, 134; Spur-winged, 134 Geikie, on head of Ichthyornis, 48 Gelinotte, 233 Gelochelidon anglica, 314 Genera of Birds, 15 Gennaea, 179; G. hypoleuca, 180; G. jugger, 179; G. lanarius, 179; G. mexicana, 179 f.; G. milvipes, 179; G. polyagnis, 179 f.; G. sacer, 179; G. subnigra, 180 Gennaeus, 199, 200, 203, 213; G. albicristatus, 213; G. andersoni, 213; G. edwardsi, 213; G. horsfieldi, 213; G. leucomelanus, 213; G. lineatus, 213; G. melanotus, 213; G. muthura, 213; G. nycthemerus, 200, 213; G. swinhoii, 213 Gentoo, 57 Genyornis newtoni, fossil, 38 n. Genys (γενυς = jaw) or Gonys (γονυ = knee and hence = bend), 20 Geobates, 484 Geobiastes, 378; G. squamigera, 378 Geocichla, 509, 510; G. princii, 509 Geococcyx, 351, 353; G. mexicanus, 352; habits, 357 f. Geocolaptes, 458; G. olivaceus, 460 Geographical distribution, 15; variations, 15 Geopelia, 328; G. cuneata, 341; G. humeralis, 341; G. maugii, 341; G. striata, 341; G. tranquilla, 341 Geophaps, 327, 328; G. scripta, 337; G. smithi, 337 Geopsittacus, 364; G. occidentalis, 367 Geositta, 486, 525; {606} G. cunicularia, 485 Geospiza, 583, 585, 586 Geothlypis, 573 Geotrygon, 336; G. chrysia, 336; G. cristata, 336; G. linearis, 336; G. montana, 336; G. violacea, 336 Geranoaëtus melanoleucus, 167 Geranopsis, fossil, 256 Geranospizias, 156; G. caerulescens, 156; G. niger, 156 Geronticus, 100; G. calvus, 102 Gerygone, 355, 508, 509 Gibson, on Chauna, 109 n.; on Myiopsittacus, 371 n.; on Rostrhamus, 171 Gizzard, 12 Glareola, 268-270, 293 f.; G. cinerea, 294; G. emini, 294; G. grallaria, 294; G. isabella, 294; G. lactea, 294; G. megapoda, 294; G. melanoptera, 294; G. nordmanni, 294; G. nuchalis, 294; G. ocularis, 293 f.; G. orientalis, 293; G. pratincola, 293 Glareolidae, 268, 270, 293 f. Glareolinae, 293 f. Glaucidium, 401, 407; G. brodiei, 407; G. capense, 407; G. castanonotum, 407; G. castanopterum, 407; G. cobanense, 400, 407; G. cuculoïdes, 407; G. ferox, 407; G. gnoma, 407; G. jardinii, 407 f.; G. nanum, 408; G. pardalotum, 407; G. passerinum, 407; G. perlatum, 407; G. pumilum, 408; G. radiatum, 407; G. siju, 407; G. sylvaticum, 407; G. whitelyi, 407 Glaucopis, 552, 556 Glead, Fork-tailed, 168 Glenoid cavity, 7 Globicera, 325, 345; G. myristicivora, 328 Glycyphila albifrons, 565; G. fasciata, 568; G. modesta, 568 Glyphorhynchus, 484 Gnatcatcher, 514 Goatsucker, 415, 418 Godwit, 286 f.; Bar-tailed, 287; male incubates, 271; Black-tailed, 286 f.; Marbled, 287 Goeldi, on Cassidix oryzivora, 582 n.; on Nyctibius, 417 n. Goiemare, figure of Dodo, 330 Golden-eye–see Duck Goldfinch, 584, 586 Gom-Paauw, 263 Gonys–see Genys Goosander, 114-116 Goose, Bean-, 132; Bernacle-, 131; Brent, 131; Cape Barren, 133; Chinese, 132; Emperor-, 114, 132; Grey-lag, 132; Kelp-, 130; Pink-footed, 132; Red-breasted, 114, 131, 132; Solan, 73, 75, 302; Upland, 130; White-fronted, 132 Gorsachius goisagi, 90 Goshawk, 156, 178 Gosling, specimen of Dodo, 330 Gosse, on Aramus, 257; on Humming-birds, 429, 432; on Mellisuga, 431; on Nyctibius, 417 n. Gould, on Darter, 81; on Humming-birds, 430, 432; on Odontophorinae, 230 n.; on Rhynchaea, 292 n.; on subfamilies of Humming-birds, 435 Goura, 326-328, 334; G. albertisi, 334; G. beccarii, 334; G. cinerea, 334; G. coronata, 333, 334; G. scheepmakeri, 334; G. sclateri, 334; G. victoria, 334 Gourinae, 325 f., 334 Graculipica, 559; G. melanoptera, 560 Graduated, 21 Grallariinae, 488 f. Grallina, 535; abnormal vocal organs, 535 Grammatoptila, 502 Granatellus, 573, 574 Grandala caelicolor, 510 Grand Duc, 413 Grandidier, on Leptosoma, 379 n.; on Margaroperdix, 224 n.;–see Milne-Edwards Grant, Ogilvie, on Gallinaceous Birds, 198; on the Partridge, 224 n.; on Perdicinae, 218 n.; on Petrels, 63 n., 65 n.; on Phaëthon, 72 n.; on Pithecophaga, 160; on Platalea, 104 n.; on Red Grouse, 238; on Turnix, 188 n. Graptocephalus, 99, 100; G. davisoni, 102 Graucalus, 525, 526; G. azureus, 526 Grebe, 54, 267; habits, 53 f.; structure, etc., 49 f.; Eared, 53; Great Crested, 53; Little, 52, 52 f.; Red-necked, 53; Slavonian, 53 Green colour in Birds, its nature, 3 n. Green, on Collocalia, edible nests, 423 Greenfinch, 584 Greenlet, 536 Greenshank, 284 Grey Hen, 237 Griffon, 151–see Vulture Grifo, 151 Grinder, 508 Griphosaurus, fossil, 23 Grosbeak, Pine-, 584 Grouse, 198-200, 202, 203; disease, 203; hybrids, 237, 237 n.; American, 200, 203; Black, 237; Blue, 235; Canada-, 236; Dusky, 235; Hazel-, 203, 233; Pallas's Sand-, 323, 324; Pine-, 235; Pin-tailed Sand-, 322; Red, 202, 204, 238 f., 239; habits, 238 f.; hybrids, 224; Ruffed, 233; Sage-, 235; Sand-, 268, 321 f.; toes, 10, 322; habits, 322 f.; Sharp-tailed, 234; Willow-, 238-240 Gruidae, 243, 251 f.; habits, 252 f.; trachea enters keel of sternum, 13; young, 256 Gruiformes, 186, 243 f.; {607} Phororhachos and others of the "Stereornithes" perhaps belong here, 44 Grus, fossil, 256; G. americana, 254; G. australasiana, 254; G. canadensis, 254; G. carunculata, 255; G. collaris, 254; G. communis, 254; G. japonensis, 254; G. leucauchen, 254; G. leucogeranus, 254; G. lilfordi, 254; G. melitensis, fossil, 256; G. mexicana, 254; G. monachus, 254; G. nigricollis, 254; G. paradisea, 255; G. primigenia, fossil, 256; G. sharpii, 254; G. virgo, 255 f. Guácharo, 415, 419 Guainumbi, 426 Guan, 194; habits, 195 Gubernatrix, 583 Guid-guid, 490 Guillemard, on Bird of Paradise, 550 Guillemot, 316; Black, 316, 319; Common, 319; Ringed, 319 Guinea-fowl, 198, 203, 204; habits, 205 f.; its specific name, 206 n. Guira, 352; G. piririgua, 359 Guiraca, 585 Gula, 20 Gull, 49, 148, 268, 300-304; habits, 302 f.; Black-headed, 308; Bonaparte's, 302, 309; Common, 307; Glaucous, 304, 306; Great Black-backed, 301, 302, 307; Great Black-headed, 309, 309; Herring, 306, 307; Hooded, 308; Iceland, 306; Ivory, 303, 306; Kittiwake, 301, 302, 305 f.; Laughing, 309; Lesser Black-backed, 307; Little, 304, 309 f.; Peewit, 308; Sabine's, 310; Wedge-tailed, 310 Gullet, 12 Gundlach, on Aramus, 257 n. Gurney, on Astur, 156; on Circaëtinae, 153 Guttera, 200, 201, 204; G. cristata, 204; G. eduardi, 204; G. plumifera, 204; G. pucherani, 204; G. verreauxi, 204 Gygis, 301, 303; G. candida, 310; G. microrhyncha, 310 Gymnasio, 400 Gymnobucco, 448; G. calvus, 450 Gymnocephalus, 479, 480 Gymnocichla, 489 Gymnocorax, 552, 556 Gymnocrex rosenbergi, 247 Gymnoderinae, 479 f. Gymnoderus, 479, 480; powder-down patches, 481 Gymnoglaux lawrencii, 409; G. nudipes, 409 Gymnomystax, 580 Gymnopelia, 326; G. erythrothorax, 340 Gymnophaps, 326; G. albertisi, 344 Gymnopithys, 488 Gymnorhina, 531, 532; G. hyperleuca, 532 Gymnorhininae, 531 f.; habits, 532 f. Gymnoschizorhis, 360; G. leopoldi, 361; G. personata, 361 Gymnostinops, 579, 580 Gypaëtinae, 146, 150 f. Gypaëtus, 146, 147, 149; G. barbatus, 150, 150; habits, 151; G. meridionalis, 151; G. ossifragus, 151 Gyparchus papa, 137, 139 Gypohierax, 146, 148; G. angolensis, 151 Gypoictinia, 149; G. melanosternon, 170 Gypopsittacus vulturinus, 369 Gyps, 143; nestling, 143; G. fulvus, 144; G. himalayensis, 144; G. indicus, 145; G. kolbi, 144; G. melitensis, fossil, 145; G. pallescens, 145; G. rüppelli, 144 Gypsornis, fossil, 251

Habroptila, 243, 245, 246; H. wallacii, 244, 248 Habrornis, 514 Hackles, 3, 21 Hadrostomus, 480, 482; H. homochrous, 483; H. niger, 483 Haemal spine, 6 Haematoderus, 479, 481 Haematopus, 268-270; H. ater, 277; H. durnfordi, 277; H. frazari, 277; H. galapagensis, 277; H. leucopus, 277; H. longirostris, 277; H. moquini, 277; H. niger, 277; H. osculans, 276; H. ostralegus, 276; H. palliatus, 277; H. unicolor, 277 Haematortyx, 200; H. sanguiniceps, 221 f. Hagedashia, 99, 100; H. hagedash, 102 Hagiopsar, 561 Hairs, nature of, 2 n. Halcyon, 383; H. coromandus, 385; H. cyaniventris, 385; H. lindsayi, 386; H. nigrocyaneus, 386; H. saurophagus, 386; H. semicaeruleus, 385 Halcyoninae, 382, 385 Halcyornis, fossil, 315 Haliaëtus, 146, 147; fossil, 181; H. albicilla, 163; H. leucocephalus, 164; H. leucocoryphus, 164; H. leucogaster, 164; H. vocifer, 164; H. vociferoïdes, 164 Haliastur, 148; H. indus, 168; H. sphenurus, 168 Hallux, 1, 10, 20 Halobaena, 60, 61; H. caerulea, 66 Halocyptena microsoma, 67 Hammer-head, 86 f., 94, 95; habits, 95 Hamuli, 3 Hancock, on Cuckoo, 354 Hand, 8 Hang-nest, 582 Hapalarpactes, 441, 442; H. mackloti, 443; H. reinwardti, 443 Hapalis, 514 Hapalocercus, 473, 477; H. flaviventer, 476 Hapaloderma, 441, 442; H. constantia, 443; H. narina, 443; {608} H. vittatum, 443 Hapaloptila castanea, 447 Haplopelia, 327, 336 f.; H. bronzina, 337; H. inornata, 337; H. johnstoni, 337; H. larvata, 337; H. principalis, 337; H. simplex, 337 Harelda, 112, 114; H. glacialis, 120 Harfang, 412 Hargitt, on Woodpeckers, 458 Harpa novae zealandiae, 174 Harpactes, 441, 442, 443; H. duvauceli, 442; H. kasumba, 443; H. orescius, 443 Harpagornis moorii, fossil, 181 Harpagus, 146, 173; H. bidentatus, 173; H. diodon, 150, 173; H. fasciatus, 173 Harpiprion cayennensis, 101 Harporhynchus, 514, 515, 519; H. crissalis, 519 Harpy, 159 Harpyhaliaëtus, 146, 147; H. coronatus, 168; H. solitarius, 168 Harpyopsis novae guineae, 159 Harrier, 146-149, 165; habits, 154 f.; -Eagles, 153; Hen-, 155; Marsh-, 155; Montagu's, 155 Harry, on Dodo, 330 Hartert, on Humming-birds, 432 Harting–see Mosenthal Hartlaubius, 561 Harvie-Brown, on Diomedea melanophrys, 65 n. Hawfinch, 584, 586, 587 Hawk, 137, 146, 148, 149, 175, 353; Blue, 178; Bush-, 174; Fish-, 180; Hunting, 178; Pigeon-, 178; Quail-, 174; Red, 178; Red-tailed, 166; Singing, 156; Sparrow-, 157, 158; Sparrow-, of America, 149, 176–see Goshawk Heath-hen, 235 Hedge-sparrow–see Sparrow Hedydipna, 569 Heilprin, on Geographical Distribution, 15 Heleothreptus, 418; H. anomalus, 418 Heliactin cornuta, 439 Helicura, 478 Heliochera, 480, 482 Heliodilus, 398, 400; H. soumagnii, 404 Heliopais, 267; H. personata, 268 Heliornis, 243, 267; H. fulica, 267 Heliornithidae, 243, 267 f.; habits, 267 Heliothrix, 431, 432 Helmet, 12; -bird, 535; -crest, 437 Helornis, fossil, 108, 300 Helotarsus, 146, 147; H. ecaudatus, 153; H. leuconotus, 154 Hemicercus, 464 Hemichelidon, 506 Hemignathus, 562, 563 Hemilophus pulverulentus, 464 Hemiphaga chathamensis, 345; H. novae zealandiae, 344; H. spadicca, 344 f. Hemipode, 188 Hemipodius, 187 Hemipus, 506, 531 Hemixus, 504 Hen, 203 Heniconetta, 114; H. stelleri, 119 Henicopernis infuscatus, 173; H. longicaudatus, 172 f. Henicophaps albifrons, 338 Henicorhina, 521 Henicornis, 484 Henicuridae, 501 Henicurus ruficapilla, 501; H. scouleri, 501; H. velatus, 501 Hermit, 430, 435 Hern, 87 Herodias alba, 92 Heron, 70, 86 f., 90, 251, 263; habits, 87 f.; Boat-billed Night-, 90 f.; Buff-backed, 88, 91; Common, 87, 92, 93; Great White, 92; Green, 88; in Falconry, 89; Night-, 88, 90; Purple, 93; Squacco, 91 Herpetotheres cachinnans, 153 Herpsilochmus rufimarginatus, 489 Hesperiphona, 583, 585 Hesperornis, 45 f.; no keel to sternum, 26; no pygostyle, 6 n.; quadrate bone, 26; restoration, 46; teeth, 12; H. crassipes, 46; H. regalis, 46 Hesperornithes, 25; structure, etc., 46 f. Heteractitis incanus, 285 Heteralocha acutirostris, 557, 558 Heterocercus, 478 Heterocnemis, 488 Heterocoelous, 6 Heterocorax, 552; H. capensis, 556 Heterodactylous, 10, 441 Heteroglaux, 400 Heteronetta atricapilla, 123 Heteropelma, 477, 479, 482 Heterorhynchus, 562, 563 Heterospizias meridionalis, 168 Heterotetrax, 262 Heuglin, v., on Toucans, 449 Hieracidea berigora, 174; H. brunnea, 174; H. ferox, 174; H. novae guineae, 175; H. novae zealandiae, 174; H. orientalis, 175 Hierococcyx, 353 Hierofalco, 180; H. candicans, 180; H. gyrfalco, 180; H. islandus, 180; H. labradorus, 180 Hilling, of Ruff, 285 Hill-Robin, 503 Himantopus, 268, 269, 277 f.; fossil, 300; H. brasiliensis, 278; H. candidus, 277; H. knudseni, 278; H. leucocephalus, 278; H. melas, 278; H. mexicanus, 277 f.; H. pectoralis, 278 Himantornis, 243; H. haematopus, 248 Himatione, 562, 563; H. sanguinea, 563, 564; H. virens, 564 Hind-head, 20; {609} -neck, 20; -toe, 10 Hirundinidae, 494, 522 f.; habits, 524 f. Hirundo, 523, 524, 525; H. rustica, 523, 524, 524 Histrioniphaps histrionica, 337 f. Hoatzin, 186, 241 f., 242; habits, 242 Hobby, 176, 177 Hodgsonius, 516 Hoefnagel, figure of Dodo, 330 Holarctic, 16 Homologous, meaning of, 5 Homolopus, fossil, 465 Homorus, 484, 485; H. lophotes, 487 Homrai, 393 Honey-eater, 564 f.; habits, 566 f.; Warty-faced, 566 Honey-guide, 445, 448, 451; habits, 452 f. Hoopoe, 376, 390, 390 n., 395 f., 396; habits, 395 f.; Wood-, 390, 397; habits, 397 Hooting, of Owls, 401 Hoplopterus, 269, 270; H. cayanus, 276; H. speciosus, 276; H. spinosus, 276, 295; H. ventralis, 276 Hornbill, 376, 390 f., 391; bill, 11, 390 f.; habits, 390; Helmet-, 393; Plait-billed, 394 Hornero, 486 Horns, 12; in Auks, 315 f., 317, 318 Houbara, 260; H. fuerteventurae, 262 n.; H. macqueeni, 262; H. undulata, 262 Houbaropsis, 260; H. bengalensis, 262 Hudson, on Aramides, 248; on Chauna, 109 n.; on Cow-bird, 582 n.; on Oven-bird, 485 n.; on Parra jacana, 300 n.; on Rhea, 31 f.; see Sclater Huia, 557, 558 Humboldt and Bonpland discover Oil-bird, 419 Hume, on Bubo coromandus, 403 n.; on Francolins, 228 n.; on Ibis melanocephala, 100 n.; on Mycteria, 96 n. Humerus, 8, 8 Humming-bird, 419, 420, 426 f., 429, 568; breast-bone, 6 f.; habits, 428 f.; nature of iridescent feathers, 4; operculum of nostrils, 11; Bee-, 438; King-, 436; Long-tailed, 433; Ruby-and-Topaz, 434 Hurst, on Archaeopteryx, 23 n. Hutton, on Wandering Albatros, 63 f. Huxley, classification, 14; on Amphimorphae, 105; on Cathartidae, 137 n.; on Coracomorphae and their song-muscles, 466; on Cypselomorphae, 419 n.; on Gallinaceous Birds, 186, 198; on Geographical Distribution, 15 f.; on Palaeeudyptes, fossil, 59 n.; on Picidae, 457; restoration of Hesperornis, 46; Sauropsida as a division of Vertebrata, 1 Hybrids, of American Partridges, 233; of Galline Birds, 224; of Grouse, 237, 237 n., 238 Hydralector, 269, 299; H. gallinaceus, 298; H. novae guineae, 298 Hydranassa, young, 93; H. tricolor, 91 Hydrochelidon, 301, 303, 314; H. hybrida, 314 f.; H. leucoptera, 314; H. nigra, 314; H. surinamensis, 314 Hydrophasianus, 270; H. chirurgus, 299, 299, 300 Hydroprogne caspia, 314 Hydropsalis, 418 Hyetornis, 351, 357 Hylactes, 490, 491; H. megapodius, 491; H. tarnii, 490, 491 Hylexetastes, 484 Hylocharis, 427, 435; H. sapphirina, 435 Hylomanes, 380 Hylophilus, 536; H. ochraceiceps, 536 Hymenolaemus, 111, 113; H. malacorhynchus, 116 Hyoid, apparatus, 5, 21; horns, 457 Hyperergus, 502 Hyphantornis, 579; H. cucullatus, 578 Hypochera ultramarina, 577 Hypocleidium, 21 Hypocnemis, 488 Hypocolius ampelinus, 527, 527 Hypolais, 514, 517, 518 Hypopyrrhus, 580 Hyporhachis, or aftershaft of feather, 3 Hypositta, 537 Hypotaenidia, 246 f.; H. brachypus, 247; H. mülleri, 246 f.; H. striata, 246 f. Hypotriorchis concolor, 177; H. cuvieri, 177; H. diroleucus, 177; H. eleonorae, 177; H. fusco-caerulescens, 177; H. lunulatus, 177; H. ophryophanes, 177; H. rufigularis, 177; H. severus, 177; H. subbuteo, 176 Hypselornis sivalensis, fossil, 36 Hypsipetes, 504-506; H. perniger, 505

Ianthothorax, 544, 545 Ibididae, 70, 99 f. Ibidinae, 99, 100 Ibidopodia, fossil, 105 Ibidopsis, fossil, 105 Ibidorhynchus, 268, 269; I. struthersi, 277 Ibis, 70, 99, 100; fossil, 105; young, 103; I. aethiopica, 102; I. bernieri, 103; I. melanocephala, 100, 103; I. molucca, 103; Glossy, 101; Sacred, 102; Scarlet, 100; Shell-, 97; White, 100; Wood-, 70, 97 Ibycter, 152; I. americanus, 152; I. ater, 152 Ichthyornis, 45 f.; head, 48; quadrate bone, 26; teeth, 12; vertebrae, 6, 25; I. dispar, 48; I. victor, 48 Ichthyornithes, 25, 48 f. Ichthyornithidae, structure, etc., 48 f. Icteria, 573 Icteridae, 542, 559, 579 f.; habits, 580; parasitic, 582 Icterinae, 579 f. {610} Icteropsis, 577 Icterus, 580, 581; I. baltimore, 580, 581, 581; I. vulgaris, 581 Ictinia, 146; I. mississippiensis, 171; I. plumbea, 171 Ignoble, of Falconidae, 146 Iiwi, 564 Ilium, 6, 9, 9 Immature plumage of Birds generally, 4 Impervious nostrils, 11 Incisura ischiadica, 9 Index finger, 9 Indian Region, 15 f. Indicator, 451 f.; I. archipelagicus, 452; I. major, 452; I. minor, 452; habit of guiding to bees' nests, 452 f.; I. sparrmani, 452; I. xanthonotus, 452 Indicatorinae, 448, 451; habits, 452 f. Ingluvies, 12 Inocotis, 100; I. papillosus, 102 Insessores, 466 Integument, 2 n. Intestines, 12 Intrathoracic convolutions of trachea–see Trachea Iodopleura, 479, 480 Iole, 506 Ipocrantor, 463; I. magellanicus, 464 Irena, 504-506; I. crinigera, 504 Iridescence in feathers, cause of, 3 Iridornis, 575 Iron-smith, 449 Irregular migration, 17 f. Irrisor, 397; I. bollii, 397; I. erythrorhynchus, 397; I. jacksoni, 397; I. viridis, 397 Irrisorinae, 390, 397; habits, 397 Irruptions of Sand-Grouse, 322, 324, 325 Ischium, 9, 9 Island Hen, 244 Ispidina, 386; I. madagascariensis, 386 Ithagenes, 198, 200, 217; buries itself in snow, 218; I. cruentus, 217; I. geoffroyi, 218; I. sinensis, 218 Ixocincla, 504, 505 Iynginae, 457, 464 f. Iyngipicus, 458, 462; I. obsoletus, 462 Iynx aequatorialis, 465; I. pectoralis, 465; I. pulchricollis, 465; I. torquilla, 465, 465

Jabiru, 98 Jacamar, 445 f.; habits, 446 Jacamaralcyon, 445, 446; J. tridactyla, 446 Jacamerops, 445; J. grandis, 445, 446 Jaçana, 268, 297 f.; habits, 299 f.; Indian, 299 Jackass, 57, 384, 386 Jackdaw, 553-556 Jacobin, 436 Jaws, 5 f., 11 f. Jay, 552-556; Blue, 554, 555; Green, 554; Siberian, 554 Jean-le-blanc, 153 Jenner, on Cuckoo, 354; on bones of Solitaire, 331 Jerdon, on Indian Darter, 81; on Inocotis, 100 n.; on Pelican, 85 n. Johnny Rook, 152 Jugal, 11 Jugulum, 20 Junco, 585 Jungle-fowl, Red, 208 f.; Grey, 209 Jurassic System, Birds from, 2

Kagu, 243, 263 f., 264; habits, 265; operculum of nostrils, 11 Kakapo, 366, 366; breast-bone, 7 Kallege, 213 Kea, 365, 374, 375 Keel of breast-bone, 6, 7 Kelp-Hen, 247; -Pigeon, 293 Kerr, J. G., on Erismatura, 118 n. Kestrel, 147, 148, 175-177; Lesser, 175 Ketupa, 398-401; K. ceylonensis, 414; K. flavipes, 414; K. javanensis, 414 Kill-deer, 274 King-bird, 474 Kingfisher, 376, 382; habits, 383; Belted, 387; Racquet-tailed, 385; Stork-billed, 387; Water-, 382, 383; Wood-, 382, 384 Kirk, on Honey-guide, 452 Kirombo, 376, 378, 379 Kite, 146, 148, 155, 164, 165; habits, 168 f.; Awl-billed, 171; Black, 170; Black-winged, 171; Brahminy, 168; Everglade, 171; Mississippi, 171; Pariah, 170; Red, 168 f., 169; Swallow-tailed, 170; Whistling, 168 Kittiwake, 305; see Gull, Kittiwake Kiwi, 26, 38 f., 39; breast-bone, 7; feathers, 41; structure, etc., 38 f. Knob on bill, 12; of Anatidae, 111; of Pigeons, 325 Knot, 281 Koël (= Coël), 356

Labyrinth, 13, 113 Lacrymal, 11 Lagopus, 199, 200, 202, 204; fossil, 241; L. albus, 238 f.; L. hemileucurus, 240; L. hyperboreus, 240; L. leucurus, 240; L. mutus, 240; L. rupestris, 240; L. scoticus, 238 f., 239 Lalage, 525, 526 Lamellae, of bill, 12; on bill of Anastomus, 95; on bill of Anatidae, 111 f.; on bill of Flamingoes, 105; on bill of Petrels, 60 Lamenting Bird, 257 Laminiplantar, 468, 496 Lämmergeier, 146, 147, 150, 150, 151; habits, 151 Lampornis, 430, 433; {611} L. violicauda, 433 Lampribis olivacea, 101 Lamprocolius, 560 Lamprolia, 513 Lampropsar, 580 Lamprospiza, 575 Lamprotes, 575 Lamprothorax, 548 Lamprotornis, 559-561; L. caudatus, 559 Lanceolate, 21 Land-Rail–see Rail, Land- Laniarius, 532, 533; L. rubiginosus, 533 Laniellus, 532, 534 Laniidae, 506, 525, 527, 531 f., 567 n. Laniinae, 534; habits, 535 Lanio, 575 Lanioturdus, 508, 509 Lanius, 532, 534; fossil, 496; L. borealis, 534; L. collurio, 534; L. excubitor, 534, 534; L. ludovicianus, 534; L. minor, 534; L. pomeranus, 534 Lanivireo, 536 Lanner, 179 Laopteryx, fossil, 25 n. Lapwing, Cayenne, 302; Spur-winged, 276; Wattled, 274 f. Lari, 268 Laridae, 59, 268, 300 f.; young, 304 Larinae, 300, 305; habits, 302 f. Lark, 496 f.; habits, 498; moult, 5; Crested, 497; Meadow-, 580; Shore-, 496; Short-toed, 497; Sky-, 496, 497, 497, 498; White-winged, 497; Wood-, 496 Laro-Limicoline, 268 Larus, 301, 306; fossil, 315; L. affinis, 307; L. argentatus, 306; L. atricilla, 309; L. audouini, 307; L. belcheri, 308; L. brachyrhynchus, 307; L. brunneicephalus, 308; L. bulleri, 308; L. cachinnans, 307; L. californicus, 307; L. canus, 305, 307; L. cirrocephalus, 308; L. crassirostris, 308; L. delawarensis, 307; L. dominicanus, 307; L. franklini, 304, 309; L. fuliginosus, 308; L. fuscus, 307; L. gelastes, 308; L. glaucescens, 306; L. glaucodes, 308; L. glaucus, 306, 307; L. hartlaubi, 308; L. heermani, 308; L. hemprichi, 308; L. ichthyaëtus, 309, 309; L. kumlieni, 306; L. leucophthalmus, 308; L. leucopterus, 306; L. maculipennis, 302, 308; L. marinus, 307; L. melanocephalus, 309; L. minutus, 303, 309 f.; L. modestus, 308; L. nelsoni, 306; L. novae hollandiae, 308; L. occidentalis, 307; L. philadelphia, 309; L. ridibundus, 308; L. saundersi, 309; L. schistisagus, 307; L. scopulinus, 302, 308; L. serranus, 309; L. vegae, 307 Larvivora, 516 Larynx, 13 Lathria streptophora, 480 Laticilla, 514 Laughing Jackass, 384, 386 Laurillardia, fossil, 496 Lawrencia, 474 Layard, on Honey-guide, 452 n.; on Mycteria, 96 n.; on Phaëthon, 73 n.; on Rhinochetus, 265 n. Leather-head, 568 Legs, 9 Leguat, on Solitaire, 330 Leistes, 580 Leiotrichidae, 495 Lek, of Capercaillie, 237 Lepidogrammus, 352 Leptasthenura, 486 Lepterodius gularis, 91 Leptodon, 146; L. cayennensis, 173 Leptopoecile, 514 Leptopterus, 532 Leptoptila, 326, 335, 336; L. jamaicensis, 336; L. rufinucha, 336 Leptoptilus, 95, 96; fossil, 99; L. crumenifer, 98; L. dubius, 97; L. javanicus, 98 Leptornis, 565 Leptosoma, toes, 10; L. discolor, 378, 379 Leptosomatinae, 376, 378; habits, 379 Lerwa, 199; L. nivicola, 230 Lesbia, 427, 434; L. victoriae, 434 Lestrange, on Dodo, 330 Leucopeza, 573 Leucophaeus, 301; L. scoresbii, 306 Leucopternis, 167; L. ghiesbreghti, 167; L. plumbea, 167; L. princeps, 167; L. schistacea, 167 Leucosarcia, 328; L. picata, 335 Leucosticte, 586 L'Herminier, classification, 14 Lichenops, 474, 477 Licmetis, 364; L. nasica, 364 Ligurinus chloris, 584 Lilford, on Francolin, 226 n. Limicola platyrhyncha, 282 Limicolae, 260, 268 f., 322; bill, 11; habits, 271 f. Limicoline Birds, 243 Limnaëtus, 160; L. alboniger, 160; L. caligatus, 160; L. cirratus, 160; L. gurneyi, 160; L. isidori, 160; L. kieneri, 160; L. lanceolatus, 160, 172; L. nipalensis, 160; L. philippensis, 160 Limnatornis, fossil, 397 Limnocorax, 246; L. niger, 249 Limnocryptes gallinula, 292 Limnogeranus, 254, 256 Limnophyes, 484, 487 Limnornis, 484, 487 Limonidromus, 500 Limosa, 286 f.; {612} fossil, 300; L. belgica, 286 f.; L. fedoa, 287; L. hudsonica, 287; L. lapponica, 287; L. melanuroïdes, 286; L. uropygialis, 287 Limpkin, 243, 256; habits, 257 Lines of Flight, vi, 18 Linnet, 584-587; Brown, 585; Grey, 585; Red, 585 Linota cannabina, 584 Lioptila, 504 Lioptilus, 506 Liosceles, 490 Liothrix, 495, 502; L. lutea, 503 Liotriches, 502 Lipauginae, 479 f. Lipaugus, 479, 482 Lipoa, 190 f., 194; L. ocellata, 193 Lissotis, 260, 262 Lithophaps ulnaris, fossil, 350 Lithornis vulturinus, fossil, 181 Little Cock, 491 Lloyd, on Capercaillie, 237 n. Lobed bill, 12 Lobiophasis, 199-201; L. bulweri, 214 Lobipes hyperboreus, 278 f. Lobipluvia, 275 Lobivanellus, 268-270, 274 f.; L. albiceps, 275; L. cinereus, 274; L. cucullatus, 275; L. indicus, 274; L. lateralis, 275; L. lobatus, 275; L. malabaricus, 275; L. melanocephalus, 274 f.; L. miles, 275; L. pectoralis, 274; L. senegalensis, 275; L. superciliosus, 275; L. tectus, 275 Loboparadisea sericea, 549 Lobornis, 570 Lobotus, 526 Lochmias, 484; L. nematura, 485 Locustella, 514, 517; L. luscinioïdes, 518 Loddigesia, 426, 427, 430; L. mirabilis, 437; its flight, 437 Log-cock, 463 Lophoaëtus, 147, 160; L. occipitalis, 160 Lophoceros, 390; L. nasutus, 393 Lophodytes cucullatus, 115 f. Lophogyps, 143; L. occipitalis, 144 Lophoictinia, 146, 147; L. isura, 170 Lopholaemus, 326; L. antarcticus, 345 Lophophaps, 326, 327; L. ferruginea, 337; L. leucogaster, 337; L. plumifera, 337 Lophophorus, 198-200, 203, 215; L. impeyanus, 216; L. l'huysi, 216; L. refulgens, 216; L. sclateri, 200, 216 Lophopsittacus mauritianus, fossil, 375 Lophorhina, 550; L. superba, 548 Lophornis, 439; L. ornatus, 439 Lophortyx, 200; L. californicus, 231, 233 Lophospingus, 584 Lophotibis cristata, 101 Lophotis, 262 Lophotriccus, 474 Lophotriorchis, 160; L. kieneri, 160 Lophura, 199, 200, 214 f.; L. diardi, 215; L. ignita, 215; L. nobilis, 215; L. praelata, 215; L. vieilloti, 215 Lore, 20, 21 Loria loriae, 549 Loriculus, 362, 364, 365; L. vernalis, 368 Loriinae, 362-364, 373 Lorikeet, 364 Lorius, 364, 373 f.; L. lory, 374 Loro, 370 Lory, 351, 364, 365; of South Africa, 361; King-, 364; Red, 374; Swainson's, 373 Love-bird, 364, 368, 370 Loxia, 583; fossil, 496; L. curvirostra, 584 Loxioïdes, 562 Loxops, 562, 563; L. aurea, 564 Luggur, 179 Lullula, 498; L. arborea, 496 Lunda cirrhata, 317 Lycocorax, 543-545, 550; L. pyrrhopterus, 548 Lydekker, on Actiornis anglicus, 86; on Colymboïdes, 50; on Diomedea anglica, 69; on Gyps melitensis, 145 n.; on Odontornithes, 45 f.; on Pseudapteryx, 40; on "Stereornithes," 44 Lyncornis, 416 Lyre-bird, 491 f., 492; habits, 493 Lyrie, 68 Lyrurus, 199, 200, 202; L. mlokosiewiczi, 238; L. tetrix, 201, 237 f.; hybrids, 238