Chapter XXIII (part 3 of 3)
FAM. 8. TETRAGONURIDAE.—Maxillary excluded from the border of the upper jaw; dentition feeble. Oesophagus with lateral sacs which are beset with papillae internally; a series of gill-raker-like knobs below the pseudobranchiae. Body covered with rhomboidal, striated scales in oblique transverse series, those of every single transverse series coherent. Ribs mostly sessile. Pectoral fin nearer the ventral than the dorsal outline. Ventral fin with 1 spine and 5 soft rays, near the pectoral, but pelvis free from the pectoral arch. A long continuous dorsal fin, its anterior portion formed of numerous short spines. Air-bladder absent. Vertebrae 58.
This family includes a single, rather rare fish, Tetragonurus cuvieri, from the Mediterranean and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic and the South Pacific. It is said to descend to great depths at certain seasons, and to feed on Medusae; its flesh is poisonous. Young specimens have been observed by Emery to live in the respiratory cavity of large Salpae.
{643}FAM. 9. STROMATEIDAE.—Although including a number of forms very unlike Tetragonurus in external appearance, there is no doubt that this family, hitherto placed near the Scombridae, is very closely allied to the preceding, agreeing with it in the presence of lateral oesophageal sacs bearing internally papillae (which are besides beset with setiform teeth), and, in most genera, in the presence of a series of knobs, more or less similar to gill-rakers, below the pseudobranchiae. The pelvic bones are sometimes free from the pectoral arch, as in the Tetragonuridae, sometimes more closely attached, but only by ligament, and movable. The principal difference resides in the scales, which are always cycloid and usually very small and more or less deciduous, and in the spinous dorsal being shorter than the soft, or even quite rudimentary. The ventrals are sometimes absent. The air-bladder is present or absent. The number of vertebrae varies from 24 to 46.
Marine Fishes, pelagic or deep-sea, feeding on Crustaceans, Medusae, or the fry of other fish. About 45 species are known, referable to 10 genera: Nomeus, Cubiceps, Psenes, Seriolella, Psenopsis, Centrolophus, Lirus, Stromateus, Peprilus, and Stromateoides. Many of the species have a wide distribution, but are rare in collections.[708] The Black-Fish (Centrolophus niger) and its close ally C. britannicus, and the Rudder-Fish (Lirus perciformis and L. medusophagus), have occurred, at rare intervals, on the British coasts. The Stromateidae were represented by several species in the Cretaceous (Platycormus and Homosoma).
The widely distributed Nomeus gronovii, so remarkable for its enormous ventral fins, folding in a ventral groove, has been observed in New South Wales to be only found on the coast when the Siphonophores called "Portuguese Men-of-War" or Physalia are driven ashore, the fish swimming beneath them, as the young Caranx are in the habit of doing under Medusae. As observed by Waite,[709] the benefit of such a partnership must primarily be with the fish, for it is a voluntary agent, whereas the Physalia has no power of locomotion. "If the fish secures safety from its enemies by entering the area embraced by the deadly tentacles of the Physalia, which attain a length of 10 to {644}12 feet, it must be immune to their influence: a remarkable condition, considering that small fish have often been seen in their stomachs and entangled in their tentacles." This observer adds: "It is probable that, in addition to protection, the fish derives its food from association with the Physalia, much as does the Remora in accompanying a shark. The Physalia doubtless paralyses many more animals than it can consume—the residue falling to the lot of the fishes, which may be present to the number of ten."
FAM. 10. ICOSTEIDAE.—The so-called "Rag-Fishes," in which the skeleton is quite soft and cartilaginous, are aberrant deep-sea forms evidently related to the Stromateidae; they lack the oesophageal teeth and the processes of the last gill-arch, but Icosteus at least has the gill-raker-like knobs below the pseudobranchiae. The pelvis is widely separated from the clavicles. Spines are absent in the fins, and the body is naked or covered with small cycloid scales. Vertebrae in large number (up to 70).
Icosteus, Icichthys, and Acrotus, each with a single species, from the Pacific coast of North America.
FAM. 11. OPHIOCEPHALIDAE.—Maxillary excluded from the border of the upper jaw. Head and body covered with cycloid scales. Anterior ribs sessile, the remainder inserted on the parapophyses. Pectoral fin low down; ventral fin, if present, near the pectoral, with 6 soft rays; pelvic bones connected with the clavicular symphysis by ligament. Dorsal and anal fins long, without spines. Air-bladder present, much elongate.
These Fishes are provided with an accessory superbranchial cavity, and are able to breathe atmospheric air. All are {645}inhabitants of fresh waters and are carnivorous. Only two genera are known: Ophiocephalus, with about 25 species from Eastern Asia and 3 from Tropical Africa, and Channa, distinguished by the absence of ventral fins, with 3 species from Ceylon and China.
FAM. 12. ANABANTIDAE.—Differ from the preceding, to which they are closely related, in having part of the dorsal and anal fins and the outer ventral ray spinous, and a shorter, Perch-like body covered with ctenoid scales. The accessory superbranchial organ is still more developed, with thin bony laminae, which are more or less folded and covered with a mucous membrane. These Fishes can live a long time out of water, and the name Anabas scandens, or Climbing Perch, recalls the fact that its first observers in India ascribed to it the habit of climbing up low trees by means of the spines with which its {646}gill-covers and ventral fins are armed. This species, which attains a length of 8 inches, is found in estuaries and fresh waters of India, Ceylon, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago; 3 other species occur in the Malay Archipelago, and 11 in Africa.
SUB-ORDER 9. ANACANTHINI.
Air-bladder without open duct. Parietal bones separated by the supraoccipital; prootic and exoccipital separated by the enlarged opisthotic. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull; no mesocoracoid arch. Ventral fins below or in front of the pectorals, the pelvic bones posterior to the clavicular symphysis and only loosely attached to it by ligament.
Fins without spines; caudal, if present, without expanded hypural, perfectly symmetrical, and supported by the neural and haemal spines of the posterior vertebrae and by basal bones similar to those supporting the dorsal and anal rays. This type of caudal fin must be regarded, as I have pointed out,[710] as secondary, the Gadidae being, no doubt, derived from Fishes like the Macruridae, in which the homocercal fin had been lost. The scapular foramen or fenestra is nearly always between the scapular and coracoid bones, as in the Trachinidae and several allied families, not in the coracoid, as in the other Acanthopterygians. The first two vertebrae have no epipleurals.
Mr. C. Tate Regan,[711] who has recently given a good definition of the Anacanthini, divides them into three families.
{647}FAM. 1. MACRURIDAE.—Mouth more or less inferior, protractile; teeth small, none on palate. Anterior vertebrae without transverse processes, with the ribs sessile, the rest with strong transverse processes supporting the ribs, which themselves bear epipleurals. Gill-membranes free from isthmus or narrowly attached; 6 or 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 3½ or 4; pseudobranchiae rudimentary or absent. Ventral fins below the pectorals, with 7 to 12 rays. Body short, tail elongate and tapering to a point, without caudal fin. A short anterior dorsal, with a single simple ray, and a long dorsal and anal meeting together at the end of the tail, formed entirely of articulated rays—the two dorsals sometimes continuous (Lyconus).
Deep-sea Fishes with very large eyes and small or rather large mouth, usually covered with rough spiny scales; a mental barbel is present, except in Lyconus, and the muciferous cavities of the skull are strongly developed, the bones being remarkably thin. About 120 species are known, some of which have a wide distribution. Macrurids have been found in all the seas where deep-sea dredging has been practised—the greatest depth at which they have been obtained being 2650 fathoms. Principal genera: Macrurus, Gadomus (with perforate scapula) Coryphaenoides, Hymenocephalus, Malacocephalus, Lionurus, Trachyrhynchus, Steindachneria, Bathygadus, Lyconus, Macruronus. A larval form of this family has received the name of Krohnius; it is remarkable for the filamentous prolongation of the ventral rays, which recalls the larval Trachypterus.
FAM. 2. GADIDAE.—Mouth moderate or large, more or less protractile. Anterior vertebrae without transverse processes, with the ribs sessile, the rest with strong transverse processes, {648}usually supporting ribs,[712] which themselves bear epipleurals. Gill-membranes free from isthmus or narrowly attached; 6 to 8 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; no pseudobranchiae. Ventral fins jugular, with 1 to 9 soft rays. Body more or less elongate, covered with small cycloid scales. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, formed of articulated rays, sometimes divided into two or three distinct portions. Caudal fin more or less distinct, supported by the unmodified or but slightly modified neural and haemal spines of the last vertebrae, which are perfectly symmetrical (diphycercal or isocercal type).
A mental barbel is often present, as in the Macruridae, and the suture between the frontal bones has disappeared in most of the members of this very natural family. About 120 species are distinguished, mostly marine, many being adapted to life at great depths. All are carnivorous. They inhabit chiefly the northern seas, but many abyssal forms occur between the tropics and in the southern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific. Principal genera: Gadus, Merluccius, Holargyreus, Lotella, Physiculus, Phycis, Haloporphyrus, Tripterophycis, Lota, Molva, Onus, Bregmaceros, Antimora, Raniceps, Brosmius.
Several species, referred to Gadus and Brosmius, have been described from the Miocene. Nemopteryx, which is allied to Gadus, is from the Oligocene.
The fishes of this family are among the most important from an economic point of view. It will suffice to allude merely by name to the following among the European forms:—The Cod-Fish (Gadus morrhua), the largest species, reaching a length of {649}4 feet and a weight of 100 lbs., the Haddock (G. aeglefinus), the Whiting (G. merlangus), the Bib or Pout (G. luscus), the Pollack (G. pollachius), the Coal-Fish (G. virens), the Hake (Merluccius vulgaris), and the Ling (Molva vulgaris). Species of Merluccius occur also on the coasts of Chili and of New Zealand. The Rocklings (Onus or Motella) are of small size; several species are of common occurrence in our tide-pools. The Burbot (Lota vulgaris) is a freshwater fish, exceeding a length of 3 feet, of excellent quality, but unfortunately local and rare in this country.
FAM. 3. MURAENOLEPIDIDAE.—Closely related to the Gadidae, from which they differ in not having a separate caudal fin, in the gill-openings being narrow and below the base of the pectorals, in the increased number (ten) of the pectoral pterygials,[713] and in the peculiar scales, similar to those of the Anguillidae. Ventrals with 5 rays. A mental barbel.
A single genus, Muraenolepis, from the coast of Kerguelen Island.
{650}CHAPTER XXIII
TELEOSTEI (CONTINUED): ACANTHOPTERYGII—OPISTHOMI—PEDICULATI—PLECTOGNATHI
SUB-ORDER 10. ACANTHOPTERYGII.
Air-bladder usually without open duct. Opercle well developed; supraoccipital in contact with the frontals. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull; no mesocoracoid. Ventral fins thoracic or jugular, more or less firmly attached to the clavicular arch. Gill-opening usually large, in front of the base of the pectoral fin.
The character from which this sub-order, the most comprehensive of the whole class, derives its name, viz. the presence of non-articulated, more or less pungent, rays in the dorsal and anal fins, is by no means universal, exceptions to the rule being numerous. The mouth is usually bordered by the premaxillaries to the exclusion of the maxillaries, and if these should, by exception, enter the oral edge, they are always toothless. The ventral fins are sometimes inserted at some distance behind the base of the pectorals (Haplodactylidae, Platycephalidae), in which case, however, this is due to the elongation of the pelvic bones, which are solidly attached to the clavicular arch. The sub-order is broken up into divisions, which follow in somewhat arbitrary order, the natural affinities being opposed to a linear arrangement; the annexed diagram is intended to remedy this defect.
SYNOPSIS OF THE DIVISIONS.
I. No suborbital stay, or process extending from the suborbital bones towards the praeoperculum; basis cranii double in the symmetrical forms. Primary shoulder-girdle composed of a perforate scapula {651} and a coracoid; of the four or five pterygials, or basal bones of the pectoral fins, only one or two are in contact with the coracoid; ventral fins thoracic.
Rays of the caudal fin not strongly forked at the base; hypural usually with a basal spine or knob-like process on each side; epipleural bones usually inserted on the parapophyses or on the ribs; dorsal fin usually with strong spines; caudal peduncle rarely much constricted I. PERCIFORMES.
Rays of the caudal fin strongly forked at the base, embracing a considerable portion of the hypural, which always bears a basal spine; epipleural bones usually inserted on the centra or on the parapophyses, rarely on the ribs; dorsal spines feeble or detached; caudal peduncle much constricted; scales usually very small or absent II. SCOMBRIFORMES.
Rays of the caudal fin not strongly forked at the base; ventral {652} fins with one spine and six to eight soft rays, or cranium asymmetrical III. ZEORHOMBI.
II. No suborbital stay; basis cranii double; scapula absent, the pterygials inserted on the coracoid; ventral fins thoracic IV. KURTIFORMES.
III. No suborbital stay; basis cranii simple; scapula and coracoid more or less reduced, sometimes vestigial; pterygials large, only one or two in contact with the coracoid; ventral fins thoracic V. GOBIIFORMES.
IV. No suborbital stay; basis cranii simple; a perforate scapula; three pterygials in contact with the coracoid; ventral fins thoracic; a suctorial laminated disk on the upper surface of the head VI. DISCOCEPHALI.
V. A suborbital stay, the second suborbital bone more or less produced on the cheek or joining the praeoperculum; ventrals thoracic VII. SCLEROPAREI.
VI. No suborbital stay; ventrals usually jugular or mental; if thoracic, structure of the pectoral arch differing from that ascribed to the first five divisions of this Synopsis.
Pectoral fin with vertical or subvertical base; anal fin usually elongate, rarely small VIII. JUGULARES.
Pectoral fin with horizontal or sub-horizontal base; body exceedingly compressed; dorsal fin with all the rays simple; anal fin absent or very small IX. TAENIOSOMI.
DIVISION I.—PERCIFORMES.
No bony stay for the praeoperculum. Basis cranii double. Spinous dorsal usually well developed. None of the epipleural bones attached to the centra of the vertebrae in the praecaudal region. Pectoral arch with well-developed scapula and coracoid, the former pierced by a foramen or fenestra; pterygials longer than broad, more or less regularly hour-glass-shaped, four or five in number, one or two of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins thoracic.
This large group, consisting chiefly of marine forms, has members in all parts of the world, with the exception of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, and was already represented by numerous Berycidae and a few Serranidae and Scorpididae in the Upper Cretaceous. The division into families is a task of considerable difficulty, and the necessities of a linear arrangement result in the breaking up of some natural sequences. Thus it appears highly probable that the Scorpididae, themselves derived, together with the Serranidae, from the Berycidae, lead to the Carangidae in the division Scombriformes, whilst a nearly perfect passage can be traced between the Acanthuridae of this division and the Balistidae among the Plectognaths.
{653}SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES.
I. Gills four, a slit behind the fourth.
A. Two nostrils on each side.
1. Ventrals with 1 spine and 6 to 13 soft rays. 1. Berycidae.
2. Ventrals with not more than 5 soft rays.
a. Lower pharyngeal bones not completely united, showing at least a median suture.
α. Gill-membranes nearly always free from isthmus.
* Ventrals little if at all behind the pectorals.
† Third vertebra without transverse processes or with sessile ribs.
§ A more or less developed subocular shelf, or inner lamina of the suborbitals supporting the eye-ball, sometimes reduced to a mere process of the second suborbital.
‖ Ribs inserted on the transverse processes, when these are developed.
Body covered with very large bony scales; ventrals with a very strong spine and 2 or 3 very short soft rays 2. Monocentridae.
Dorsal very short, with few graduated, adnate spines, anal very long 3. Pempheridae.
Spinous dorsal usually well developed, soft dorsal usually not much more developed than the anal; palate usually toothed 11. Serranidae.
Dorsal and anal fins elongate and formed mostly of articulated soft rays, the spines feeble and few 12. Pseudochromididae.
Dorsal and anal fins much elongate, without distinct spines; body band-like 13. Cepolidae.
Teeth in the jaws fused to form a beak 14. Hoplognathidae.
Soft dorsal and anal much elongate; a separate spinous dorsal 15. Sillaginidae.
Soft dorsal much longer than the anal; a separate spinous dorsal 16. Sciaenidae.
‖‖ Ribs mostly sessile, behind the parapophyses; body deep; mouth moderately large and protractile.
Post-temporal forked, distinct from skull 25. Scorpididae.
Post-temporal completely ankylosed to the skull; mouth very protractile 26. Caproidae.
§§ No subocular shelf.
‖ Ribs mostly sessile, behind the parapophyses; anal spines 3 to 14.
Teeth conical; palate toothed; mouth feebly protractile 4. Centrarchidae.
Teeth incisor-like; fins densely scaled 5. Cyphosidae.
Teeth conical; palate toothless 6. Lobotidae.
Maxillary very slender; mouth very protractile 7. Toxotidae.
No entopterygoid; mouth very protractile 8. Nandidae.
‖‖ Ribs inserted on the transverse processes when {654} these are developed; not more than 3 anal spines.
Mouth not or but feebly protractile; spinous dorsal usually longer than the soft; anal with 1 or 2 spines 9. Percidae.
Mouth moderately protractile; palate toothed; spinous dorsal not longer than the soft; anal with 2 or 3 spines 10. Acropomatidae.
Mouth very protractile; palate toothless; praemaxillary with an upwardly directed lateral process 17. Gerridae.
Mouth moderately protractile; palate toothed; anal longer than soft dorsal; body scaly 18. Lactariidae.
Mouth moderately protractile; palate toothless; anal much longer than soft dorsal; body naked 19. Trichodontidae.
†† Transverse processes developed on the third vertebra and bearing the ribs; palate usually toothless.
No subocular shelf; teeth small 22. Pristipomatidae.
A subocular shelf; teeth often large, either cutting in front or molar-like on the sides 23. Sparidae.
A subocular shelf; teeth very small or absent; a pair of barbels on the throat 24. Mullidae.
** Ventrals rather far behind the base of the pectorals; lower pectoral rays unbranched, often thickened; no subocular shelf.
Anal fin nearly as long as the soft dorsal 20. Latrididae.
Anal fin much shorter than the soft dorsal 21. Haplodactylidae.
β. Gill-membranes attached to the isthmus.
* Scales well developed; vertebrae 24 or more.
A subocular shelf; mouth small; palate toothless 27. Chaetodontidae.
No subocular shelf; mouth small; palate toothless 28. Drepanidae.
Subocular shelf more or less developed; a superbranchial respiratory organ 31. Osphromenidae.
** Scales minute; mouth small; vertebrae 22 or 23.
Post-temporal not distinctly forked; vertebrae with strong transverse processes; ventrals with 1 spine and 2 to 5 soft rays 29. Acanthuridae.
Post-temporal forked; vertebrae without transverse processes; ventrals with 2 spines and 3 soft rays between them 30. Teuthididae.
b. Lower pharyngeals completely united into one bone, without median suture 32. Embiotocidae.
B. A single nostril on each side; lower pharyngeal bones more or less completely united, but with persistent suture; no subocular shelf; palate toothless 33. Cichlidae.
II. Gills three and a half; lower pharyngeals completely united into one bone, without median suture; palate toothless.
A single nostril on each side; teeth conical or incisor-like; a subocular shelf 34. Pomacentridae.
Two nostrils on each side; anterior teeth usually strong and canine-like; teeth on pharyngeal bones conical or tubercular; no subocular shelf 35. Labridae.
Two nostrils on each side; anterior teeth more or less coalesced into a beak; teeth on pharyngeal bones flat, tessellated; no subocular shelf 36. Scaridae.
{655}FAM. 1. BERYCIDAE.—One or several of the suborbitals emitting an internal lamina supporting the eye; entopterygoid present. Anterior vertebrae without transverse processes; all or most of the ribs inserted on the transverse processes where these are developed. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 4 to 10 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 6 to 13 soft rays.
This family is remarkable for the retention of two archaic characters: the large number of rays to the ventral fins and the duct between the air-bladder and the digestive tract; the latter character is, however, not universal, and has only been found in two genera (Beryx and Holocentrum). The scaling of the body varies greatly, and so does the development of the spines in the vertical fins. Several genera (Melamphaes, Anoplogaster, Trachichthys, etc.) have the head studded with large muciferous cavities which are covered with a thin skin. The vent is usually situated far behind the ventral fin, but in Paratrachichthys, a genus closely allied to Trachichthys, it occupies a more anterior position, between the ventrals, whilst in Aphredoderus it shifts still further with age, opening on the throat in the adult.
The Berycidae were abundantly represented in Cretaceous deposits by Beryx and other genera more or less closely related to living forms, and they appear to have been the precursors of other Perciform Fishes. About 70 species, referred to 13 genera, are known to live at the present day, mostly at great depths, in {656}the seas nearly all over the world. But one freshwater form is known, Aphredoderus sayanus, the little Pirate Perch of North America, growing to 5 inches in length. The largest marine forms (Beryx and Gephyroberyx) measure from 1 to 2 feet.
Recent genera: Beryx, Polymixia, Aphredoderus, Melamphaes, Plectromus, Scopelogadus, Anoplogaster, Caulolepis, Trachichthys, Paratrachichthys, Gephyroberyx, Myripristis, Holocentrum.
Fossil genera: Sphenocephalus, Acrogaster, Pycnosterinx, Hoplopteryx, from the Upper Cretaceous. Asineops, from the Eocene of North America, is supposed to be allied to Aphredoderus. Beryx is represented by several species in the Upper Cretaceous, and Holocentrum occurs in the Eocene and Miocene.
FAM. 2. MONOCENTRIDAE.—The single genus Monocentris, with two species, one from the seas of Japan, China, and India, and one from the South Pacific, is very nearly related to the Berycidae, but differs in the absence of ribs on the anterior six vertebrae, in the very large bony scales, forming together a coat of mail, and in the structure of the ventral fin, which is reduced to a strong spine and two or three very short soft rays. The spines of the dorsal fin are very strong and isolated.
FAM. 3. PEMPHERIDAE.—The resemblance which the fishes united under this family bear to Beryx is very striking, and applies to the skeleton as well as to the external characters. But the ventral fins are formed of one spine and five soft rays, as in most Acanthopterygians. Bathyclupea agrees with Beryx in {657}being possessed of an open duct to the air-bladder. About twelve species are known, referable to four genera: Pempheris, Parapriacanthus, Neopempheris, from the Indian, Pacific, and tropical Atlantic Oceans, and the deep-sea Bathyclupea, from the Indian and Caribbean Seas, at depths of 145 to 419 fathoms.
FAM. 4. CENTRARCHIDAE.—No subocular lamina of the suborbitals, or subocular shelf; entopterygoid present; palate toothed; teeth conical. Praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes from the third or fourth to the last; ribs mostly sessile, behind the transverse processes. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae more or less developed, often rudimentary or absent. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Soft portion of dorsal fin not more developed than the anal. Carnivorous freshwater fishes, some entering brackish water. Many are known to build nests. Mostly inhabitants of North America, the best known being the Sun-Fishes (Lepomis), and Black Bass (Micropterus), several species of which have recently been introduced into continental Europe. Principal genera: Pomoxys, Centrarchus, Ambloplites, Chaenobryttus, Micropterus, Lepomis, Elassoma, Kuhlia. Thirty-two species are known.
FAM. 5. CYPHOSIDAE.—Herbivorous fishes, agreeing in their essential osteological characters with the preceding, differing in the incisor-like outer teeth and densely-scaled fins. Some 14 species are known, from the Pacific and Indian Oceans, referable to 4 genera: Cyphosus (Pimelepterus), Hermosilla, Sectator, Medialuna.
{658}FAM. 6. LOBOTIDAE.—As in Centrarchidae, but transverse processes of vertebrae very short, and palate toothless. Two genera: Lobotes, with two species from the warm parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic coast of America, and Datnioides, with two species from the estuaries of the Ganges and the rivers of Burma, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.
FAM. 7. TOXOTIDAE.—No subocular shelf; entopterygoid present; palate toothed; mouth very protractile; maxillary very slender. Ribs sessile, behind parapophyses which commence from the third vertebra. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
A single genus, Toxotes, with 5 species from the fresh waters and coasts of the East Indies, N. Australia, Polynesia, and New Zealand. Toxotes jaculator derives its name from its habit of capturing insects flying near the surface of the water by shooting drops of water at them, a habit which it continues in captivity.
FAM. 8. NANDIDAE.—No subocular shelf; no entopterygoid; palate toothed; mouth very protractile. Praecaudal vertebrae with parapophyses from the 7th or 8th; ribs mostly sessile, behind the parapophyses. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae absent. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Soft portion of dorsal fin not more developed than the anal. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
Small carnivorous freshwater fishes, of which 14 species are known, referable to 6 genera: Nandus, Catopra, and Badis from South-Eastern Asia, Polycentropsis from West Africa, Polycentrus and Monocirrus from South America.
FAM. 9. PERCIDAE.—No subocular lamina of the suborbitals; entopterygoid present. Anterior vertebrae without transverse processes; all or most of the ribs inserted on the transverse processes when these are developed. Two nostrils on each side. Mouth not or but feebly protractile. Gill-membranes free from the isthmus; 6 to 8 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae more or less developed, often rudimentary, rarely absent. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Soft portion of dorsal fin not very much more developed than {659}the anal; latter with 1 or 2 spines only. Ventrals with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
Embrace about 90 species from the freshwaters of the Northern Hemisphere, referable to 12 genera: Perca, Lucioperca, Percina, Etheostoma, Boleosoma, Ulocentra, Diplesium, Ammocrypta, Crystallaria, Aspro, Percarina, Acerina. The British representatives of this family are the Perch (Perca fluviatilis) and the Pope (Acerina cernua). The largest forms are the Pike-Perches or Sander (Lucioperca) of Eastern Europe, Western Asia, and North America, which reach a length of 4 feet and are highly valued for the table. The American Darters (Etheostoma and allies), on the other hand, are among the smallest fishes, but many are remarkable for their brilliant coloration.
FAM. 10. ACROPOMATIDAE.—An ill-defined group of marine fishes, some deep-sea, placed here provisionally as annectant between the Percidae and the Serranidae (Pomatominae), differing from the latter in the absence of a subocular shelf. Spinous dorsal short.
About 28 species, mostly from the Pacific Ocean, distributed in 9 genera: Propoma, Xenichthys, Xenocys, Synagrops, Malacichthys, Acropoma, Melanostoma, Epigonus (Telescops), Dinolestes.
FAM. 11. SERRANIDAE.—Second suborbital with an internal lamina supporting the globe of the eye; entopterygoid present; palate usually toothed. Anterior vertebrae without transverse processes; all or most of the ribs inserted on the transverse processes where these are developed. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 6 or 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae usually present. Lower pharyngeal bones usually separate. Soft portion of dorsal usually not much more developed than the anal. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 (rarely 4) soft rays.
One of the largest families of fishes. The principal genera may be grouped as follows:—
SERRANINAE.—_Percichthys, Percilia, Lateolabrax, Niphon, Morone, Percalates, Ctenolates, Macquaria, Siniperca, Coreoperca, Acanthistius, Trachypoma, Centrogenys, Polyprion, Oligorus, Stereolepis, Dinoperca, Liopropoma, Aulacocephalus, Plectropoma, Epinephelus, Cromileptes, Paranthias, Serranus, Centropristes, Chelidoperca, Gilbertia, Caesioperca, Caprodon, Anthias, Callanthias, Pseudoplesiops, Plesiops, Trachinops_.
{660}GRAMMISTINAE.—Grammistes, Rhypticus. PRIACANTHINAE.—_Priacanthus, Pseudopriacanthus_. CENTROPOMINAE.—Lates, Psammoperca, Centropomus. POMATOMINAE.—Pomatomus, Scombrops. AMBASSINAE.—Ambassis. CHILODIPTERINAE.—Chilodipterus, Apogon. LUTJANINAE.—_Lutjanus, Glaucosoma, Therapon, Hoplopagrus, Etelis, Aprion, Aphareus, Odontonectes_. CIRRHITINAE.—Cirrhites, Cirrhitichthys. PENTACEROTINAE.—_Pentaceros, Pentaceropsis, Histiopterus_.
The number of recent species amounts to about 550, the great majority of which are marine.
The earliest fossil form is Prolates, from the Upper Cretaceous of France. Morone, Serranus, Percichthys, Anthias, and Apogon are represented in Eocene and later strata.
The range of the family is almost cosmopolitan; few of the Marine Perches descend to any great depth. Some of the species of Stereolepis and Epinephelus grow to a length of 6 to 10 feet. Several species of Serranus (S. cabrilla, S. scriba, S. hepatus), inhabiting the Mediterranean and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, and some Lutjanus are normally hermaphrodite. Some Chilodipterus and Apogon are remarkable for their nursing habits, the male sheltering the eggs in his mouth.
The curious genera Anomalops and Photoblepharon, of each of which a single species is known from the Malay Archipelago and the South Pacific, have been made the types of a family, ANOMALOPIDAE, the systematic position of which remains uncertain since the osteological characters have not been examined. {661}They are remarkable for the movable flap below the eye, bearing a luminous organ, the nature of which has recently been investigated by Max Weber.[714]
FAM. 12. PSEUDOCHROMIDIDAE.—Closely allied to the Serranidae, and connected with them through Plesiops and its allies. Dorsal and anal fins elongate and formed mostly of articulated soft rays, the spines being feeble and few.
A. With two lateral lines: Pseudochromis, Cichlops.
B. With a single lateral line: Opisthognathus, Latilus, Caulolatilus, Lopholatilus, Malacanthus, Bathymaster, Rathbunella.
Marine, mostly of small size, inhabiting the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. About 30 species. One of the largest and best-known members of this family is the Tile-Fish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps), living upon the bottom of what is known as the Gulf Stream slope, off the coast of New England, where it was first observed in 1879. Here the water is normally comparatively warm, coming as it does from the superheated region of the Gulf of Mexico. During a series of unusually severe gales in 1882, this mass of water was pushed aside, as it were, and replaced by colder water. As a result, millions and millions of these fishes were killed, and their dead bodies literally covered the surface of the sea for hundreds of square miles. It was feared that the Tile-Fish was exterminated; this was not so, however, and the fish has reappeared in tolerable abundance within the last few years.
FAM. 13. CEPOLIDAE.—Agree in essential characters with the preceding, but body band-like with very numerous vertebrae {662}(15 + 54), and very elongate dorsal and anal fins formed of soft rays, of which all except the first three dorsal and the first anal are articulated and branched.
Although these fishes have hitherto been placed near the Blenniidae, the Gobiidae, or the Trachypteridae, they are nothing but extremely elongate Perches, and they stand in the same relation to the Serranidae as the Trichiuridae to the Carangidae and Scombridae. They hardly deserve to rank as a family distinct from the Pseudochromididae.
Two genera, Cepola and Acanthocepola, with 10 species, from the Mediterranean and North-Eastern Atlantic, the Indian Ocean, and the Western Pacific. The Band-Fish (Cepola rubescens), which is common in the Mediterranean, is sometimes found on the British coasts; it grows to a foot and a half in length, and is remarkable for its bright red colour.
FAM. 14. HOPLOGNATHIDAE.—Characters of Serranidae, but teeth fused to form a beak as in Tetrodon; palate toothless.
Hoplognathus, with 4 species, from the Pacific Ocean.
FAM. 15. SILLAGINIDAE.—As in Serranidae, but soft dorsal and anal much elongate, as in Pseudochromididae, from which the Sillaginidae differ in the separate spinous dorsal. Palate toothed. Connecting the Serranidae and the Sciaenidae.
Small Marine Fishes from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ascending rivers. A single genus, Sillago, with about 10 species.
{663}FAM. 16. SCIAENIDAE.—Also closely related to the Serranidae. Dorsal fin with a short spinous and a long soft portion; anal much shorter than the latter. Palate usually toothless.
A large family of about 150 species, mostly marine. Principal genera: _Arripis, Sciaena, Corvina, Otolithus, Ancylodon, Nebris, Larimus, Pogonias, Haplonotus, Umbrina, Eques_.
Many of these fishes reach a large size, and the flesh of nearly all is esteemed. The Meagre (Sciaena aquila) is sometimes taken on our coast. The Drum (Pogonias chromis) so called from the sounds which it produces, in common with many other Sciaenids, is remarkable for having the lower pharyngeal bones united, as is also the case in the North American freshwater genus Haplonotus. The air-bladder is usually large and complicated, provided with more or less numerous appendages.
FAM. 17. GERRIDAE.—Agree in the character of the vertebral column with the Serranidae, but differ in the absence of a subocular shelf; the very protractile mouth usually descends when protruded and the praemaxillary emits an upward lateral process; palate toothless; lower pharyngeal bones usually large and more or less completely coalesced.
About 60 species of carnivorous, mostly small, fishes, from the tropical seas, referable to 3 genera: Gerres, Equula, Gazza.
FAM. 18. LACTARIIDAE.—Intermediate between Serranidae and Trichodontidae. No subocular shelf; palate toothed; branchiostegal rays 7; scales small, cycloid, deciduous; spinous dorsal short; anal longer than the soft dorsal; scapula with two foramina.
Lactarius delicatulus, from the coasts of Southern Asia.
FAM. 19. TRICHODONTIDAE.—Agree in the character of the vertebral column with the Serranidae, but have no subocular shelf; body naked, and anal much longer than the soft dorsal; palate toothless; only 5 branchiostegal rays.
Two genera, each with a single species, from the North Pacific, Trichodon and Arctoscopus, bearing some resemblance to the Trachinidae, with which they have usually been associated.
FAM. 20. LATRIDIDAE.—Marine Fishes intermediate between the Serranidae and the Haplodactylidae, agreeing with the former in the extent of the anal fin, which is nearly as long as the soft dorsal, and with the latter in the absence of a subocular shelf and the posterior position of the ventrals. A single genus, Latris, with 3 or 4 species, from the coasts of Australia and New Zealand.
{664}FAM. 21. HAPLODACTYLIDAE.—No subocular shelf; entopterygoid present; palate usually toothless. Vertebrae with transverse processes from the third or fourth; all the ribs attached to the transverse processes when these are present; anterior epipleurals strong. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from the isthmus; 5 or 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Soft portion of the dorsal fin much more developed than the anal. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays, inserted far back behind the pectorals, the lower rays of which are simple and more or less thickened.
This family embraces the genera Haplodactylus, Chilodactylus, Chironemus, and Threpterius, with some 30 species from the seas of the Southern Hemisphere and Japan. They feed chiefly on crustaceans, molluscs, and other invertebrates living among sea-weed.
FAM. 22. PRISTIPOMATIDAE.—No subocular shelf; entopterygoid present; palate toothless. Vertebrae with transverse processes from the third; all the ribs attached to the transverse processes. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
Pristipoma, Haemulon, Diagramma, and Pentapus, distributed over all the tropical and subtropical seas, a few entering fresh waters. About 130 species are known.
FAM. 23. SPARIDAE.—Second suborbital with an internal lamina supporting the globe of the eye; entopterygoid present; palate usually toothless; teeth often either cutting in front, or molar-like on the sides. Vertebrae with transverse processes from the second or third; all the ribs attached to the transverse processes. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Soft portion of dorsal fin not much more developed than the anal. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
The Sea-Breams embrace some 200 species, distributed over the coasts of nearly the whole world. Some are herbivorous, but the majority are carnivorous.
Principal genera: _Scolopsis, Dentex, Synagris, Caesio, Maena, Oblata, Melambaphes, Girella, Doydixodon, Cantharus, Box_, {665}_Crenidens, Pachymetopon, Dipterodon, Sargus, Charax, Lethrinus, Sphaerodon, Sparus, Pagrus, Pagellus_.
Abundantly represented in Eocene and Miocene beds by remains of Sargus, Sparus, Pagrus, Pagellus, and by the extinct genera Ctenodentex, Sparnodus, and Trigonodon. Some species grow to a length of three feet, such as the "Sheep's-Head" of North America, one of the best salt-water fishes of the United States, and the "Schnapper" (Sparus unicolor), of Australia, also much esteemed. Some of the Atlantic and Mediterranean species of Box, Sargus, Charax, Sparus, and Pagellus are known to be normally, or at least very frequently, hermaphrodite.
FAM. 24. MULLIDAE.—The "Red Mullets" are very nearly related to the Sparidae, with which they agree in the structure of the vertebral column and the presence of a subocular shelf. They differ in the very weak dentition, the presence of a pair of hyoid barbels, the reduced number (4) of branchiostegal rays, and the double perforation of the scapula. Two short dorsal fins, remote from each other, the anterior with weak spines.
Small marine and brackish-water fishes, feeding on animalcules and decomposing matter; inhabitants of nearly all the tropical seas and extending to Northern Europe. About 50 species are known, referred to 5 genera: Upeneoides, Upeneichthys, Mullus, Mulloides, and Upeneus.
{666}The British species are Mullus barbatus and M. surmuletus, remarkable for their beautiful pink or red colour, and much valued on the market, although no longer held in the high estimation for which they were noted by the Romans.
FAM. 25. SCORPIDIDAE.—Second suborbital with an internal lamina supporting the globe of the eye; entopterygoid present; palate toothed. Ribs sessile, behind the parapophyses when these are present. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Ventral fins, if present, with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
This family embraces 12 species from the coasts of Africa, Southern Asia, Australia, and New Zealand, referable to 5 genera: Scorpis, Atypichthys, Atyposoma, Henoplosus, Psettus. The fish here figured (Psettus sebae, Fig. 408) is remarkable for the excessive depth of the body, which is greater than in any other species.
Aipichthys, one of the few Acanthopterygian types known to have existed in the Cretaceous period, appears to belong to the family Scorpididae as here defined, and not to the Carangidae.
FAM. 26. CAPROIDAE.—Characters of Scorpididae, but supratemporal completely ankylosed to the skull.
The Boar-Fish (Capros aper) of the Atlantic and Mediterranean is occasionally found on our southern coasts, and is highly remarkable for the hair-like bristles with which its scales are {667}covered, an extreme exaggeration of the "Ctenoid" type. The mouth is very protractile, and the vertebrae are only 22 or 23 in number. Antigonia, with a single species found at remote points in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, is probably allied to Capros, with which it is believed to be connected through the fossil genus Proantigonia, from the Upper Miocene of Croatia.
FAM. 27. CHAETODONTIDAE.—Closely allied to and evidently derived from the more generalised types of the Scorpididae, differing in the attachment of the gill-membranes to the isthmus. Post-temporal more or less firmly united with the skull, sometimes indistinctly bifurcate. Mouth small; palate toothless; soft portions of vertical fins usually covered with scales; ribs usually strong and blade-like; body short and deep.
A large group of about 200 marine carnivorous fishes from the tropics, mostly of small size, remarkable for their singular forms and markings and brilliant coloration. They are particularly abundant about volcanic rocks and coral reefs.
{668}An Atlantic species of Ephippus (E. faber) is extremely remarkable, when adult, for an enormously enlarged globular bony mass on the back of the head, formed by hypertrophy of the frontal and supraoccipital bones.
Principal genera: Ephippus, Parapsettus, Scatophagus, Chaetodon, Chelmo, Heniochus, Holacanthus, Pomacanthus, Platax.
Chaetodon, Holacanthus, Pomacanthus, Scatophagus, Ephippus, and Platax were represented in the Eocene of Europe.
FAM. 28. DREPANIDAE.—The genus Drepane, with a single species from the Indian Ocean, is very closely related to the Chaetodontidae, but it lacks the subocular shelf, and it is distinguished externally by the very elongate, falciform pectoral fin.
FAM. 29. ACANTHURIDAE.—A more or less developed subocular shelf; entopterygoid present. Mouth very small, not or but slightly protractile, the maxillary more or less firmly attached or ankylosed to the praemaxillary; teeth conical, bristle-like, or incisor-like. Palate toothless. Vertebrae 22 or 23, the praecaudals with strong transverse processes commencing from the first; ribs and epipleurals inserted on the transverse processes. Post-temporal not distinctly forked, ankylosed to the skull. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes broadly attached to the isthmus; 4 or 5 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Body covered with minute, often rough scales. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, with more or less strong spines. Ventrals with 1 spine and 2 to 5 soft rays.
A family of about 80 species, mostly herbivorous, from the tropical seas, referred to 6 genera: Zanclus, Ctenochaetus, Acanthurus, Colocopus, Prionurus, Naseus. They form a connecting link between the Chaetodontidae and the Plectognathi.
Remains from the Eocene of Europe have been referred to Zanclus, Acanthurus, and Naseus, and to the extinct genera Aulorhamphus and Apostasis.
FAM. 30. TEUTHIDIDAE.—No subocular shelf; entopterygoid present. Mouth very small, beak-like, not protractile, with incisor-like teeth; maxillary ankylosed to the praemaxillary. Palate toothless. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes broadly attached to the isthmus; 5 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Supratemporal forked. Vertebrae {669}23, with sessile ribs and no parapophyses, the epipleurals inserted on the ribs. Body covered with very small scales. Vertical fins elongate, with strong spines, 6 or 7 in the anal. Ventrals with 2 spines and 3 soft rays between them.
A single recent genus, Teuthis, with about 30 species, herbivorous fishes from the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans. According to Bottard[715] the sting from the spines of these fishes is much dreaded. Archaeoteuthis, from the Oligocene of Switzerland.
FAM. 31. OSPHROMENIDAE.—Second suborbital with a more or less developed internal lamina; entopterygoid present; palate toothed. Most of the praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes, to which the ribs are attached. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes attached to isthmus; 4 to 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae absent. Lower pharyngeal bones separate. Vertical fins very variable in extent, the spines sometimes very numerous, sometimes absent. Ventral fins with not more than 5 soft rays, sometimes reduced to a filamentous ray. A superbranchial respiratory organ, situated in a cavity above the gills.
Freshwater fishes having much in common with the Anabantidae, and likewise confined to South-Eastern Asia and Africa. Only 22 species are known, referable to 7 genera: Helostoma, Polyacanthus, Osphromenus, Trichogaster, Luciocephalus, Betta, and Micracanthus. The latter, the only African representative of the family (one species from the Ogowe), hardly differs from the Malay genus Betta. Most of the Osphromenidae are notable as aquarium fishes. The largest species, the Gourami (Osphromenus olfax), growing to a length of 2 feet, from the Malay Archipelago, is one of the best flavoured fishes of the Far East and has been acclimatised in India, the Guianas, and Mauritius. A domesticated variety of the Chinese Polyacanthus opercularis, known as Macropodus viridi-auratus, remarkable for the beauty of its form and colour, readily breeds in our aquariums. Like the Gourami, the male constructs a nest of air-bubbles, strengthened by a buccal secretion, and watches over the eggs and young. The little Betta pugnax, from South-Eastern Asia, derives its name from its excitable nature, which causes specimens to be kept by the Siamese in glass vessels where they engage in fights, special breeds being cultivated for the purpose. According to Cantor, {670}the Siamese in 1840 were as infatuated with the combats of these fishes as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and the licence to exhibit them was farmed, bringing in a considerable annual revenue to the king.
FAM. 32. EMBIOTOCIDAE.—Second suborbital with an internal lamina supporting the globe of the eye; entopterygoid present; palate toothless. Ribs sessile, above and behind the parapophyses, where these are present. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 5 or 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeals united, with conical or pavement-like teeth. Anal fin, with three spines. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
Small or moderate-sized fishes inhabiting California and Japan, mostly marine, one species, however, inhabiting fresh waters, whilst another descends to a great depth. They feed mostly on crustaceans, but one genus (Abcona) is herbivorous. The name "Surf-Fishes," by which they are generally known, refers to the fact that most species are found in the surf along sandy beaches. All are viviparous in the strictest sense of the term, the young remaining for a long time closely packed in a sac-like enlargement of the oviduct analogous to a uterus; they are of relatively large size at birth, and quite similar in form to the parent, whilst at an earlier period they differ in having the vertical fins much more elevated. Twenty-four species are known.[716] Principal genera: Hysterocarpus, Abcona, Cymatogaster, Embiotoca, Ditrema.
FAM. 33. CICHLIDAE.—No subocular shelf; entopterygoid {671}present; palate toothless; lower pharyngeal bones more or less completely united, with median suture. Vertebrae with parapophyses from the third; ribs most frequently sessile or subsessile. A single nostril on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 5 or 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae absent. Dorsal fin, with numerous spines; anal with 3 spines or more. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
Fresh or brackish-water fishes, variable in form and dentition, some carnivorous, others chiefly herbivorous. In some American forms (Cichla) the males and females differ during the spawning season, the male developing a hump on the top of the head, which disappears afterwards. The eggs and young are cared for by the parents; either the male or the female, according to the species, sheltering them in the mouth or pharynx.[717] These fishes, often designated as "Chromides," a name which properly pertains to members of the following family, inhabit Africa, Madagascar, Syria, India and Ceylon, and Central and South America, from Texas to Uruguay. About 45 genera are distinguished, based mostly on the number of anal spines and the dentition, which for variety of types is comparable to that of the Characinidae. Of these 45 genera, 30 are African. 150 species are known from Africa (with Syria and Madagascar), 140 from America, and 3 from India and Ceylon.[718] Principal genera—African: Lamprologus, Hemichromis, Paratilapia, Xenotilapia, Tropheus, Tilapia, {672}Asprotilapia, Eretmodus, Plecodus, Pseudetroplus. American: Acara, Heros, Hygrogonus, Cichla, Crenicichla, Chaetobranchus, Geophagus, Symphysodon, Pterophyllum. Indian: Etroplus.
No part of the world surpasses Lake Tanganyika in variety of generic and specific types of Cichlidae, the fish-fauna of this great lake being in great majority made up of members of this family.
Priscacara, from the Eocene of North America, is the only extinct genus which can be referred to this family.
FAM. 34. POMACENTRIDAE.—A subocular shelf; entopterygoid present; palate toothless; teeth conical or incisor-like; lower pharyngeals completely united into one bone. Vertebrae with transverse processes from the fourth or fifth; ribs inserted on the transverse processes, when these are present. A single nostril on each side. Gill-membranes free from the isthmus; 5 to 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 3½; pseudobranchiae present. Dorsal fin elongate, with numerous strong spines; anal with 2 spines only. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
Small fishes of the tropical and warm seas, resembling the Chaetodontidae in form and mode of life, likewise usually of brilliant coloration; in structural characters intermediate between the Cichlidae and the Labridae. They feed chiefly on small marine animals, but the species with incisor-like teeth are entirely or mainly herbivorous. Over 150 species are known.
Principal genera: Heliastes, Azurina, Amphiprion, Premnas, Dascyllus, Pomacentrus, Glyphidodon, Microspathodon.
{673}The family is supposed to be represented in the Upper Eocene and Lower Miocene of Italy by the extinct genus Odonteus.
FAM. 35. LABRIDAE.—No subocular shelf; entopterygoid present; palate toothless; anterior teeth of the jaws usually strong and canine-like, lateral teeth often soldered at the base; lower pharyngeals completely united into one bone, with conical or tubercular teeth. Vertebrae with transverse processes from the third; all the ribs attached to the transverse processes. Lips thick. Two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free or joined to the narrow isthmus; 5 or 6 branchiostegal rays; gills three and a half; pseudobranchiae present. Dorsal fin elongate, with numerous, usually slender, spines. Ventral fins with 1 spine and 5 soft rays.
The "Wrasses" form a large family of mostly brilliantly coloured marine fishes, inhabiting all the tropical and temperate coasts. Their regime is partially herbivorous, partially carnivorous. About 400 species are known. Principal genera: Labrus, Tautoga, Malacopterus, Ctenolabrus, Chaerops, Platychaerops, Heterochaerops, Labrichthys, Cossyphus, Cirrhilabrus, Chilinus, Epibulus, Anampses, Platyglossus, Novacula, Julis, Gomphosus, Chilio, Coris.
Some of the members of this family have been observed to build nests for the protection of their eggs and young. These nests, in the European Labrus, are made of seaweeds, zoophytes, corals, broken shells, etc., and are the work of both the male and the female.[719] It is also in this family that sleep was first observed in fishes, and this has been fully verified by Möbius[720] {674}on Labrus rupestris in an aquarium, the fish seeking a sleeping place at night and laying itself down to rest on one side.
As first pointed out by Günther, the Labridae found in temperate regions have a higher number (30 to 41) of vertebrae than those inhabiting the tropics (23 to 29), a rule which applies more or less to other families of Acanthopterygians. Remains of Labrus and Julis occur in the Eocene and Miocene of Europe. An allied fossil genus, Labrodon, is represented by numerous species in Tertiary beds of Europe and North America. Phyllodus, Egertonia, Platylaemus, and Pseudosphaerodon, from the Eocene and Miocene, are referred, with doubt, to this family.
FAM. 36. SCARIDAE.—Closely allied to the preceding, with which they have usually been united, but differing in the more or less coalescent teeth, forming often a parrot-like beak, the lower pharyngeals united into a concave or spoon-shaped bone with flat, tessellated teeth; and in the development of transverse processes from the first vertebra. Vertebrae 24 or 25.
Curious, mostly brilliantly-coloured fishes of the tropical seas and the Mediterranean, especially abundant about coral-reefs. "Parrot-Wrasses" feed mostly on vegetable matter, corals, and on hard-shelled Mollusca, for crushing which their dentition is well adapted. The largest reach a length of 4 feet. Some are much valued as food, whilst others are reputed poisonous. About 110 species are known, referable to 8 genera: Cryptotomus (Calliodon), Calotomus, Sparisoma, Scarus, Pseudoscarus, Odax, Coridodax, Siphonognathus. The latter is very aberrant in shape, the head and body resembling those of a Pipe-Fish.
Scarus is reported from the Eocene and Miocene of Europe.
{675}DIVISION II.—SCOMBRIFORMES.
No bony stay for the praeopercle. Spinous dorsal, if distinct, formed of short or feeble, slender spines. Epipleurals usually attached to the centra when ribs are sessile, or to the parapophyses of the vertebrae, rarely to the ribs. Pectoral arch similar to that of the Perciformes, but pterygials sometimes more abbreviated. Ventral fins thoracic. Caudal fin, if well developed, with very numerous rays deeply forked at the base.
Although bound by natural ties, the series of families that cluster round the Mackerel offer so many modifications of structure that it is almost impossible to draw up a diagnosis differentiating every one of its members from the Perciformes, with which they are closely connected, and from which they hardly deserve to be separated. Even after removing many genera which have been united with them by my predecessors, and which will now be found scattered among various groups of the system, no good definition of the Scombriformes can be given. The Mackerel and Horse-Mackerel are taken as the pattern-forms around which more or less aberrant types are located, types yet not so aberrant as to be traced back to these familiar forms through a number of intermediate grades. As {676}regards external features, it may be stated that the dorsal and anal spines, if present, are either weak and slender, or, if strong, short and detached; the caudal peduncle is constricted, and the caudal fin, if well developed, is usually deeply forked, and with the forked bases of the very numerous rays much longer than in most of the Perciformes, embracing at least a considerable portion of the expanded hypural bones, a character by which the Chaetodontidae, Acanthuridae, and several extinct types which have been placed with the Carangidae are at once excluded. All are carnivorous and marine, and many are pelagic and of very wide distribution. No praetertiary members of this division, as here defined, have yet been found.
SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES
I. Praemaxillaries more or less protractile, not beak-like; scales small or absent, sometimes with enlarged lateral scutes; spinous dorsal fin short or replaced by a series of isolated spines; anal usually with one or two spines detached from the rest of the fin.
Praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes behind which the ribs are attached 1. Carangidae.
Praecaudal vertebrae without well-developed parapophyses, ribs and epipleurals inserted close together on the centra 2. Rhachicentridae.
II. Praemaxillaries not protractile; scales usually small or absent; body more or less elongate; dorsal fin elongate, single or divided, without free spines; no free anal spines.
A. Pseudobranchiae present.
Vertebrae without transverse processes; soft dorsal fin longer than the spinous; pectoral fins high up the sides 3. Scombridae.
Vertebrae without transverse processes; soft dorsal fin shorter than the spinous, if the latter be distinct; pectoral fins low down the sides 4. Trichiuridae.
Vertebrae without transverse processes; snout produced into a spear 5. Histiophoridae.
Vertebrae with transverse processes bearing the ribs; snout produced into a sword; no ventrals 6. Xiphiidae.
Vertebrae without transverse processes; gill-membranes attached to isthmus; dorsal and anal fins formed of unarticulated, widely set rays; dentition very feeble 7. Luvaridae.
B. Pseudobranchiae absent; no well-developed transverse processes to the praecaudal vertebrae; the ribs and the epipleurals inserted close together on the centra; snout short and very deep 8. Coryphaenidae.
III. Praemaxillaries not protractile, or if slightly protractile, scales large; dorsal and anal fins elongate, without distinct spinous division; most of the praecaudal vertebrae with strong haemapophyses, to which the ribs are attached 9. Bramidae.
{677}FAM. 1. CARANGIDAE.—Praemaxillaries more or less protractile. Vertebrae 24 to 26; ribs behind the parapophyses; epipleurals on the parapophyses, rarely on the ribs.[721] Body covered with small scales, or naked, often with enlarged scutes on each side of the body or of the tail; dorsal spines few, or slender or rudimentary; a more or less developed spine adnate to the soft portion of the anal, often preceded by a pair of spines separated from the rest of the fin. Pseudobranchiae usually present. Inhabitants of the seas of the temperate and tropical regions, many of the species having a very wide range. About 150 species are known.
Principal recent genera: Caranx, Chloroscombrus, Selene, Mene, Apolectus, Nematistius, Seriola, Seriolichthys, Naucrates, Trachynotus, Zalocys, Lichia, Paropsis, Chorinemus. Species of Caranx, Mene, and Seriola have been described from the Eocene and Miocene of Europe, in which occur also the fossil genera named Vomeropsis, Archaeus, Carangopsis, Carangodes, Ductor, and Semiophorus.
The family is represented on our coasts by the common Horse-Mackerel, Caranx trachurus. The young of this species keep together in small bands in the neighbourhood of medusae, under which they seek shelter when disturbed. The Pilot-Fish, Naucrates ductor, is a truly pelagic fish of wide distribution, which occasionally appears on our coasts, accompanying large sharks and ships. Much has been written on the marvellous habits of this little fish, which is said to lead the shark like a pilot, directing it to its food, in exchange for which services the pilot enjoys protection from the fear which the proximity of its formidable companion inspires to its enemies among other carnivorous fishes, and an abundance of food from the shark's excrements.[722]
FAM. 2. RHACHICENTRIDAE.—Praemaxillaries slightly protractile. Vertebrae 25 (11 + 14), without well-developed parapophyses; ribs and epipleurals inserted close together on the centra. Body covered with very small scales; a series of short isolated dorsal spines; soft dorsal and anal long; pectorals {678}inserted low down. A single genus, Rhachicentrum (Elacate), with a single species from the coasts of the tropical and warmer parts of the Atlantic and of the Indian Ocean.
FAM. 3. SCOMBRIDAE.—Praemaxillaries large, not protractile, beak-like. Vertebrae 30 to 50, without transverse processes, but some of the hinder praecaudals with haemal arches; ribs inserted on the centra or on the haemal arches when these are present; epipleurals all on the centra. Scales cycloid and usually very small (except in Gastrochisma), sometimes absent. A spinous dorsal fin formed of slender spines, folding into a sheath; soft dorsal longer and broken up into finlets, similar to the anal; pectoral inserted high up the sides. Hypural bones completely embraced by the forked bases of the caudal rays. Pseudobranchiae present.
About 50 species, referred to the following genera:—Scomber, Auxis, Thunnus, Sarda, Cybium, Acanthocybium, Gastrochisma (Lepidothynnus). Numerous fossil representatives in Tertiary beds, belonging to Scomber, Auxis, Thunnus, Cybium, and to the extinct genera Eothynnus, Isurichthys, Palimphyes, Scombrinus, Sphyraenodus, Scombramphodon.
These fishes, elegant in form and often in colour, are among the swiftest of the inhabitants of the sea. Some are migratory, like the Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) of the North Atlantic, whilst others are remarkable for their wide distribution. The Tunny (Thunnus thynnus), for instance, the largest member of the family, reaching a length of 10 feet, inhabits the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, extending as far north as the British {679}seas, Newfoundland, California, and Japan. It supplies important fisheries in France and Italy. The Tunnies are the only fish known to be warm-blooded.
FAM. 4. TRICHIURIDAE.—Praemaxillaries not protractile. Vertebrae 32 to 160, without transverse processes; ribs sessile, on the centra or on the haemal arches when these are present; epipleurals, if well developed, on the centra. Scales very small or absent. Spinous portion of dorsal fin much longer than the soft, the spines more or less feeble. Pectoral fins inserted low down the sides. Pseudobranchiae present.
The members of this family show a great variation in the shape of the body, which, although always strongly compressed, is not unlike that of a Mackerel in the more normal types, such as Thyrsites and Ruvettus, whilst, through a chain of genera, it generally assumes an extremely elongate form; concurrently with this elongation of the body, the dorsal fin loses its differentiation into two portions, the ventrals become reduced and disappear, as in the Scabbard- or Frost-Fish (Lepidopus caudatus), while the caudal fin decreases in size, loses its fork-shape, and is finally lost in Trichiurus, in which the body is ribbon-shaped and tapers to a point.
About 25 species are known, pelagic and widely distributed, many descending to great depths.
Principal living genera: Ruvettus, Thyrsites, Epinnula, Nesiarchus, Nealotus, Promethichthys, Dicrotus, Gempylus, Aphanopus, Lepidopus, Euoxymetopon, Benthodesmus, Eupleurogrammus, Trichiurus.
Remains of several species referred to Thyrsites, Lepidopus, and to the extinct genera Thyrsitocephalus, Hemithyrsites, and Trichiurichthys, have been found in the Oligocene and Miocene of Europe.
FAM. 5. HISTIOPHORIDAE.—Praemaxillaries not protractile; snout produced into a spear-shaped rostrum; a praedentary bone; teeth minute. Body elongate, covered with small or rudimentary scales. Vertebrae 24 or 25, without transverse processes; ribs sessile; no epipleurals. One or two dorsal fins, without a distinctly spinous portion. Pectoral fin low down the side. Pseudobranchiae present.
The Sail-Fishes are large oceanic fishes, endowed with great strength and swiftness, occurring in the tropical and sub-tropical {680}seas. Four or five species are distinguishable, and are referable to two genera: Histiophorus, with a single dorsal fin and 2 or 3 ventral rays, and Tetrapturus, with the dorsal divided into two parts and a single ventral ray.[723]
Fossil Histiophoridae are known from the Eocene and later beds in Europe and America. Dr. A. S. Woodward observes that the known fossils are too imperfect to be referred with certainty to their respective genera. Most of them probably belong to Histiophorus, but at least one genus from the Eocene (Xiphiorhynchus) appears to be well distinguished.
The imperfectly known extinct family PALAEORHYNCHIDAE, from the seas of the Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene periods, with the genera Palaeorhynchus and Hemirhynchus, is probably closely related to the Histiophoridae. The vertebrae number 50 to 60, and the ribs completely encircle the body. In Palaeorhynchus both jaws are equally produced into an ensiform weapon. Blochius, from the Eocene, with diamond-shaped, slightly overlapping bony scutes on the body, is perhaps also to be placed near this family.
{681}FAM. 6. XIPHIIDAE.—Differs from the preceding in the absence of praedentary bone, and in the vertebrae (26 in number), which in the praecaudal region are provided with short but well-developed transverse processes, to which the short ribs are attached. Ventral fins absent, the pectorals being inserted in the place usually occupied by them. Adult without teeth or scales.
A single species, the Sword-Fish (Xiphias gladius), of nearly world-wide distribution, occurring occasionally on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland.
FAM. 7. LUVARIDAE.—Mouth small, praemaxillaries not protractile, with very feeble dentition. Gill-membranes attached to the isthmus. Vertebrae 23, without transverse processes; ribs blade-like, inserted on the centra; no epipleurals. Body rough, with minute scales. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, formed of unarticulated, widely set rays. Pectoral fins inserted rather low down; ventrals much reduced, the two halves of the pelvis fused into a single bone. Supraclavicle fused with the forked post-temporal. Hypural bones completely embraced by the forked bases of the caudal rays. Pseudobranchiae present.
Luvarus imperialis, a rare pelagic fish from the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific, growing to a length of 6 feet, and occasionally captured on our coasts, is the only representative of this family. Very little is known of the habits of this strange fish. The excessive length of the intestines and the feeble dentition point to its feeding partly on vegetable matter, partly on minute animals; the circumstances under which certain specimens were captured tend to indicate that they follow up streams of pelagic life such as engage the attention of the Basking Shark, of similar distribution.
FAM. 8. CORYPHAENIDAE.—Praemaxillaries small, not protractile. Vertebrae 30 to 33, without transverse processes; ribs and epipleurals attached close together on the centra. Body elongate; scales small, cycloid or elongate lanceolate. Dorsal and anal fins much elongate, without distinct spines. Pectoral fins inserted rather low down the side. Pseudobranchiae absent.
The "Dolphins" (Coryphaena), of which only two species can be distinguished, are large pelagic fishes, of carnivorous habits, pursuing the Flying-Fish. They grow to a length of 6 feet, and their flesh is much valued. Their deep head, with short snout, {682}and their long posteriorly attenuate body ending in a large forked caudal fin, give them a peculiar appearance.
FAM. 9. BRAMIDAE.—Praemaxillaries small, not or but feebly protractile; maxillaries large, scaly. Vertebrae 42 to 47, the praecaudal without transverse processes, but mostly with hæmal arches to which the ribs are attached, the epipleurals being inserted on the centra. Body deep; scales moderate or large, strongly imbricate, with processes which, in certain parts at least, serve to connect the rows of scales. Dorsal and anal elongate, some or all of the rays simple, but not forming true spines. Pectoral inserted rather low down the side, freely movable upwards and downwards. Pseudobranchiae present.
Pelagic fishes, often descending to great depths. About 12 species are known,[724] referable to 6 genera: Brama, Taractes, Pterycombus, Pteraclis, Bentenia, and Steinegeria. Taractes, often confounded with Brama, differs from it not only in the larger, keeled scales, but also in the protractile mouth and in the much greater development of most of the ribs, which form curved lamellae of great width.[725] Pteraclis is very remarkable for the enormous, sail-like dorsal and anal fins.
DIVISION III.—ZEORHOMBI.
Aberrant, strongly compressed Perciformes, with very short praecaudal region, modified much as in the Flat-Fishes, culminating in asymmetrical forms, and characterised by the combination of an increased number (7 to 9) of ventral rays, with absence of hypural spine (by which the Berycidae are excluded), or by asymmetry of the skull in the forms in which the spine of the ventral fin has been lost.
Among the symmetrical forms, the existing Zeidae agree with the Berycidae in having more than five soft rays to the ventral fins, and are probably derived, together with the Eocene Amphistiidae, from some common ancestral group still to be discovered in Cretaceous beds. These Zeidae have much in common with the Pleuronectidae,[726] and might be regarded as {683}forming part of the family out of which the latter have sprung, were it not that they have lost the last half-gill. Amphistium is probably more nearly related to the Pleuronectidae, which may have been directly derived from the family of which it is as yet the only known representative.[727]
This division embraces three families only:—
A distinct spinous dorsal fin; anal spines detached from the soft portion; a ventral spine; gills three and a half, four slits between them 1. Zeidae.
Dorsal and anal spines few, continuous with the soft rays; a ventral spine 2. Amphistiidae.†
No spines; cranium twisted in front, with the two orbits on one side; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth 3. Pleuronectidae.
† Extinct.
FAM. 1. ZEIDAE.—No subocular shelf; praemaxillaries strongly protractile. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 7 or 8 branchiostegal rays; gills 3½; pseudobranchiae well developed. Lower pharyngeal bones separated. Vertebrae 30 to 46, the anterior with sessile ribs, the posterior praecaudals with long neural spines bent forwards and with transverse processes directed downwards, forming haemal arches and bearing the ribs at their extremity; epipleurals much reduced or absent; hypural large, without the basal spine or knob present in most Perciformes and all Scombriformes and Percesoces, bearing fewer than 20 rays. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, the former with a distinct spinous portion, the latter with 1 to 4 spines detached from the soft portion. Pectoral fin supported by 4 pterygials, of which 3 are in contact with the perforated scapular bone; post-temporal forked and solidly attached to the skull. Ventral fin with 1 spine and 6 to 8 soft rays.
Scales small or minute, sometimes hard and rough and firmly joined in vertical series; bony plates may be present along the base of the vertical fins. Air-bladder present.
Twelve species are known from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, referable to 5 genera: Grammicolepis, Cyttus, Cyttopsis, Zenion, and Zeus. Oreosoma was founded on a young form of a fish allied to Cyttus. Remains of Zeus occur in the Oligocene, and Cyttoides, from the same period, has been compared with Cyttus.
The well-known John Dory (Zeus faber) is much valued for the table.
{684}FAM. 2. AMPHISTIIDAE.—The only known representative of this family, the Upper Eocene Amphistium paradoxum, originally described as a Pleuronectes, has much in common with the Zeidae, from which it differs in the smaller number of vertebrae (10 + 14), and in the dorsal and anal spines being more reduced, adnate and continuous with the series of soft rays; the scales are more normal and imbricate; ventral fins with 1 spine and 8 soft rays. This fish appears to realise in every respect the prototype of the Pleuronectidae before they had assumed the asymmetry which characterises them as a group.
FAM. 3. PLEURONECTIDAE.—Head asymmetrical, the skull twisted in front, with the two orbits on one side in the adult; the side of the body bearing the eyes and turned upwards in life being coloured, the other side colourless and blind. Mouth more or less protractile. Gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Lower pharyngeal bones usually separated, rarely imperfectly united. Vertebrae 24 in the most generalised form (Psettodes), varying from 28 to 65 in others, the praecaudals mostly with more or less developed transverse processes, which may be directed downwards and become converted into haemal arches; ribs and epipleurals present. Caudal fin, if well developed, supported by a large hypural usually without basal spine or knob. Dorsal and anal fins much elongate, without spines, the former often extending on the head. Paired fins often reduced, {685}sometimes absent; if fully developed and normally formed, the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles as in the Zeidae. Ventral fins usually with 5 to 7 soft rays.
Scales usually imbricate, cycloid or ctenoid; rarely absent; bony tubercles sometimes present. Air-bladder absent.
Most species, and even genera, are either sinistral or dextral, but this is inconstant in some, including the most generalised genus, Psettodes. The very young are transparent and symmetrical, with an eye on each side, and swim in a vertical position like other Fishes. These larval forms have been described as distinct genera, under the names of Peloria, Bibronia, Charybdia, etc. As they grow, the eye of one side moves by degrees to the other side, where it becomes the upper eye. If at that age the dorsal fin does not extend to the frontal region, the migrating eye simply moves over the line of the profile, temporarily assuming the position which it preserves in Psettodes, Atheresthes, and Platysomatichthys; in other genera, the dorsal fin has already extended to the snout before the migration takes place, and the eye, passing between the frontal bone and the tissues supporting the fin, appears to pass from side to side through the head, as was believed by some of the earlier observers.[728]
Flat-fishes are a large group of some 500 species, mostly marine, a few species related to the Soles being confined to the fresh waters of South America and the Malay Archipelago. They range from the Arctic Circle to the southern coasts of the Southern Hemisphere; many occur at great depths (Citharichthys dinoceros down to 955 fathoms). Well-preserved remains referred to Psetta occur in the Upper Eocene, and a species of Solea is known from the Lower Miocene.
{686}[Illustration: FIG. 418.—Outlines of various Pleuronectids, showing differences of form. A, Psettodes erumei; B, Pleuronectes platessa; C, Psetta maxima; D, Solea vulgaris; E, Cynoglossus lingua.]
{687}A satisfactory classification of the Pleuronectidae is still a desideratum, and cannot be attempted until the osteology of the very numerous forms has been thoroughly studied. Even the division into two principal groups, regarded by some recent authors as families, Pleuronectidae and Soleidae, is based on characters which the examination of a large number of generic types shows not to be constant. Thus the former have been defined as having the praeopercular margin distinct externally, the snout not projecting beyond the mouth, the nostrils of the two sides on the coloured side or those of the blind side high up near the dorsal line of the head; the latter as having the praeoperculum hidden under the skin, the snout projecting more or less beyond the mouth, and the nasal organ of the blind side similarly situated to that of the eyed side. However, the genera Aphoristia and Peltorhamphus, and others among the Soles, show exceptions to this definition.[729]
Principal genera: Psettodes, Atheresthes, Platysomatichthys, Hippoglossus, Hippoglossoides, Hippoglossina, Poecilopsetta, Chascanopsetta, Paralichthys, Pleuronectes, Glyptocephalus, Citharus, Rhomboidichthys, Psetta (Rhombus), Arnoglossus, Zeugopterus, Lepidorhombus, Ammotretis, Rhombosolea, Solea, Achirus, Achiropsis, Soleotalpa, Synaptura, Ammopleurops, Aphoristia, Cynoglossus, Symphurus (Plagusia).
The following are the principal British representatives which are valued as food:—The Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris), by far the largest of all Flat-Fishes, growing to a length of 10 feet or more; the Long Rough Dab (Hippoglossoides limandoides); the Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa); the Flounder (P. flesus), which ascends streams; the Dab (P. limanda); the Smear Dab, often called Lemon Sole (Glyptocephalus microcephalus); the Witch (G. cynoglossus); the Megrim or Whiff (Lepidorhombus megastoma); the Turbot (Psetta maxima); the Brill (P. laevis); and the Sole (Solea vulgaris).
DIVISION IV.—KURTIFORMES.
No bony stay for the praeopercle. Dorsal spines feeble, few. Scapula absent, the coracoid supporting four small pterygials. Ventral fins thoracic.
FAM. 1. KURTIDAE.—The genus Kurtus, with a single species, from the Indian and Pacific Oceans, forms an isolated, very {688}aberrant group. The strongly compressed body is covered with minute, rudimentary scales; the dorsal is short, with few, graduated spines, and the anal much elongate, with 2 small spines; the ventrals are formed of 1 spine and 5 soft rays. The vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae; the ribs of the third and fourth are free and slender, whilst the following are immovably fixed between rings formed by the ossification of the outer membrane of the elongate air-bladder in a manner unique among fishes. The skull is peculiar for its very strong, denticulate, occipital crest, which ends posteriorly in a curved spine bent forwards; the suborbitals are slender and do not emit a subocular lamina. Kurtus indicus does not exceed a length of 5 inches.
DIVISION V.—GOBIIFORMES.
No bony stay for the praeoperculum. Basis cranii simple. Spinous dorsal, if present, formed of few, flexible rays. None of the epipleural bones attached to the centra of the vertebrae in the praecaudal region. Scapula and coracoid more or less reduced or even vestigial; pterygials large, 4 or 5 in number, forming together a thin plate which is in contact with or narrowly separated from the clavicle; one or two of the pterygials in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins thoracic.
The Gobiidae, which alone constitute this division, are not very remote from the Perciformes, and may have evolved out of a type not very different from the Percidae.
{689}FAM. 1. GOBIIDAE.—Suborbital arch ligamentous or absent. Gill-membranes more or less broadly attached to isthmus; 4 to 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae often present. All or most of the praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes bearing the ribs, to which epipleurals are attached. Post-temporal forked, as in normal Perciformes. Ventral fins with 1 feeble spine and 4 or 5 branched rays, often united to form a sucking disk, a transverse fold of skin at their base completing the cup.
Head usually more or less depressed, body varying from short and stout to elongate and eel-shaped, but never with a very high number of vertebrae, these varying from 24 to 37 (10-14 + 13-24); scales cycloid or ctenoid, or absent; no lateral line; mouth moderate or large, dentition various; soft dorsal and anal fins nearly equally developed, varying from very short to very elongate; usually a large anal papilla.
A large family of some 600 species, the great majority marine, mostly carnivorous and of small size. The largest form (Eleotris marmorata, from the rivers of Siam, Borneo, and Sumatra) grows to nearly 3 feet, whilst the smallest (Mistichthys luzonensis, from the Philippines) measures only 12 to 14 millimetres, and is believed to be the smallest known Vertebrate. Gobiids occur in all the seas outside the Arctic and Antarctic circles, and they have representatives in the fresh waters of all parts of the world.
The genera are numerous but difficult of definition. The following are the principal: Eleotris, Oxymetopon, Vireosa, Rhyacichthys, Gobius, Crystallogobius, Aphia, Gobiosoma, Gobiodon, Benthophilus, Typhlogobius, Luciogobius, Sicydium, Lentipes, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Amblyopus, Trypauchen, {690}Trypauchenichthys. Oxuderces, which has been made the type of a distinct family, appears to differ from Trypauchen only in the absence of ventral fins. Fossils referred to Gobius have been described from the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe, but there is no satisfactory evidence that they really belong to this family.
Gobius, of which several species are of common occurrence on our shores, have attracted special interest from their habits during the much prolonged breeding season. The male, usually more brilliantly coloured than the female, mounts guard over the eggs, which are either simply fixed by the female to the under surface of stones or weeds, or in a sort of nest built and kept in constant repair by him. This nest is usually made of a shell of Cardium, Patella, Haliotis, etc., or of the carapace of a crab, with the convexity turned upwards and covered with sand; the sand underneath is hollowed out, and a round opening at the side, coated by a mucus secreted by the skin of the male fish, gives access to the interior; the eggs, which are elongate and pyriform, are stuck to the inner surface of the shell forming the roof.[730] A curious British form is Aphia pellucida, two inches long which, from its transparent and almost colourless body, has long been erroneously supposed to be the fry of some larger fish. Among exotic forms, mention should be made of the Blind Goby (Typhlogobius californiensis), two inches long, uniform light pink, scaleless, with the eyes very small, reduced to mere vestiges, covered by skin, and functional only in the young, living like a slug under rocks between tide marks on the coast of California;[731] and to the Walking-Fish or Jumping-Fish (Periophthalmus), of which various species are found in great abundance on the mud-flats at the mouths of rivers in tropical Africa, Asia, and North-West Australia, skipping about by means of the muscular, scaly base of their pectoral fins, with the head raised and bearing a pair of strongly projecting versatile eyes close together.[732]
{691}DIVISION VI.—DISCOCEPHALI.
Highly aberrant Acanthopterygians with the anterior dorsal fin modified into a suctorial, transversely laminated oval disk[733] on the head, the skull being very much flattened and with simple basis cranii. The pectoral rays are inserted on the small, perforate, scapula and on four hour-glass-shaped pterygials, three of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventrals thoracic.
FAM. 1. ECHENEIDIDAE.—Maxillary slender, adnate to the upper surface of the praemaxillary; suborbital arch slender. Pectoral fin inserted high up; supraclavicle much reduced; ventral fin with one spine and five soft rays. Body elongate and covered with small scales; soft dorsal and anal fins elongate and opposed to each other. All the praecaudal vertebrae with very strong parapophyses, the anterior with diapophyses as well; ribs and epipleurals nearly equally developed, both inserted at the extremity of the parapophyses.
In spite of a superficial external resemblance to the genus Elacate, the Sucking-Fish bear certainly no affinity to that genus nor to other Scombriformes, as first observed by Gill. They are probably derived from Perciformes, but from which family it is impossible to suggest. Three genera may be distinguished: Opisthomyzon, from the Upper Eocene of Switzerland, with a very small suctorial disk and 23 or 24 vertebrae; Echeneis, with large disk and 30 vertebrae; and Remora, distinguished from the second by a shorter body with only 27 vertebrae. These remarkable fishes, of which about 10 species are distinguished, are distributed all over the tropical and warm seas, and exceptionally carried as far north as the south coast of England. They feed on other fishes, and attach themselves by means of their cephalic {692}sucker to boats or to sharks, turtles, cetaceans, and other large swift-swimming animals. On the East Coast of Africa they are employed by the natives for catching turtles, to the carapace of which they stick with extraordinary tenacity, being held by a line attached to a metal ring round the caudal peduncle.[734] The largest Sucking-fish grows to a length of three feet.
DIVISION VII.—SCLEROPAREI.
Second suborbital bone more or less produced towards or ankylosed with the praeoperculum ("suborbital stay").[735] Ventral fins thoracic.
The "Cheek-armoured Acanthopterygians," "Joues cuirassées" of Cuvier, after the exclusion of the Sticklebacks, form a perfectly natural association, evidently derived from the Serranidae, with which the more generalised forms have much in common. From the Perch-like genus, Sebastes, a continuous series can be traced towards the Triglidae, especially through such forms as Apistus, Minous, and Choridactylus, in which one or more of the lower pectoral rays are detached from the rest of the fin. Through the Comephoridae the Scorpaenidae are connected with the Cottidae, whilst the latter merge insensibly into the still more aberrant Cyclopteridae. These conclusions, which are apparent enough from a mere comparison of the external characters, become fortified by a study of the skeletons. The passage between the various groups here accepted as families is so complete that no {693}serious objection could be raised to their union in one great family with a number of minor divisions.
The character from which the Scleroparei derive their name is subject to many modifications. The second suborbital (the third if the praeorbital be regarded as the first) may be merely enlarged and prolonged over the cheek towards the praeoperculum (Sebastes, Anoplopoma), or firmly ankylosed to the latter (Scorpaena, Platycephalus), or form part of the external armature of the head (Trigla, Dactylopterus). The structure of the base of the pectoral fin appears to afford important characters for the definition of the families, as first pointed out by Gill; these {694}characters have, however, not yet been tested on a sufficient number of the very numerous forms grouped under Cottidae, some of which I have already transferred to the Comephoridae.
SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES.
I. Head not completely cuirassed.
A. Ventral fins not widely separated; none of the pectoral pterygials in contact with the clavicle.
Two nostrils on each side; basis cranii double; gill-membranes free from isthmus 1. Scorpaenidae.
A single nostril on each side; basis cranii double; gill-membranes free from isthmus 2. Hexagrammidae.
Two nostrils on each side; basis cranii simple; gill-membranes free or narrowly attached to isthmus 3. Comephoridae.
Two nostrils on each side; basis cranii simple; gill-opening narrow, above base of pectoral 4. Rhamphocottidae.
B. Ventral fins, if present, not widely separated; one or several of the pterygials in contact with the clavicle.
Ventral fins distinct; gill-clefts wide 5. Cottidae.
Ventral fins united into a sucking disk; gill-opening narrow, above base of pectoral 6. Cyclopteridae.
C. Ventral fins widely separated; none of the pterygials in contact with the clavicle.
Ventral fins behind base of pectorals; praecaudal vertebrae without transverse processes 7. Platycephalidae.
Ventral fins a little in front of base of pectorals; praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes 8. Hoplichthyidae.
II. Head completely cuirassed.
Ventral fins narrowly separated; no pectoral appendages; pterygials short and broad 9. Agonidae.
Ventral fins widely separated; 2 or 3 lowermost rays of pectoral fin detached as feelers; pterygials short and broad 10. Triglidae.
Ventral fins narrowly separated; pectoral fin divided into two portions; pterygials elongate 11. Dactylopteridae.
FAM. 1. SCORPAENIDAE.—Head not or but incompletely cuirassed, usually with spines; basis cranii double; parietal bones often meeting on the median line, over the supraoccipital; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; gills 3½ or 4; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae 24 to 37, the anterior praecaudals with sessile ribs bearing epipleurals, the posterior with transverse processes, often directed downwards, or forming haemal arches, bearing the rib and the epipleural. Post-temporal more or less distinctly forked, more or less firmly ankylosed to the skull; scapula and coracoid well developed, in contact with each other or separated by cartilage; pectoral rays inserted {695}on the scapula and on 3 or 4 large, hour-glass or anvil-shaped pterygials, two of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins close together, with 1 spine and 3 to 5 soft rays. Spinous dorsal strong, usually longer than the soft, sometimes extending on the head; anal usually with 3 spines. Body covered with scales or naked.
A large family of carnivorous marine fishes, some descending to great depths, of nearly world-wide distribution, represented by three extinct genera (Ampheristus, Histiocephalus, Scorpaenoides) in the Eocene and by several species of Scorpaena in later formations. About 250 recent species are known. Principal genera: Sebastes, Setarches, Scorpaena, Pterois, Apistus, Minous, Pelor, Choridactylus, Centropogon, Gymnapistus, Amblyapistus, Pentaroge, Tetraroge, Gnathacanthus (Holoxenus), Agriopus, Synancia, Polycaulus.
Great variety of form obtains in this family, from the Perch-like Sebastes to the extraordinary-shaped Tetraroge, Pelor, and Synancia. Many of its members are excellent examples of mimetic adaptation to the surrounding, resembling the rocks among which they live and being covered with dermal appendages simulating weeds. An interesting example of commensalism has been discovered by A. Alcock[736] in Minous inermis, off the coasts of India, which, wherever found, is always more or less incrusted with the {696}Gymnoblastic Hydroid Stylactis minoi. Many of the Sebastes and their allies are of large size and used as food; some are viviparous, the young being produced in great numbers and very small in size. Scorpaena, Pterois, Pelor, and Synancia are dangerous for the stings from their dorsal spines, which are provided with poison glands.[737]
FAM. 2. HEXAGRAMMIDAE.—Head not cuirassed, without strong spines; basis cranii double; a single nostril on each side. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; gills 4; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae 42 to 57, most of the praecaudals with transverse processes bearing the ribs and the epipleurals. Post-temporal forked; scapula and coracoid well developed, in contact with each other; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and 4 anvil-shaped pterygials, 2 of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins close together, more or less behind the pectorals, with 1 spine and 5 soft rays. Spinous dorsal of usually rather feeble rays, nearly as long as or longer than the soft; anal elongate, with or without spines. Body covered with small scales.
Carnivorous fishes, mostly of large size, from the rocky coasts of the North Pacific. Some are highly valued as food. Twelve species, referable to 6 genera: Hexagrammus, Pleurogrammus, Agrammus, Ophiodon, Zaniolepis, Oxylebius. Hexagrammus and Pleurogrammus are remarkable in having 4 or 5 lateral lines on each side.
FAM. 3. COMEPHORIDAE.—Head not cuirassed, without spines; basis cranii simple; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free or narrowly attached to isthmus; gills 4; pseudobranchiae present or absent. Vertebrae 42 to 64, some or most of the praecaudals with transverse processes bearing the ribs and the epipleurals. Post-temporal forked; scapula and coracoid well developed, in contact with each other or separated by cartilage; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and on 4 anvil-shaped or plate-like pterygials, 2 of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins, if present, close together, with 1 spine and 3 to 5 soft rays. Spinous dorsal of rather feeble rays, as long as or shorter than the soft; anal spines feeble or absent. Body covered with small scales or naked.
{697}Four genera, each with a single species: Anoplopoma (Scombrocottus), from the North Pacific from Unalaska to California; Triglopsis, from deep water in Lakes Michigan and Ontario; Cottocomephorus, from Lake Baikal, and Comephorus from the greatest depths of that lake. As in many bathybial forms, Comephorus is colourless and provided with very large eyes; ventral fins are absent and the skeleton is very thin and papery. As a result of this condition, the second suborbital is not produced over the cheek, a unique exception to the main characteristic of this division; but no doubt can be entertained as to the propriety of referring it to the neighbourhood of Anoplopoma, since the recently discovered Cottocomephorus may be regarded as a connecting link between the two genera. Comephorus is viviparous, and dies after parturition.[738] Jordan regards Triglopsis as a relic of a former Arctic marine fauna.
FAM. 4. RHAMPHOCOTTIDAE.—Head incompletely cuirassed, with spines; basis cranii simple; two nostrils on each side. Gill-opening narrow, above the base of the pectoral; gills 3½. Vertebrae 24. Post-temporal short and flat, ankylosed to the skull; scapula and coracoid well developed, separated by cartilage; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and on 4 plate-like pterygials, 2 of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins close together, behind the pectorals, with a rudimentary spine and 3 soft rays. Spinous dorsal shorter than the soft; no anal spines. Body densely covered with small prickly scales.
Rhamphocottus richardsonii, a small fish 3 inches in length, from the north-west coast of North America, is the only representative of this family.
FAM. 5. COTTIDAE.—Head not or but incompletely cuirassed, usually with spines; basis cranii simple; parietal bones often meeting on the median line; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free or attached to isthmus; gills 3½ or 4; pseudobranchiae usually present. Vertebrae 24 to 50, the anterior praecaudals with sessile ribs, the posterior with transverse processes, often directed downwards, or forming haemal arches, bearing ribs and epipleurals. Post-temporal more or less distinctly forked; scapula and coracoid separated from each other {698}by the intervention of the plate-like pterygials, of which one, two, or three are in contact with the clavicle; the coracoid more or less reduced. Ventral fins close together, with 1 spine and 2 to 5 soft rays (absent in Ereunias). Spinous dorsal usually shorter than the soft, sometimes quite indistinct; anal without spines. Body naked, partially scaly, or with prickles or bony plates.
Mostly small carnivorous fishes, the largest (Scorpaenichthys) growing to about 3 feet. Some species inhabit fresh waters, but the majority are marine, a few descending to great depths. Nearly all are from the northern regions, but a genus allied to Cottus (Sclerocottus) is from South Georgia, in the Antarctic region. Fossil Cottidae are known from the Upper Eocene and Miocene (Eocottus, Lepidocottus), and are distinguished from the modern forms in the smaller number of vertebrae (24 or 26 instead of 30 to 50). At least 220 species are known. Principal genera: Jordania, Scorpaenichthys, Icelus, Triglops, Cottus, Cottunculus, Blepsias, Pseudoblennius, Hemitripterus, Synchirus, Ascelichthys, Psychrolutes, Ereunias. The little freshwater "Miller's Thumb" (Cottus gobio) and the larger marine "Bull-heads" (C. bubalis and C. scorpius) are the most familiar British representatives of this family. The eggs are deposited on stones, weeds, or other submerged objects, or in a sort of nest, and are guarded by the male, which in most species is distinguished by a large genital papilla; this, in some forms, acts as an intromittent organ.
FAM. 6. CYCLOPTERIDAE.—Very closely related to the preceding, with which they are connected through Psychrolutes, and it is even doubtful whether they deserve to be separated from them. The only important distinctive characters reside in the structure of the ventrals, which, if present (absent in Paraliparis, a close ally of Liparis), are united to form a sucking disk, and the small size of the gill-cleft. The body is short, tumid, tadpole-like, naked or tubercular; the spinous dorsal, if present, is short. Vertebrae 28 to 60, the skeleton feebly ossified.[739]
Sluggish fishes, feeding on small animals and plants, from the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the Arctic and Antarctic seas, many descending to great depths (1800 fathoms). About fifty species are distinguished. Principal genera: Cyclopterus, Cyclopterichthys, Liparops, Liparis, Careproctus, Paraliparis.
{699}The common Lump-Sucker of our coasts (Cyclopterus lumpus) is the largest member of the group, growing to a length of 2 feet or more. The male makes pits in the sand between stones, in which the female deposits the eggs; he watches over the eggs and also over the young, which cling to his body with their suckers. The "Sea-Snails" (Liparis), are represented by two species on the British coasts.
FAM. 7. PLATYCEPHALIDAE.—Head not cuirassed, much depressed, with spines; basis cranii simple; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free; gills 4; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae 27; ribs all sessile, bearing the epipleurals. Post-temporal forked; scapula and coracoid well developed, in contact with each other; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and on 4 short and broad pterygials, 2 of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins widely separated, behind the pectorals, with 1 spine and 5 soft rays. Spinous dorsal shorter than the soft; anal without spines. Body covered with small scales.
The single genus Platycephalus, with some 40 species, inhabits the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Western Pacific.
FAM. 8. HOPLICHTHYIDAE.—Head incompletely cuirassed, much depressed, with spines; basis cranii simple; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes attached to isthmus; gills 4; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae about 30, the praecaudals with transverse processes. Post-temporal fused with the skull; scapula and coracoid in contact with each other; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and on 3 plate-like pterygials. Ventral fins widely separated, a little before the pectorals, with 1 spine and 5 soft {700}rays. Spinous dorsal shorter than the soft; anal without spines. Back and sides with bony, prickly plates.
Hoplichthys, with a single species from the coasts of Japan and China. Bembras, with two species from the coasts of Japan, appears to be related to it, but the skeleton is still unknown; it differs in having the body covered with small scales and the gill-membranes free.
FAM. 9. AGONIDAE.—Head completely cuirassed, usually with spines; basis cranii simple; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free or attached to isthmus; gills 3½; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae 35 to 50; ribs sessile. Post-temporal fused with the skull; scapula and coracoid in contact with each other, or separated by a cartilaginous space; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and 3 or 4 plate-like pterygials. Ventral fins close together, with 1 spine and 2 soft rays. Spinous dorsal shorter than the soft, or absent; anal without spines. Body covered with bony plates.
Small fishes, mostly from the coasts of the Northern Atlantic and Pacific, extending into the Arctic Ocean; one species from the coast of Chili. Bathyagonus occurs in the North Atlantic between 350 and 477 fathoms.
About 40 species are known. Principal genera: Agonus, Agonopsis, Bathyagonus, Aspidophoroides. The "Pogge," or Armed Bullhead (Agonus cataphractus), is the only British species of this family.
FAM. 10. TRIGLIDAE.—Head completely cuirassed, with spines; basis cranii double; parietal bones meeting on the median line; two nostrils on each side. Gill-membranes free; gills 4; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae 25 to 40, the anterior praecaudals with sessile ribs, the posterior with transverse processes. Post-temporal fused with the skull; scapula and coracoid separated by a cartilaginous space; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and on 4 large plate-like pterygials, of which two are in contact with the coracoid; 2 or 3 of the lower pectoral rays detached, forming feelers. Ventral fins widely separated, with 1 spine and 5 soft rays. Spinous dorsal shorter than the soft; anal without spines. Body covered with scales or bony plates.
Marine fishes from all warm and temperate regions, some occurring in deep water. They are remarkable for the {701}finger-like appendages of the pectoral fins, which are employed to feel the ground in search of crustaceans and other small animals on which they feed; also for the grunting sounds which they utter by the contraction of the air-bladder. About 50 species are known, referable to 4 genera: Prionotus, Trigla, Lepidotrigla, Peristedion. Fossil remains referred to Trigla have been found in Miocene and later formations. British species are the Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus), the Red Gurnard (T. cuculus), the Tub or Sapphirine Gurnard (T. hirundo), the Piper (T. lyra), the Long-finned Gurnard (T. obscura), and the Streaked Gurnard (T. lineata).
FAM. 11. DACTYLOPTERIDAE.—Head completely cuirassed; basis cranii simple; parietal bones meeting on the median line; two nostrils on each side. Gill-cleft broadly separated by scaly isthmus; gills 4; pseudobranchiae present. Vertebrae 20-22 (8-9 + 12-13), the first very elongate and formed by the fusion of three or four; ribs sessile, no transverse processes. Post-temporal fused with the skull; no supraclavicle; scapula and coracoid well developed, in contact with each other; pectoral rays divided into two parts, inserted on the scapula and on 4 elongate pterygials, of which 3 are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins close together, with 1 spine and 4 soft rays. Spinous dorsal shorter than the soft; anal without spines. Body covered with hard, rough scales.
The "Flying Gurnards," of which four species are known, belonging to a single genus (Dactylopterus), are inhabitants of the tropical and warm parts of the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean and Archipelago. They are remarkable, when adult, for the {702}wing-like portion of the pectoral fins, by which they are able to move in the air like Exocoetus, but for shorter distances, and, unlike them, the wings are moved rapidly, the mode of flight resembling that of many forms of grasshoppers;[740] the young, however, have comparatively short pectorals, and were formerly regarded as belonging to a distinct genus (Cephalacanthus).
DIVISION VIII.—JUGULARES.
No bony stay for the praeoperculum. Ventral fins jugular or mental. Gill-openings in front of the pectoral fin, the base of which is vertical or subvertical.
In a recently published note[741] I have alluded to the group of Physoclistous fishes for which I proposed to revive the old name Jugulares, pointing out that some of the forms previously grouped together as Trachinidae agree with the Gadidae, not only in the jugular position of the ventral fins, but also in the condition of the scapula and coracoid. Mr. Regan[742] has since been able to show that the Gadidae and Macruridae possess certain characters in common by which they may be separated not only from the other Jugulares, but even from the Acanthopterygians, and, as mentioned above (p. 646), the Müllerian Sub-order Anacanthini may be maintained, after excluding the Pleuronectidae. That the Blenniidae are akin to Lycodes and its allies has long been admitted, and authors who have placed them in different divisions of their systems have had to confess the difficulty of referring certain genera to the one family rather than to the other. The fact that Lycodes and many forms previously associated with the Ophidiidae agree with the Macruridae and Gadidae in the diphycercal vertebral column and in the absence of spines to the fins is merely, it seems to me, the result of degradation; they probably form the terminal group of a series in which the vertebral column was originally homocercal and fin-spines were present, as is the case in most of the Blenniidae and Trachinidae and their near allies. All these families may be assumed to have evolved in several series, often on parallel lines, from some group closely related to the {703}Berycidae; and the resemblance which their terminal forms bear to the Anacanthini is, as pointed out by Regan, probably to be ascribed to convergence, not to any close genetic affinity, as hitherto believed by many authors.
The character of the position of the scapular foramen, either in the scapular bone or between it and the coracoid, which obtains in many genera of this division as well as in most of the Anacanthini, has proved to be unreliable even for the purpose of family definition; it is, however, of assistance in determining the relation of certain obscure, degraded forms placed by some authors with the Anacanthines, by others with the Blenniids.
SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES.
I. Pectoral rays attached to the scapula and to a series of pterygials of which only one or two are in contact with the scapula (see Fig. 427); ventral fins jugular, with 1 spine and 4 or 5 soft rays; anterior dorsal rays usually spinous or not articulated, often forming a detached fin.
A. Epipleurals present.
1. Second suborbital produced inwards to support the eye-ball.
Ventrals close together; scales very small, cycloid, forming oblique bands 1. Trachinidae.
Ventrals widely separated 2. Percophiidae.
2. No subocular shelf.
Ventrals widely separated; two nostrils on each side 3. Leptoscopidae.
Ventrals widely separated; a single nostril on each side 4. Nototheniidae.
Ventrals close together; scales very small, forming oblique bands; head partly covered with bony plates 5. Uranoscopidae.
B. No epipleurals. {704}
Post-temporal forked, articulated to the skull; soft dorsal and anal much elongate 6. Trichodontidae.
Post-temporal closely adnate to the skull; soft dorsal and anal short (with only 7 to 10 rays) 7. Callionymidae.
Post-temporal simple, articulated to the skull; soft dorsal and anal short; a ventral sucker 8. Gobiesocidae.
II. Pectoral rays all attached to the pterygials, of which two or three are in contact with the scapula; ventral fins, if present, jugular or mental, composed of 1 to 4 rays.
A. Ventrals jugular or absent.
Post-temporal distinctly forked; praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes; some or all of the dorsal rays spinous or not articulated; caudal fin usually distinct 9. Blenniidae.
Post-temporal small and ankylosed to the skull; praecaudal vertebrae without well-developed transverse processes; a very short spinous dorsal; caudal fin distinct 10. Batrachidae.
Post-temporal distinctly forked; praecaudal vertebrae with haemal arches; dorsal rays all spinous; caudal fin distinct 11. Pholididae.
Post-temporal distinctly forked; praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes; dorsal rays all articulated, or a few of the posterior spinous; no distinct caudal fin 12. Zoarcidae.
Post-temporal forked, ankylosed to the skull; praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes; no spines; no distinct caudal fin 13. Congrogadidae
B. Ventrals mental (just behind the chin); no spines 14. Ophidiidae.
III. Pectoral rays attached to an undivided cartilaginous plate representing the pterygials; ventral fins jugular, reduced to a filament formed of two adnate rays; fins without spines 15. Podatelidae.
FAM. 1. TRACHINIDAE.—Second suborbital with an internal lamina, supporting the globe of the eye; mouth large, protractile. Ribs and epipleurals nearly equally developed, sessile; posterior praecaudal vertebrae with short parapophyses. Gill-membranes free from isthmus; 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae well developed. Scapula and coracoid well developed, a foramen between them; pectoral rays attached to the scapula and to three short and broad pterygials, two of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins jugular, close together, with 1 spine and 5 soft rays. Body elongate, covered with small cycloid scales forming oblique bands. A short spinous dorsal and a long soft dorsal and anal. Vertebrae 35-43 (10-11 + 25-32). No air-bladder.
This family includes but one genus (Trachinus), the Weevers, with 4 species, occurring on the coasts of Europe, the {705}Mediterranean, and West Africa north of the Equator. A fossil species has been described from the Upper Miocene of Croatia. The two British species, T. draco and T. vipera, are well known for the painful wounds which they are able to inflict through their sharp, grooved dorsal and opercular spines, which convey a very active poisonous fluid secreted by small glands at their base. As these fish like to bury themselves partially in the sands in shallow water, people bathing occasionally tread on them with, as a rule, at least violent pain as a result.[743] The flesh is not bad eating, and great numbers of the larger species (T. draco), are brought to the Paris market.
FAM. 2. PERCOPHIIDAE.—Percophis, with a single species from the coast of Brazil, differs from the Trachinidae in the scapular fenestra being situated entirely in the scapula, in the ventral fins being rather widely separated at the base, and in the quincuncial disposition of the scales. Vertebrae, 57 (22 + 35). Bleekeria and Embolichthys, from the Indian and Japanese seas, with the ventral fins rudimentary or absent, which have been placed in the Ammodytidae, appear to be related to Percophis.
FAM. 3. LEPTOSCOPIDAE.—Differ from the preceding in the absence of a subocular shelf. Scapular fenestra either in the scapula or between the scapula and the coracoid. Mostly Marine Fishes, various in form, from the tropics to the Antarctic circle, some occurring at great depths. About 25 species, referable to 7 genera: Leptoscopus, Parapercis, Neopercis, Pteropsaron, Bembrops, Pleuragramma, Chimarrhichthys. The latter, from New Zealand, is the only freshwater form of the family, and is remarkably adapted for living in alpine torrents. Pleuragramma antarcticum, brought home by the Southern Cross Expedition, comes from 78° 35´ S. lat., the farthest point at which fishes have yet been obtained in the Antarctic region. Macrius amissus, from the Pacific Ocean at a depth of 1000 fathoms, which, judging from a very imperfect description, probably belongs to this family, measures 5 feet, and is the largest known deep-sea Teleostean.
FAM. 4. NOTOTHENIIDAE.—Also closely allied to the Trachinidae. No subocular shelf; a single nostril on each side; ventrals {706}widely separated; pectoral arch usually as in the Trachinidae, but scapular fenestra sometimes in the scapula (Trematomus). Body varying much in shape according to the genera, the form sometimes suggestive of the Cottidae; scales usually ctenoid, sometimes absent; anterior (spinous) dorsal sometimes absent; lateral line often double, or even triple. Mostly from the Southern seas and the Antarctic circle. About 40 species, referable to 19 genera, of which the following are the principal:—Notothenia, Trematomus, Chaenichthys, Champsocephalus, Cryodraco, Acanthaphritis, Eleginops, Bovichthys, Gymnodraco, Gerlachia, Bathydraco, Racovitzaia, Harpagifer, Draconetta.
FAM. 5. URANOSCOPIDAE.—Agree with the Trachinidae in general structure, and in the closely approximated ventrals. Scales very small, in oblique bands, or absent. Pterygials much reduced, fused with the scapula and the coracoid; scapular fenestra in the scapula. Parapophyses strongly developed on the praecaudal vertebrae, with the ribs attached to their upper surface. The head is very large, broad, partly covered with bony plates; cleft of the mouth vertical; eyes on the upper surface of the head. Vertebrae 25 to 30 (12-14 + 13-16). Four genera: Uranoscopus, Anema, Cathetostoma, Ariscopus, with 15 species, from the tropical seas, northwards to the Mediterranean and Japan, southwards to South Australia and New Zealand.
FAM. 6. TRICHONOTIDAE.—Small elongate fishes very nearly related to the Callionymidae, with which they agree in the arrangement of the bones at the base of the pectoral fins and the absence of epipleurals; but post-temporal more distinctly forked and detached from the skull, suborbital arch ossified (without subocular shelf), gill-openings wide, a single long dorsal fin, a long anal fin, and body covered with scales. Vertebrae 48-53. Five marine species, referable to 3 genera: Trichonotus and Taeniolabrus from the Indian Ocean, and Hemerocoetes from New Zealand.
FAM. 7. CALLIONYMIDAE.—Suborbital arch ligamentous; entopterygoid absent; basis cranii simple; mouth rather small, protractile. Vertebrae few (7 + 14), the last two much enlarged; most of the vertebrae with bifid neural processes, simulating a "spina bifida"; first vertebra ribless,[744] second to fourth {707}with sessile ribs and no transverse processes, fifth to seventh with ribs inserted on short transverse processes; no epipleurals. Post-temporal forked, but completely adnate to the skull; scapula separated from the coracoid by a fenestra; pectoral rays attached to the scapula and to three broad pterygials, all three in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins jugular, widely separated from each other, with 5 soft rays in addition to a short spine. Gill-openings very narrow, generally reduced to a foramen on the upper side of the operculum; 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae well developed. Body naked. Two dorsal fins, the first composed of a few flexible spines; second dorsal and anal rather short (7-10 rays).
Small marine fishes, referable to 2 genera; Callionymus, with about 45 species, nearly cosmopolitan, and Vulsus, with a single species from Amboyna and Celebes. In the common British species, the Dragonet (Callionymus lyra), the male acquires very marked secondary characters, the snout becoming more elongate, the second dorsal fin much produced, and the body ornamented with yellow and blue bands. The courtship and pairing have been described by E. W. L. Holt,[745] who observes that this curious fish offers the only instance of a definite sexual intercourse among Teleosteans propagating by pelagic ova. In the Indian C. carebares it is the female that is the more brightly coloured.
FAM. 8. GOBIESOCIDAE.—Suborbital arch absent; entopterygoid absent; basis cranii simple; mouth moderate, protractile. Vertebrae numerous, 27-31 (14-16 + 11-21), the first, if present, rudimentary,[746] the third and following praecaudals with long parapophyses[747] bearing the ribs at their extremity; no epipleurals. Post-temporal simple, articulated to the skull; scapula with a foramen, coracoid much reduced; pectoral rays inserted on the scapula and on four large pterygials, two of which are in contact with the scapula; an adhesive ventral disk, simple or double, supported in front by the clavicles, in the {708}middle and at the sides by the enlarged pelvic bones and fins, and behind by the enlarged lamellar post-clavicles, which are formed of two pieces. Ventral fins jugular, widely separated from each other, formed of 1 short spine and 4 or 5 soft rays. Gill-openings narrow; 5 or 6 branchiostegal rays; gills 3 or 3½; pseudobranchiae well developed. Body naked. Dorsal and anal fins short, composed entirely of soft branched rays.
First placed with the Acanthopterygians by J. Müller, notwithstanding the absence of spinous rays in the vertical fins, and removed from the vicinity of the Cyclopteridae by Günther, raised to the rank of a Sub-order (Xenopteri) near the Anacanthini by Gill, the exact systematic position of this curious type of Fishes has long been a matter of uncertainty. The position of the ventral fins suggests, at first glance, affinity with the Callionymidae, and a comparison of the skeletons of these two types has convinced me that they are really related to each other, although both highly modified in different directions.
The Cling-Fishes are curious small, carnivorous, Marine Fishes, usually found between tide-marks among loose stones and shells, to which they adhere firmly by means of the adhesive ventral disk. They can live a long time out of water. About 50 species are known, from various parts of the world, extending as far north as Scotland and Vancouver Island, and southwards to {709}New Zealand. Three or four species, belonging to the genus Lepadogaster, are known to occur on the British coasts. The principal genera are Gobiesox, Chorisochismus, Sicyases, Cotylis, Lepadogaster, Trachelochismus, Diplocrepis, Crepidogaster, and Leptopterygius.[748]
FAM. 9. BLENNIIDAE.—Suborbitals often forming a more or less distinct subocular shelf; mouth moderate or large, more or less protractile, often bordered to a considerable extent by the maxillaries. Most of the praecaudal vertebrae with strong transverse processes supporting the ribs, which may bear epipleurals. Gill-membranes usually attached to isthmus; 6 or 7 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae usually present. Post-temporal forked; scapula and coracoid more or less developed, sometimes much reduced, the former pierced by a foramen; pectoral rays attached to 4 or 5 hour-glass-shaped pterygials, one or two of which are in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins jugular, with not more than 4 rays, or absent. Body more or less elongate, sometimes Eel-shaped, naked or with small scales. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, the former constituted entirely of spines, or anteriorly of spines or non-articulated rays, and posteriorly of soft rays. Caudal fin usually distinct, with expanded hypural.
A large family, mostly of small Marine Fishes, the arrangement of which still offers great difficulties. Whether the aberrant genera Cerdale and Ptilichthys deserve to be regarded as the types of distinct families cannot be decided until the skeleton has been examined. The species number about 350, from nearly all the seas, a few inhabiting fresh waters, and are referred to numerous genera, of which the following are the principal:—Gadopsis, Enneanectes, Heterostichus, Acanthoclinus, Clinus, Emmnion, Blennius, Chasmodes, Petroscirtes, Xiphasia, Anarrhichas, Pataecus, Salarias, Ophioblennius, Anoplarchus, Xiphistes, Opisthocentrus, Chaenopsis, Pholedichthys, Lumpenus. Remains of Clinus and Blennius have been described from the Miocene, and the extinct genus Pterygocephalus, from the Upper Eocene, is regarded as allied to Clinus.
The Blenniidae are mostly carnivorous, but a few are herbivorous; some are viviparous (Clinus), others oviparous. Species {710}of Blennius occur in abundance on our coasts, and are among the most familiar tenants of small rock-pools. Their habits have been admirably described by Guitel.[749] The male makes a sort of nest, and defends the brood. Numerous species of the genus Salarias occur in the tropics; these little fish, as their name implies, are remarkable for the long leaps they are able to make. The largest of the Blenniids are the "Wolf-Fishes," often named "Cat-Fishes" (Anarrhichas), of which one species (A. lupus) is common on the British coasts, growing to a length of 5 or 6 feet. "It is impossible," says Brown Goode, "to imagine a more voracious-looking animal than the Sea Cat-Fish, with the massive head and long sinuous, muscular body, its strongly rayed fins, its vice-like jaws, armed with great pavements of teeth, those in front long, strong, pointed, like those of a tiger. It has been known to attack furiously persons wading at low tide among the rock-pools." Its flesh is excellent eating, but generally despised in this country owing to the unprepossessing appearance of the animal.
FAM. 10. BATRACHIDAE.—Suborbital arch absent; basis cranii simple; mouth very large, slightly protractile, bordered to a great extent by the maxillaries. Vertebrae numerous, 29-46 (11-12 + 17-34), without ribs, with sessile epipleurals, simulating ribs;[750] parapophyses rudimentary or absent. Post-temporal small and ankylosed to the skull; scapula and coracoid much reduced, 4 or 5 elongate pterygials, dilated distally, the two lower in contact with the coracoid. Ventral fins jugular, with 1 spine and 2 or 3 branched rays. Gill-openings narrow, the gill-membranes broadly grown to the isthmus; gills 3; pseudobranchiae absent. Head broad and depressed; body naked or with small scales. Spinous dorsal very short, soft dorsal and anal long.
This family is on the whole intermediate between the Blenniidae and the Pediculati. Sluggish, voracious, carnivorous Fishes from the shores of tropical and warm seas, some of them ascending rivers. The species number about 20, referable to {711}5 genera: Batrachus, Opsanus, Thalassophryne, Thalassothia, and Porichthys. The eggs of Batrachus tau are very large, ¼ inch in diameter, and are deposited in a little retreat provided by the parent; the male assumes the care of the brood; the young fasten themselves to rocks by means of an adhesive ventral disk, which soon disappears.[751]
In Thalassophryne, from the coasts of Central America, the opercular spine and the two dorsal spines are perforated, and convey poison from subcutaneous sacs situated at their base.[752] In the American genus Porichthys the head and body bear series of greatly developed mucous pores, some of which simulate the photophores of Scopelus, but are not luminous.[753]
FAM. 11. PHOLIDIDAE.—Suborbitals not forming a subocular shelf; mouth scarcely protractile, with thick lips. Praecaudal vertebrae similar to the caudals, without transverse processes, with hæmal arches; ribs sessile. Gill-membranes free from the isthmus; 4 or 5 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present. Scapular arch as in Blenniidae. Ventral fins jugular and rudimentary, or absent. Body elongate, compressed, with very small scales. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, the former constituted entirely of non-articulated rays or spines. Caudal fin distinct, with expanded hypuraL.
Small shore fishes of the Northern Seas, differing from the Blenniidae in the structure of the praecaudal vertebrae, in spite of the external resemblance which the two known genera, Pholis (Centronotus) and Apodichthys, bears to Anoplarchus and Xiphistes. Species about 10.
{712}A well-known British fish of this family is the little Gunnel or Butter-Fish (Pholis gunnellus), remarkable for the manner in which the female protects her offspring, coiling herself round the eggs, which she rolls up into a ball about the size of a Brazil nut, in holes of the boring Mollusc (Pholas). The male sometimes assists the female.
FAM. 12. ZOARCIDAE.—Suborbitals not forming a subocular shelf; mouth feebly protractile. Praecaudal vertebrae with strong transverse processes bearing ribs and epipleurals. Gill-membranes usually more or less broadly united to isthmus; 5 to 8 branchiostegal rays; gills 4, a slit behind the fourth; pseudobranchiae present or absent. Scapular arch as in Blenniidae. Ventral fins jugular or absent; if present, with 1 to 4 rays. Body more or less elongate, naked or with very small scales. Dorsal and anal fins elongate, all the rays articulated, or a few of the posterior dorsals spinous. Usually no distinct caudal fin.
These fishes have usually been placed, in part at least, near the Gadids, but they have more in common with the Blenniids, as pointed out by Jordan and Evermann, and may be regarded as degraded forms descended from the latter.[754] The family is widely distributed in all seas, many of the forms being specially adapted to live at great depths. The species known number about 130. Principal genera: Scytalina, Zoarces, Lycodes, Gymnelis, Lycocara, Melanostigma, Derepodichthys, Bathyonus, Porogadus, Bythitis, Neobythitis, Cataetyx, Selachophidium, Acanthonus, Typhlonus, Aphyonus, Tauredophidium, Rhodichthys, Brosmophycis, Brotula, Lucifuga, Lamprogrammus, Diplacanthopoma, Hephthocara.
{713}Some are oviparous, others (Zoarces, Diplacanthopoma, Hephthocara, Lucifuga) viviparous. The eyes are absent, or at least not visible externally in some of the bathybial forms (Typhlonus, Aphyonus, Tauredophidium), as well as in the only known freshwater forms, the Cuban Cave-Fishes Stygicola and Lucifuga, which are evidently allied to the marine Brotula, whilst the blind Cave-Fishes of North America (cf. p. 618) are derived from freshwater types. It is believed that blind fishes are found also in caves of the island of Jamaica, but no specimens have been seen by naturalists. The largest Cuban Cave-Fish is 5 inches long.[755]
FAM. 13. CONGROGADIDAE.—Eel-shaped Fishes without ventrals, allied to the Blenniidae, but with all the rays soft and articulated, the post-temporal small and ankylosed to the skull, and the sub-orbitals produced into laminae supporting the eyeball. Lips much developed; gill-membranes free from isthmus; scales very small.
A single genus, Congrogadus, with three species from the Australian and East Indian coasts. The recently described Japanese genus Hierichthys has been referred to this family.
FAM. 14. OPHIDIIDAE.—Degraded Blenniids, closely related to the Zoarcidae, with pseudobranchiae, with tapering tail without distinct caudal fin, and with the ventral fins each reduced to a pair of filaments or a bifid ray inserted just behind the chin at the extremity of the clavicle, which is produced forwards as a slender rod.
Small marine, carnivorous fishes, from the Atlantic and Southern Pacific coasts as well as from great depths in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. About 25 species are known. Genera: Ophidium, Lepophidium, Genypterus.
FAM. 15. PODATELIDAE.—Mouth inferior, protractile, toothless or with minute teeth. Praecaudal vertebrae with transverse processes, to which the ribs are attached. Gill-membranes narrowly attached to isthmus; 8 or 9 branchiostegal rays; gills 4; no pseudobranchiae. Supratemporal loosely attached by ligament to the skull; scapula cartilaginous, perforate, bearing the base of the pectoral fin, which is an undivided cartilaginous plate; coracoid small, ossified. Ventral fins jugular, each reduced to a single stout filament made up of two intimately coherent rays. Body short, tail elongate and tapering, {714}compressed; no scales. A short dorsal fin, without spines, situated above the pectorals; a long anal fin, continuous with the caudal.
The genus Podateles (Ateleopus) comprises only two species from the deep sea, one from Japan and one from India.
DIVISION IX.—TAENIOSOMI.
Exceedingly compressed, more or less elongate, often ribbon-like fishes of doubtful affinities, probably related to the earlier Acanthopterygians, the ventral fins, when well developed, comprising as many as 7 to 9 rays. Dorsal fin extending from the head to the end of the tail, its rays simple (separable into lateral halves), the anterior often prolonged; anal fin very short or absent. Pectoral fin with horizontal or nearly horizontal base, the rays supported by the scapula and by three short pterygials, all three, or two at least, of which are related to the coracoid. Ribs small and slender, or absent. Post-temporal simple and solidly attached to the skull. Scales minute or absent.
Deep-sea or pelagic fishes from the Atlantic and Mediterranean and from the Pacific; the life-histories are still very imperfectly known, and great changes of form take place with growth. Only two families.[756]
{715}FAM. 1. TRACHYPTERIDAE.—Mouth very protractile; ventral fins more or less developed, with 6 to 9 rays, or reduced to a single long ray; no anal fin; vent about the middle of the body; caudal rays, if present, divided into two fascicles, the upper sometimes much prolonged and directed upwards.
Two genera. The most generalised is Trachypterus, of which probably only 10 forms are entitled to specific distinction. The best known species is T. arcticus, the Deal-Fish or Northern Ribbon-Fish, which reaches a length of 8 feet or more, and of which a few specimens have been stranded on the coasts of Scotland. Nilsson, who has observed these fishes alive on the Scandinavian coast, says they approach the shore at flood-tide on sandy shelving bottoms, and are often left by the retreating waves; that they move with one side turned obliquely upward, and that they lie on the side like Flat-Fishes on the bottom in 2 or 3 fathoms of water. Regalecus differs in the presence of a single ray to the ventral and the absence of the caudal fin. Some 5 or 6 species may be distinguished. R. glesne, the Oar-fish, or "King of the Herrings," is the best known and the largest species, reaching a length of over 20 feet. About 25 {716}specimens are known to have occurred on the British coasts. Some of the accounts of "Sea-Serpents" are probably based on this fish, which has been observed to swim with undulating motion and with a small portion of the head as well as the crest-like anterior part of the dorsal fin above the water.
The fish named Stylophorus chordatus, which has been referred to this family, is known from a single specimen too imperfectly preserved to afford a clear idea of its affinities.
FAM. 2. LOPHOTIDAE.—Mouth moderately protractile; ventrals very small, if distinct, with 4 or 5 rays; abdominal cavity extending nearly the whole length of the much elongated body, the vent very far back and followed by a short anal fin; caudal fin small, not divided.
A single genus, Lophotes, with 3 or 4 species, from the Mediterranean, the tropical Atlantic, the Cape of Good Hope, Japan, and New Zealand, reaching a length of 6 feet or more. The dorsal fin commences with an extremely long and strong spine on the head, which is much elevated and truncate in front.
SUB-ORDER 11. OPISTHOMI
Air-bladder without open duct. Opercle well developed, hidden under the skin; supraoccipital in contact with the frontals, separating the parietals. Pectoral arch suspended from the vertebral column, far behind the skull; no mesocoracoid. Vertical fins with spines. Ventral fins absent.
This division stands in the same relation to the Acanthopterygii as do the Apodes to the Malacopterygii. The single family is possibly derived from the Blenniidae.
FAM. 1. MASTACEMBELIDAE.—Body more or less Eel-shaped; a series of short spines detached from the very elongate dorsal fin, which is more or less confluent with the likewise very elongate anal fin. A single nostril on each side. Mouth not protractile, bordered by the praemaxillaries, to the upper border of which the maxillaries are attached. Gill-cleft inferior; gills 4; branchiostegal rays 6; no pseudobranchiae. Vertebrae numerous (72-95), the praecaudals with transverse processes bearing the ribs. Scales very small.
Carnivorous fishes, from fresh and brackish waters of Southern Asia and Tropical Africa. 33 species are known, referable to {717}two genera: Mastacembelus and Rhynchobdella. The largest species reach a length of three feet. Little is known of their habits. Of the Indian Rhynchobdella aculeata, Day says it conceals itself in the mud and becomes drowned in water if unable to reach the surface, as it apparently requires to respire air directly.
SUB-ORDER 12. PEDICULATI.
Air-bladder without open duct. Opercle large, hidden under the skin; supraoccipital in contact with the frontals, separating the parietals. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull; no mesocoracoid. No ribs, no epipleurals. Ventral fins jugular. Gill-opening reduced to a foramen situated in or near the axil, more or less posterior to the base of the pectoral. Body naked or covered with spines or bony tubercles.
A small, natural group, connected with the Acanthopterygii Jugulares through the Batrachidae, in which the elongate pterygials of the pectoral fin foreshadow the kind of arm ("pseudobrachium") which is more or less characteristic of these highly aberrant Fishes. As in the Batrachidae, the post-temporal is flat and ankylosed to the cranium, and the suprascapula is much elongated. The pterygials, two or three in number, are separated from the small scapula and coracoid by a broad ligament, the arm-like pectorals being more or less distinctly geniculated and inserted far back behind the cranium. The head is large, the basis cranii simple. The gills are reduced to 2, 2½, or 3. The spinous dorsal, if present, consists of a few rays, which may be modified into tentacles inserted on the head. Vertebrae 17 to 31.
{718}Five families:—
I. Gill-opening in or behind lower axil of pectoral; mouth large, terminal or directed upwards.
Pectoral fin scarcely geniculated; ventrals present 1. Lophiidae.
Pectoral fin scarcely geniculated; ventrals absent 2. Ceratiidae.
Pectoral fin strongly geniculated; ventrals present 3. Antennariidae.
II. Gill-opening behind lower axil of pectoral; mouth large, inferior; ventrals absent 4. Gigantactinidae.
III. Gill-opening above axil of pectoral; mouth rather small, subterminal or inferior; pectoral fin strongly geniculated; ventrals present; spinous dorsal absent or reduced to a small tentacle lodged in a cavity under the snout 5. Malthidae.
FAM. 1. LOPHIIDAE.—Mouth extremely large, terminal, with very strong cardiform teeth. Gill-opening in lower axil of pectoral; pseudobranchiae present. Pectoral fin scarcely geniculated, with two pterygials. Ventral fin with 1 spine and 5 branched rays. Spinous dorsal present. Skin naked.
Twelve species, referable to three genera (Lophius, Chirolophius, and Lophiomus) living on the bottom of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, at moderate or great depths. Lophius was represented in the Upper Eocene of Monte Bolca.
The Fishing-Frog or Angler (Lophius piscatorius) has a wide distribution, occurring on the coasts of Europe and North America. The first dorsal ray, inserted on the snout, is very long, movable in every direction, and terminates in a dermal flap, which is supposed to be used by the "Angler" as a bait, attracting other fishes, which are soon ingulfed in the enormous gape. It grows to a length of over 5 feet. The ventral rays are very elongate in the young.
{719}FAM. 2. CERATIIDAE.—Mouth extremely large, terminal, with strong cardiform teeth. Gill-opening in lower axil of pectoral; pseudobranchiae absent. Pectoral fin scarcely geniculated, with three pterygials. Ventral fins absent. Spinous dorsal fin usually present, sometimes reduced to a single tentacle on the snout. Skin naked.
The members of this family, about 25 in number, are all inhabitants of great depths (300-2600 fathoms). The colour of the body is usually a deep black, and the first dorsal spine, on the head, may terminate in a luminous bulb with or without filaments. "The Bathybial Sea-devils," writes Günther, "are degraded forms of Lophius; they descend to the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones are of an extremely light and thin texture, and frequently other parts of their organisation, their integuments, muscles, and intestines are equally loose in texture when the specimens are brought to the surface. In their habits they probably do not differ in any degree from their surface representative, Lophius."
Principal genera: Ceratias, Aceratias, Oneirodes, Himantolophus, Aegaeonichthys, Melanocetus, Liocetus, Linophryne, Caulophryne, Dolopichthys.
{720}FAM. 3. ANTENNARIIDAE.—Mouth large, vertical or very oblique, turned upwards, with cardiform teeth. Gill-opening in or behind lower axil of pectoral; pseudobranchiae absent. Pectoral fin forming an elbow-like angle, with three pterygials. Ventral with 4 or 5 rays. Spinous dorsal present. Skin naked or spinulose.
About 40 species, referable to 5 genera: Pterophryne, Antennarius, Brachionichthys, Saccarius, and Chaunax.
The species of Antennarius live mostly in coral groves, where they lie in wait for prey, well concealed by their protective coloration and the harmonising aspect of their integument and appendages. To this genus also belongs the "Marbled Angler" (A. marmoratus), carried about in mid ocean among the Sargassum weed, to rest on which, from its peculiar arm-like pectoral fins, it is specially fitted; there it makes its wonderful nest of silk-like fibres, probably secreted by the parent as in the Sticklebacks, with large bundles of eggs hanging like grape clusters.[757] The deep-sea Chaunax inflates its abdomen like Tetrodon.
FAM. 4. GIGANTACTINIDAE.—Mouth inferior, snout produced into a long tentacle directed forwards, and bearing a luminous organ. Body covered with small spines. Otherwise as in the Ceratiidae. Gigantactis vanhoeffeni, of Brauer, from the Indian Ocean, at depths of about 1000 fathoms.
FAM. 5. MALTHIDAE.—Mouth rather small, subterminal or inferior, with villiform or cardiform teeth. Gill-opening above pectoral; pseudobranchiae absent. Pectoral fin forming an elbow-like angle, with three pterygials. Ventral with 5 rays. Spinous dorsal absent, or reduced to a more or less developed tentacle lodged in a cavity under the snout. Head and body with bony tubercles or spines.
About 30 species are known, mostly from the deep sea within the tropics (down to 1270 fathoms). Principal genera: Coelophrys, Malthe, Malthopsis, Halieutaea, Halicmethes, Dibranchus.
The "Bat-Fish" (Malthe vespertilio), common in shallow water about the West Indies, is said to assume an almost toad-like attitude on the ground, the head being directed slightly upwards, while the pectorals take on the function of hind legs and the ventrals of fore legs.
{721}SUB-ORDER 13. PLECTOGNATHI.
Air-bladder without open duct. Opercular bones more or less reduced; supraoccipital in contact with the frontals, separating the parietals; maxillary and praemaxillary bones often firmly united. Pectoral arch suspended from the skull. No ribs. Ventral fins thoracic and much reduced if present; the pelvic bones, if present, more or less completely co-ossified. Gill-opening much reduced. Body covered with more or less osseous scales, bony scutes, or spines, or naked.
A highly aberrant group, closely connected with the Acanthopterygii through the Acanthuridae, as pointed out long ago by Dareste.[758] The skeleton is often feebly ossified and the vertebrae much reduced in number, but the jaws, although short, are very strong, usually with large sectorial teeth which may be confluent into a beak; the post-temporal is short and simple, suturally united to the squamosal. These fishes have usually been arranged in three divisions: Sclerodermi, Ostracodermi, and Gymnodontes, but Regan,[759] whose classification is here followed, has shown that the latter include a type (Triodon) which, in spite of its beak-like teeth, is more nearly related to the Sclerodermi, whilst the Ostracodermi have much more in common with the latter than with the Gymnodontes. It therefore appears best to admit only two divisions, the first with 4, the second with 3 families:—
I. SCLERODERMI.—Supraclavicle vertical; pectoral arch of the Perciform type; all the vertebrae with a single neural spine.
A. Body covered with hard or spinous scales; epipleurals present; pelvis present.
Teeth separate; spinous dorsal present; ventrals paired; pelvis immovable 1. Triacanthidae.
A beak; spinous dorsal and ventrals absent; pelvis movable 2. Triodontidae.
Teeth separate; spinous dorsal present; ventrals absent or represented by a single short spine; pelvis movable 3. Balistidae.
B. Body encased in a carapace; no epipleurals; spinous dorsal, pelvis, and ventrals absent 4. Ostraciontidae.
II. GYMNODONTES.—Supraclavicle oblique or nearly horizontal; lower{722} three pterygials enlarged and immovably united to the coraco-scapular cartilage; anterior vertebrae with bifid divergent neural spines; pelvis absent.
Beak with a median suture; interoperculum not connected with suboperculum; caudal fin present; body inflatable. 1. Tetrodontidae.
Beak without median suture; interoperculum attached posteriorly to suboperculum; caudal fin present; body inflatable. 2. Diodontidae.
Beak without median suture; interoperculum attached posteriorly to suboperculum; caudal fin absent, the body non-inflatable, truncate posteriorly, with the dorsal and anal fins confluent. 3. Molidae.
DIVISION I.—SCLERODERMI.
Supraclavicle vertical; pectoral pterygials not enlarged, movably attached by ligament to the scapula and coracoid, three to the former and one to the latter. All the vertebrae with the neural arches forming a single spine. Basis cranii more or less distinctly double; dentary and articular completely co-ossified.
FAM. 1. TRIACANTHIDAE.—Praemaxillaries protractile, free from the maxillaries; teeth in the jaws separate, conical or incisor-like; palatine arch firmly united to the skull. Gills 4. Praecaudal vertebrae with parapophyses; epipleurals present. Spinous dorsal fin with 2 to 6 spines. Ventral fins each represented by a strong spine, with an inner basal knob which locks it when everted, rarely with the addition of 1 or 2 rudimentary soft rays; pelvis present, firmly united to the pectoral arch. Scales small, sometimes spinous or bony. Vertebrae 20.
Marine fishes from the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans. Ten species, referable to three genera: Triacanthus, Triacanthodes, {723}Halimochirurgus. The latter, remarkable for its long, tube-like snout, is the only deep-sea form of this Sub-order; it was recently discovered in the Gulf of Manaar, at a depth of 143 fathoms. Fossil genera are Acanthopleurus, Oligocene, and Spinacanthus, Eocene.
FAM. 2. TRIODONTIDAE.—Praemaxillaries not protractile, firmly united to the maxillaries; teeth coalescent into a beak, the upper jaw divided by a median suture, the lower simple. Praecaudal vertebrae with or without parapophyses; epipleurals present. No spinous dorsal fin. No ventral fins. Abdomen with a dilatable sac, kept expanded by the very long movable pelvis. Body covered with small, spiny, subimbricate, bony laminae. Vertebrae 20.
A single species, the curious Triodon bursarius of the Indian Ocean and Archipelago.
FAM. 3. BALISTIDAE.—Praemaxillaries not protractile, firmly united to the praemaxillaries; teeth incisor-like; palatine movably articulated with ectopterygoid, or entirely free from it. Gills 4. Praecaudal vertebrae with well-developed parapophyses, to which epipleurals are attached. Spinous dorsal fin with 1 to 3 spines. Ventral fins, if present, represented by a single short {724}rough spine at the end of the long, movable pelvis. Body covered with juxtaposed movable scutes or with minute rough scales.
About 100 species are known from the tropical and warm seas, one species (Balistes capriscus) occasionally wandering as far north as the south coast of England. Genera: Balistes, Monacanthus, Paraluteres, Pseudaluteres, Pseudomonacanthus, Aluteres, Psilocephalus. The Oligocene genus Acanthoderma is closely allied to Balistes.
The "File-Fishes" or "Trigger-Fishes" (Balistes), the largest species of which grow to nearly 3 feet, have a powerful dentition, which enables them to break off pieces of corals, on which they feed, and to bore holes in the hard shells of Mollusca in order to extract the soft parts; they are themselves well protected by a mail of hard, rhomboidal scales. The herbivorous Monacanthus is less favoured in this respect, the rough scales being so small as to give the skin a velvety appearance.
Psilocephalus differs from Monacanthus in its very elongate head and body, the very feeble dorsal spine, the presence of a mental barbel, and its more numerous vertebrae (29 or 30 instead of 18 to 21). The flesh of many of these fishes is poisonous.[760] The drumming sounds produced by Balistes have been described by Möbius.[761]
FAM. 4. OSTRACIONTIDAE.—Praemaxillaries not protractile, firmly united to the praemaxillaries; teeth incisor-like; palatine immovable. Gills 4. Praecaudal vertebrae with very feeble parapophyses and no epipleurals. No spinous dorsal fin. Clavicles, coracoids, and post-clavicles much expanded. No ventral fins. Body encased in a carapace formed of large, juxtaposed, mostly hexagonal bony plates. Vertebrae 14 to 16.
The species of "Trunk-Fishes" number about 20, and are referable to 3 genera: Aracana, Ostracion, Lactophrys; all belong to the tropical seas, living near the bottom in shallow water. The genus Ostracion is represented by one species in the Upper Eocene.
The rigid box in which these fishes are encased entails more use of the dorsal and anal fins for progression than is customary {725}among fishes. According to Brown Goode, "the propelling force is exerted by the dorsal and anal fins, which have a half rotary, sculling motion, resembling that of a screw propeller; the caudal fin acts as a rudder, save when it is needed for unusually rapid swimming, when it is used as in other fishes; the chief function of the broad pectorals seems to be that of forming a current of water through the gills, thus aiding respiration, which would otherwise be difficult on account of the narrowness and inflexibility of the branchial apertures. When taken from the water, one of these fishes will live for two or three hours, all the time solemnly fanning its gills, and when restored to its native element seems none the worse for its experience, except that, on account of the air absorbed, it cannot at once sink to the bottom." "No group of tropical fishes," says the same author, "is so thoroughly worked out in the writings of the fathers of natural history as this one. Over 200 years ago every species of trunk-fish now taken from the Atlantic was known to and described by the naturalists, and it is a well-deserved tribute to their discrimination as zoologists to say that none of the many efforts which have since been made to subdivide their species have been at all successful."
DIVISION II.—GYMNODONTES.
Supraclavicle oblique, sometimes nearly horizontal; lower three pectoral pterygials enlarged and immovably united to the coracoscapular cartilage; upper pterygial small, suturally united to the scapula. Anterior vertebrae with bifid divergent neural spines. Basis cranii simple; suture between dentary and articular evident. Pelvis absent.
The spinous dorsal and the ventral fins are constantly absent, the praemaxillaries are united to the maxillaries, and the teeth {726}are coalescent, forming a beak; parapophyses are not developed, and epipleurals are absent.
FAM. 1. TETRODONTIDAE.—Beak with a median suture. Interoperculum a long rod, attached to inner face of praeoperculum, sometimes connected with operculum, never with suboperculum. Gills 3. First 4 or 5 praecaudal vertebrae with bifid neural spine and closed neural arch. Skin naked or with movable spines, rarely with bony plates; belly inflatable. Vertebrae 17 to 29.
The "Puffers" or "Globe-Fishes" comprise about 60 species, referable to 5 genera: Tetrodon, Ephippion, Tropidichthys, Xenopterus, Chonerhinus. They inhabit all the tropical and warm seas, a few species being confined to fresh water. Remains of Tetrodon have been found in Upper Eocene and later formations. They are remarkable for the manner in which they inflate themselves with air.[762] The flesh of most species is poisonous.
FAM. 2. DIODONTIDAE.—Beak without median suture. Interoperculum rod-like, attached posteriorly to the rod-like anterior limb of the suboperculum. Gills 3. All the praecaudal vertebrae with bifid neural spines. Skin with movable spines; belly inflatable. Vertebrae 21 or 22.
Only two genera appear capable of clear definition: Diodon and Lyosphaera; species about 15. Numerous species have been described from the Upper Eocene and later formations.
"Porcupine Fishes" are confined to tropical seas, and have attracted attention from the earliest times, being frequently preserved as "curiosities." Their flesh is regarded as poisonous.
FAM. 3. MOLIDAE.—Beak without median suture. Interoperculum rod-like, attached posteriorly to the rod-like anterior limb of the suboperculum. Gills 4. Anterior praecaudal vertebrae with divergent bifid neural spines and neural canal not roofed in. {727}Body non-inflatable, truncate posteriorly, without caudal peduncle; caudal fin absent, the dorsal and anal fins confluent. Skin rough or tessellated. Vertebrae 17 in Orthagoriscus.
The very young are armed with spines.
The "Sun-Fish" are extraordinary creatures found in the open sea or descending to great depths, and of wide distribution. The number of species is still very uncertain, but two generic forms, Orthagoriscus or Mola and Ranzania, are easily distinguished. Examples of both occur now and then on our coasts. Orthagoriscus mola grows to upwards of 8 feet and to a weight of 1800 pounds. It has been observed to swim slowly about, near the surface, the high dorsal above the water. Its food is said to consist chiefly of jelly-fish and larval fishes; its mode of reproduction and places of breeding are still unknown.
{729}INDEX
Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or species; figures in italics indicate that the reference relates to systematic position; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in following page or pages; n. = note.
Abbott, 193 n. Abcona, 670 Abdominal pores, 401 f. Abramis, 582 Abyssascidia, 73 Acanthaphritis, 706 Acanthias, 455, 298; vertebral column, 198; uterine nutrition, 434; A. vulgaris, 264, 455; pectoral fin, 243 Acanthicus, 595 Acanthistius, 659 Acanthocepola, 662 Acanthoclinus, 709 Acanthocybium, 678 Acanthodei, 440 f., 148 Acanthoderma, 724 Acanthodes, 442; A. wardi, 441 Acanthodidae, 441 Acanthodopsis, 442 Acanthonus, 712 Acanthophthalmus, 582 Acanthopleurus, 723 Acanthopoma, 589 Acanthopterygii, 650 f., 159, 306, 543; diagram showing relationships of groups, 651 Acanthuridae, 668, 357, 651, 652, 654 Acanthurus, 668; A. chirurgus, 357 Acara, 672 Accessory respiratory organs, 292 Acentronura, 634 Acentrophorus, 498 Aceratias, 719 Acerina, 659; A. cernua, 659 Acestra, 595; A. gladius, 595 Acestrorhamphus, 575 Acestrorhynchus, 575 Achilognathus, 582 Achiropsis, 687 Achirus, 687 Acipenser, 492, 149, 262, 264, 273, 274, 276, 282, 348; ribs, 201; lymph follicles, 261; spiral valve, 268; gills, 283, 284; air-bladder, 298, 299; vascular system, 319, 322, 328, 334; spleen, 343; gonoducts of female, 400, 405; distribution, habits, and food, 493; breeding, 494; economic value, 494; A. huso, 494; A. rhynchaeus, pectoral fin, 243; A. ruthenus, 493; scales, 187, 188; brain, 376; micropyles, 411; larva, 494; A. sturio, 493, 494; vertebral column, 200; supra-renals, 346; micropyles, 411 Acipenseridae, 486, 489, 495 Acipenseroidei = Chondrostei, q.v. Acrania, 113 Acrartete, 636 n. Acrochordonichthys, 588 Acrodus, 445 Acrogaster, 656 Acrognathus, 611 Acropoma, 659 Acropomatidae, 659, 654 Acrotus, 644 Actinistia, 477 n. Actinopterygii, 476 Actinotrocha, 28 f., 29 Acysis, 588 Adipose fins, 163 Aegaeonichthys, 719 Aelurichthys, 588 Aethalion, 546 Aetheolepis, 498; scales, 187 Aetheospondyli, 497 Aëtobatis, 465, 466; spines, 177 Agassiz, 558 n., 685 n., 720 n. Ageniosus, 589; A. valenciennesi, 589 Agnathostomata, 145; characters of, 147 Agoniates, 575 Agonidae, 700, 694 Agonopsis, _700 Agonus_, 700; {730} A. cataphractus, 700 Agrammus, 696 Agriopus, 695 Aida, 639 Ailia, 588; air-bladder, 302 Ailiichthys, 588 Aipichthys, 666 Air-bladder, as an accessory respiratory organ, 291 f.; Amia, 291; Lepidosteus, 291, 299; Sudis gigas, 291; Erythrinus taeniatus and E. braziliensis, 291; Neoceratodus, 291, 300; Protopterus, 291, 301, 302; Lepidosiren, 291; structure, 297; in different Fishes, 298; "red bodies," 307; "red glands," 307, 308, 309; gases of the air-bladder, 309; functions, 309; in locomotion, 310; as a vocal organ, 358; connexion with the auditory organ, 388, 389, 390 Albula, 548, 541, 549; vestigial conus arteriosus, 329, 548; A. conorhynchus, 548; larva, 548 Albulidae, 547, 544 Alburnus, 582; A. lucidus, 167, 583 Alcock, 695 Alder and Hancock, 38 Alepidosauridae, 614, 606 Alepidosaurus, 614; A. ferox, 614 Alepocephalidae, 569, 544 Alepocephalus, 570; A. rostratus, 570 n. Aleposomus, 570 Alestes, 575 Alimentary canal, of Hemichordata, 11, 25; of Tunicata, 54, 67; of Amphioxus, 120; of Fishes, 252 f.; regions, 252; mesenteries, 258; histology, 259 f.; glands, 270 Allabenchelys, 588 Allis Shad, 564 Allman, 22 n., 705 n. Alopecias vulpes, 451, 452; spiral valve, 265 Aluteres, 724 Amaroucium, 88; A. proliferum, stomach, 88 Ambassinae, 660 Ambassis, 660 Ambloplites, 657 Amblyapistus, 695 Amblyopsidae, 618, 361, 395, 606 Amblyopsis, 618; A. spelaea, 166, 361, 618, 619 Amblyopus, 689 Amblypharyngodon, 582 Amblypterus, 487 Amia, 499, 149, 160, 262, 273, 274, 276, 283, 291, 393, 609 n.; fossil, 501; A. calva, 499, 500; scales, 189; vertebral column, 201, 202, 203; skull, 228; median fins, 235; pectoral fin, 243, 244; spiral valve, 268; pseudobranch, 284; air-bladder, 297, 299, 310; heart, 328; arteries to air-bladder, 337; sensory canal, 385; nephrostomes, 401, 402; segmentation of ova, 409; distribution and habits, 499; spawning, 500; nest, 500, 501; larvae, 501 Amiidae, 499, 299, 497 Amiopsis, 501 Amiurus, 588, 261; liver and pancreas, 273; A. catus, rectal valve, 254; renal portal system, 319; A. nebulosus, 587 n., 592; A. nigrilabris, blind, 394 Ammocoetes, 428, 46, 262, 272, 280, 280 n., 327, 343, 428; metamorphosis, 429; protective value of the skin, 429 Ammocrypta, 659 Ammodytes, 639, 275; A. lanceolatus, 639; A. tobianus, 639 Ammodytidae, 639, 637 Ammopleurops, 687 Ammotretis, 687 Amniota, 145 Ampheristus, 695 Amphioxus, 112 f., 4, 37, 46, 110; general characters, 113; external characters, 114; anatomy, 116, 117; musculature, 117; skeleton, 119; notochord, 119; alimentary canal, 120; branchial bars, 122; endostyle, 123; coelom, 123; vascular system, 124, 125; renal organs, 125, 127; nervous system, 127; sense-organs, 128; gonads, 129; embryology and life-history, 130, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136; compared with Hemichordata, 11 f., 16, 29 f. —see also Branchiostoma Amphipnoidae, 598 Amphipnous, 598; respiratory air-sacs of, 598; A. cuchia, 294, 598 Amphiprion, 672 Amphisile, 633; A. strigata, 633 Amphisilidae, 633, 628 Amphistiidae, 684, 683 Amphistium, 684; A. paradoxum, 684 Amphistylic, 222, 223 Anabantidae, 645, 292, 637; distribution of, 645 Anabas, 645, 355; A. scandens, 645; labyrinthiform organ, 293 Anableps, 616, 419; intromittent organ, 414; development of embryos in ovisacs, 418; A. tetrophthalmus, 617 Anacanthini, 646 f., 543, 702, 703 Anacyrtus, 575 Anadromous, 413 Anallantoidea, 145 Anamniota, 145 Anampses, 673 Anapterus, 611 Anarrhichas, 709; teeth, 251; A. lupus, 710; eggs, 408 Anaspida, 531 f., 149 Anchinia, 96, 100; A. rubra, 100; polymorphism, 100 Anchovy, 564 {731} Ancylodon, 663 Ancylostylus, 549 Andersonia, 588, 589 Andrews, 113 Anema, 706 Angel-Shark, 456 Angler, 718 Anguilla, 601; A. vulgaris (Common Eel), 601; larva, 602; red glands, 307; renal portal circulation, 319, 320 Anguillidae, 600, 163, 405, 649 n. Anodonta, Rhodeus in, 584 Anogmius, 549 Anomalopidae, 660; photophores, 178 Anomalops, 660 Anomalopterus, 570 Anoplarchus, 709 Anoplogaster, 656, 655 Anoplopoma, 697, 693 Anoplopterus, 588 Anostominae, 576 Anostomus (Characinidae), 576; (Mugilidae), 640 Ansorge, 560 Antennariidae, 720, 718 Antennarius, 720; nest, 414; A. hispidus, scales, 191; A. marmoratus, 720; scales, 191 Anthias, 659, 660 Antiarchi, 532 f., 149 Antigonia, 667 Antimora, 648 Anurella, 78; development of, 78; A. roscovita, larva, 78 Apateodus, 611 Apeltes, 630 Aphanopus, 679 Aphareus, 660 Aphia, 689; A. pellucida, 690 Aphiocharax, 575 Aphoristia, 687 Aphredoderus, 656, 655; A. sayanus, 656 Aphyonus, 712, 713 Apistus, 695, 692 Aplidium, 88; A. zostericola, stomach, 88 Apodes, 599 f., 306 Apodichthys, 711 Apogon, 660 Apolectus, 677 Apostasis, 668 Appendicularia, 68, 37; A. sicula, 66 Appendicularians, 64 Appendiculariida, 65, 66 Appendiculariidae, 68, 38; nervous system, 53 Appendix digitiformis, 276 Aprion, 660 Aprionodon, 448 Apua, 582 Aracana, 724 Arapaima, 557; A. gigas, 556, 558 Arch-centra, 196 Archaeomaenidae, 545, 544 Archaeomenes, 545 Archaeoteuthis, 669 Archaeus, 677 Archenteron, 20, 56, 130, 132 Archeobatis, 446 Archinephric duct, 397, 398 Arctoscopus, 663 Argenteum, 168 Argentina, 565, 569 Arges, 595 Arginae, 595 Argyriosus vomer, 363 Argyropelecus, 571 Ariscopus, 706 Aristotle, 36 Arius, 588, 587, 589; A. australis, 593; deposition of eggs, 415; A. commersonii, 593 Armed Bullhead, 700 Arnoglossus, 687 Arripis, 663 Arthrodira, 535 f., 149 Arterial system, 329 f. Artificial pearls, 167 Ascelichthys, 698 Ascidia, 72, 73; structure, 39 f., 43, 45; test, 40, 41; body-wall, 42; mantle, 42; branchial cavity, 43, 48; atrial or peribranchial cavity, 43; other cavities of body, 44; tentacles, 44; endostyle, 46; branchial sac, 47; heart and circulation, 49, 51; blood, 49; neural gland, 52; dorsal tubercle, 52; nervous system, 53; sense-organs, 53; alimentary canal, 54; renal organ, 54; reproductive organs, 55; embryology and life-history, 55, 57, 60; metamorphosis, 61; A. challengeri, dorsal tubercle, 79; A. mentula, structure, 39 f., 40; test, 42; endostyle, 46; pharynx, 47; nervous system, 52; larva, 78; A. meridionalis, dorsal tubercle, 79; A. pyriformis, dorsal tubercle, 79; A. translucida, dorsal tubercle, 79; A. virginea, 39 f. Ascidiacea, 70 f., 64 Ascidiae Compositae, 80 f., 64; structure, 81 Ascidiae Luciae, 90 f., 86 Ascidiae Simplices, 71 f. Ascidians, 35, 64, 70 Ascidiella aspersa, 77 Ascidiidae, 72, 64, 110 Ascidiinae, 72 Ascidiozooids, 35, 84 Ascopera gigantea, branchial sac, 77; dorsal tubercle, 79 Asineops, 656 Aspidophora, 5 n. Aspidophoroides, 700 {732} Aspidorhynchidae, 502 Aspidorhynchus, 502; A. acutirostris, 502 Aspius, 582 Aspredinidae, 596, 575 Aspredo, 596, 416 Aspro, 659 Asprotilapia, 672 Asteracanthus, 445 Asterolepidae, 534 Asterolepis, 534 Asterospondylic, 198 Astroblepus, 595 Astronesthes, 571, 570, 572; A. niger, photophores, 178 Asymmetron, 137, 129; distribution, 138; A. bassanum, 137; A. caudatum, 137, 138; A. cingalense, 137; A. cultellum, 137; A. hectori, 137; A. lucayanum, 137, 138; A. maldivense, 137 Ateleaspidae, 528 Ateleaspis, 528, 530; A. tessellata, 528 Ateleopus, 714 Atheresthes, 687, 685 Atherina, 639, 640 Atherinella, 639 Atherinichthys, 641 Atherinidae, 639, 637 Atherinops, 639 Atherinopsis, 639 Atopochilus, 588 Atrial cavity, 43, 44, 59, 63, 67 Atriopore, 113, 115, 117 Atrium, of Amphioxus, 113, 118, 121, 135 Atypichthys, 666 Atyposoma, 666 Auchenaspis, 529 Auchenipterus, 589; A. nodosus, elastic-spring-apparatus, 358 Auchenoglanis, 588 Auditory organs, 387 f., 388; connexion with the air-bladder, 389, 390 Audouin, 37 Aulacocephalus, 659 Auliscops, 632 Auliscus, 631 Aulolepis, 560 Aulopus, 611 Aulopyge, 582 Aulorhamphus, 668 Aulorhynchidae, 631, 628 Aulorhynchus, 631, 632 Aulostoma, 632; A. coloratum, 632 Aulostomatidae, 632, 628 Aulostomatomorpha, 570 Autostylic, 223 Auxis, 678 Azurina, 672
Badis, 658 Bagarius, 588 Bagrichthys, 588 Bagrinae, 588 Bagroides, 588 Bagropsis, 588 Bagrus, 588 Balanoglossus, 3, 5 f., 24, 25, 28, 30 f., 123; embryo, 8; history of name, 17 Balanoglossus, 17, 5, 6, 13, 16; B. aurantiacus, 7, 11, 15; B. biminiensis, 18, 21 n.; B. clavigerus, 6, 17; B. gigas, 5 Balistes, 724, 264, 354; coloration, 174; scales, 190; sound production, 357; B. aculeatus, 357; B. capriscus, 724; B. vetula, 361 Balistidae, 723, 652, 721, 163 Ballowitz, 591 n. Bancroft, 85 Band-Fish, 662 Barbels, 154 Barbus, 582, 584; B. mosal, 584; B. tropidolepis, 583; lower pharyngeals, 583; B. viviparus, 584 Barilius, 582 Barracudas, 642 Barramunda, 558 Barrois, 39 Basking Shark, 453 Bat-Fish, 720 Bateson, 5, 6, 11, 14, 20, 30 n. Bathyagonus, 700 Bathyclupea, 657, 656 Bathydraco, 706 Bathygadus, 647 Bathylaco, 571 Bathylagus, 566, 565, 569 Bathylychnus, 571 Bathymaster, 661 Bathymyzon, 426 Bathyoncus, 74 Bathyonus, 712 Bathypterois, 611, 613; B. dubius, 162, 612; B. longipes, 613 Bathysaurus, 611 Bathythrissa, 548 Bathytroctes, 570 Batoidei, 457 f., 148 Batrachidae, 710, 651, 704, 361; photophores, 179 Batrachus, 711; B. tau, 711, 361 Baudelot, 584 n. Bdellostoma, 423; external characters, 151; skull, 220, 221; pancreas, 273; gill-sacs, 282, 423; vascular system, 315 n.; distribution, 423; habits, 423; eggs, 424; B. stouti, 423; embryo, 425 Bdellostomatidae, 423 Belodontichthys, 588 Belone, 638, 411; B. annulata, 638 Belonesox, 616 Belonoglanis, 588, 589 Belonorhynchidae, 485, 488 Belonostomus, 502 {733} Bembras, 700 Bembrops, 705 Beneden, Van, 37, 39 Benham, 113 Bentenia, 682 Benthodesmus, 679 Benthophilus, 689 Benthosaurus, 611 Berycidae, 655, 651, 652, 653, 703, 303, 361, 389 Beryx, 656; B. affinis and B. mülleri, coloration, 165; B. splendens, 655 Betta, 669; B. pugnax, 669 Bib, 649 Bibronia, 685 Birkenia, 531, 149; B. elegans, 532 Birkeniidae, 531 Bitterling, 584, 416 Black Bass, 657 Black-Fish, 610, 643 Blastocoele, 44, 49, 52, 130 Blastogenetic acceleration, 84 Blastopore, 20, 130 Blastosphere, 20, 130 Blastozooid, 84, 93 Blastula, 56 Bleak, 583, 167 Bleekeria, 705 Blenniidae, 709, 651, 702, 703, 704, 163, 271, 302, 418 Blennius, 709, 710 Blepsias, 698 Blind Fishes, 394, 713; of Mammoth Cave, 619 Blochius, 680 Blood, of Hemichordata, 15; of Tunicata, 49; of Amphioxus, 124; of Fishes, 341 Blood-glands, 342 Blue Shark, 448 Boar-Fish, 666 Boas, 548 n. Bola, 582 Boleophthalmus, 689 Boleosoma, 659 Boltenia, 75; B. pachydermatina, B. tuberculata, dorsal tubercle, 79 Bolteninae, 75 Bombay-duck, 613 Bonnet Shark, 450 Bonnier and Pérez, 95 Borgert, 99 Bothriolepis, 534; B. canadensis, 534 Botia, 582 Botryllidae, 88, 81, 82, 84, 110; vessels, 42; neural gland, 52 n.; reproductive organs, 56; ascidiozooid, 82 Botrylloides, 88 Botryllus, 88, 36, 90; stigmata, 59; diagram of budding, 90; B. schlosseri, 80; B. violaceus, 89 Bottard, 669, 696 n. Boulenger, 459 n., 477 n., 481 n., 551 n., 584 n., 586 n., 593 n., 683 n. Boulengerella, 575 Bourne, 19 Boveri, 113, 126 Bovichthys, 706 Bow-Fin, 499 = Amia, q.v. Box, 664, 665, 264, 276; B. vulgaris, rectal caecum, 254 Brachionichthys, 720 Brachiopoda, 35 Brachychalcinus, 575 Brachymystax, 565 Brama, 682; B. longipinnis, 682 n.; B. raii, 682 n. Bramidae, 682, 676 Branchial bars, of Amphioxus, 120, 122 Branchial cavity, of Tunicata, 43, 101 Branchial clefts, 155, 277 f. Branchial sac, 43, 44, 45, 53; of Appendicularians, 67; of Thaliacea, 96, 104, 105 Branchial septa, of Hemichordata, 12; of Amphioxus, 120 Branchiostoma, 137, 112, 138; distribution, 138; B. belcheri, 137, 138; B. californiense, 137; B. capense, 137; B. caribbaeum, 137; B. elongatum, 137, 138; B. indicum, 137; B. lanceolatum, 112, 114 n., 115, 137, 138; transverse section, 118, 121; nephridium, 126; nervous system, 128, 129; gonads, 129; B. nakagawae, 137, 138; B. pelagicum, 129 n., 137, 138 —see also Amphioxus Branchiostomatidae, 137, 112 Brauer, 571 Breathing sounds, 357 Breathing-valves, 288 Bregmaceros, 648 Breitensteinia, 588 Brevoortia, 563 Bridge, 555, 558 n. Bridge and Haddon, 574 n., 587 n., 590 n. Brill, 687 Brooks, 39, 101 n., 105 Brosmius, 648 Brosmophycis, 712 Brotula, 712, 713 Brychaetus, 557 Brycon, 575; B. fulcatus, mouth, 577 Bryconaethiops, 575 Bryconodon, 575 Bryconops, 575 Bucklandium, 589 Budding, in Pterobranchia, 24, 27; in Tunicata, 71, 80, 81 f., 90, 97, 103 Budgett, 482, 483 n., 514, 552, 558 Bull-heads, 698 Bullhead Sharks, 444 Bunocephalichthys, 596 Bunocephalus, 596 Burbot, 649 {734} Bursa Entiana, 254 Bury, 31 n. Butirinus, 548 Butter-Fish, 712, 415 Bythitis, 712
Cachius, 582 Cadophore, 97 Caecum cloacae, 276 Caenotropis, 576 Caesio, 664, 264 Caesioperca, 659 Calamichthys, 484, 158, 202; distribution, 484; C. calabaricus, 484 Calamostoma, 634 Callanthias, 659 Callichrous, 588 Callichthyinae, 588 Callichthys, 588, 587, 153, 302; intestinal respiration, 292; C. littoralis, 592; C. paleatus, 414, 592 Calliodon, 674 Callionymidae, 706, 704 Callionymus, 707; C. carebares, 707; C. lyra, 707, 420 n. Callomystax gagata, stridulating mechanism, 356 Callophysus, 588 Callopristodus, 446 Callopterus, 204 Callorhynchus, 471; vertebral column, 199; frontal clasper, 223; branchial blood-vessels, 334; distribution, 471; egg-case, 471; C. antarcticus, 470 Calotomus, 674 Campanula Halleri, 393, 394 Campostoma, 582 Candiru, 593 Canobius, 487 Cantharus, 664 Capelin, 568 Capoëta, 582 Caprodon, 659 Caproidae, 666, 653 Capros, 666; C. aper, 666, 357 Carangidae, 677, 652, 676, 158, 303 Carangodes, 677 Carangopsis, 677 Caranx, 677, 161, 284; with Medusae, 643; C. hippos, 363; C. rhonchus, 363; C. trachurus, 677, 307 Carapus, 579 Carbonnier, 592 Carcharias (Carcharinus), 448; succession of teeth, 250; C. glaucus, 448; C. nicaraguensis, 448 Carchariidae, 448, 449 Carcharinus—see Carcharias Carcharodon rondeletii, 451, 452 Careproctus, 698 Cariba, 578 Carp, 583, 584; Leather-, 584 Carpiodes, 581 Caryo-enteric, 102, 108 Castle, 56 n. Cat-Fishes, 710, 587 Cataetyx, 712 Cathetostoma, 706 Catla, 582; C. buchanani, 584 Catlocarpio, 582 Catopra, 658 Catoprion, 576 Catopteridae, 488, 486 Catosteomi, 626 f., 306 Catostominae, 581 Catostomus, 581 Caturus, 499; C. furcatus, 499; vertebrae, 203 Caudal fin, 156, 159, 237 Caullery, 85 Caulolatilus, 661 Caulolepis, 656 Caulophryne, 719 Cave-Fishes, 394 f., 618 f., 713 Centrarchidae, 657, 653 Centrarchus, 657 Centrina, 455; C. salviani, 455 Centriscidae, 633, 628, 357 Centriscus, 633, 154; C. scolopax, 633; scales, 189, 190; stridulation, 357 Centrogenys, 659 Centrolepis, 487 Centrolophus, 643; C. britannicus, 643; C. niger, 643 Centromochlus, 588, 361 Centronotus, 711 Centrophorus, 455 Centropogon, 695 Centropominae, 660 Centropomus, 660 Centropristes, 659 Centroscyllium, 455 Cephalacanthus, 702 Cephalaspidae, 528 Cephalaspis, 529, 149; C. lyelli, 529; C. magnifica, 529; C. murchisoni, 528 Cephalochordata, 112 f., 4, 38 Cephalodiscus, 21 f., 5, 28, 29, 31, 32; distribution, 23; budding, 24; structure, 24 f.; males, 26; C. dodecalophus, 22, 23, 24, 25 Cepola, 662; C. rubescens, 662 Cepolidae, 661, 653 Ceratias, 719; phosphorescent organ, 174, 178; C. bispinosus, 174 Ceratichthys, 582 Ceratiidae, 719, 718 Ceratodontidae, 507 Ceratodus, 508, 519 Ceratoptera, 465; C. vampyrus, 466 Ceratotrichia, 234 Cerdale, 709 Cestracion = Heterodontus, q. v. Cetengraulis, 563 {735} Cetomimidae, 614, 606 Cetomimus, 614 Cetopsis, 588, 587 Cetorhinidae, 453 Cetorhinus, see Selache Chaca, 588; C. lophioides, 589 Chaenichthys, 706 Chaenobryttus, 657 Chaenopsis, 709 Chaerops, 673 Chaetobranchus, 672 Chaetodon, 668 Chaetodontidae, 667, 654, 361; coloration, 166 Chaetostomus, 595; C. cirrhosus, sexual differences, 594; C. gigas, 595 Chalceus, 575; C. angulatus, mouth, 577 Chalcinus, 575 Chamisso, 36 Champsocephalus, 706 Champsodon, 641; C. vorax, 642 Chaninae, 563 Channa, 645 Channalabes, 588, 589 Channomuraena, 605; C. vittata, 605 Chanoides, 563 Chanos, 563, 563; C. salmoneus, gill-helix, 294 Characidium, 576 Characinidae, 575, 574, 294; distribution, 576; teeth, 250; sound production, 361; Weberian ossicles, 389, 573 Characodon, 616 Charax, 665 Charitosomus, 572 Charr, 567 Charybdia, 685 Chascanopsetta, 687 Chasmodes, 709 Chatoessus, 563, 563 Chauliodontinae, 571 Chauliodus, 571, 570, 572 Chaunax, 720 Cheiracanthus, 442 Cheirodus, 488; C. granulosus, 488 Cheirolepis, 485, 487 Chela, 582 Chelaethiops, 582 Chelidoperca, 659 Chelmo, 668 Chelyosoma, 73; C. macleayanum, 72 Chiaje, Delle, 17 Chiasmodon, 641, 642 Chiasmodontidae, 641, 637 Chilinus, 673 Chilio, 673 Chilobranchus, 598 Chilodactylus, 664 Chilodipterinae, 660 Chilodipterus, 660 Chiloglanis, 588 Chilorhinus, 601 Chiloscyllium, 446, 447; pectoral girdle, 239; pectoral fin, 239; pelvic girdle, 240; pelvic fin, 240; brain, 374 Chimaera, 469, 382; vertebral column, 199; skull, 223; frontal clasper, 223, 469; gills, 282, 283; lateral sensory organs, 386; auditory organ, 387, 388; distribution, 469; egg-case, 470; segmentation of egg, 474; fossil, 474; C. affinis, 469; C. colliei, 469, 473; C. monstrosa, 469; vertebral column, 199; skull, 223; pectoral fin, 243; spiral valve, 267 Chimaeridae, 468, 474 Chimaeropsis, 468 Chimarrhichthys, 705 Chirocentridae, 561, 544 Chirocentrites, 561 Chirocentrodon, 563 Chirocentrus, 562; vestigial spiral valve, 269; C. dorab, skull and pectoral arch, 562 Chirodon, 575 Chirolophius, 718; C. naresii, 718 Chironemus, 664 Chirostoma, 639 Chirothricidae, 615, 606 Chirothrix, 615; C. libanicus, 615 Chlamydoselachidae, 443 Chlamydoselachus, 443, 279; rectal gland, 276; branchial clefts, 277; efferent branchial vessels, 332 n.; C. anguineus, 443, 444; C. lawleyi, 443 Chlamydothorax, 17 n. Chlorophthalmus, 611; C. gracilis, 613 Chloroscombrus, 677 Chologaster, 618; C. agassizii, 618; C. cornutus, 618; C. papilliferus, 618 Chondrostachys, 85 Chondrostei, 485 f., 149 Chondrosteidae, 489, 486 Chondrosteus, 489; C. acipenseroides, 489, 490 Chondrostoma, 582 Chonerhinus, 726 Chorda-centra, 196 Chordata, characters of, 3 f., 35, 38 Choridactylus, 695, 692 Chorimycterus, 576 Chorinemus, 677 Chorisochismus, 709 Chorizocormus, 89; C. reticulatus, 90 Choroid gland, 393, 394 Chromatophores, 166 Chromides, 671 Chrysichthys, 588 Chrysophrys auratus, 420 Cichla, 672, 671 Cichlidae, 670, 654; distribution, 672; eggs carried in the mouth, 416 Cichlops, 661 Ciliation, of the alimentary canal, 262 {736} Cimolichthys, 609 Ciona, 72; development, 56 n.; C. intestinalis, 73, 77 Cirrhilabrus, 673 Cirrhites, 660 Cirrhitichthys, 660 Cirrhitinae, 660; coloration, 166 Cirri, of Amphioxus, 128 Citharichthys dinoceros, 685 Citharidium, 576 Citharininae, 576 Citharinus, 576, 578; C. geoffroyi, 579 Citharus, 687 Cladistia, 481 f., 477 Cladocyclus, 561 Cladodus, 438; C. neilsoni, 438 Cladoselache, 438, 148, 153, 160, 162, 197; pectoral and pelvic girdles, 239; pectoral and pelvic fins, 242, 245; characters, 436 f.; C. fyleri, 437 Cladoselachidae, 438 Clariallabes, 588 Clarias, 588, 153, 302; accessory respiratory organs, 293, 294; C. anguillaris, 590; C. lazera, 590 Clariinae, 588 Clarke, 608 Clarotes, 588 Claspers, 162, 246, 414, 432, 469, 470, 471 Clavelina, 71, 83; nervous system, 53; stigmata, 59; hibernation, 88; C. lepadiformis, 71, 72 Clavelinidae, 71, 81, 83, 109, 110 Climatius, 441 Climbing Perch, 645, 292 Cling-Fishes, 708 Clinus, 709 Cloaca, of Tunicata, 44, 45, 81, 82, 92; of Fishes, 156, 256 Cloacal aperture, of Tunicata, 80 Cloacal cavity, of Hemimyaria, 101 Club-shaped gland, 134 Clupea, 563, 564; C. alosa, 564; C. finta, 564; C. harengus, 564, 307; = Herring (q.v.); C. pilchardus, 564; C. sprattus, 564 Clupeichthys, 563 Clupeidae, 562, 544; gill-helix, 294; connexion of air-bladder with auditory organ, 303, 389; eggs, 412 Clupeinae, 563 Cnidoglanis, 588 Coal-Fish, 649 Cobitidinae, 582, 585 Cobitis, 582, 271; C. taenia, 358 Cobitopsis, 639; C. acuta, 639 Coccodus, 498 Coccolepis, 487 Coccosteus, 535, 149, 536; C. decipiens, 535, 536 Cochliodon, 595 Cochliodontidae, 445; teeth, 251 Cochliodus, 445 Cochlognathus, 582 Cod, 648, 648; = Gadus morrhua, q.v. Coelacanthidae, 480, 481 Coelacanthus, 481, 160 Coelocormidae, 86 Coelocormus huxleyi, 86; reproductive organs, 56 Coelolepidae, 524, 530 Coelom (body-cavity), in Hemichordata, 8, 21, 24 f.; in Tunicata, 44; in Amphioxus, 123, 132 f.; in Fishes, 397 Coelonotus, 634, 635 Coelophrys, 720 Coffer-Fishes, 152, 361 Coilia, 563, 563 Cole, 25 n. Cole and Johnstone, 687 n. Colella, 85, 83; C. pedunculata, 85; C. quoyi, 80 Collar-pore, 9, 25, 27 Collett, 714 n. Coloconger, 601 Colocopus, 668 Colour, of Fishes, 164 f.; brilliancy and variety, 164; cause of, 166; changes, 169; protective value, 171; aggressive and alluring, 173; warning, 174 Columbia, 621; C. transmontana, 621 Comephoridae, 696, 692, 694, 418 Comephorus, 697, 692 n. Compound Ascidians, 35, 36 f., 70, 71, 80 f., 110; eggs, 56 Conchopoma, 507 Conger, 601; C. vulgaris, skull and pectoral arch, 600 Congrogadidae, 713, 704 Congrogadus, 713 Congromuraena, 601 Conocara, 570 Conorhynchus, 588 Conte and Vaney, 27 n. Cope, 477 n., 542, 543, 573, 619, 626 Copidoglanis, 588 Copodus, 446 Coprolites, 268 Coregonus, 565, 568, 311; C. clupeoides, 568; C. lavaretus, 568; C. oxyrhynchus, 568; C. pollan, 568; C. vandesius, 568 Corella, 73; stigmata, 48; C. japonica, branchial sac, 73; C. parallelogramma, 73 Corellinae, 73 Coreoperca, 659 Coridodax, 674 Coris, 673 Corvina, 663; C. lobata, air-bladder, 304 Corydoras, 588; C. paleatus, 592 Corynascidia, 73; C. suhmi, 72; branchial sac, 73 Corynopoma, 575 {737} Coryphaena, 681 Coryphaenidae, 681, 676 Coryphaenoides, 647 Cossyphus, 673 Costa, 112 Coste, 630 n. Cottidae, 697, 692, 694 Cottocomephorus, 697, 692 n. Cottunculus, 698 Cottus, 698; C. bubalis, 698; C. gobio, 698; C. scorpius, 698, 357 Cotylis, 709 Cranial nerves, 378, 380 Craniata, 4, 38; characters of, 141; classification, 145 Cranoglanis, 588 Creagrutus, 575 Crenicichla, 672 Crenidens, 665 Crenuchus, 575 Crepidogaster, 709 Crista acustica, 60 Cromeria, 573 Cromeriidae, 573, 545 Cromileptes, 659 Crossognathidae, 565 Crossognathus, 565 Crossopholis, 492 Crossopterygii, 476 f., 149; distribution, 483 Crossorhinus, 447 Cryodraco, 706 Cryphiolepis, 487 Cryptopterus, 588 Cryptotomus, 674 Crystallaria, 659 Crystallogobius, 689 Ctenochaetus, 668 Ctenodentex, 665 Ctenodontidae, 505 Ctenodus, 506 Ctenolabrus, 673 Ctenolates, 659 Ctenothrissa, 560; C. vexillifer, 559 Ctenothrissidae, 559, 544 Cubiceps, 643 Cuchia, 598, 294 Cuénot, 584 n. Culeolus, 75; spicules, 87; C. murrayi, 42; C. moseleyi, dorsal tubercle, 79; C. wyville-thomsoni, 75 Culter, 582 Cunningham, 565 n., 602 n., 687 n. Curimatus, 576 Cutaneous sense-organs, of Fishes, 383 f., 385, 386 Cuvier, 36 Cyathaspis, 527 Cyathozooid, 91, 93, 94 Cybium, 678 Cyclobatis, 462 Cyclomyaria, 95, 101 Cyclopterichthys, 698 Cyclopteridae, 698, 692, 694, 302 Cyclopterus, 698, 321, 408, 415; sucker, 162; C. lumpus, 699; rectal valve, 254 Cyclosalpa, 108; C. pinnata, 102, 108 Cyclospondylic, 198 Cyclostomata, 421 f., 145 f.; characters, 146; external features, 150; skeleton, 197 f.; teeth, alimentary canal and digestive glands, 247 f.; respiratory organs, 279 f.; vascular system, 315 f.; blood-glands, 343; nervous system, 367 f.; organs of special sense, 383 f.; kidneys and reproductive organs, 399 f. Cyclothone, 571 Cymatogaster, 670 Cynoglossus, 687; C. lingua, 686; C. semilaevis, 393 Cynolebias, 616 Cynthia, 75; branchial sac, 74; C. cerebriformis, dorsal tubercle, 79; C. formosa, 76; dorsal tubercle, 79; C. papietensis, dorsal tubercle, 79 Cynthiidae, 74, 64, 110; branchial sac, 48; neural gland, 52 n.; reproductive organs, 55; eggs, 56; dorsal tubercle, 79 Cynthiinae, 75; tentacles, 75 Cyphosidae, 657, 653 Cyphosus, 657 Cyprinidae, 581, 575, 271; ventral suckers, 162; absence of jaw-teeth, 251; air-bladder, 302; breathing sounds, 358; connexion of auditory organ with air-bladder, 389 Cyprininae, 582, 583 Cyprinion, 582 Cyprinodon, 616 Cyprinodontidae, 616, 606, 163, 275, 414, 418; distribution, 617 Cyprinus, 582, 155; pharyngeal teeth, 252; C. auratus, eyes, 155; coloration, 171; C. carassius, 585; C. carpio, 583, 307, 358 Cystoarian, 403 Cystodytes, 85; spicules, 87 Cyttoides, 683 Cyttopsis, 683 Cyttus, 683
Dab, 687; Long Rough, 687; Smear, 687 Dactylopogon, 611 Dactylopteridae, 701, 694, 361 Dactylopterus, 701, 693; D. volitans, 161, 355, 357, 361, 399, 701; pectoral arch, 693 Dallia, 610; D. pectoralis, 610, 611 Dalliidae, 610, 606 Danio, 582 Dapedius, 498, 541 n.; D. politus, 498 Dapedoglossus, 557; D. testis, 556 Dareste, 721 {738} Darters, 659 Dascyllus, 672 Dasyatis sabina, 464 Dasyscopelus, 611 Datnioides, 658 Dawydoff, 16 n. Day, 569 n., 593 n. Deal-Fish, 715 Delhez, 551 Deltodus, 445 Deltoptychius, 445 Demersal, 408 Dendrodoa, 76 Dentex, 664 Dentition, 247 f.; dentinal tissues, 249; fixation of teeth, 249; succession and replacement, 250; shape, 251; sexual differences, 251; pharyngeal teeth, 251; Cyclostomata, 247; Petromyzon, 248; Fishes, 248 f.; Scyllium, 249; Carcharias, 250 Dercetidae, 623, 622 Dercetis, 623 Derepodichthys, 712 Derichthys, 601 Dermal denticles, 183 f.; structure and development, 183, 184, 185 Diagramma, 664 Dibranchus, 720 Dicerobatis, 465 Dicrotus, 679 Didemnidae, 86, 82, 110 Didemnum, 87 Didymaspis, 530 Dinichthys, 537, 149 Dinolestes, 659 Dinoperca, 659 Diodon, 726, 163, 354, 361; scales, 191; teeth, 251; D. geometricus, 726; D. hystrix, 364 Diodontidae, 726, 722 Diphycercal, 159 Diplacanthidae, 441 Diplacanthopoma, 712, 713 Diplacanthus, 441 Diplesium, 659 Diplocrepis, 709 Diplomystes, 588, 587 Diplomystus, 563 Diplophos, 571 Diplophysa, 582 Diplopterus, 477 Diplosoma, 87; section, 87 Diplosomatidae, 87, 110 Diplosomoides lacazii, larva, 78 Diplospondylic, 198 Diplurus, 481, 161 Dipneusti—see Dipnoi Dipnoi (Dipneusti), 505 f., 149; distribution, 512 Dipterodon, 665 Dipterus, 506, 519; D. valenciennesi, 506 Diptychus, 582 Disartete, 636 n. Discocephali, 691 f., 651, 652 Discognathus, 582 Discopyge, 464 Distaplia, 85; D. magnilarva, larva, 78 Distichodontinae, 576 Distichodus, 576; D. niloticus, mouth, 577 Distoma, 85 Distomatidae, 85, 81, 82, 83, 86, 110; reproductive organs, 56; ascidiozooid, 82; transverse section, 86 Ditrema, 670; D. temminckii, 670 Dog-Fishes, 446 Dolchinia, 96, 100; D. mirabilis, 100 Dolichoglossus, 17, 5, 13; D. kowalevskii, 6, 7, 9, 20; D. otagoensis, 11 Dolichorhynchus, 137; D. indicus, 137 Doliolidae, 96, 39, 110 Doliolum, 96, 37; structure, 96; life-history, 97, 98; occurrence, 99; budding, 97; polymorphism, 98; D. nationalis, 99; D. tritonis, 96, 99 Dollo, 518 Dolopichthys, 719 Dolphins, 681 Doradinae, 588 Dorado, 578 Doras, 588, 590, 592, 363; intestinal respiration, 292; stridulation, 357; elastic-spring-apparatus, 359; D. maculatus, air-bladder, 303; nature of sounds, 362 Dorsal lamina, 45, 47, 52, 101, 105 Dorsal pore, 18, 19, 31 Dorsal tubercle, 52, 79 Doryichthys, 634, 635 Doumea, 588 Doydixodon, 664 Draconetta, 706 Dragonet, 707 Drasche, 38 Drepanaspidae, 525, 530 Drepanaspis gemündenensis, 526, 530, 525, 526 Drepane, 668 Drepanidae, 668, 654 Drum, 663, 304, 362 Ductor, 677 Dufosse, 355 Dussumieria, 563, 563 Dybowski, 697 n. Dysichthys, 596 Dysomma, 603 Dysommatopsis, 603
Eagle Rays, 465 Echeneididae, 691 Echeneis, 691; cephalic sucker, 161 Echidna, 605 {739} Echidnocephalus, 624 Echinorhinus, 455; E. spinosus, 456 Echiostoma, 571 Ecteinascidia, 71 Edaphodon, 474 Edinger, 271 Eels, 599 f., 601 f., 163, 405 Eel-Fares, 602 Egertonia, 674 Eggs, of Hemichordata, 20, 26; of Tunicata, 55, 73, 84, 97, 106; of Amphioxus, 130; of Fishes, 408 f., 423, 424, 428, 432, 433, 435, 456, 470, 471, 494, 504, 510; alecithal and telolecithal, 410; holoblastic and meroblastic segmentation, 409, 410; micropyles, 411, 412; deposition, 411; attachment, 411, 424, 433, 434; demersal and pelagic, 411, 412; spawning, 412; relative fecundity, 412; fertilisation, 413; sexual relations, 413; sexual congress, 414, 427, 428, 432; time of hatching, 417, 433, 494, 500, 504; influence of temperature, 417; of Aspredo, 596; of Batrachus tau, 711 Ehrenbaum, 685 n. Eigenmann, 602 n., 619 n., 670 n. Eigenmannia, 579 Elacate, 678 Elaeoblast, 107, 107 Elasmobranchii, 431 f., 148 Elasmodus, 474 Elassoma, 657 Electric, Cat-Fish, 591; Eel, 580, 365 f.; Rays, 462; Mormyridae, 550; organs, 365 f. Eleginops, 706 Eleotris, 689; E. marmorata, 689 Ellipesurus, 465 Elonichthys, 487 Elopidae, 546, 544 Elopopsis, 547 Elops, 547; E. lacerta, 547; E. saurus, 547 Elvers, 602 Embiotoca, 670 Embiotocidae, 670, 654, 418, 419 Embolichthys, 705 Embryology (development), of Hemichordata, 18; of Tunicata, 55; of Amphioxus, 130; of Fishes, 417 Embryonic nutrition; food-yolk, 409, 417; ovarian secretion, 419; oviducal or uterine secretion, 434, 435; placentas, 98, 101, 107, 434 Emery, 622, 623, 685 n., 714 n. Emmnion, 709 Empetrichthys, 616 Encheliophis, 625; E. vermicularis, 625 Enchelycore, 605 Enchodontidae, 608, 606 Enchodus, 609 End-buds, 383 Endostyle, 46, 53, 58, 67; of Amphioxus, 122 Engraulinae, 563 Engraulis, 563; E. encrasicholus, 564 Enneanectes, 709 Entero-epicardiac budding, 82 Enteropneusta, 5 f., 30 n.; distribution, 5, 6; coloration, 7; habitat, 6, 7; divisions of body, 7; burrowing, 7; body-cavities, 8; body-wall, 9; nervous system, 9; alimentary canal, 11; vascular system, 15; excretion, 15; reproductive organs, 16; regeneration, 16; development, 18 f. Entersphenus, 426 Eocottus, 698 Eothynnus, 678 Epapterus, 589 Ephippion, 726 Ephippus, 668; E. faber, 668 Epibulus, 673 Epicardiac budding, 81 Epicardium, 44, 60, 71, 83 Epigonus, 659 Epinephelus, 659, 660 Epinnula, 679 Epipharyngeal groove, 123 Eques, 663 Equula, 663 Eremophilus, 589 Eretmodus, 672 Ereunias, 698 Erythrininae, 575 Erythrinus, 575, 578; air-bladder, 305, 306; E. taeniatus, E. braziliensis, air-bladder as a respiratory organ, 291 Esocidae, 609, 606, 275; distribution, 610 Esox, 609; teeth, 250, 262; E. lucius, 609, 307; skeleton, 609; E. nobilior, 609; E. lepidotus, 610 Essence orientale, 585 Esunculus, 548 Etelis, 660 Etheostoma, 659 Etroplus, 672 Etrumeus, 563 Euanemus, 359 Eucalia, 630 Euchilichthys, 588, 587 Eucirrhichthys, 582 Eugnathichthys, 576 Eugnathidae, 498, 497 Eugnathus, 499 Eugyra, 77, 78; E. glutinans, 79; E. kerguelenensis, branchial sac, 77 Eukeraspis pustulifera, 529 Eumeda, 588 Euoxymetopon, 679 Euphanerops, 532 Eupleurogrammus, _679 Eurycormus_, 499; {740} E. speciosus, vertebrae, 203 Eurynotus, 487, 488; E. crenatus, 487 Eurypharynx, 604 Eurypholis, 609 Eusthenopteron, 478, 202, 246; E. foordi, 479 Euthacanthus, 441 Euthynotus, 204 Eutropiichthys, 587 Eutropius, 588 Exocoetoides, 615 Exocoetus, 638, 161, 173, 353, 411 Exoglossum, 582 Exostoma, 588, 586, 587 External characters, Cyclostomata, 150 f.; Fishes, 152 f. Eycleshymer, 592 n. Eye, 155, 393, 394, 395; degeneration in deep-sea and cave Fishes, 394; telescopic, 395 Eyelids, 395
Facciola, 685 n. Fatio, 569 n. Felchen, 568 Fierasfer, 625, 622, 399; F. acus, 156, 626 Fierasferidae, 625, 623 File-Fishes, 724 Filippi, 690 n. Fins, of Fishes, 156; median, 156; paired, 157; pectoral, 157; lobate, 157; pelvic, 158; caudal, 159; modified to form suckers, 161; degeneration and atrophy, 162; endoskeletal elements, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246; exoskeletal elements, 158, 234, 236 Fin-rays, of Amphioxus, 120; of Fishes, 158, 234, 236 Fishes, 141 f.; systematic position and classification, 141; external features, 152; coloration, 164; poison glands, 176; phosphorescent organs, 178; skin and scales, 182; skeleton, 193; dentition, alimentary canal, and digestive glands, 247; respiratory organs, 277; air-bladder, 297; vascular system, lymphatics, and blood-glands, 313; muscular system, locomotion, sound-producing organs, and electric organs, 349; nervous system and organs of special sense, 367; kidneys and reproductive organs, breeding, 397; systematic, 431 f. Fishing-Frog, 718 Fistularia, 632, 154; F. tabaccaria, 632 Fistulariidae, 632, 628 Flat-Fishes, 685 Flounder, 687; coloration, 167, 170 Flute-mouths, 154 Flying-Fish, 638, 161, 173, 353, 411; fresh-water, 559 Flying Gurnards, 701, 355, 361 Fol, 38 Forbesella, 75; F. tessellata, 76; dorsal tubercle, 79 Forskål, 36 Fowler, 23 Frilled Sharks, 443 Fritillaria, 69, 70; F. furcata, 70; F. megachile, 66 Fritsch, 551, 591 n. Frost-Fish, 679 Fundulus, 616
Gadidae, 647, 702, 158, 303, 307, 361, 389, 412; photophores, 179 Gadomus, 647 Gadopsis, 709 Gadow, 193 n. Gadus, 648, 168; G. aeglefinus, 649, 308, 361; G. luscus, 649; G. merlangus, 649; coloration, 168; pyloric caeca, 275; G. morrhua, 648, 648; vertebrae, 205; skull, 230; pseudobranch, 284; air-bladder, 303; red gland, 307, 308; vascular system, 320, 323, 336, 337; spleen, 343; sounds, 361; G. pollachius, 649; G. virens, 649; sensory canals, 386; tail, 646 Gagata, 588 Galaxias, 607, 608; G. attenuatus, 607, 608; G. brevipinnis, 607 Galaxiidae, 607, 606, 163, 405; distribution, 607 Galeichthys, 588, 587, 593 Galeocerdo, 448; G. arcticus, 448; G. tigrinus, 448 Galeoides, 641 Galeus, 449, 298; G. canis, 449 Gambusia, 616; development of embryos in ovisacs, 418 Ganodus, 474 Ganoidei, 149 Gar-Fish, 411 (Belone) Gar-Pike, 638 (Belone); 503 (Lepidosteus)—see also Lepidosteus Garman, 616 n., 619, 698 n. Gastric glands, 270 Gastrochisma, 678 Gastromyzon, 582; G. borneensis, 586; sucker, 162 Gastropelecus, 575 Gastrosteidae, 629, 627; distribution, 631 Gastrosteus, 630, 163, 169, 271, 288; G. aculeatus, 357, 630; pectoral arch of, 630; G. pungitius, 630; G. spinosus, 354; G. texanus, 631 n. Gastrostomus, 604 Gastrotoceus, 634, 635 Gastrula, 20, 56, 130, 131 Gavialiceps, 603 {741} Gazza, 663 Gegenbaur, 5 n., 37, 570 n. Gempylus, 679 Genidens, 588 Genital pores, 403 Genital wings, of Enteropneusta, 16, 10 Genyomyrus, 551, 549 Genypterus, 713 Geoffroy, 677 n. Geophagus, 672 Geotria, 426 Gephyroberyx, 656 Gephyrocercal, 161 Gephyroglanis, 588 Gerbe, 673 n. Gerlachia, 706 Gerres, 663 Gerridae, 663, 654 Giard, 38, 39 Gigantactinidae, 720, 718 Gigantactis vanhoeffeni, 720 Gilbert, 548 Gilbertia, 659 Gilchrist, 571 Gill, of Salpa, 105 Gill, T., 542, 570 n., 599 n., 629 Gill-helix, 294 Gill-slits, 4; of Enteropneusta, 11, 12, 20, 30; of Pterobranchia, 25, 27; of Tunicata, 47, 67, 105; of Amphioxus, 120; of Fishes, 155, 277 f. Gillaroo Trout, 260 Gills—see Respiratory organs Ginglymostoma, 447 Girardinus, 616; sexual congress, 414 Girella, 664 Glandiceps, 17, 5, 6, 13, 14, 15; G. abyssicola, 6; G. hacksi, 6; G. talaboti, 5 Glandicipitidae, 17 Glandula pterygopodia, 182 Glanidium, 588 Glaniopsis, 582 Glaucosoma, 660 Globe-Fishes, 726, 152, 163 Glomerulus, of Enteropneusta, 15; of Fishes, 398, 399 Glomus, 398 Glossobalanus, 17, 5, 13; G. minutus, 10, 11; G. ruficollis, 17 n.; G. sarniensis, 5, 10 Glossodus, 446 Glyphidodon, 672 Glyptocephalus, 687; G. cynoglossus, 687; G. microcephalus, 687 Glyptolepis, 480 Glyptopomus, 477 Glyptosternum, 588 Gnathacanthus, 695 Gnathonemus, 551, 549; G. curvirostris, 550; G. numenius, 550 Gnathostomata, 145; characters of, 147 Gobiesocidae, 707, 704 Gobiesox, 709 Gobiidae, 689 Gobiiformes, 688 f., 651, 652 Gobio, 582 Gobiodon, 689 Gobiosoma, 689 Gobius, 689, 690; G. minutus, care of eggs, 415; G. ruthensparri, 689 Gold-Fish, 585, 155, 171 Gomphosus, 673 Gonads (reproductive organs), of Hemichordata, 16, 25; of Tunicata, 55, 67, 76, 93, 97, 105; of Amphioxus, 129; of Fishes, 402 f., 400, 403 Gonoducts, of Fishes, 404 f.; Elasmobranchs, 400, 404; Teleostei, 400, 404, 406; Holocephali, 405; Dipnoi, 405, 406, 407; Crossopterygii, 405; Chondrostei, 405; Holostei, 405 Gonorhynchidae, 572, 545 Gonorhynchus greyi, 572, 572 Gonostoma, 571 Gonostomatinae, 571 Gonozooid, 99, 100 Goode, Brown, 680 n., 710, 725 Goode and Bean, 614 n. Goodrich, 29, 113, 126 Goodsiria, 89; G. placenta, 89 Gourami, 669 Grammicolepis, 683 Grammistes, 660 Grammistinae, 660 Grassi, 21 n. Grassi and Calandruccio, 602 Grayling, 568 Greene, 711 n. Greenland Shark, 455 Gressin, 705 n. Grey Mullets, 640 Grobben, 39 Groove of Hatschek, 128 Guanin, 167 Guaninkalk, 167 n. Guitel, 690 n., 709 n., 710 Gunnel, 712 Günther, 543, 557, 569 n., 621 n. 632, 674, 711 n., 719 Gurnards, 701—see also Trigla Gwyniad, 568 Gymnallabes, 588 Gymnapistus, 695 Gymnarchinae, 551 Gymnarchus, 551; larval gills, 290, 418, 419; abdominal pores, 401; size of eggs, 408; G. niloticus, 552; embryo, 419 Gymnelis, 712 Gymnoarian, 403 Gymnocypris, 582 Gymnodontes, 725 f., 721, 272, 361 Gymnodraco, 706 {742} Gymnotidae, 579, 574, 163, 256, 302, 389 Gymnotus, 579, 581, 649 n.; electric organs, 365, 366; G. electricus, 580 Gyrinochilus, 582 Gyrodus, 498 Gyrolepis, 487 Gyroptychius, 479 Gyrosteus, 489
Haddock, 649, 308, 361 Haddon, 289 Haemulon, 664 Hag-Fishes, 421 Hake, 649, 308 Haldeman, 19 n. Halec, 609 Half-Beak, 154, 414 Halibut, 687 Halicmethes, 720 Halieutaea, 720 Halilophus mirabilis, 21 Halimochirurgus, 723 Haloporphyrus, 648 Halosaurichthys, 624 Halosauridae, 623; photophores, 178 Halosauropsis, 624; H. macrochir, 621 n., 624 Halosaurus, 624 Hammer-head Sharks, 449 Hancock, 53, 591 n., 592 Haplistia, 477 n. Haplochilus, 616 Haplochiton, 608 Haplochitonidae, 608, 606 Haplodactylidae, 664, 650, 654 Haplodactylus, 664 Haplomi, 605 f., 651, 306 Haplonotus, 663 Harmout, 590 Harpagifer, 706 Harpodon, 611; H. nehereus, 613; H. squamosus, 613 Harrimania, 17, 5; H. kupfferi, 20 n. Harrimaniidae, 17 Harriotta, 471, 154, 223; distribution, 473; H. raleighana, 472; young, 473 Hartmeyer, 38 Hasselt, van, 36 Hatching, of eggs, 417 Hatschek, 113; grove of, 128 Haus, of Appendicularians, 66 Head, shape and relative size, 153 Heart, of Tunicata, 49, 67; of Fishes, 327, 328 Heart-vesicle, of Hemichordata, 15 Heincke, 565 n. Helgia, 582 Heliastes, 672 Helicophagus, 588 Heller, 38 Helodus, 445 Helogenes, 589 Helostoma, 669 Hemerocoetes, 706 Hemibranch, 278 Hemibranchii, 627, 629 Hemichordata, 4 f., 3, 38; affinities, 30 f. Hemichromis, 671 Hemiexocoetus, 638 Hemimyaria, 101 f., 95, 96 Hemiodontinae, 576 Hemiodus, 576 Hemipimelodus, 588 Hemirhamphus, 638; beak, 154; intromittent organ, 414 Hemirhynchus, 680 Hemisilurus, 588 Hemithyrsites, 679 Hemitripterus, 698 Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 558 n. Heniochus, 668 Henoplosus, 666 Hensel, 593 n. Hephthocara, 712, 713 Heptanchus, 443; branchial clefts, 277; H. cinereus, 443; skull, 222 Heptapterus, 588 Herdman, 38, 108 n., 109 n. Hermaphrodite Fishes, 420 Hermaphroditism, 420 Hermosilla, 657 Heros, 672 Herring, 564, 389; coloration, 173; gonads, 403; eggs, 412; influence of temperature on time of hatching, 417 Heterobranchus, 588, 590; accessory gill, 293 Heterochaerops, 673 Heteroconger, 601 Heterodont, 251 Heterodontidae, 444; teeth, 251; persistent nephrostomes, 401, 445 Heterodontus, 444; skull, 223; teeth, 251; spiral valve, 267; H. philippi, 445 Heteromi, 621 f., 306 Heteropleuron, 137, 138; H. bassanum, 137; H. cingalense, 137; H. cultellum, 137; H. hectori, 137; H. maldivense, 137 Heterostichus, 709 Heterostraci, 524 f., 149 Heterothrissa, 563 Heterotis, 557, 555; larval gills, 290, 418; size of eggs, 408; H. ehrenbergii, gill-helix, 294; H. niloticus, 556, 558 Hexagrammidae, 696, 694 Hexagrammus, 696 Hexanchus, 443; branchial clefts, 277; H. griseus, 443 Hickson, 289, 690 n. Hierichthys, 713 {743} Himantolophus, 719; H. reinhardti, 719 Hincks, 23 n. Hippocampus, 634, 635, 154, 156, 283; prehensile tail, 163; H. brevirostris, 361, 362; H. guttulatus, 635 Hippoglossina, 687 Hippoglossoides, 687; H. limandoides, 687 Hippoglossus, 687; H. vulgaris, 687 Histiocephalus, 695 Histiophoridae, 679, 676 Histiophorus, 680 Histiopterus, 660 Histiothrissa, 563 Hjort, 39, 83 Holacanthus, 668, 361 Holargyreus, 648 Holaspis, 527 Holmwood, 692 n. Holoblastic, 97, 409, 410 Holobranch, 278 Holocentrum, 656, 655; H. sogho, 361 Holocephali, 466 f., 148 Holoptychidae, 479, 202 Holoptychius, 480; H. leptopterus, 236; H. flemingi, 479 Holosomata, 88 f., 81, 82, 110 Holostei, 495 f., 149, 497 Holothurians, Fierasfer in, 626; Syngnathus and Doryichthys in, 635 Holoxenus, 695; H. cutaneus, coloration, 165 Holt, 690 n., 707 Homaloptera, 582 Homalopterinae, 582, 585 Homocercal, 160, 237 Homosoma, 643 Homosteus, 536 Hoplichthyidae, 699, 694 Hoplichthys, 700 Hoplognathidae, 662, 653 Hoplognathus, 662 Hoplopagrus, 660 Hoplopteryx, 656; H. lewesiensis, 656 Horse-Mackerel, 677, 158 Houting, 568 Humboldt, 581, 595 Hundsfisch, 610 Huot, 627 Huxley, 30 n., 37, 112 Hybodus, 445; vertebral column, 197 Hydrocyon, 575; H. goliath, 578 Hydrocyoninae, 575 Hydrolagus colliei, 469 Hygrogonus, 672 Hymenocephalus, 647 Hyodon, 553; H. alosoides, skull and pectoral arch, 553 Hyodontidae, 552, 544, 389, 405 Hyostylic, 222 Hyperlophus, 563 Hyperopisus, 549; H. bebe, 552 Hyperpharyngeal groove, 123 Hypnos, 464; electric organs, 365; H. subnigrum, 258 Hypobranchial groove, 46 Hypobythiinae, 72 Hypobythius, 72; H. calycodes, 72, 72; H. moseleyi, 72 Hypomesus, 566 Hypopharyngeal groove, 122, 123 Hypophthalmichthys, 582; H. molitrix, 584 Hypophthalminae, 589 Hypophthalmus, 589 Hypophysial canal, 58 Hypophysis, 129, 370 Hypoprion, 448 Hypoptopoma, 595 Hypoptychus, 639 Hypostoma—see Plecostomus Hypostomides, 628 Hypsocormus, 501; H. insignis, 502 Hyrtl, 558 n., 599 n. Hysterocarpus, 670
Iasis, 108; I. cordiformis-zonaria, 108 Icelus, 698 Ichthyoborinae, 576 Ichthyoborus, 576 Ichthyocampus, 634 Ichthyococcus, 571 Ichthyodectes, 561 Ichthyodorulites, 159, 435, 446, 467 Ichthyomyzon, 426 Ichthyopsida, 145 Ichthyotomi, 438 f., 148 Icichthys, 644 Icosteidae, 644, 637 Icosteus, 644; I. enigmaticus, 644 Iguanodectes, 575 Ihering, 593 n. Ikeda, 29 Ilyophis, 601 Infundibular organ, 127 Inter-renal bodies, 346, 346 Intromittent organs, 414 Ipnops, 611, 613; I. murrayi, 612; photophore, 179 Iridocytes, 166 Ischnacanthus, 441 Ischyodus, 474 Isichthys, 551 Iso, 639 Isospondyli, 543, 620 Istieus, 549 Isurichthys, 678
Jacoby, 601, 602 n. Janessa, 446 Jenynsia, 616 Jobert, 593 n. John Dory, 683, 308, 361, 363 Jones, 720 n. {744} Jordan, 542 Jordan and Evermann, 569 n., 620 Jordan and Goss, 687 n. Jordania, 698 Joturus, 640 Joues cuirassées, 692 Jugulares, 702 f., 651, 652, 306 Julin, 38, 39, 52 Julis, 673, 674 Jullien, 23 Jumping-Fish, 690
Kalymmocytes, 40, 56, 93, 107 Kelb-el-Bahr, 578 Kidneys, 397 f.; development, 397; in different Fishes, 399 Kilch, 311 King-Fish, 628 King of the Herrings, 715 Kner and Steindachner, 626 Kneria, 616; K. angolensis, 616; K. spekii, 616 n. Kneriidae, 615, 606 Korotneff, 39 Kowalevskia, 68 Kowalevskiidae, 68 Kowalevsky, 7 n., 37, 39, 94 n., 113 Krohn, 37 Krohnius, 647 Krukenberg, 271 n. Kuhl, 36 Kuhlia, 657 Kupffer, 38 Kurtidae, 687 Kurtiformes, 687 f., 651, 652 Kurtus, 687; K. indicus, skeleton of, 688 Kyle, 687 n.
Labeo, 582; L. falcifer, 583 Labidesthes, 639 Labrichthys, 673 Labridae 673, 654, 271, 275; coloration, 164, 166 Labrodon, 674 Labrus, 673, 674; pharyngeal teeth, 252, 288; L. labrax, 275; L. maculatus, pharyngeal bones, 673; L. rupestris, 674 Labyrinthiform organs, 292, 293 Lacaze-Duthiers, 38 Lactariidae, 663, 654 Lactarius delicatulus, 663 Lactophrys, 724 Laemargus, 455; L. borealis, 455, 456; intestinal caeca, 274; eggs, 435 Laïs, 588 Lamarck, 36 Lamna, 451; L. cornubica, 451 Lamnidae, 450 Lampetra, 426; L. wilderi, 427 Lampreys, 425 f. Lamprididae, 628, 627 Lampris, 628, 629; L. luna, 628; coloration, 164 Lamprogrammus, 712 Lamprologus, 671 Lanarkia, 524, 525; L. spinosa, 524 Lancelet, 112 Lang, 31 n. Langerhans, 112 Lankester, 5 n., 23, 112, 113 Larimus, 663 Larvacea, 64 f., 64, 110; structure, 65; habits, 65; tail, 66; classification, 68; occurrence, 69 Larval Fishes—Teleosts, 417 f., 418, 419; Cyclostomata, 428; Crossopterygii, 290, 483, 484; Chondrostei, 494; Holostei, 501, 504; Dipnoi, 514, 515, 517, 518 Larval gills, 290 f.; Elasmobranchii, 289, 290; Polypterus, 290, 483, 484; Heterotis, 290; Gymnarchus, 290, 418, 419; Misgurnus, 290; Salmon, 290; Protopterus, 291, 515, 515; Lepidosiren, 291, 517, 518 Larval organs, 418; adhesive or cement organs, 418, 494, 501, 504, 514, 515, 517, 518; external gills, 289, 290, 419; cutaneous gills, 290, 483, 484, 517, 518; defensive spines, 418 Lasanius, 532; L. problematicus, 532 Lateolabrax, 659 Lateral line sensory organs, 163, 384, 385, 386, 387 Lates, 660 Latilus, 661 Latrididae, 663, 654 Latris, 663; L. hecateia, nocturnal colour-changes, 170 Launce, 639 Lavaret, 568 Leather Carp, 584 Lebiasina, 575, 578 Lefevre, 83 Lefua, 582 Lemon Sole, 687 Lentipes, 689 Lepadogaster, 709, 191 Lepidocephalichthys, 582 Lepidocottus, 698 Lepidomeda, 582 Lepidopus caudatus, 679 Lepidorhombus, 687; L. megastoma, 687 Lepidosiren, 511, 149, 153, 261, 401; pectoral fins, 157; skull, 231, 233; gills, 286; larval gills, 291, 517, 518; lung, 291, 301; vascular system, 527; thyroid, 344; growling sounds, 363; relations with other Dipnoi, 518, 519; L. paradoxa, 516; distribution, habits, and food, 516; nocturnal colour change, 517; hibernation, 517; {745} nest, 517; filaments on pelvic limb of male, 517; larva, 517, 518 Lepidosirenidae, 511 Lepidosteidae, 502 Lepidosteoidei, 495 f. Lepidosteus, 503, 149, 153, 160, 258, 262, 273, 274, 283, 284, 291; scales, 185, 186, 188; vertebral column, 201, 202, 204; skull, 229; alimentary canal, 257; spiral valve, 268; pyloric caeca, 274; air-bladder, 297, 299, 310; spiracular pseudobranch, 334, 335; branchial circulation, 334 n., 336; brain, 376; gonads, 400, 402, 405, 407; segmentation of the egg, 409; distribution, 503; habits, 503; breeding, 503; larvae, 504; fossil, 504; L. osseus, 503, 504; L. platyrhynchus, pectoral fin, 243; L. platystomus, 503; L. viridis, 503 Lepidothynnus, 678 Lepidotrichia, 234 Lepidotrigla, 701 Lepidotus, 498; L. minor, 497 Lepomis, 657 Lepophidium, 713 Leporinus, 576 Leptagoniates, 575 Leptecodon, 623 Leptichthys, 563 Leptobarbus, 582 Leptocephalid, of Albula, 548 Leptocephalus, 600, 21 n.; L. brevirostris, 602 Leptochilichthys, 570 Leptoclinum, 87; section, 86; spicules, 87; L. neglectum, 80 Leptoderma, 570 Leptodoras, 588 Leptolepididae, 546, 544 Leptolepis, 546; L. dubius, 546 Leptopterygius, 709 Leptoscopidae, 705, 703 Leptoscopus, 705 Leptosomus, 611 Leptotrachelus, 623 Lethrinus, 665 Leucaspius, 582 Leuciscus, 582, 288 Leuckart, 37 Leucosomus, 582 Levinsen, 23 Leydig, 584 n. Lichia, 677 Ling, 649 Linophryne, 719 Liocassis, 588 Liocetus, 719 Lionurus, 647 Liopropoma, 659 Liparis, 698, 699, 411 Liparops, 698 Lipogenyidae, 624, 622, 623 Lipogenys, 624; L. gillii, 624 Liposarcus, 595 Lirus, 643; L. medusophagus, 643; L. perciformis, 643 Liuranus, 601 Liver, 271; of Amphioxus, 121, 123 Loaches, 585, 261, 290, 292; Pond Loach, 585. Lobotes, 658 Lobotidae, 658, 653 Locomotion of Fishes, 349 f., 351 Lohmann, 66 Longchamps, de Selys, 29 Lophiidae, 718 Lophiomus, 718 Lophius, 718, 153; L. piscatorius, 718, 355; lure, 161, 173; teeth, 250 Lophobranchii, 628, 543, 629 Lopholatilus, 661; L. chamaeleonticeps, 661 Lophotes, 716 Lophotidae, 716 Lorenzini's ampullae, 384 Loricaria, 595, 292 Loricariidae, 594, 575, 256, 292 Loricariinae, 595 Lota, 648; L. vulgaris, 649 Lotella, 648 Löwig and Kölliker, 37 Lucifuga, 712, 713, 395; L. subterranea, 361 Luciobrama, 582 Luciocephalus, 669 Luciogobius, 689 Lucioperca, 659 Luciosoma, 582 Lump-Sucker, 699, 162, 321, 408, 415 Lumpenus, 709 Lunel, 635, 682 n. Lutjaninae, 660 Lutjanus, 660 Lütken, 614 n., 682 n., 714 n. Lutodeira, 256 Luvaridae, 681, 676 Luvarus imperialis, 681 Lycocara, 712 Lycodes, 712, 702 Lycodontis, 605 Lyconus, 647 Lycoptera, 546 Lymph-hearts, 342 Lymphatic system, 342 Lymphoid tissue, 348 Lyomeri, 622 Lyosphaera, 726
MacBride, 16, 31 n., 113, 133 n. M‘Intosh and Masterman, 565 n. Mackerel, 678, 168, 275, 302 Macquaria, 659 Macrius, 705; M. amissus, 705 Macrodon, 575; {746} M. trahira, mouth, 577 Macrones, 588 Macropharynx, 604 Macrophthalmia chilensis, 426 Macropodus viridi-auratus, 669 Macropoma, 481, 202, 268 Macrosemiidae, 498, 497 Macrosemius, 498 Macrostomias, 571 Macruridae, 647, 702 Macruronus, 647 Macrurus, 647; M. carminatus, 647 Maena, 664 Mahaseer, 584 Maigre (= Meagre), 361, 362, 663 Malacanthus, 661 Malacichthys, 659 Malacocephalus, 647 Malacopterus, 673 Malacopterygii, 543 f., 159, 306 Malacosarcus, 619 Malacosteus, 571; M. indicus, 570; photophoreo, 178 Mallotus, 566; M. villosus, 568, 569 Malm, 685 n. Malopterurinae, 588 Malopterurus, 588, 593, 359; electric organs, 365, 366; M. electricus, 591, 362 Malthe, 720; scales, 190, 191; M. vespertilio, 720 Malthidae, 720, 718 Malthopsis, 720 Mantle, 42 Marcusenius, 551 Marsupial pouches, 416 Mastacembelidae, 716 Mastacembelus, 717; M. maculatus, 717 Masterman, 23 n., 25, 27, 28, 29, 31 n. Maurolicus, 571, 570 Mazza, 714 n. M‘Biriki, 583 Meagre (= Maigre, q.v.) Meda, 582 Medialuna, 657 Median fins, 156, 234 f. Medusae, with Caranx, 643 Meek, 714 n. Megalichthys, 477, 478; spiral valve, 268 Megalocercus, 68; M. abyssorum, 66, 68 Megalops, 547; M. atlanticus, 547; M. cyprinoides, 547 Megalurus, 501 Megrim, 687 Melambaphes, 664 Melamphaes, 656, 620, 655 Melanocetus, 719 Melanostigma, 712 Melanostoma, 659 Melanotaenia, 639 Membrana nictitans, 395 Membranellae, 19 Menaspis, 445 Mene, 677 Merluccius, 648, 648 n.; M. vulgaris, 649; red gland, 308 Meroblastic, 93, 409, 410 Merosomata, 85, 81, 110 Mertens, Von, 66 Mesacanthus, 442 Mesiteia, 447 Mesoborus, 576 Mesocoracoid arch, 543, 573 Mesodon, 498 Mesonephros, 397, 398, 400 Mesoprion gembra, radialia of the dorsal fin, 235 Mesorchium, 402 Mesovarium, 402 Mesturus, 498 Metcalf, 38, 52, 109 Metschnikoff, 19, 31 n., 39 Metynnis, 576 Meyen, 677 n. Micracanthus, 669 Micralestes, 575 Microbrachius, 534 Microcoelia, 611 Microcosmus draschii, dorsal tubercle, 79 Microdon, 498 Micropogon undulatus, air-bladder and its muscles, 360, 361 Micropterus, 657 Micropyles, 411, 412 Microspathodon, 672 Microstoma, 566, 565 Miller's Thumb, 698 Milne-Edwards, 37 Minnow, 288 Minot, 30 n. Minous, 695, 692; M. inermis, 695 Misgurnus, 582, 290; intestinal respiration, 261, 292; oviducts, 405; M. fossilis, 358, 585 Mistichthys luzonensis, 689 Möbius, 630 n., 673, 724 Mochocus, 588 Mola, 727 Molgula, 77; M. citrina, 79; M. oculata, 77, 79; M. pyriformis, branchial sac, 77; dorsal tubercle, 79 Molgulidae, 77, 64, 110; nervous system, 53; reproductive organs, 55 Molidae, 726, 722 Mollienesia, 616 Molluscoidea, 35 Molva, 648; M. vulgaris, 649 Monacanthus, 724; coloration, 165; warning colours, 174; scales, 190; sounds, 354, 357; M. sp., 723; M. pardalis, 361; M. scopas, scale, 191 Monascidiae, 35 {747} Monocentridae, 656, 653 Monocentris, 656 Monocirrus, 658 Monogamy, 413 Monopterus, 597; M. javanensis, head, skull, pectoral arch, vertebrae, 598 Moon-eyes, 553 Moon-fish, 579 Morchellium, 88; M. argus, stomach, 88 Mordacia, 426 Morgan, 11 n., 20, 21 n., 31 n., 32 Moringua, 601 Mormyridae, 549, 544, 154; larval gills, 290; abdominal pores, 401 Mormyrinae, 551 Mormyrops, 551, 549 Mormyrs, 551 Mormyrus, 551; M. caballus, 549; electric organs, 365, 366, 401 Morone, 659, 660 Moseley, 95, 613, 702 n. Motella, 649, 288 Mouth, position, size, and shape; of Cyclostomata, 150; of Fishes, 153 f. Moxostoma, 581 Mud-Fish, 610 Mugil, 640, 264; M. capito, 640 Mugilidae, 640, 637, 256; gizzard, 260 Müller, H., 37 Müller, J., 19, 31, 112, 129 Müller, O. F., 36 Müllerian duct, 398, 400, 404 Mullets, Grey, 640; Red, 665 Mullidae, 665, 654 Mulloides, 665 Mullus, 665; M. barbatus, 666; M. surmuletus, 666; pectoral arch, 666 Muraena, 605; M. helena, 600, 605 Muraenesox, 601 Muraenichthys, 601 Muraenidae, 604, 163, 259 Muraenolepididae, 649 Muraenolepis, 649 Murray, 613 Muscular system, 350 Mustelus, 448, 298; placenta, 434, 449; M. antarcticus, radialia of the dorsal fin, 234; vascular system, 316, 317, 330, 331, 334; placenta, 435; M. laevis, 449; M. vulgaris, 449 Myletes, 576 Myleus, 576 Myliobatidae, 465; teeth, 251 Myliobatis, 465, 466; M. aquila, 465, 466 Mylostoma, 537 Myocoele, 397, 398 Myocomma, 117 Myomyrus, 551 Myotome, 117, 133 Myriacanthidae, 468 Myriacanthus, 468; M. granulatus, 468 Myripristis, 656 Myroconger, 605 Myrophis, 601 Myrus, 601 Myxine, 422, 147; external characters, 151; thread-cells, 182; vertebral column, 197; teeth, 248; liver, 273; pancreas, 273; gill-sacs, 281; blood corpuscles, 341; brain, 372; auditory organ, 387, 388; pituitary involution, 391; degenerate eyes, 394, 395; pronephros, 399, 400; genital pore, 403; distribution, 422; habits, 422; hermaphroditism, 423; M. glutinosa, 151, 422, 423 Myxinidae, 422 Myxinoides, 421 f. Myxus, 640
Nandidae, 658, 653 Nandus, 658 Nannaethiops, 576 Nannobrachium, 611 Nannocampus, 634, 635 Nannocharax, 576 Nanoglanis, 588 Nanognathus, 576 Nanostomus, 576 Nansenia, 566, 565 Narcetes, 570 Narcine, 464 Naseus, 668 Naucrates, 677; N. ductor, 677 Nealotus, 679 Neatherina, 639 Nebris, 663 Nedystoma, 588 Needle-Fish, 634 Nemachilus, 582 Nematabramis, 582 Nematistius, 677 Nematogenys, 588, 587 Nematonotus, 611 Nemichthyidae, 603 Nemichthys, 603 Nemopteryx, 648 Neobola, 582 Neoborus, 576 Neobythitis, 712 Neoceratodus, 508, 259, 291; skull, 231; pectoral fin, 244; gills, 285, 286; lung, 291, 299, 300; vascular system, 323, 324, 329, 338; grunting sounds, 363; brain, 377; abdominal pores, 401; Müllerian ducts in the male, 407; distribution and habits, 508, 512; spawning, 510; eggs, 510; young, 510, 511; relations with other Dipnoi, 518, 519; N. forsteri, 508, 509 Neochanna, _608 Neolebias_, 576 {748} Neopempheris, 657 Neopercis, 705 Neoscopelus, 611 Neosilurus, 588 Nephridia, of Amphioxus, 125 Nephrostomes, 398; persistent, 401 Nephrotome, 397, 398 Nerophis, 634, 635 Nerve eminences, 383 Nervous system, of Chordata, 4; of Hemichordata, 9, 25, 30; of Tunicata, 53, 58, 66; of Amphioxus, 127 f., 131; of Fishes, 367 f. Nesiarchus, 679 Nesting habits of Sticklebacks, 630 Nests of Fishes, 414 f., 427, 500, 501, 514, 515, 517; of Arius, 593; of Doras and Callichthys, 592; of Gobius, 690; of Gymnarchus, 552; of Heterotis, 558; of Spinachia, 631 Nettastoma, 601 Nettenchelys, 601 Nettophichthys, 601 Neural gland, 52 Neurenteric canal, 57, 131, 133 Neuromeres, 195 n. Neuropore, 10, 58, 59 Nilhechte, 550 Nilsson, 715 Niphon, 659 Nishikawa, 685 n. Noll, 584 n. Nomeus, 643; N. gronovii, 643 Norman, 23 Notacanthidae, 624 Notacanthus, 625; N. bonapartii, 625 Notagogus, 498 Notidanidae, 442, 279; persistent nephrostomes, 401 Notidanus, 443, 345; spiral valve, 267; N. cinereus, branchial clefts, 277; skull, 222; N. griseus, branchial clefts, 277 Notochord, 3; of Enteropneusta, 14; of Cephalodiscus, 24, 25; of Rhabdopleura, 27; of Actinotrocha, 28; of Tunicata, 57, 60, 61; of Amphioxus, 119, 118, 119, 132; of Fishes, 193 f. Notoglanidium, 588 Notoglanis, 588 Notogoneus, 572 Notopteridae, 554, 544, 303, 389, 405 Notopterus, 555, 153, 305, 306; N. afer, skeleton, 554; N. chitala, 555 Notothenia, 706 Nototheniidae, 705, 704 Noturus, 588, 590 Novacula, 673 Nucleus, of Thaliacea, 101, 105 Nuria, 582 Nurse, 97
Oar-Fish, 715, 163 Oblata, 664 Ocelli, 53 Octacnemidae, 108, 101 Octacnemus, 109, 101; O. bythius, 109; O. patagoniensis, 109 Odax, 674 Odaxothrissa, 563 Odontaspis, 451 Odonteus, 673 Odontonectes, 660 Odontostomus, 611, 613 Oenoscopus, 545 Oesophageo-cutaneous duct, 281 Oikoplasts, 65 Oikopleura, 68, 67, 69; transverse section, 67; longitudinal section, 68; O. cophocerca, 66; O. dioica, 70; O. flabellum, transverse section, 69 Olfactory organs, 155, 390 f., 391, 392 Olfactory pit, 129 Oligopleuridae, 545, 544 Oligopleurus, 545 Oligorus, 659 Oligosarcus, 575 Oligotrema, 78, 111 n. Olt, 584 n. Olyra, 588 Omble Chevalier, 567 Omiodon, 611 Omosudis, 611 Oncorhynchus, 566 Oneirodes, 719; O. eschrichtii, 174 Onus, 648; coloration of larvae, 175 Oozooid, 84, 91, 93 Opah, 628, 164 Operculum, 25, 155, 278, 282, 283 Ophichthys, 601 Ophidiidae, 713, 651, 702, 704, 163, 361 Ophidium, 713, 361; air-bladder, 302 Ophioblennius, 709 Ophiocephalidae, 644, 637, 163, 293, 361; distribution, 645 Ophiocephalus, 645; labyrinthiform organ, 293; O. marulius, 361; O. gachua, 361 Ophiodon, 696; O. elongatus, skull, 692 Opisthocentrus, 709 Opisthognathus, 661 Opisthomi, 716 f., 651, 306 Opisthomyzon, 691 Opisthonema, 563 Opisthoproctus soleatus, telescopic eyes, 395 Opisthopteryx, 611 Opostomias, 571; O. micripnus, photophores, 178, 179, 181 Opsanus, 711 Opsariichthys, 582 Oral hood, 116, 119, 136 Oreinus, _582 Oreosoma_, 683 {749} Orestias, 616 Orodus, 445 Orthagoriscus, 727, 153, 354; spinal cord, 367; O. mola, 602, 727, 348, 357 Ortho-enteric, 102, 108 Osmeroides, 547 Osmerus, 566, 565; O. eperlanus, 568; gonoducts, 405, 411 Osphromenidae, 669, 654; labyrinthiform organ, 293 Osphromenus, 669, 293; O. olfax, 669 Osphyolax, 634 Ostariophysi, 573 f., 306, 389 Osteochilus, 582 Osteogeniosus, 588, 593 Osteoglossidae, 555, 544, 294, 405; larval gills, 290; distribution, 557 Osteoglossum, 557; O. bicirrhosum, 556 Osteolepida, 477 f. Osteolepidae, 477 Osteolepis, 477; O. macrolepidota, 477 Osteostraci, 527 f., 149 Ostracion, 724, 152, 361; colours, 165, 174; scales, 191; O. ornatus, 165; O. quadricornis, 725; O. trigonus, 362 Ostraciontidae, 724, 721 Ostracodermi, 522 f., 149, 721 Otocinclus, 595 Otolithus, 663; air-bladder, 304; O. regalis, 361 Oviducal gland (shell-gland), 400, 407 Ovipositor, 408 Oxuderces, 690 Oxydoras, 588, 359 Oxygnathus, 487 Oxylebius, 696 Oxymetopon, 689
Pachycormidae, 501 Pachycormus, 501 Pachylebias, 616 Pachymetopon, 665 Pachyrhizodontidae, 569 Pachyrhizodus, 569 Pachystomias, 571; P. microdon, photophores, 178, 179, 180 Pachyula, 588 Paddle-Fish, 491; = Polyodon, q.v. Pagellus, 665; P. centrodontus, 346 Pagrus, 665; P. auratus, 665 Palaeolycus, 609 Palaeomylus, 468 Palaeoniscidae, 486, 485; range in time, 487 Palaeoniscus, 486, 487; P. macropomus, 486 Palaeorhynchidae, 680 Palaeorhynchus, 680 Palaeoscyllium, 447 Palaeospinax, 445; vertebral column, 197 Palaeospondylidae, 521 f., 149 Palaeospondylus gunni, 521, 522 Palimphyes, 678 Pallas, 112 Pancreas, 273 Pangasius, 588, 305, 359; P. micronema, 359 n. Pantodon buchholzi, 558, 559 Pantodontidae, 558, 544 Papillae, adhering, 61 Paracentroscyllium, 455 Paradiplomystes, 588 Paragoniates, 575 Parailia, 588 Paralepis, 611 Paralichthys, 687 Paraliparis, 698 Paraluteres, 724 Paranthias, 659 Parapegasus, 636 Parapelecus, 582 Parapercis, 705 Paraphago, 576 Paraphractura, 588, 589 Parapriacanthus, 657 Parapsettus, 668 Parascopelus, 611 Parasitism, of Rhodeus, 584, 416; of Stegophilus, 594 Paratilapia, 671 Paratrachichthys, 656, 655 Paratrygon, 465 Parental care, 415, 416, 500, 501 Parexus, 441 Parietal budding, 82 Parietal eye, 395 f., 396 Pariolius, 588 Parker, T. J., 714 n. Parker, W. N., 705 n. Parodon, 576 Paropsis, 677 Parrot-Wrasses, 674 Pataecus, 709 Pearl Oysters, Fierasfer in, 625 Pectoral fins, 157, 242, 243, 244 Pectoral girdle, 239, 240 Pediculati, 717 f., 651, 306 Pegasidae, 635, 626, 628 Pegasus, 636 Pegea, 108; P. scutigera-confoederata, 108 Pelagic ova, 408 Pelargorhynchus, 623 Pelecus, 582 Pellegrin, 671 n., 724 n. Pellona, 563, 563 Pellonula, 563 Pelonaia, 74; branchial sac, 74; P. corrugata, 76 Pelor, 695 Peloria, 685 Pelvic fins, 158, 245 f., 246 Pelvic girdle, 239 f., 240, 241 {750} Pempheridae, 656, 653 Pempheris, 657; P. muelleri, 657 Penetopteryx, 634, 635 Pentaceropsis, 660 Pentaceros, 660 Pentacerotinae, 660 Pentanemus, 641; P. quinquarius, 162 Pentapus, 664 Pentaroge, 695 Peprilus, 643 Perca, 659, 262; alimentary canal, 275; veins, 323; thyroid, 343; auditory organ, 388; P. fluviatilis, 659, 321, 323 Percalates, 659 Percarina, 659 Percesoces, 636 f. Perch, 659; deposition of eggs, 411; = Perca, q.v. Percichthys, 659, 660 Percidae, 658, 654, 412; coloration, 166 Perciformes, 652 f., 651 Percilia, 659 Percina, 659 Percophiidae, 705, 703 Percophis, 705; P. brasilianus, pectoral arch of, 703 Percopsidae, 620, 606 Percopsis, 621 Peribranchial budding, 82 Peribranchial cavity, 43, 44, 59, 63; of Thaliacea, 95, 101 Pericardium, of Hemichordata, 15; of Tunicata, 44, 49; of Fishes, 327 Perihaemal spaces, 9 Periophthalmus, 689, 690, 355; eyes, 155; pectoral fins, 161; tail as a respiratory organ, 289; P. koelreuteri, 690 n. Peripharyngeal bands, 45, 46, 52, 53 Peripharyngeal spaces, 9 Peristedion, 701 Péron, 36 Perophora, 72, 84; P. listeri, 72 Petalodontidae, 446 Petalodus, 446 Petalopteryx, 498 Petersen, 690 n. Petersius, 575 Petrocephalus, 551 Petromyzon, 426, 147, 258, 367, 382; external characters, 150; skull, 217; teeth, 247, 248; spiral valve, 264; liver, 272; pancreas, 273; gill-sacs, 279, 280; heart, 327; arteries, 329, 330; blood corpuscles, 341; thyroid, 343, 344; supra-renal bodies, 346; brain, 371, 372, 392; spinal nerves, 378; auditory organ, 387; olfactory organ, 391, 392; naso-pituitary involution, 391; pituitary caecum, 392; parietal eye, 395, 396; kidneys, gonads, and genital pores, 399, 400, 403; distribution, 426; P. fluviatilis, 426; P. marinus, 426; P. planeri, ova, 428; P. wilderi, spawning, 427; larva, Ammocoetes stage, 428 Petromyzontes, 425 f. Petromyzontidae, 426 Petroscirtes, 709 Phago, 576 Phallusia, 72 Phaneropleuron, 506, 519; P. andersoni, 506 Phanerosteon, 487 Pharyngeal teeth, 251 Pharyngodictyon, 87; P. mirabile, 80 Pharyngognathi, 543 Pharyngopneusta, 30 n. Phisalix, 705 n. Phlyctaenaspis, 536 Pholedichthys, 709 Pholididae, 711, 704 Pholidophoridae, 545, 541 n., 544 Pholidophorus, 545 Pholis, 711, 712; P. gunnellus, 712, 415 Phoronidea, 27 f., 5 Phoronis, 27 f., 5; regeneration, 16, 30; P. buskii, 28 Phorozooid, 99, 100 Phosphorescent organs, 178 Photichthys, 571, 570 Photoblepharon, 660 Photonectes, 571 Photophores, 178, 612, 613, 624, 711 Photostomias, 571 Phractolaemidae, 560, 544 Phractolaemus ansorgii, 560, 560 Phractura, 588 Phthinobranchii, 629 Phycis, 648 Phyllodoce, nephridium, 127 Phyllodus, 674 Phyllopteryx, 634; P. eques, 635 Phylogephyra, 565 Physailia, 588 Physalia, with Nomeus, 643 Physiculus, 648 Physoclisti, 306, 307, 311 Physopyxis, 588 Physostomi, 543, 306, 311 Piabucina, 575; P. argentina, mouth, 577 Pike, 609, 250, 307 Pike-Perch, 659 Pilchard, 564, 389 Pilot-Fish, 677 Pimelepterus, 657 Pimelodina, 588 Pimelodus, 588, 589, 361 Pimephales, 582 Pipe-Fish, 634, 154 Piramutana, 588 {751} Piranha, 578 Pirate Perch, 656 Piratinga, 361 Pirinampus, 588 Pit-organs, 383 Pituitary body, 129 Placenta, of Doliolum, 98; of Hemimyaria, 101, 107; of Fishes, 434 Plagiostomi, 442 f., 148 Plagusia, 687 Plagyodus, 614 Plaice, 687 Platax, 668 Platycephalidae, 699, 694, 650 Platycephalus, 699, 693 Platychaerops, 673 Platycormus, 643 Platyglossus, 673 Platylaemus, 674 Platypoecilus, 616 Platyrhinoidis, 460 Platysomatichthys, 687, 685 Platysomidae, 487, 485 Platysomus, 488 Platystoma, 594; air-bladder and its extrinsic muscles, 360, 361, 362; P. coruscans, 594 Platytroctes, 570 Plecodus, 672 Plecoglossus, 566, 569 Plecostomus, 595, 256, 292; (Hypostoma) scales, 190; P. commersonii, 192 Plectognathi, 721 f., 543, 651, 205, 231, 275, 306, 354, 418 Plectromus, 656 Plectropoma, 659; P. richardsoni, coloration, 165 Plesiops, 659 Plethodus, 549 Pleuracanthidae, 440 Pleuracanthus, 440, 159, 235, 236, 438; vertebral column, 197; pectoral and pelvic girdles, 239; pectoral fin, 242; pelvic fins, 245; P. ducheni, 439 Pleuragramma, 705; P. antarcticum, 705 Pleurogrammus, 696 Pleuronectes, 687; P. flesus, 687; coloration elements, 167, 170; P. limanda, 687; P. platessa, 686, 687 Pleuronectidae, 684, 683, 152, 264, 275, 284, 302, 412; protective coloration, 172 Pleuropholis, 545 Pleuroplax, 445 Pleuropterygii, 436, 148 Plication, of branchial sac, 48 Plotosus, 588, 587, 408 Podateles, 714; P. indicus, pectoral arch of, 714 Podatelidae, 713, 704 Poecilia, 616 Poecilodus, 445 Poecilopsetta, 687 Poey, 713 n. Pogge, 700 Pogonias, 663; P. chromis, 663, 361; air-bladder, 304, 305; drumming sounds, 362 Poison, of Trachinus, 705 Poison glands, 176 Pollack, 649 Pollan, 568 Polyacanthonotus, 625 Polyacanthus, 669, 293; P. opercularis, 669 Polyandry, 413 Polycarpa, 74, 76; reproductive organs, 55; P. aurata, 76; dorsal tubercle, 79; P. comata, 76; P. glomerata, larva, 78; P. pedata, 76; P. tinctor, 76; dorsal tubercle, 79 Polycarps, 76 Polycaulus, 695 Polycentropsis, 658 Polycentrus, 658 Polyclinidae, 87, 81, 83, 110; ascidiozooid, 82 Polyclinum, 88; P. molle, stomach, 88 Polycyclus renieri, larva, 78 Polygamy, 413 Polyipnus, 571 Polymixia, 656 Polynemidae, 640, 637 Polynemus, 641; P. quadrifilis, 641; shoulder-girdle and pelvis of, 640; P. vereker, coloration, 165 Polyodon, 491, 154, 284, 405; vestigial dermal denticles, 188; ribs, 201; skull, 225; pelvic fin, 245; teeth, 249; pyloric caeca, 274, 276; gills, 282; spiracle, 283; gill-rakers, 288; P. folium, 491; habits and distribution, 491; breeding, 492 Polyodontidae, 491, 486, 489 Polyphyodont, 250 Polyprion, 659 Polypteridae, 481; distribution, 483 Polypterus, 482, 149, 323; scales, 185, 187; vertebral column, 202; ribs, 206; skull, 226, 227, 229; median fins, 235; pelvic girdle, 241; pectoral fin, 243; tongue, 252; spiral valve, 268; pyloric caecum, 274; spiracle, 283; pseudobranch, 284; larval gills, 290; air-bladder, 298; arteries to air-bladder, 337; sounds, 362; habits and food, 482; breeding, 483; P. bichir, 482; P. congicus, 290; P. lapradei, 483; larvae, 483, 484; P. senegalus, 482, 483 Polyrhizodus, 446 Polystyelidae, 89, 81, 110 Polyzoa, 35 {752} Pomacanthus, 668 Pomacentridae, 672, 654; coloration, 166 Pomacentrus, 672 Pomatominae, 660 Pomatomus, 660 Pomoxys, 657 Pope, 659 Porbeagle Sharks, 450 Porcupine Fishes, 726, 163 Porichthys, 711; photophores, 179; P. porosissimus, 711 Porogadus, 712 Portheus, 561 Post-abdomen, 83 Pouchet, 7 n. Pout, 649 Powell, 714 n. Prebranchial zone, 45 Premnas, 672 Prenadillas, 595 Priacanthinae, 660 Priacanthus, 660 Prince, 630 n. Prionodon, 448 Prionolepis, 609 Prionotus, 701, 361 Prionurus, 668 Priscacara, 672 Pristidae, 459, 458 Pristigaster, 563 Pristiophoridae, 457, 458 Pristiophorus, 457 Pristipoma, 664, 361 Pristipomatidae, 664, 654 Pristis, 460, 272; rostral denticles, 184; P. antiquorum, 459 Pristiurus, 446, 447 Proantigonia, 667 Proboscis-gland, 15 Proboscis-pore, 9, 24, 27 Proboscis-skeleton, 14 Procatopus, 616 Prochanos, 563 Prochilodus, 576 Prolates, 660 Prolebias, 616 Proles gregaria, 102 Proles solitaria, 102 Promethichthys, 679 Promyliobatis, 466 Pronephros, 397, 400 Pronotacanthus, 622 Propagation, of Eel, 601 Propoma, 659 Propristis, 460 Protaulopsis, 638, 632 n. Prothymallus, 565 Protocampus, 634 Protocercal, 159 Protopterus, 511, 149, 153, 259, 261, 262, 272, 273; nostrils, 155; pectoral fins, 157; cutaneous glands, 182; skull, 231, 232; pelvic girdle, 241; alimentary canal, 257; spiral valve, 268; pancreas, 274; gills, 286; larval gills, 291, 515; lung, 291, 300, 301, 302; vascular system, 326, 327, 329, 339, 340; thyroid, 343; thymus, 345; sounds, 362; brain, 376, 377; auditory organ, 387; abdominal pores, 401; testis, 406; Müllerian ducts in male, 407; distribution, 511, 512; habits, 512; summer sleep, 513; cocoon, 513; nest, 514, 515; larva, 515; relations with other Dipnoi, 518, 519; P. aethiopicus, 512; P. annectens, 509, 512; P. dolloi, 512 Protosphyraena, 502 Protospondyli, 497 Protostigmata, 59 Protosyngnathidae, 631, 628 Protosyngnathus sumatrensis, 632 Prototroctes, 608 Prototunicata, 110 Psammodontidae, 446 Psammodus, 446 Psammoperca, 660 Psammosteidae, 526, 530 Psammosteus, 527 Psenes, 643 Psenopsis, 643 Psephodus, 445 Psephurus, 492; P. gladius, 492 Psetta (= Rhombus), 687, 685; P. laevis, 687; P. maxima, 686, 687 Psettodes, 687, 684, 685; P. erumei, 686 Psettus, 666; P. sebae, 666, 667 Pseudaluteres, 724 Pseudecheneis, 588, 589 Pseudetroplus, 672 Pseudeutropius, 588 Pseudobagrus, 588 Pseudoberyx, 563 Pseudoblennius, 698 Pseudobrachium, 717 Pseudochromididae, 661, 653 Pseudochromis, 661 Pseudocorynopoma, 575 Pseudogobio, 582 Pseudomonacanthus, 724 Pseudomugil, 639 Pseudoplesiops, 659 Pseudopriacanthus, 660 Pseudoscarus, 674 Pseudoscopelus, 641, 642 Pseudosphaerodon, 674 Pseudosyngnathus, 634 Pseudotriakis microdon, 447 Pseudoxiphophorus, 616 Psilocephalus, 724 Psilorhynchus, 582 Psychrolutes, 698 Pteraclis, 682 Pteraspidae, 527, 530 {753} Pteraspis, 527, 530, 149; P. rostrata, 527 Pterichthys, 534, 149; P. milleri, 533 Pterobranchia, 21 f., 5, 31 Pterois, 695 Pterophryne, 720 Pterophyllum, 672 Pteroplatea, 464; P. micrura, intra-uterine nutrition, 435 Pteropsarion, 582 Pteropsaron, 705 Pterothrissus, 548 Pterycombus, 682 Pterygocephalus, 709 Pterygoplichthys, 595 Ptilichthys, 709 Ptychobarbus, 582 Ptychodera, 17, 5, 13, 16, 25 n.; P. bahamensis, 5, 10; P. flava, 10, 11 Ptychoderidae, 17 Ptyctodontidae, 468 Ptyctodus, 468 Puffers, 726 Punnett, 17 n., 21 n. Putnam, 619 n., 625 Pycnodontidae, 498, 497 Pycnodus, 498 Pycnosterinx, 656 Pygochord, 15 Pyloric caeca, 274, 275 Pyrosoma, 91, 91, 36, 37, 70, 86, 108; structure, 91 f., 92; development and life-history, 93, 94; occurrence, 94; P. aherniosum, 94; P. atlanticum, 94; P. elegans, 94; P. excelsior, 95; P. giganteum, 94; P. minatum, 94; P. spinosum, 94 Pyrosomatidae, 91, 81, 110 Pyrrhulina, 575 Pythonichthys, 605
Quinnat Salmon, 566, 569
Raad, 591 Raconda, 563 Racovitzaia, 706 Räderorgan, 129 Raffaele, 614 n. Rag-Fishes, 644 Raia, 461; dermal spines, 184; pectoral fin, 243; teeth, 251; spiral valve, 265, 266; inter-renal bodies, 347; electric organs, 365; distribution, 461; coloration, 461; sexual dimorphism, 462; R. abyssicola, 462; R. alba, 462; R. batis, 462; R. circularis, 462; R. clavata, 462; R. fullonica, 462; R. macrorhynchus, 462; R. maculata, 267, 462; R. mamillidens, 462; R. microcellata, 462; R. murrayi, 461; R. oxyrhynchus, 462; R. radiata, 462 Raiidae, 461 Ramsay, 635 Raniceps, 648 Ranzania, 727 Rasbora, 582 Rathbunella, 661 Rays = Raia, q.v. Rectal gland, 276 Red-currant Squirter, 74 Red Mullets, 665 Regalecus, 715; R. banksii, prehensile tail, 163; R. glesne, 715 Regan, 542, 595 n., 643 n., 646, 702, 721 Reinhardt, 579, 594 Remora, 691; cephalic sucker, 161; R. brachyptera, 691 Renal organ, of Ascidians, 54; of Fishes—see Kidneys Reproductive organs, of Hemichordata, 16, 25; of Tunicata, 55, 67, 76, 93, 97, 105; of Amphioxus, 129; of Fishes, 402 f., 400, 403 Respiration, mechanism of, 288 Respiratory organs—Elasmobranchii, 276, 278; Cyclostomata, 279, 280, 281; Holocephali, 282, 283; Teleostomi, 282, 283; Dipnoi, 285, 286; mechanism of respiration, 288; larval gills, 289, 290; air-bladder as a respiratory organ, 291; accessory organs of respiration, 292, 293, 294, 295 Retropinna, 566, 565 Retzius, 113 Rhabdocynthia, 75; spicules, 87 Rhabdopleura, 21 f., 5, 26 f.; R. compacta, 23; R. grimaldii, 23; R. manubialis, 23; R. normani, 22, 23, 26 Rhachicentridae, 677, 676 Rhachicentrum, 678 Rhamphichthys, 579 Rhamphocottidae, 697, 694 Rhamphocottus richardsonii, 697 Rhamphognathus, 640 Rhamphosternarchus, 579; R. curvirostris, 580; R. tamandua, 580 Rhamphosus, 633 Rhina, 457; R. squatina, 456, 457 Rhineaster, 589 Rhinelepis, 595 Rhinellus, 611 Rhinichthys, 582 Rhinidae, 456, 458; persistent nephrostomes, 401 Rhinobatidae, 460, 458 Rhinobatus, 460; R. granulatus, 460 Rhinodon, 454; R. typicus, gill-rakers, 287 Rhinodontidae, 454 Rhinodoras, 359 Rhinogobio, 582 Rhinoptera, 465, 466 Rhipidistia, 477 n. {754} Rhizodontidae, 478, 202 Rhizodopsis, 479, 228; R. sauroides, skull, 478 Rhizodus, 478, 202 Rhodeus, 582; R. amarus, 584; oviducal tubes, 408; embryos in gill-cavities of Unio, 416 Rhodichthys, 712 Rhodosoma, 73; R. callense, 72 Rhombatractus, 639 Rhomboidichthys, 687 Rhombosolea, 687 Rhombus, 687, 264; R. aculeatus, 262; R. maximus, 264, 275 —see also Psetta Rhyacichthys, 689 Rhynchobatus, 460 Rhynchobdella, 717 Rhynchodus, 468 Rhypticus, 660 Ribbon-Fish, 715, 152, 160 Ribs, 205 Ridewood, 542 n. Rita, 588; R. crucigera, 303 Ritter, 8 n., 39, 83, 690 n. Rivulus, 616 Rocklings, 649, 288 Rohde, 113 Rohteichthys, 582 Rolph, 113 Rondeletia, 614 Rosette-organ, 97 Roule, 38 Rowntree, 579 n., 621 n. Rudder-Fish, 643 Ruvettus, 679 Ryder, 711 n.
Saccarius, 720 Sacchi, 696 n. Saccobranchus, 588, 590; air-sacs, 295; S. fossilis, 295; S. singio, 295 Saccodon, 576 Saccopharyngidae, 603 Saccopharynx, 604; S. ampullaceus, 604 Sachs, 581 n. Sagemehl, 542, 573, 575, 579 n., 586 n., 649 n. Sagenodus, 507 Sail-Fishes, 679 Salanx, 566 Salarias, 709, 710 Salensky, 39, 411 Salminus, 575; S. orbignianus, 578 Salmo, 565, 566 f., 567, 290; pyloric caeca, 275; spiracles in the embryo, 283; pseudobranch, 284; S. alpinus, 567; S. fario, 567; caudal portion of the vertebral column, 237; pectoral girdle, 240; dissection to show the internal organs, 255; brain, 375; section of the eye, 394; S. fontinalis, 567; S. irideus, 567; S. salar (Salmon), 567, 323; skull, 211 f., 212, 213, 214; kidneys, gonoducts, and abdominal pores in the female, 405, 406; deposition of eggs, 415; length of hatching, 417; S. salvelinus, pectoral fin, 243; S. stomachicus, gizzard, 260; S. trutta, 567 Salmon, 566 f.—see also Salmo salar. Salmonidae, 565, 544, 269; distribution, 566; liver, 272; abdominal pores, 402; oviducts, 405; eggs, 411 Salmopercae, 620 Salpa, 101, 36, 37; arrangement of zooids, 102, 103; structure, 104, 105; alternation of generations, 105; development and life-history, 106; classification, 108; S. democratica-mucronata, young, 107; S. hexagona, 106; S. pinnata, endostyle and stolon, 103; S. runcinata-fusiformis, 102, 108 —see also Cyclosalpa, Iasis, Pegea, and Thalia Salpians, 64 Salpidae, 101, 39, 110 Salvelinus, 567 Sand-Eel, 639, 275 Sander, 659 Sarcodaces, 575 Sarda, 678; S. orientalis, caudal fin of, 675 Sardine, 564 Sardinioides, 611 Sardinius, 611 Sargus, 665 Sars, G. O., 21, 23 Sars, M., 21 Saurenchelys, 601 Saurida, 611 Saurie, 638 Saurocephalus, 561 Saurodon, 561 Saurodontidae, 561, 544 Saurogobio, 582 Sauropsida, 145 Saurus, 611 Saury Pike, 411 Savi's vesicles, 384 Savigny, 36 Saw-Fishes, 457, 459 Scabbard-Fish, 679 Scales, 185 f.; Acipenser ruthenus, 187; Antennarius hispidus, 191; Balistes capriscus, 191; Centriscus scolopax, 190; Hypostoma commersonii, 192; Lepidosteus, 188; L. osseus, 186; Monacanthus scopas, 191; Salmo fario, 190; as an index of age, 191 Scapanorhynchus, 453 Scaphirhynchus, 495; S. platyrhynchus, 495 Scaridae, 674, 651, 654 Scarus, 674; {755} teeth, 251; S. strongylocephalus, pharyngeal bones, 674 Scatophagus, 668 Scaumenacia, 506, 519 Schilbe, 588 Schilbichthys, 588 Schimkewitsch, 21 n. Schizocardium, 17, 5, 6, 13, 14; S. brasiliense, 6, 13, 14 Schizothorax, 582 Schlosser and Ellis, 36 Schmidt, 705 n. Schmidt, C., 37 Schnapper, 665 Schultz, 29, 30 Sciades, 588 Sciaena, 663; S. aquila, 663, 362, 361 Sciaenidae, 663, 653, 361, 363; branching of the air-bladder, 303 Scissor, 575 Sclerocottus, 698 Sclerodermi, 722 f., 721, 357 Sclerognathus, 581 Scleropages, 555; S. leichardti, 556, 558 Scleroparei, 692 f., 651, 652 Sclerorhynchus, 460 Scoliodon, 448 Scolopsis, 664 Scomber, 678, 272; S. brachyurus, 357; S. colias, 302; S. pneumatophorus, 302; S. scombrus, 678, 275, 302; coloration, 168 Scombramphodon, 678 Scombresoces, 636 n. Scombresocidae, 637, 636 Scombresox, 638, 411 Scombridae, 678, 676, 158, 303, 412 Scombriformes, 675 f., 651, 652 Scombrinus, 678 Scombroclupea, 563 Scombrocottus, 697 Scombrocypris, 582 Scombrops, 660 Scopelarchus, 611 Scopelengys, 611 Scopelidae, 611, 606, 302, 396; photophores, 178 Scopelogadus, 656 Scopeloides, 611 Scopelosaurus, 611 Scopelus, 611, 613, 620; S. benoitii, photophores, 178, 179, 181; S. crocodilus, 612 Scorpaena, 695, 693; S. grandicornis, 695 Scorpaenichthys, 698; S. marmoratus, pectoral arch of, 693 Scorpaenidae, 694, 692, 153, 418 Scorpaenoides, 695 Scorpididae, 666, 651, 652, 653 Scorpis, 666 Scyllaemus, 565 Scylliidae, 446, 401, 402; fossil, 447 Scylliogaleus, 449 Scylliorhinus—see Scyllium profundorum Scyllium, 446, 198, 271, 446; dermal denticles, 184; teeth in embryo, 249; internal organs, 253; spleen, 343; fossil, 447; S. canescens, 447; S. canicula, 446; vertebral column, 193, 194, 195; skull, 207 f., 208; spiral valve, 267; liver, 273; pancreas, 273; lateral veins, 318 n.; brain, 373; abdominal pores, 401; oviparous, 433; attachment of eggs, 434; supra- and inter-renal bodies, 346, 433; S. catulus, 446; S. (Scylliorhinus) profundorum, 447 Scymnus, 455, 456; vertebral column, 198 Scyphophori, 543 Scytalina, 712 Sea-Breams, 664 Sea-Horse, 634, 154, 163, 361, 362 Sea-Snails, 699, 411 Sebastes, 695, 692, 693; S. norvegicus, 419; S. percoides, pectoral arch, 693 Sectator, 657 Seeliger, 39 Selache (Cetorhinus), 453, 264; fossil, 454; S. aurata, gill-rakers, 287; S. maxima, 453; gill-rakers as a plankton-filter, 287; distribution and food, 453, 454 Selachii, 442, 148 Selachophidium, 712 Selene, 677 Selenichthyes, 627, 629 Semionotidae, 497 Semionotus, 498 Semiophorus, 677 Semiplotus, 582 Semon, 510, 593 Semper, 625 Sense-organs, of Ascidians, 53; of Amphioxus, 128; of Fishes, 383 Seriola, 677 Seriolella, 643 Seriolichthys, 677 Serranidae, 659, 651, 652, 653, 361, 389 Serraninae, 659 Serranus, 659, 660; hermaphroditism, 420; S. cabrilla, 660, 420; S. hepatus, 660, 420; S. scriba, 660, 420 Serrasalmo, 576; S. niger, 578; S. rhombeus, mouth, 577 Serrasalmoninae, 576 Serrivomer, 603 Setarches, 695 Sexual dimorphism, 419 f., 432, 462, 469, 471, 483, 500 Shad, 564 Shape of the body, in Fishes, 152 Sheep's-Head, 665 Shipley, 20 n. Sicyases, 709; S. sanguineus, 708; sucker, 162 Sicydium, 689 {756} Siel-Smelt, 569 Sik, 568 Sillaginidae, 662, 653 Sillago, 662 Silondia, 588 Siluranodon, 588 Silurichthys, 588 Siluridae, 586, 575, 163, 251, 275, 283; barbels, 154; intestinal respiration, 292; accessory respiratory organs, 293, 294; air-bladder, 302, 303, 305; sound-production, 356-361, 363; connexion of the air-bladder and auditory organ, 389, 390; nests, 416; protection of young, 593 Silurinae, 588 Silurodon, 588 Silurus, 588, 342; S. glanis, 592, 593, 358 Silvestri, 594 Simenchelys, 601; S. parasiticus, 603 Simple Ascidians, 35, 36 f., 39 f., 70, 71, 110 Siniperca, 659 Siphons, 43, 53 Siphonognathus, 674 Siphonostoma, 634; S. typhle, protective coloration, 172 Sirenoidei, 149 Sisor, 588, 589 Skates = Raia, q.v. Skeleton, of Enteropneusta, 14; of Amphioxus, 119; of Fishes, 193 f. Skin, of Cyclostomata, 182; of Fishes, 182 Skull, composition of, 206; development, 206; Scyllium canicula, 207, 208; Salmo salar, 211, 212, 213, 214; Cyclostomata, 216 f.; Petromyzon marinus, 216 f., 217; Bdellostoma, 220 f., 220, 221; Elasmobranchii, 222 f.; Notidanus cinereus, 222; Chimaera monstrosa, 223; Chondrostei, 224 f.; Sturgeon, 224; Polyodon, 225; Crossopterygii, 226 f.; Polypterus, 227; Holostei, 228 f.; Teleostei, 229 f.; Dipnoi, 231 f.; Protopterus, 231 f., 232; Lepidosiren, 231 f., 233 Sluiter, 38 Smelt, 568, 411 Smitt, 569 n., 714 n. Social Ascidians, 71 Sole, 687 Solea, 687, 685; S. vulgaris, 686, 687 Solenocytes, 29, 126, 127 Solenognathus, 634 Solenorhynchus, 634 Solenostomidae, 633, 626, 627, 628; marsupial pouches, 416 Solenostomus, 633 Soleotalpa, 687 Sollas, I., 522 Sollas, W. J., 522 Sörensen, 355, 590 n. Sorubim, 588, 361 Sosia, 588 Sound-producing organs, 355 f. Spalt-papillen, 384 Spaniodon, 563, 564 n. Sparidae, 664, 654, 303, 389; teeth, 251 Sparisoma, 674 Sparnodus, 665 Sparus, 665; S. unicolor, 665 Spathiurus, 545 Spathodactylus, 561 Spengel, 5, 7, 8, 13 n., 16, 17, 18 n., 19 Spengelia, 17, 5, 6 Spermatozoa, 413 Sphaerodon, 665 Sphenacanthus, 445 Sphenocephalus, 656 Sphyraena, 642 Sphyraenidae, 642, 637 Sphyraenodus, 678 Sphyrna, 449, 153; liver, 272; fossil, 450; distribution, 449; S. malleus, 266; spiral valve, 266, 267; S. tiburo, 450; S. tudes, 449; S. zygaena, 450 Sphyrnidae, 449 Spinacanthus, 723 Spinachia, 630; S. vulgaris, 631 Spinacidae, 454; photophores, 179; fossil, 456 Spinal cord, 367 Spinal nerves, 378 Spinax, 455 Spinivomer, 603 Spiny Dog-Fishes, 455 Spiracle, 279, 283 Spiracular pseudobranch, 279, 284; in Teleostomi, 284; blood supply, 335 Spiral valve, 264 f. Spix, 558 n. Spleen, 342 Spoon-Bill, 491; = Polyodon, q.v. Sprat, 564 Squaliobarbus, 582 Squaloraia, 468 Squaloraiidae, 468 Star-gazers, 155 Starks, 627 n. Steatogenys, 579 Steenstrup, 36, 685 n. Stegophilus, 589; S. insidiosus, 594 Stegostoma, 446; S. tigrinum, 446 Steindachneria, 647 Steinegeria, 682 Stenodus, 565 Stephanoberycidae, 619, 606 Stephanoberyx, 619; S. gillii, 620; S. monae, 620 Stereobalanus, 17, 5; S. canadensis, 16, 17 Stereolepis, 659, 660 Sterlet, 493 Sternarchus, 579; {757} S. albifrons, 580; S. macrostoma, 580 Sternoptychinae, 571 Sternoptyx, 571; S. diaphana, 571, 178 Sternopygus, 579 Stichonodon, 575 Sticklebacks, 630, 163, 169, 288, 354, 357 Stigmata, 47; of Appendicularians, 67; of Cyclomyaria, 95 Stigmatophorus, 634, 635 Stolon, 71, 93, 95, 97, 103 Stolonial budding, 81 Stomatorhinus microps, 551 Stomias, 571, 572 Stomiatidae, 570, 545; photophores, 178 Stomiatinae, 571 Stomodaeum, 59, 120, 136 Storms, 691 n. Stratodus, 623 Strepsodus, 479 Stridulation, 356 Stromateidae, 643, 637 Stromateoides, 643 Stromateus, 643 Sturgeon, 154, 334, 493; = Acipenser, q.v. Styela, 74, 76; branchial sac, 74; S. bythia, 76; S. clava, 76; S. etheridgii, dorsal tubercle, 79; S. squamosa, 76; S. whiteleggii, dorsal tubercle, 79 Styelinae, 74; tentacles, 75 Styelopsis, 74; branchial sac, 74; S. grossularia, 74, 76 Stygicola, 713 Stygogenes, 595 Stylophorus, 716 Sucker-Fish (Sucking-Fish), 691, 161 Sudis, 611; S. gigas, air-bladder as a respiratory organ, 291 Sun-Fish, 657 (Lepomis); 727 (Orthagoriscus)—see also Orthagoriscus Supra-pericardial organs, 344 Supra-renal bodies, 346, 346 Surf-Fishes, 670 Swinnerton, 573, 627, 636 n. Sword-Fish, 681, 154 Symbranchidae, 597, 283, 294 Symbranchii, 597 f. Symbranchus, 597, 598, 156 Symphurus, 687 Symphysodon, 672 Synagris, 664 Synagrops, 659 Synancia, 695; S. verrucosa, poison-glands, 177 Synaphobranchidae, 603 Synaphobranchus, 603 Synapticula, 13, 12, 122 Synaptura, 687 Synascidiae, 80, 35 Synchirus, 698 Synechodus, 445 Syngnathidae, 634, 627, 628, 163, 205, 251, 354, 361, 416; colours, 166; protective coloration, 172 Syngnathus, 634, 627, 635; mouth, 154; S. acus, 262, 271; S. intestinalis, 635; S. pelagicus, 634 Synodontis, 588, 590, 359; S. batensoda, 591; S. decorus, 591; S. membranaceus, 591 Syntegmodus, 549
Tadpole, Ascidian, 59, 62 Taeniolabrus, 706 Taeniosomi, 714 f., 651, 652 Tamiobatidae, 462 Tamiobatis vetustus, 462 Taractes, 682 Tarpon, 547 Tarrasiidae, 477 n. Tarrasius problematicus, 477 n. Tattersall, 137 n. Tauredophidium, 712, 713 Tauroglossus, 17 n. Tautoga, 673 Taylor, 599 n. Tectospondylic, 198 Teleostei, 504, 541 f.; classification, 542, 543, 149 Teleostomi, 475 f., 149 Telepholis, 615 Telescope Fish, 585 Telescops, 659 Tellia, 616 Telmatherina, 639 Telolecithal, 409, 410 Tench, 583, 171, 260, 320, 321 Tentacles, of Ascidians, 44; of Amphioxus, 116 Test, 40, 63; of Appendicularians, 65 Testa-cells, 56 Tethyum, 36 Tetragonopterus, 575 Tetragonuridae, 642, 637 Tetragonurus cuvieri, 642 Tetranematichthys, 589 Tetrapturus, 680; T. belone, 680 Tetraroge, 695 Tetrodon, 726, 152, 354, 361; warning colours, 163; scales, 191; teeth, 251; T. honckenii, 362; T. mbu, pectoral arch of, 722 Tetrodontidae, 726, 722 Tetronarce, 464 Teuthis, 669 Teuthididae, 668, 654 Thalassophryne, 711; T. reticulata, poison glands, 177 Thalassothia, 711 Thaleichthys, 566 Thalia, 108; T. democratica-mucronata, 108 Thaliacea, 95 f., 38, 64, 81, 110 Thaumatostomias, 571 {758} Thaumaturus, 565 Thelodus, 524; T. pagei, 524; T. tulensis, 525 Therapon, 660, 361 Thilo, 682 n. Thoracopterus, 545 Thoracostei, 627, 629 Thread-cells, in Myxinoids, 182 Threpterius, 664 Thresher Shark, 451, 452 Thrissopater, 562 Thrissopatrinae, 562 Thrissops, 546 Thryptodus, 549 Thunnus, 678, 275; T. thynnus, 678 Thursius, 477 Thylacium, 89 Thymallus, 565; T. vexillifer = vulgaris, 568 Thymus, 344, 345 Thyrina, 639 Thyroid gland, 46, 343, 344 Thyrsites, 679 Thyrsitocephalus, 679 Thyrsoidea, 605; T. macrura, 605; T. meleagris, skull, 604 Tilapia, 671; T. dardennii, 671; T. dolloi, 152 Tile-Fish, 661 Tinca, 582; T. vulgaris, 583, 171, 260, 320; renal portal system, 320, 321 Titanichthys, 537 Todaro, 39 Tongue, 252 Tongue-bars, 12, 12, 13, 120, 135 Tope, 449 Tornaria, 18, 18 f., 28, 31; T. agassizii, 21; T. grenacheri, 19; T. krohni, 19 Torpedinidae, 462 Torpedo, 463; electric organs, 365, 366; T. hebetans, 463; T. marmorata, 463; T. narce, 463; T. ocellata, 463 Toxotes, 658; T. jaculator, 658 Toxotidae, 658, 653 Trachelochismus, 709 Trachelyopterus, 589, 361 Trachichthys, 656, 655 Trachinidae, 704, 703 Trachinops, 659 Trachinus, 704; warning colours, 174; poison-glands and spines, 176; T. draco, 705, 176; pectoral arch of, 703; T. vipera, 705, 176 Trachyglanis, 588 Trachynotus, 677 Trachypoma, 659 Trachypteridae, 715, 152 Trachypterus, 715; T. arcticus, 715; T. iris, 715; T. taenia, 160 Trachyrhynchus, 647 Traquair, 436, 523, 530, 537, 687 n. Traustedt, 38, 101 n. Tremataspidae, 530 Tremataspis, 530 Trematomus, 706 Tremblador, 580 Triacanthidae, 722, 721 Triacanthodes, 722 Triacanthus, 722; scales, 190; sound-production, 357; T. biaculeatus, 361; T. brevirostris, 361; pectoral arch of, 722 Trichiurichthys, 679 Trichiuridae, 679, 676 Trichiurus, 679 Trichodon, 663 Trichodontidae, 663, 654, 704 Trichogaster, 669, 293 Trichomycterinae, 589 Trichomycterus, 589 Trichonotidae, 706 Trichonotus, 706 Trigger-Fishes, 724, 174, 357 Trigla (Gurnards), 701, 693; liver, 272; air-bladder, 305; sound-production, 361, 363; T. cuculus, 701, 363; T. gurnardus, 701, 363; rectal valve, 254; T. hirundo, 701, 363; T. lineata, 701; T. lyra, 701, 363; T. obscura, 701 Triglidae, 700, 694; coloration, 164; sounds, 361, 363 Triglops, 698 Triglopsis, 697 Trigonodon, 665 Triodon, 723, 721; T. bursarius, 723 Triodontidae, 723, 721 Triplophos, 571 Tripterophycis, 648 Trissolepis, 487 Tristichopterus, 478; T. alatus, 479 Tristychius, 445 Troglichthys rosae, 619 Tropheus, 671 Trophozooid, 98, 100 Tropidichthys, 726 Troschel, 682 n. Trout, 566 f., 567; Brook-, 567; Brown, 567; Gillaroo, 260; Sea-, 567 Trumpet-Fish, 154 Trunk-Fishes, 724 Trygon, 464; spines, 177; uterine nutrition, 434; T. pastinaca, 464; T. sabina, 464 Trygonidae, 464, 465 Trygonorhina, 460, 461 Trypauchen, 689 Trypauchenichthys, 689 Tunic, 63 Tunicata, 63, 35, 36 f., 39, 4, 30 n.; affinities, 62; external form, 64 Tunicine, 37 Tunny, 678, 678 Turbot, 687 Turner, 593 n. Twait Shad, 564 {759} Typhlichthys, 618; T. rosae, 619; T. subterraneus, 619 Typhlogobius, 689, 394; T. californiensis, 690 Typhlonus, 712, 713; T. nasus, 712 Typhlosole, 54
Uljanin, 39 Ulocentra, 659 Umbra, 609; U. crameri, 610; U. limi, 610 Umbrina, 663; U. cirrhosa, 361 Undina, 481, 161; U. gulo, 480 Unio, Rhodeus in, 584 Upeneichthys, 665 Upeneoides, 665 Upeneus, 665 Uranoscopidae, 706, 703 Uranoscopus, 706; eyes, 155 Urenchelys, 601 Urocampus, 634 Urochord, 66 Urochordata, 4, 63, 38 Uroconger, 601 Urogymnus, 464 Urolepis, 487 Urolophus, 464 Uronemidae, 507 Uronemus, 507, 519 Urosphen, 632 Ussoff, 38
Vaillant, 596 n., 621 n., 720 n. Vallentin, R., 608 Vandellia, 589; V. cirrhosa, entering urethra, 593 Vascular system, 313 f.; general, 313; Cyclostomata, 315, 327, 329, 330; Elasmobranchii, 316, 318, 327, 328, 330, 331, 333, 334; Teleostomi, 319, 320, 321, 322, 328, 333, 335, 336, 337; Dipnoi, 323, 324, 326, 329, 338, 340; blood, 341; blood-glands, 342 Velum, 120 Vendace, 568 Venous system, 315 f. Vermiform process, of Enteropneusta, 14, 17 Vertebral column, 193 f.; Scyllium canicula, 193, 194, 195; Cyclostomata, 197; Elasmobranchs, 197, 198; Chimaera monstrosa, 199; Dipnoi, 199; Chondrostei, 200; Acipenser sturio, 200; Crossopterygii, Holostei, and Teleostei, 201 f.; Amia, 201, 203; Lepidosteus, 201, 204; Caturus furcatus, 203; Eurycormus speciosus, 203; Gadus morrhua, 205 Vertebrates, characters of, 3 f. Vessels, of Ascidians, 41—see also Vascular system Vidalia, 546 Vipan, 592 Vireosa, 689 Visceral arches, 207 Viviparous Fishes, 418 f., 433, 435 Vogt, 37 Vomeropsis, 677 Vulsus, 707
Wagner, 595 n. Waite, 643 Walking-Fish, 690 Wallago, 588 Warington, 630 n. Watase, 585 n. Weber, E. H., 573 Weber, Max, 661 Weberian ossicles, 389, 573 f. Weevers, 704, 174 Weiss, 568 (= Coregonus) Weiss, F. E., 126 Wels, 593 Wertheimeria, 588 Wetterfisch, 585 Whiff, 687 Whip-tailed Rays, 464 Whitebait, 564, 608 White-Fish, 568, 569 Whiting, 649, 168, 275 Whymper, 595 n. Willey, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 n., 15 n., 16, 19 n., 58 n., 113, 633 Willeyia, 17 n. Williamson, 602 n. Wilson, 113 Witch, 687 Wodnika, 445 Wolf-Fishes, 710, 251, 408 Woodward, A. Smith, 458, 477 n., 480 n., 497, 541 n., 542, 543, 622, 624, 626, 680 Wrasses, 673, 164, 166 Wright, Ramsay, 587 Wyman, 593 n., 596 n.
Xanthochroism, 171 Xenichthys, 659 Xenocharax, 576, 578 Xenocypris, 582 Xenocys, 659 Xenodermichthys, 570 Xenomystus, 555 Xenopholis, 498 Xenopteri, 708 Xenopterus, 726 Xenotilapia, 671 Xiphasia, 709 Xiphias, 681; beak, 154; X. gladius, 681 Xiphiidae, 681, 676 Xiphiorhynchus, 680 Xiphistes, _709 Xiphostoma_, 576 {760} Xiphostominae, 576
Yarrell, 112
Zalocys, 677 Zanclus, 668 Zaniolepis, 696 Zapteryx, 460 Zeidae, 683, 361 Zenion, 683 Zeorhombi, 682 f., 651, 652 Zeugopterus, 687 Zeus, 683; Z. faber, 683, 361, 363; red gland, 308 Zoarces, 712, 713; Z. viviparus, 419 Zoarcidae, 712, 704, 361, 395 Zograf, 697 n. Zygaena, 449
END OF VOL. VII
Printed by R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, Edinburgh.
THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY
Edited by S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, Superintendent of the University Museum of Zoology; and A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, University Lecturer on the Morphology of Invertebrates.
To be completed in Ten Volumes. 8vo. 17s. net each.
Intended in all respects to be a Standard Natural History accurate enough to be of use to the Student, and at the same time popular enough for the general reader who desires trustworthy information as to the structure and habits of all members of the Animal Kingdom, from the Protozoa to the Mammals. The Volumes are fully illustrated by original figures drawn where possible from nature. When complete the Series is one which should be indispensable in all Libraries, whether public or private.
WORMS, LEECHES, ETC.
VOLUME II.
FLAT WORMS. By F. W. GAMBLE, M.Sc. Vict., Owens College.—NEMERTINES. By Miss L. SHELDON, Newnham College, Cambridge.—THREAD-WORMS, ETC. By A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.—ROTIFERS. By MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., Trinity College, Cambridge, D.Sc. Lond., Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork.—POLYCHAET WORMS. By W. BLAXLAND BENHAM, D.Sc., Hon. M.A. Oxon., Professor of Biology in the University of Otago.—EARTH-WORMS AND LEECHES. By F. E. BEDDARD, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Prosector to the Zoological Society, London.—GEPHYREA, ETC. By A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge.—POLYZOA. By S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
CAMBRIDGE REVIEW.—"Several of the groups treated of in this volume are unknown by sight even, to the general reader, and possess no popular name whatsoever; and as only a few insignificant details are known of the habits of the animals composing them, their treatment in the volume before us has necessarily been to a large extent anatomical. This circumstance renders the book of especial value to students, more particularly as in some cases the articles on the groups in question are the first comprehensive ones dealing with their respective subjects.... Most of the articles are of a very high order of merit—taken as a whole, it may be said that they are by far the best which have as yet been published.... We may say with confidence that the same amount of information, within the same compass, is to be had in no other zoological work."
NATURAL SCIENCE.—"This second volume of the Cambridge Natural History is certain to prove a most welcome addition to English Zoological literature. It deals with a series of animal groups, all deeply interesting to the specialist in morphology; some important from their economic relations to other living things, others in their life-histories rivalling the marvels of fairy-tales. And the style in which they are here treated is also interesting; history and the early observations of the older writers lend their charm; accounts of habits and mode of occurrence, of life, in a word, from the cradle to the grave, are given in ample detail, accompanied by full references to modern and current literature. The whole is admirably illustrated."
SHELLS
VOLUME III.
MOLLUSCS AND BRACHIOPODS. By the Rev. A. H. COOKE, M.A., A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., and F. R. C. REED, M.A.
TIMES.—"There are very many, not only among educated people who take an interest in science, but even among specialists, who will welcome a work of reasonable compass and handy form containing a trustworthy treatment of the various departments of Natural History by men who are familiar with, and competent to deal with, the latest results of scientific research. Altogether, to judge from this first volume, the Cambridge Natural History promises to fulfil all the expectations that its prospectus holds out."
FIELD.—"We know of no book available to the general reader which affords such a vast fund of information on the structure and habits of molluscs."
KNOWLEDGE.—"If succeeding volumes are like this one, the Cambridge Natural History will rank as one of the finest works on natural history ever published."
ATHENÆUM.—"The series certainly ought not to be restricted in its circulation to lecturers and students only; and, if the forthcoming volumes reach the standard of the one here under notice, the success of the enterprise should be assured."
INSECTS AND CENTIPEDES
VOLUME V.
PERIPATUS. By ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S.—MYRIAPODS. By F. G. SINCLAIR, M.A.—INSECTS. Part I. By DAVID SHARP, M.A. Cantab., M.B. Edin., F.R.S.
FIELD.—"Although written for the student and the specialist, the book is not the less adapted to all intelligent readers who wish to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the habits, structure, and the modern classification of the animals of which it treats. To such it cannot be recommended too strongly."
SCIENCE GOSSIP.—"Every library, school, and college in the country should possess this work, which is of the highest educational value."
Prof. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F.R.S., F.C.S., in his Presidential Address to the Entomological Society of London, said:—"The authors of this volume are certainly to be congratulated upon having furnished such a valuable contribution to our literature. When its successor appears, and I will venture to express the hope that this will be at no very distant period, we shall be in possession of a treatise on the natural history of insects which, from the point of view of the general reader, will compare most favourably with any similar work that has been published in the English language."
ENTOMOLOGIST'S MONTHLY MAGAZINE.—"We venture to think the work will be found indispensable to all who seek to extend their general knowledge beyond the narrowing influence of exclusive attention to certain orders or groups, and that it will take a high position in 'The Cambridge Natural History' series."
INSECTS—PART II.
VOLUME VI.
HYMENOPTERA continued (TUBULIFERA AND ACULEATA), COLEOPTERA, STREPSIPTERA, LEPIDOPTERA, DIPTERA, APHANIPTERA, THYSANOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, ANOPLURA. By DAVID SHARP, M.A., F.R.S.
SATURDAY REVIEW.—"Dr. Sharp's treatment is altogether worthy of the series and of his own high scientific reputation. But in a work of this sort it is not only necessary that information should be accurate, but also that it shall be presented to the eye, so far as illustrations and printing are concerned, in such a way as to render its matter as easily intelligible as possible, and readily usable for purposes of reference. Under both these heads we have nothing but commendation for Mr. Sharp's treatise. The illustrations are indeed beautiful, and the use of the heavy type for the headings of the various sections and leading paragraphs materially helps the reader in the progress of his study. Certainly this is a book that should be in every entomologist's library."
DAILY NEWS.—"It would be hard to say too much in praise of this most admirable volume. It is too often the case that scientific books are written in a dull and uninteresting style. The reader will find nothing of that kind to complain of here. The descriptions are clear, the illustrations are excellent; while, as in the previous volumes of the series, printing and paper are all that could be desired."
FISHES
VOLUME VII.
HEMICHORDATA. By S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S. ASCIDIANS AND AMPHIOXUS. By W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. FISHES. By T. W. BRIDGE, Sc.D., F.R.S., and G. A. BOULENGER, F.R.S.
AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES
VOLUME VIII.
By HANS GADOW, M.A., F.R.S.
FIELD.—"The work is worthy of the series in which it appears, and we cannot give it higher praise."
SCIENCE GOSSIP.—"More than maintains the high scientific reputation of this series. The herpetologists, or students of the Amphibia and Reptiles, have now a standard work of the highest class."
LANCET.—"An account of both Amphibia and Reptiles which should satisfy the expert, and at the same time entertain the reader who is merely interested in the tit-bits of natural history.... A book full of accurate information and pleasant reading."
MORNING POST.—"A delightful as well as a serviceable book.... Herein perhaps lies the great charm and merit of Dr. Gadow's book, that, while satisfying all the inquiries of the student, it is also in great part written for the ordinary intelligence, and the naturalist in the crowd may, while necessarily gliding over distressing technicalities, find in its pages many hours of profitable and entertaining study of the habits of the classes under notice."
NATURE.—"In concluding the review we would express the opinion that by this handsome volume a very important addition to science has been made; that the beautiful illustrations, together with the clear and charming accounts of the life-histories which it contains, will do much to popularise the study of a rather neglected section of zoology; and that lovers of Reptiles, of which there are more than one generally thinks, will feel that the new knowledge imparted to them emanates from one who is thoroughly in sympathy with their enthusiasm."
BIRDS
VOLUME IX.
By A. H. EVANS, M.A., Clare College, Cambridge. With numerous Illustrations by G. E. LODGE.
IBIS.—"Mr. Evans has produced a book full of concentrated essence of information on birds, especially as regards their outer structure and habits, and one that we can cordially recommend as a work of reference to all students of ornithology."
NATURE NOTES.—"We venture to predict that, of the ten volumes of which this excellent series is planned to consist, none will secure a wider popularity than Mr. Evans's treatise on birds. Strange as it may appear, among the many books on birds that have appeared of late years, we do not recall any that covers the same ground.... We are grateful to the author for the mine of valuable information which he has crowded between his two covers."
SCIENCE GOSSIP.—"General readers will find this work most useful in obtaining a proper understanding of birds, and will be assisted by the effective diagram of a hawk in the introduction, showing the recognised names of every part of the exterior appearance. The expressions used in naming the various portions are fully explained on the adjoining page. As we have already said, the illustrations are admirable. The book is a useful addition to any library, as it treats of nearly every known kind of bird throughout the world."
SATURDAY REVIEW.—"The expert and the novice alike must be at once delighted by the accuracy and the beauty of the illustrations.... It is astonishing to note the mass of information the author has been able to bring together.... With a little practice any observant person would soon learn by the help of this volume to track down any bird very nearly to its ultimate place in classification."
MAMMALS
VOLUME X.
MAMMALIA. By FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A. Oxon., F.R.S., Vice-Secretary and Prosector of the Zoological Society of London.
NATURE.—"Cannot fail to be of very high value to all students of the Mammalia, especially from the standpoints of morphology and palæontology."
ATHENÆUM.—"Mr. Beddard has produced a volume equal in interest and value to the others in the Cambridge series."
LAND AND WATER.—"A notable book, the result of long study, patient labour, sound reasoning, and careful selection, for which we are deeply indebted to the author."
DAILY NEWS.—"A volume which, for the interest of its contents and for its style and method of treatment, is not only worthy of its predecessors, but may be regarded as one of the most successful of a brilliant series."
KNOWLEDGE.—"In this volume Mr. Beddard has undoubtedly made an important contribution to the history of mammals, his text-book being the only one which can be said to be up to date and to contain notices of the many important types—both recent and fossil—discovered during the last few years."
FIELD.—"Its utility to the working zoological student can hardly be overrated. It is exceedingly well illustrated."
CONCLUDING VOLUMES IN PREPARATION.
VOLUME I.
PROTOZOA, MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., Sc.D., Trinity College (Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork); SPONGES, W. J. SOLLAS, Sc.D., F.R.S., St. John's College (Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford); JELLYFISH, SEA-ANEMONES, ETC., S. J. HICKSON, M.A., F.R.S., Downing College (Beyer Professor of Zoology in the Owens College, Manchester); STAR-FISH, SEA-URCHINS, ETC., E. W. MACBRIDE, M.A., St. John's College (Professor of Zoology, McGill University, Montreal).
VOLUME IV.
SPIDERS, MITES, ETC., C. WARBURTON, M.A., Christ's College (Zoologist to the Royal Agricultural Society); SCORPIONS, TRILOBITES, ETC., M. LAURIE, B.A., King's College, D.Sc. (Edinb.), (Professor of Zoology in St. Mungo's College, Glasgow); PYCNOGONIDS, ETC., D'ARCY W. THOMPSON, C.B., M.A., Trinity College (Professor of Zoology in University College, Dundee); LINGUATULIDA AND TARDIGRADA, A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S.; CRUSTACEA, W. F. R. WELDON, M.A., F.R.S., St. John's College (Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford).
[In the Press.
MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.
----
NOTES
[1] Bateson, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 111.
[2] Gegenbaur, Grundzüge vergl. Anat. 2 ed. 1870, p. 158.
[3] Lankester, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xvii. 1877, p. 448 (= ASPIDOPHORA, Allman, J. Linn. Soc. xiv. 1879, pp. 490 n., 586).
[4] Spengel, Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xv. 1902, p. 209.
[5] Fauna u. Flora G.v. Neapel, 18 Monogr. 1893 (reviewed by MacBride in Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxvi. 1894, p. 385); Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xviii. Pt. ii. 1903, p. 271.
[6] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 208; xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 81; xxvi 1886, pp. 511, 535.
[7] Zool. Results, Part iii. Cambridge, 1899, p. 223.
[8] = 1 inch.
[9] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 209.
[10] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 91.
[11] Pouchet, C. R. Ac. Sci. cii. 1886, p. 272.
[12] Kowalevsky, Mém. Ac. St. Petersb. (7) x. No. 3, 1866, p. 7.
[13] Spengel, Monogr. p. 474.
[14] Zool. Res. Pt. iii. 1899, p. 256.
[15] See also Ritter, Biol. Bull. iii. 1902, p. 255.
[16] Zool. Res. iii. 1899, pp. 273, 280.
[17] Morgan, J. Morphol. v. 1891, p. 422; ix. 1894, pp. 44, 48, 72.
[18] Willey, Zool. Res. Pt. iii. 1899, p. 245.
[19] Zool Res. Pt. iii. p. 228.
[20] Spengel, Monogr. pp. 179, 187; Willey, Zool. Res. iii. p. 236.
[21] Willey.
[22] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 601; xliii. 1900, p. 351.
[23] Monogr. p. 684, Pl. xxvi. Figs. 14-18; see also Willey, Zool. Res. iii. p. 245, and Dawydoff, Zoolog. Anz. xxv. 1902, p. 551.
[24] Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xv. 1902, p. 209. The Harrimaniidae = Balanoglossus of the Monograph (1893): Glossobalanus = Ptychodera, s.str., 1893: Balanoglossus = Tauroglossus, 1893: Ptychodera = Chlamydothorax, 1893.
[25] Punnett ("Enteropneusta," in Gardiner's Fauna and Geogr. Maldive and Laccadive Arch. ii. Pt. ii. 1903) finds small liver-sacs in Spengelia, and describes Willeyia, a new genus of Glandicipitidae.
[26] Exc. G. ruficollis, Willey.
[27] Spengel, Monogr. p. 370 f.
[28] Cf. Spengel, Monogr. p. 363 f.
[29] Bourne, J. Mar. Biol. Ass. (N.S.), i. 1889-90, p. 63.
[30] This closely resembles T. grenacheri, but see Willey, op. cit. p. 285.
[31] Haldeman, Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. vi. No. 54, 1886, p. 45.
[32] For Vertebrates see Shipley, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxvii. 1887, p. 340.
[33] The largest known eggs are those of Harrimania kupfferi (1.3 mm.). The eggs of Dolichoglossus kowalevskii measure .37 mm., while the youngest Tornaria found by Morgan, already transparent and with their tissues distended by water, were only about two-thirds that size.
[34] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 208; xxv. Suppl. 1885, p. 81; xxvi. 1886, pp. 511, 535.
[35] Agassiz, Bourne, Spengel, Morgan (in T. agassizii).
[36] Morgan (in Balanoglossus biminiensis).
[37] A similar shrinkage takes place in the metamorphosis of the larva (Leptocephalus) of Eels, as has been shown by Grassi, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxxix. 1897, p. 374.
[38] Schimkewitsch, Zool. Anz. xi. 1888, p. 283; Morgan, J. Morphol. ix. 1894, p. 60; Punnett (op. cit. p. 661) believes that they are ectodermal.
[39] Allman's name (Quart. J. Micr. Sci. ix. 1869, p. 57 f.) replaces that given by Sars, because the latter gave no description by which the organism could be recognised.
[40] "Remarkable forms of Animal Life," i. Christiania Univ.-Program for the first half-year, 1869; and Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xiv. 1874, p. 23.
[41] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxiv. 1884, p. 622.
[42] Proc. Roy. Soc. lii. 1893, p. 132; Festschr. 70 ten. Geburtstage R. Leuckarts, 4to, Leipzig, 1892, p. 293.
[43] Hincks, Hist. Brit. Marine Polyzoa, vol. i. 1880, p. 581.
[44] Rés. Camp. Sci. Prince de Monaco, Bryozoaires, 1903, p. 23.
[45] Challenger Reports, Part lxii. 1887. See also Masterman in _Quart. J. Micr. Sci_. xl. 1898, p. 340; xlvi. 1903, p. 715; _Rep. Brit. Ass_. (1898), 1899, p. 914; Tr. R. Soc. Edinb. xxxix. 1900, p. 507; and the notes in the Zool. Anz. xx. 1897, pp. 342, 443, 505; xxii. 1899, pp. 359, 361; and xxvi. 1903, pp. 368, 593.
[46] Cf. Cole, J. Linn. Soc. xxvii. 1899-1900, p. 256.
[47] Two dorsal portions of this region, which are regarded by Masterman as lateral notochords, appear to me to represent the dorsal part of the pharynx of Ptychodera.
[48] The diameter of a single individual removed from its tube is given by Fowler as .123 mm.
[49] See, however, Conte and Vaney, C. R. Ac. Sci. 135, 1902, pp. 63, 748.
[50] Pp. 450-462.
[51] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 281; xliii. 1900, p. 375; xlv. 1902, p. 485.
[52] Cf. p. 19.
[53] J. Coll. Japan, xiii. Pt. iv. 1901, p. 507.
[54] Arch. Biol. xviii. 1902, p. 495; Wiss. Meeresuntersuch. vi. Abt. Helgoland, Heft 1, 1903.
[55] Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xlvii. Pt. i, 1903, p. 103.
[56] Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lxxv. 1903, pp. 391, 473.
[57] Vol. II. p. 459.
[58] Huxley, in 1877 (Man. Anat. Invert. Animals, p. 674), proposed to unite the Enteropneusta with the Tunicata as Pharyngopneusta, in allusion to the gill-slits connected with the pharynx; but the view was first defended in detail by Bateson.
[59] See, for example, Minot, Amer. Nat. xxxi. 1897, p. 927.
[60] See MacBride, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xl. 1898, p. 589; xliii. 1900, p. 351.
[61] Bury, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxix. 1889, p. 409; xxxviii. 1896, p. 125; MacBride, ibid. xxxviii. p. 395; Masterman, _Tr. R. Soc. Edinb_. xl. Pt. ii. No. 19, 1902, p. 403.
[62] This view was definitely formulated by Metschnikoff in 1881 (Zool. Anz. iv. 1881, pp. 139, 153).
[63] Cf. Morgan, J. Morphol. v. 1891, p. 445; ix. 1894, pp. 64-66.
[64] Cf. Lang, Jena. Zeitschr. xxv. 1891, p. 1.
[65] J. Morphol. ix. p. 72.
[66] Mém. Mus. Paris, ii. 1815.
[67] Mém. s. l. Anim. s. Vert. Pt. ii. Paris, 1816.
[68] Zoologia Danica, iv. 1806.
[69] Hist. Nat. d. Anim. sans Vert. Paris, 1815-1822, t. iii.
[70] Mém. Instit. Paris, xviii. 1842.
[71] Zur vergl. Physiol. Wirbellos. Thiere, Brunswick.
[72] Comptes Rendus, Paris, xxii; and Ann. Sci. Nat. ser. 3 (Zool.) v.
[73] Phil. Trans. 1851; Trans. Linn. Soc. xxiii. 1860.
[74] Mém. Acad. St. Pétersbourg (7), x. 1866.
[75] Mém. Instit. Paris, xviii. 1842.
[76] Arch. mikr. Anat. vi. 1872.
[77] Mém. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genève, xxi. 1872.
[78] Arch. Zool. Expér. i. 1872.
[79] Synascidien der Bucht von Rovigno, Wien, 1883.
[80] Challenger Reports, Tunicata, Part i. vol. vi. 1882; Part ii. vol. xiv. 1886; Part iii. vol. xxvii. 1888.
[81] Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) xi. 1863, p. 153; Journ. Linn. Soc. 1868, etc.
[82] Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, 1875 and 1877.
[83] Arch. Zool. Expér. iii. 1874, and vi. 1877; Mém. Instit. Paris, xlv. 1892.
[84] Vid. Medd. Nat. For. Copenhagen, 1880, 1882, 1884, etc.
[85] Nat. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indie, 1885, etc.
[86] Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xv. xxiii. and xxiv.; Cat. of Tunicata in Australian Museum, 1899; also Challenger Reports (see note 80).
[87] Arch. de Biol. ii.
[88] "The Genus Salpa," Mem. J. Hopkins Univ. 1893.
[89] Zeits. wiss. Zool. 1876, 1878; Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, 1883, etc.
[90] Jen. Zeitschr. 1886, 1888, etc.; also Bronn's Thier-Reich.
[91] Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, 1893 and 1897; and Zeits. wiss. Zool. 1895 and 1896.
[92] Journ. Anat. Phys. Paris, xxi. 1885.
[93] Fauna and Flora G. v. Neapel, Monogr. x. 1884.
[94] These sphincters close the only openings through the tough test so effectually that when collectors are preserving Ascidians in alcohol it is advisable to make one or more slits in the test to allow the sea-water to escape and the spirit to enter.
[95] Except in Cynthiidae and Botryllidae where it is dorsal.
[96] The early stages of Ciona, of which Castle has given a very complete account (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xxvii. No. 7, 1896), differ in some points from those of Ascidia described here.
[97] Possibly the diverticulum may be wholly derived from the neural tube (see Willey, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. 1893).
[98] See Lohmann, Schrift. Naturw. Ver. Schlesw.-Holst. xi. 1899, 347.
[99] Arch. de Biologie, vi. 1887.
[100] See Journ. of Morphology, xii.-xiv. 1896-1898.
[101] Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xxxv. No. 4, 1899, p. 59.
[102] Journ. Morph. xii. 1896, p. 149.
[103] See Pizon, Ann. des Sci. Nat. 7^e sér. Zool. xiv. 1892.
[104] "Oozooid" and "blastozooid" have not always been used in the same sense. It is best to regard as oozooid the first member of a new colony derived from an embryo formed by the fertilisation of an ovum, and to call the remaining ascidiozooids produced by gemmation the blastozooids.
[105] According to Kowalevsky. Salensky, however, considers that the atrial aperture closes, and that a new surface depression appears later.
[106] See Barrois, Journ. d'Anat. et Physiol. 1885.
[107] Mitth. Z. Stat. Neapel, x. 1891.
[108] The most useful works on the Salpidae are Traustedt, Vid. Selsk. Skr. ii. 8, 1885, Copenhagen; and Brooks's "The genus Salpa," Johns Hopkins Biolog. Memoirs, ii. 1893.
[109] According to Metcalf, Salpa cylindrica is protandrous.
[110] For a more detailed account of these subdivisions of the Salpidae, and other groups, see Herdman's "Revised Classification of Tunicata," Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool., xxiii. 1891, p. 558.
[111] See Herdman, Challenger Report on Tunicata, part iii. 1888, p. 88; and Metcalf, Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. No. 106, 1893, and _Zool. Jahrb. Abth. Anat_. xiii. 1900, p. 572.
[112] Although the correct systematic name of the commonest species is Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas), it is convenient in non-systematic usage to employ the term "Amphioxus," which is in general use in zoological laboratories.
[113] Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlv. March 1902, p. 493.
[114] The cerebral eye and the pigment spots of the spinal cord are especially prominent in the oceanic species Branchiostoma pelagicum, Günther.
[115] The mesoblastic somites in Figs. 84 and 85 are all derivatives of the larger posterior pair of coelomic pouches, the smaller more anterior ones not being shown. For further details in regard to the coelomic pouches see MacBride, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xliii. p. 351, 1900.
[116] I have to thank Mr. Walter Tattersall, B.Sc., working in my laboratory, for a detailed summary and discussion of the various published schemes from which this table has been drawn up. He has also filled up for me the map (Fig. 90) showing the geographical distribution of the species. (See also Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool, vol. xvii. 1903, p. 269.)
[117] A coelom formed by the union of one or more pairs of primitively distinct coelomic cavities.
[118] Cf. p. 129.
[119] Cf. p. 391.
[120] Gadow, A Classification of Vertebrata, 1898, p. 4.
[121] Sucker-like modifications of the ventral surface of the body, in which the paired fins take no part, are present on the throat in many Fishes which frequent hill-streams, as in some small African and Asiatic Cyprinidae (e.g. Discognathus) and a few Siluridae (e.g. Euglyptosternum).
[122] Saville Kent, The Naturalist in Australia, London, 1897, p. 150.
[123] Ibid. p. 167
[124] Ibid. p. 168.
[125] Ibid. p. 173.
[126] Ibid. p. 188.
[127] Cunningham and MacMunn, Phil. Trans. 184, 1893, p. 765, where references to many other papers are given.
[128] Ablette is the French name for the Bleak.
[129] Either singly or in combination with lime (Guaninkalk), guanin is often present in the tissues of Fishes (air-bladder, gall-bladder, subcutaneous connective tissue, muscle-fasciae, peritoneum, and the retinal epithelium and tapetum of the eye). For references see Cunningham and MacMunn, op. cit. p. 781 et seq.
[130] Cunningham and MacMunn, op. cit. pp. 768 and 771.
[131] A. Agassiz, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Camb. U.S.A., xxiii. 1892, p. 189.
[132] Cunningham and MacMunn, op. cit. p. 791, et seq.
[133] Ibid. p. 800.
[134] Saville Kent, Nat. Austr. p. 163.
[135] Poulton, The Colours of Animals, Internat. Scientific Series, London, 1890, p. 82.
[136] Percy St. John, quoted by Day, Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, London, 1880-84, ii. p. 58.
[137] Poulton, op. cit. p. 82.
[138] Ibid. p. 86.
[139] Cunningham and MacMunn, op. cit. p. 773.
[140] C. Stewart, quoted by Poulton, op. cit. p. 67.
[141] Saville Kent, op. cit. p. 186, describes the colours of the living Fish as "various shades of light crimson and lilac."
[142] Günther, Study of Fishes, London, 1880, p. 524.
[143] Poulton, op. cit. p. 72.
[144] For another view of the use of the "lure," see Cunningham, Marketable British Marine Fishes, London, 1896, p. 338.
[145] Günther, Chall. Reports, Zool. vol. xxii. 1887, p. 50.
[146] Suggested by Lütken; Günther, l. c.
[147] Garstang, quoted by Poulton, op. cit. p. 165.
[148] See p. 364.
[149] E. Ray Lankester, Proc. Roy. Soc. 1873, p. 70.
[150] Cunningham and MacMunn, op. cit. p. 781.
[151] W. Newton Parker, P.Z.S. 1888, p. 359.
[152] Günther, Trans. Zool. Soc. vi. 1869, p. 437.
[153] Ibid., Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880, p. 191.
[154] Ibid. p. 192.
[155] Ibid. p. 190.
[156] Lendenfeld, Chall. Reports, Zool. xxii. 1887, p. 277. For references to papers by Leydig, Ussow, Emery, and others, see Lendenfeld, op. cit.
[157] Moseley, Challenger Reports, Zool. xxii. 1887, p. 267.
[158] C. W. Wilson, Journ. Morph. xv. 1899, p. 667.
[159] Burckhardt, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), vi. 1900, p. 568.
[160] Ibid. op. cit. p. 558.
[161] Wiliamson, Phil. Trans. cxxxix. 1849, p. 435; Hertwig, _Morph. Jahrb_. ii. 1876, p. 328; v. 1879, p. 1; vii. 1882, p. 1; Klaatsch, ib. xvi. 1890, p. 97 et seq., p. 209 et seq.
[162] Klaatsch has since affirmed the epidermic origin of the scleroblasts, ibid. xxi. 1894, p. 153.
[163] Klaatsch, Morph. Jahrb. xvi. 1890, p. 125; Nickerson, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xxiv. 1893, p. 115.
[164] Ryder, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1892, p. 219; Smith Woodward, Nat. Sci. iii. 1893, p. 448.
[165] Smith Woodward, op. cit. p. 449.
[166] O. Hertwig, Morph. Jahrb. ii. 1876, p. 374; Klaatsch, xvi. 1890, p. 146.
[167] Klaatsch, op. cit. p. 178.
[168] O. Hertwig, Morph. Jahrb. vii. p. 15.
[169] O. Hertwig, Morph. Jahrb. vii. p. 7.
[170] Ibid. vii. p. 29.
[171] Ibid. ii. p. 334.
[172] Hoffbauer, "Die Altersbestimmung des Karpfen an seiner Schuppe." Jahresb. des Schlesischen Fischerei-Vereins, 1899; J. Stewart Thomson, Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. vi. No. 3, 1902, p. 373.
[173] Günther, Phil. Trans. clxi. 1871, p. 516; Klaatsch, op. cit. p. 209.
[174] This portion of the chapter is mainly based on the important researches of Dr. Gadow and Miss Abbott. See Phil. Trans. 186, 1895, p. 163 et seq. where copious references to the work of other writers are given.
[175] Neuromeres are body-segments defined and limited by the exits of the successive pairs of spinal nerves from the neural canal.
[176] Gadow, op. cit. p. 190.
[177] Schneider, Beitr. z. vergl. Anat. u. Entwickl. Wirbelth., Berlin, 1879, p. 51; also Gadow, op. cit. p. 196.
[178] Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Fossil Fishes, Pt. i. 1889, p. xvii.
[179] Hasse, Das natürliche Syst. d. Elasmobranchier; etc., Jena, 1879, p. 30, et seq.
[180] Gadow, op. cit. p. 194; Ridewood, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxvii. 1899, p. 46.
[181] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1872, p. 526; Wiedersheim, Morph. Studien, Jena, 1880, Pt. i. p. 65; Gadow, op. cit. p. 198.
[182] Bridge, P.Z.S. 1897, p. 722.
[183] Gadow, op. cit. p. 201, et seq.
[184] See Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. vii. 1902, p. 315.
[185] Zittel, Handb. d. Palaeontologie, iii. 1887-1890, p. 137 et seq.; Gadow, op. cit. p. 208.
[186] F. M. Balfour and W. N. Parker, Phil. Trans. 173, 1882, p. 388.
[187] As additional primary cranial elements mention may be made of a pair of independently developed "alisphenoid" cartilages, which lie in front of the parachordals between the brain and the eyes, and above the trabeculae, and form a considerable part of the inter-orbital region of the cranium. See Sewertzoff, Anat. Anz. xiii. 1897, p. 413; ibid., Kupffer Festschrift, Jena, 1899, p. 281.
[188] W. K. Parker, Trans. Zool. Soc. x. 1878, p. 189.
[189] Huxley, P.Z.S. 1876, p. 40.
[190] W. K. Parker, Phil. Trans. 163, 1873, p. 95.
[191] M‘Murrich, Proc. Canadian Inst. (N.S.) ii. Toronto, 1884, p. 278; Cole, Trans. Linn. Soc. vii. Pt. v. 1898, p. 131.
[192] W. K. Parker, Phil. Trans. 174, Pt. ii. 1883, p. 411; Huxley, Journ. Anat. and Phys. x. 1876, p. 412; Howes, _Trans. Biol. Soc. Liverpool_, vi. 1891, p. 122.
[193] Huxley, op. cit. p. 421.
[194] W. K. Parker, Phil. Trans. 174, 1883, pp. 376-405; Ayers and Jackson, Journ. Morph. xvii. 1901, p. 193.
[195] Huxley, P.Z.S. 1876, p. 40, et seq.
[196] Dollo, Bull. Soc. Belge Géol. etc. ix. 1895, p. 110.
[197] Hubrecht, Niederländ. Archiv f. Zool. iii. 1877, p. 255.
[198] W. K. Parker, Phil. Trans. 173, 1882, p. 139; Bridge, Phil. Trans. 169, 1878, p. 683.
[199] Traquair, Journ. Anat. and Phys. v. 1871, p. 166; Bridge, _Proc. Birm. Phil. Soc_. vi. 1888, p. 118; Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. vii. 1902, p. 315.
[200] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xv. 1900, p. 334.
[201] Sagemehl, Morph. Jahrb. ix. 1884, p. 177.
[202] W. K. Parker, Phil. Trans. 173, 1882, p. 443.
[203] Bridge, P.Z.S. 1895, p. 302.
[204] Sagemehl, Morph. Jahrb. x. 1885, p. 1; xxvii. 1891, p. 489. Swinnerton, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xlv. 1902, p. 503.
[205] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1871, p. 521; Huxley, P.Z.S. 1876, p. 31; Wiedersheim, Morph. Stud. i. Jena, 1880, p. 46; Bridge, _Trans. Zool. Soc_. xiv. 1898, p. 350.
[206] Ridewood, P.Z.S. 1894, p. 632.
[207] Ibid. p. 638.
[208] Traquair, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), ii. 1878, p. 1.
[209] Thacker, Trans. Connecticut Acad. iii. 1877, p. 281; Mivart, Trans. Zool. Soc. x. 1879, p. 439; Bridge, _Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool_. xxv. 1896, p. 530.
[210] Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. 47, 1903-1904, p. 465.
[211] Smith Woodward, Nat. Sc. i. 1892, p. 29.
[212] Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, ii. 1891, p. 335.
[213] W. K. Parker, Shoulder-girdle and Sternum of Vertebrata, Ray Soc. 1868; Gegenbaur, Untersuch. Vergl. Anat. Wirbelth. Pt. ii. Leipzig, 1865; Wiedersheim, Das Gliedmassenskelet d. Wirbelth. Jena, 1892.
[214] Traquair, Nature, 62, 1900, p. 502.
[215] Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxxix. 1899, p. 843.
[216] It is more probable that in most existing Teleostomi the pelvic girdle has undergone complete suppression, in which case these cartilages are vestiges and not rudiments.
[217] See, however, Goodrich, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlv. 1901, p. 311.
[218] Bashford Dean, Anat. Anz. xi. 1896, p. 673.
[219] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Part vii. 1902, p. 328.
[220] Thacker, Trans. Connecticut Acad. iv. 1877, p. 233.
[221] Traquair, Geol. Mag. vii. 1890, p. 15; Goodrich, l.c.
[222] Haswell, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. ix. 1884, p. 71; Howes, P.Z.S. 1887, p. 3.
[223] Warren, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlv. 1902, p. 631.
[224] See Ridewood, Nat. Sci. viii. 1896, p. 391, for references.
[225] Ridewood, op. cit. p. 390.
[226] For references see Howes, Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. xxiii. 1890, p. 381.
[227] Howes, op. cit.
[228] Macallum. Reprinted from Proc. Canadian Instit. N.S. ii. 1884, p. 387.
[229] Howes, op. cit.
[230] Howes, P.Z.S. 1890, p. 669.
[231] Balfour and Newton Parker, Phil. Trans. 173, 1882, p. 425.
[232] Newton Parker, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. xxx. 1892, p. 140.
[233] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1871, pp. 542-543.
[234] Owen, Anat. Phys. Vertebrates, London, 1866, i. p. 424.
[235] For the histology of the alimentary canal and its glands in Fishes, see Leydig, Lehrb. d. Histol. d. Menschen u. d. Tiere, 1857; Id. Beitr. zu mikrosk. Anat. u. Entwickl. d. Rochen u. Haie, Leipzig, 1852; Id. Anat.-histol. Untersuch. üb. Fische u. Reptilien, Berlin, 1853; Molin, Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Wien, v. 1850, p. 416; Macallum, Proc. Canadian Inst. N.S. ii. 1884, p. 387; Id. _Journ. Anat. and Phys_. xx. 1886, p. 604; N. Parker, _Trans. Roy. Irish Acad_. xxx. 1893, p. 109; Ayers, Jen. Zeitsch. xviii. 1885, p. 479; Edinger, Archiv f. mikr. Anat. xiii. 1876, p. 651; Trinkler, Archiv f. mikr. Anat. xxiv. 1884, p. 174. Also Oppel, _Lehrb. d. vergl. mikrosk. Anat. d. Wirbeltiere_, i.-ii. Jena, 1896-97, where numerous other references are given.
[236] Owen, op. cit. p. 418.
[237] Owen, l.c.
[238] Hyrtl, Lepidosiren paradoxa. Abhand. d. böhm. Gesell. d. Wiss. 1845, p. 629.
[239] Newton Parker, op. cit.
[240] Paul Mayer, Mitt. zool. Stat. zu Neapel, viii. 1888, p. 307.
[241] Wiedersheim, Lehrb. d. vergl. Anat. d. Wirbelthiere, ed. ii. Jena, 1886, p. 576.
[242] Owen, op. cit. p. 415.
[243] T. Jeffery Parker, Trans. Zool. Soc. xi. 1879, p. 49.
[244] Jeffery Parker, op. cit. pl. xi. Fig. 5.
[245] Ibid. p. 58.
[246] Ibid. p. 58.
[247] Ibid. p. 59.
[248] Ibid. p. 58, pl. xi. Fig. 6.
[249] Günther, op. cit. p. 544.
[250] Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 141.
[251] Macallum, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xx. 1886, pp. 618, 619.
[252] Owen, op. cit. p. 424.
[253] Macallum, l.c.
[254] Balfour and Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 425.
[255] Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. d. Poiss. xix. 1846, p. 151.
[256] Rathke, Üb. d. Darmkanal u. d. Zeugungsorgane d. Fische, Halle, 1824, pp. 62 f.
[257] Edinger, op. cit. p. 678.
[258] T. Jeffery Parker, op. cit. p. 55.
[259] Archiv f. mikr. Anat. xiii. 1876.
[260] Krukenberg, quoted by Miss Alcock, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xiii. (N.S.), 1899, p. 613.
[261] Stannius, Handb. d. Zool., Berlin, 1854, ii. p. 201; Owen, op. cit. p. 425.
[262] Macallum, reprinted from Proc. Canadian Institute, N.S. ii. 1884, p. 407.
[263] Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 138.
[264] Macallum, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xx. 1886, p. 632.
[265] Legouis, Ann. Sci. Nat. (5), xvii. 1873, Art. 8; and xviii. 1873, Art. 3. Also Macallum, op. cit. p. 629.
[266] Newton Parker, op. cit. pp. 138-139.
[267] Turner, Journ. Anat. and Phys. vii. 1873, p. 233.
[268] Stannius, op. cit. pp. 197, 198; Owen, op. cit. p. 428, et seq.
[269] For references, see Macallum, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xx. p. 624 et seq.
[270] Wiedersheim, op. cit. p. 556.
[271] Howes, op. cit. p. 393.
[272] Günther, Challenger Reports, "Zool." xxii. 1887, p. 3; Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Camb. Mass. xii. 1885, p. 20.
[273] Günther, op. cit. p. 545; Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 137.
[274] Howes, op. cit. p. 393 et seq.
[275] Graham Kerr, P.Z.S., 1901, ii. p. 484.
[276] In those Elasmobranchs which have more than five branchial clefts there is a corresponding increase in the number of branchial arches and hemibranchs.
[277] Ridewood, Anat. Anz. xi. 1895, p. 425.
[278] Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xii. 1885, p. 1; Günther, Challenger Reports, "Zool." xxii. 1887, p. 2.
[279] In the Ammocoetes stage the gill-sacs open directly into the larval pharynx, which is retained as the branchial canal, the oesophagus of the adult being an independent and later formation.
[280] Dohrn, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vi. 1886, p. 49.
[281] Shipley, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxvii. 1887, p. 350.
[282] Cf. p. 343.
[283] See p. 423.
[284] Howes (P.Z.S. 1893, p. 730) has described certain remarkable variations in the respiratory organs of Petromyzon and Myxine.
[285] In certain Teleosts more or fewer of the branchial arches may lose their gills. This reduction attains its maximum in the singular Indian amphibious Fish, Amphipnous cuchia, where only the second arch has a biserial gill, the remaining arches being wholly devoid of gills (cf. p. 598).
[286] Balfour, Comp. Embryol. ii. 1881, p. 62.
[287] Ramsay Wright, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xix. 1885, p. 476.
[288] Sagemehl, Morph. Jahrb. ix. 1884, p. 213.
[289] Ramsay Wright, op. cit. p. 482.
[290] See p. 335.
[291] F. W. Müller, Arch. Mikrosk. Anat. xlix. 1897, p. 463.
[292] Ramsay Wright, op. cit. p. 492.
[293] F. Maurer, Morph. Jahrb. ix. 1884, p. 229; xiv. 1888, p. 175.
[294] Günther, Phil. Trans. clxi. 1871, p. 511; Baldwin Spencer, Macleay Memorial Volume, 1892, p. 1.
[295] Newton Parker, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. xxx. 1892, p. 161; Bridge, Trans. Zool. Soc. xiv. 1898, p. 361.
[296] Boas, Morph. Jahrb. vi. 1880, p. 345. See Fig. 201, p. 340.
[297] Bischoff, Lepidosiren paradoxa, Leipzig, 1840; Hyrtl, Abhand. d. böhm. Gesellsch. 1845, p. 637; also Bridge, op. cit. pp. 344, 345.
[298] Turner, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xiv. 1879, p. 273. For references to other writers see Turner, op. cit.
[299] For this information, which was based on an examination of a specimen, parts of which are now in the Cambridge University Museum, I am indebted to Dr. Harmer.
[300] Van Beneden, quoted by Turner, op. cit. p. 282.
[301] Andrew Smith, also quoted by Turner, op. cit. p. 281.
[302] Dahlgren, Zool. Bull. ii. 3, Boston, 1898; Allis, Anat. Anz. xviii. 1900, p. 257.
[303] M‘Kendrick, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xiv. 1879, p. 461.
[304] Naturalist in Celebes, London, 1889, p. 30.
[305] Nature, xxxix. 1889, p. 285.
[306] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. ii. 1901, p. 126.
[307] Götte, quoted by Balfour, Comp. Embryol. ii. 1881, p. 62.
[308] Steindachner, Sitz. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. i. 1869, p. 103; Hyrtl, ibid. p. 109; Budgett, op. cit. p. 118.
[309] Boulenger, P.Z.S. 1899, p. 554.
[310] Semon, Zoologische Forschungsreisen in Australien, Pt. i. p. 44, and Atlas.
[311] Burt G. Wilder, Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv. Sci. 1875, p. 151; ibid. 1877, p. 306.
[312] Ann. d. Sci. Nat. sér. 6, vii. 1878, Art. 5.
[313] Baldwin Spencer, op. cit. p. 3.
[314] Sörensen, Journ. Anat. and Phys. 1894, p. 127-138.
[315] Moreau, Ann. d. Sci. Nat. sér. 6, Zool. iv. 1876, Art. 8, p. 62.
[316] Erman, Gilbert Ann. d. Physik. xxx. 1808, p. 113.
[317] Jobert, op. cit.; ibid. v. 1877, Art. 8.
[318] Zograff, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxviii. 1888, p. 501.
[319] Hyrtl, Sitz. d. k. Akad. Wiss. x. 1853, p. 148.
[320] Hyrtl, Denksch. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien. xxiii. 1863, p. i.; ibid. x. 1855, p. 48.
[321] Hyrtl, ibid. viii. 1854, p. 185.
[322] Hyrtl, ibid. xxi. 1863, p. 7; Sagemehl, Morph. Jahrb. xii. 1887, p. 307.
[323] Taylor, Edin. Journ. Sci. v. 1831, p. 33; Hyrtl, Denksch. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien. xiv. 1858, p. 39.
[324] Hyrtl, SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien. xi. 1853, p. 302; Day, Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. xiii. p. 198.
[325] Burne, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxv. 1894, p. 48.
[326] For much interesting information on aerial respiration in Fishes, see Day, op. cit.; also P.Z.S. 1868, p. 274; and Dobson, ibid. 1874, p. 312.
[327] Semper, Animal Life, Intern. Sci. Series, London, 1881, p. 172.
[328] Miklucho-Maclay, Jen. Zeitsch. iii. 1867, p. 448.
[329] Wiedersheim, Lehrb. d. vergl. Anat. d. Wirbelth. ed. 2, Jena 1886, p. 616.
[330] The glottis is furnished with a structure analogous to the epiglottis-like plate of Protopterus (Wiedersheim, op. cit. p. 616).
[331] Balfour and Newton Parker, Phil. Trans. 173, Part ii. 1883, p. 425.
[332] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1871, p. 511; Baldwin Spencer, Zoologische Forschungsreisen in Australien (Semon), i. Jena 1898, p. 53.
[333] Newton Parker, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. xxx. 1892, p. 109; Baldwin Spencer, op. cit. p. 54.
[334] Henle, quoted by Howes, P.Z.S. 1887, p. 501; also Wiedersheim, op. cit. p. 622 and Fig. 483.
[335] Bischoff, Ann. d. Set. Nat. (2) Zool. xiv. 1840, p. 136.
[336] Stannius, Handb. d. Zool. Berlin ii. 1854, p. 220.
[337] Günther, Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880, p. 457.
[338] Bridge and Haddon, Phil. Trans. B, 184, 1893, p. 209.
[339] Reinhardt, quoted by Stannius, op. cit. p. 225.
[340] Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. d. Poissons, xxi. 1848, p. 139; Bridge, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxvii. 1900, p. 503.
[341] Day, P.Z.S. 1871, p. 703.
[342] Sörensen, "Lydorganer hos Fiske," Copenhagen, 1884, p. 85; Kner, SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, xi. 1853, p. 138.
[343] Cuvier and Valenciennes, op. cit. v.
[344] Günther, Brit. Mus. Cat. Fishes, ii. 1860, p. 313.
[345] Moreau, Compt. Rend. lix. 1864, p. 436.
[346] J. Müller, Ber. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss. Berlin, 1842, p. 177.
[347] Bridge and Haddon, op. cit. p. 234, Pl. II. Fig. 18.
[348] Ibid. p. 216.
[349] Weber, De aure et auditu Hominis et Animalium, Leipzig, 1820, p. 73.
[350] Moreau, Compt. Rend. lxxx. 1875, p. 1247.
[351] Coggi, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vii. 1887, p. 381; Swale Vincent and Stanley Barnes, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxx. 1896, p. 545.
[352] For the blood-supply of the air-bladder see Chap. XII.
[353] See Chaps. XIV. XIII. and X.
[354] Moreau, Ann. d. Sci. Nat. (6) iv. 1876, Art.
[355] Moreau, op. cit.
[356] Bridge and Haddon, op. cit. p. 286.
[357] Semper, Animal Life, Internat. Sci. Series, London, 1881, p. 321.
[358] Moreau, op. cit. pp. 3, 4.
[359] J. Müller, Vergl. Anat. d. Myxinoiden, Pt. iii. (1839), Berlin, 1841, p. 186. For an account of the vascular system of Bdellostoma see Jackson, Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. xx. 1901, p. 13.
[360] T. Jeffery Parker, Phil. Trans. 177, Pt. ii. 1886, p. 702. For references to Elasmobranchs in general, see Parker, op. cit. p. 725.
[361] In the common Dog-Fish (Scyllium canicula) each lateral vein joins the posterior cardinal near the junction of the latter with the Cuvierian duct, the subclavian vein from the pectoral fin opening directly into the corresponding Cuvierian duct.
[362] Jourdain, Ann. Sci. Nat. (4), xii. 1859, p. 321; M‘Kenzie, Reprint from the Proc. Canadian Institute (N.S.) ii. 1884, p. 428. For references to Hyrtl and other writers, see Jourdain, op. cit.
[363] Balfour, Comparative Embryology, London, ii. 1881, pp. 66, 91, and 96.
[364] A subintestinal vein is also present in adult Holocephali (e.g. Callorhynchus antarcticus), T. Jeffery Parker, op. cit. p. 706. The persistence of this vein in adult Fishes is associated with the presence of a well-developed spiral valve.
[365] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xiv. Pt. vii. 1901, p. 332.
[366] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1872, p. 535; Baldwin Spencer, Macleay Memorial Volume, 1894, p. 17.
[367] Baldwin Spencer, op. cit. pp. 24, 30-31. Not represented in Fig. 191.
[368] Hochstetter, Morphol. Jahrb. xiii. 1888, p. 153.
[369] The vertebral vein, which is present only on the right side, may represent the reduced anterior portion of the right posterior cardinal, as Baldwin Spencer (op. cit.) has suggested.
[370] As an abnormality the adult Frog may retain the embryonic connexion of the right anterior abdominal vein with the heart (Buller, Journ. Anat. and Phys. iii. 1896, p. 211).
[371] Newton Parker, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. xxx. 1892, p. 179.
[372] Hyrtl, Abhand. d. Böhm. Gesellsch. 1845, p. 643.
[373] There is an incomplete auricular septum in the Holocephali (e.g. Chimaera monstrosa), see Ray Lankester, Trans. Zool. Soc. x. 1879, p. 502.
[374] Stannius, Handb. d. Anat. d. Wirbelth. Berlin, ii. 1854, p. 235; Boas, Morphol. Jahrb. vi. 1880, p. 527.
[375] Boas, Morphol. Jahrb. vi. 1880, p. 321.
[376] Ibid. op. cit.
[377] J. Müller, Vergl. Anat. d. Myxinoiden, Pt. iii. (1839) Berlin 1841 p. 179.
[378] T. Jeffery Parker, Phil. Trans. 177, Pt. ii. 1886, p. 686; cf. H. Ayers, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xvii. No. 5, 1889, p. 191.
[379] Chlamydoselachus is more primitive in this respect, and has but a single efferent vessel for the two hemibranchs of each arch, which corresponds with the more anterior of the two in Mustelus (Ayers, op. cit.).
[380] Cf. footnote to p. 332.
[381] Note, however, that in the young Lepidosteus there are two efferent vessels in each arch, which, nevertheless, differ from those of Mustelus in uniting to form an epibranchial artery before joining the dorsal aorta (F. W. Müller, Arch. Mikr. Anat. xlix. 1897, p. 463).
[382] T. Jeffery Parker, op. cit. p. 691.
[383] Cf. Figs. 195 and 196.
[384] Ramsay Wright, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xix. 1885, p. 482; F. W. Müller, op. cit.
[385] These vessels are not to be regarded as homologous with the primitive paired aortae of Amphioxus and the embryos of higher Vertebrates. The true dorsal aorta sometimes persists as a median vestigial vessel which traverses the circulus cephalicus.
[386] For the relations of the efferent branchial vessels to the cephalic circle and the median dorsal aorta in different Teleosts, see Ridewood, P.Z.S. 1899, p. 939.
[387] Only one of the two internal carotid arteries is shown in Fig. 199.
[388] J. Müller, U. d. Bau u. d. Grenzen d. Ganoiden, Berlin, 1846, p. 43; Ramsay Wright, Standard Nat. Hist. iii. pp. 48, 49.
[389] Baldwin Spencer, Macleay Memorial Volume, 1892, p. 1.
[390] Newton Parker, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. xxx. 1892, p. 173.
[391] According to Boas; for reference, see p. 329.
[392] This structure may prove to be a hemibranch of the first branchial arch.
[393] Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 167.
[394] Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 138.
[395] De Meuron, _Recherches sur le développement du Thymus et de la glande thyreoïde_, Inaug. Dissert. Genève, 1886; Maurer, Morph. Jahrb. xi. 1886, p. 129; W. Müller, Jen. Zeitsch. vi. 1871, p. 428; vii. 1873, p. 327; Dohrn, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vi. 1886, p. 49; vii. 1887, p. 301.
[396] Cf. p. 280.
[397] Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 135.
[398] Quoted by N. Parker, l.c.
[399] Van Bemmelen, Anat. Anz. iv. 1889, p. 400.
[400] W. Müller, op. cit.
[401] Dohrn, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel. v. 1884, pp. 141-151; see also the previously cited works of De Meuron and Maurer.
[402] Dohrn, op. cit.
[403] See pp. 120 and 135. Willey, Amphioxus and the Ancestry of the Vertebrates, New York, 1894, pp. 30, 31.
[404] Beard, Anat. Anz. ix. 1894, p. 485.
[405] Newton Parker, op. cit. p. 135.
[406] Giacomini, quoted by Swale Vincent, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxxviii. 1903, p. 41.
[407] Vincent, Trans. Zool. Soc. xiv. Part iii. 1897, p. 41. For bibliography see Vincent, Internat. Monatsschr. f. Anat. u. Phys. xv. 1898, p. 319.
[408] Giacomini, quoted by Swale Vincent, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxxviii. 1903, p. 41.
[409] Vincent, op. cit. pp. 32, 33.
[410] Balfour, Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xxii. 1882, p. 12.
[411] Swale Vincent, op. cit. p. 78.
[412] Ibid. pp. 77, 78.
[413] Balfour, op. cit. p. 16.
[414] See Chapter XI.
[415] Pettigrew, Animal Locomotion, Internat. Sci. Series, London, 1874, p. 64; Gadow, Science for All (Cassell), v. p. 302.
[416] Bridge, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxv. 1896, p. 530.
[417] Sörensen, Om Lydorganer hos Fiske, Copenhagen, 1884; Dufossé, Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Ser. 5, xix. Art. 5, 1874, and xx. Art. 3, 1874. For references to earlier papers see Sörensen, op. cit.
[418] Haddon, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xv. 1881, p. 322; Bridge and Haddon, Phil. Trans. 184, 1893, p. 168.
[419] Möbius, Sitz. d. Berlin. Akad. d. Wiss. 1889, p. 999.
[420] Notes by a Naturalist on H.M.S. "Challenger," London, 1879, p. 51.
[421] The elastic-spring-mechanism has been described by several writers, who had assigned to it various functions, but Sörensen (op. cit. pp. 85-91) was the first to discover its vocal function by observations and experiments on Doras maculatus.
[422] The mechanism is apparently absent in one species of Pangasius (P. micronema). Bridge and Haddon, op. cit. p. 220.
[423] Moreau, Compt. Rendus, lix. 1864, p. 436; Ann. d. Sci. Nat. (6) iv. 1876, p. 65.
[424] Sörensen, Lydorganer, p. 82, et. seq.
[425] Cf. Mettenheimer, Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1858, p. 302.
[426] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1871, p. 542.
[427] Pappe, Synopsis of the Edible Fishes at the Cape of Good Hope, Capetown, 1853, p. 8.
[428] Günther, Study of Fishes, Edinburgh, 1880, p. 427.
[429] Day, Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, London, i. 1880-1884, p. 151.
[430] Sörensen, op. cit.
[431] Moreau, op. cit.
[432] Ewart, Phil. Trans. 179 (B), 1888, pp. 399, 410, and 539; 183 (B), 1893, p. 389.
[433] Ballowitz, Arch. Mikr. Anat. l. 1897, p. 686; Carl Sachs, Untersuchungen am Zitteraal, Leipzig, 1881.
[434] Ballowitz, Das Electrische Organ des Africanischen Zitterwelses, Jena, 1899.
[435] Gotch, Phil. Trans. 178, 1888, p. 487.
[436] Id. op. cit. p. 535.
[437] Cf. p. 580.
[438] Graham Kerr, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlvi. 1902, p. 417.
[439] For the nomenclature of the brain and its cavities see T. J. Parker, Nature, xxxv. 1886, p 208; and Parker and Haswell, Text-Book of Zoology, London, 1897, ii. p. 94.
[440] It is possible that the prosencephalon is merely the bulging anterior part of the thalamencephalon; if this be so the hemispheres are really paired outgrowths from the thalamencephalon.
[441] In Lizards either of the two vesicles may become a parietal eye (Dendy, Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlii. 1899, p. 111).
[442] Holm, Morph. Jahrb. xxix. 1901, p. 365.
[443] The sacci probably secrete the fluid contents of the ventricles.
[444] Haller, Morph. Jahrb. xxvi. 1898, p. 345.
[445] Goronowitsch, Morph. Jahrb. xiii. 1888, p. 427.
[446] Burckhardt, Das Central-Nervensystem v. Protopterus annectens. Berlin, 1892.
[447] Sanders, Ann. Nat. Hist. (6) iii. 1889, p. 157.
[448] See Gaskell's important paper, Journ. Physiol. vii. 1886, p. 1.
[449] Herrick, Journ. Neur. ix. p. 153; Cole, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxxviii. 1896, p. 631; Id. Trans. Linn. Soc. vii. 1898, p. 115, to which an excellent bibliography is appended.
[450] For a discussion of the relations of "end-buds" to the sense of taste in Fishes, see Bateson, Journ. Marine Biol. Ass. i. (N.S.) 1890, p. 225; and Herrick, U.S. Fish Commiss. Bull. 1902, p. 237. In the latter paper a bibliography of the subject is given.
[451] These fibres are included in the visceral sensory or "communis" system by Herrick.
[452] See previously cited papers by Herrick and Cole; also Ewart, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb_. xxxvi. 1892, p. 59; Collinge, _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci_. xxxvi. 1894, p. 499; and Herrick, Journ. Comp. Neurology, xi. 1901, p. 177.
[453] Allis, Journ. Morph. ii. 1889, p. 463.
[454] Johnston, Journ. Comp. Neurology, xii. 1902, p. 2.
[455] Fuchs (Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol. lix. 1895, p. 454) has suggested that these organs may be concerned with the perception of pressure variations. It has also been argued that they are concerned with equilibration and the co-ordination of the movements of the fins. (See American Journ. Physiol. i. p. 128.)
[456] Burckhardt, Das Central-Nervensystem v. Protopterus, Berlin, 1892, p. 32.
[457] Bridge, Journ. Linn. Soc. xxvii. 1900, p. 503.
[458] Ridewood, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxvi. 1892, p. 26.
[459] E. H. Weber, De aure et auditu Hominis et Animalium. Pars i. De aure Animalium Aquatilium, Leipzig, 1820; Bridge and Haddon, Phil. Trans. 184, 1893, p. 65.
[460] Sagemehl, Morph. Jahrb. x. 1885, p. 22.
[461] The Weberian ossicles are modified components of certain of the anterior vertebrae. The scaphium represents the neural arch of the first vertebra; the intercalarium is the arch of the second vertebra; while the tripus is probably the rib of the third vertebra. In the Characinidae and the Cyprinidae an additional ossicle, the "claustrum" is present.
[462] See also Sörensen, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xxix. 1895, p. 399; and Bridge, Journ. Linn. Soc. xxvii. 1900, p. 531.
[463] Bridge and Haddon, op. cit. p. 261.
[464] Id. Proc. Roy. Soc. lii. 1892, p. 139.
[465] Kupffer, Stud. vergl. Entwickl. d. Kopfes d. Kraniaten, iii. 1895, p. 6.
[466] In Bdellostoma the olfactory organ arises as a pair of outgrowths from the pituitary involution (Bashford Dean, Kupffer's Festschrift, Jena, 1899, p. 269).
[467] Kyle, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xxvii. 1900, p. 541.
[468] Beer, Wien. klin. Wochenschr., No. xlii. 1898, p. 11.
[469] Chun, Aus den Tiefen des Weltmeeres, Jena, 1900, p. 534.
[470] Ritter, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xxiv. 1893, p. 51.
[471] Eigenmann, Arch. f. Entwickelungsmech. viii. 1899, p. 545.
[472] Studnička, Sitzber. k. böhm. Ges. Wiss., 1899, No. xxxvii.
[473] Chun, loc. cit. p. 536.
[474] It is probable that the archinephric duct is derived from the embryonic epiblast; hence the suggestion that in the primitive Vertebrates the duct was a longitudinal groove in the superficial skin into which the pronephric tubules opened externally.
[475] W. Müller, Jen. Zeitsch. ix. 1875, p. 107; Semon, Carl Gegenbaur's Festschrift, Leipzig, 1896, iii. p. 169.
[476] Jungersen, Zool. Anz. xxiii. 1900, p. 328.
[477] Bridge, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xiv. 1879, p. 81; Bles, ib. xxxii. 1898, p. 484; Proc. Roy. Soc. lxii. 1898, p. 232.
[478] Max Weber, Morph. Jahrb. xii. 1886, p. 336.
[479] Ewart, Journ. Anat. and Phys. x. 1876, p. 488.
[480] Burne, Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. xxvi. 1898, p. 487.
[481] Semper, Centralblatt f. Med. Wiss. 1875, No. 29; F. M. Balfour, Journ. Anat. and Phys. x. 1875, p. 17; Id. Comparative Embryology, London, 1881, ii. p. 568.
[482] Huxley, P.Z.S. 1883, p. 132.
[483] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xv. 1901, p. 323; xvi. 1902, p. 315.
[484] Graham Kerr, P.Z.S. 1901, p. 484; Proc. Phil. Soc. Cambridge, xi. Pt. v. 1902, p. 329.
[485] Graham Kerr, op. cit.
[486] Hirota, Journ. Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Japan, vii. 1895, p. 367.
[487] For the eggs of Cyclostomes see Chapter XVI.
[488] For a description of the eggs and breeding habits, and the larval development and migrations of British Marine Fishes, see M‘Intosh and Prince, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. 1890; M‘Intosh, Ann. Report Fishery Board for Scotland, 1892; Cunningham, Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands, London, 1896; M‘Intosh and Masterman, Life-Histories of the British Marine Food-Fishes, London, 1897; also numerous papers by Cunningham, Holt, Garstang, and Allen, in the Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Plymouth, vols. i.-vi.
[489] See Chapter XVII.
[490] Cunningham, op. cit. p. 69.
[491] Guitel, Arch. Zool. Expér. et Gén. (3), i. 1893, p. 611.
[492] Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. xix. 1895, No. 1, p. 11.
[493] Cunningham, op. cit. p. 358.
[494] H. v. Jhering, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xxxviii. 1883, p. 468.
[495] See p. 592.
[496] Olt, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lv. 1893, p. 643.
[497] Cf. p. 584.
[498] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. ii. 1901, p. 130.
[499] See Chap. XVII. p. 434.
[500] Eigenmann, Bull. Fish Comm. (U.S.), 1892, p. 381; _Arch. Entwickelungsmech_. iv. 1896, p. 125; Cunningham, op. cit. p. 356, et seq.
[501] For a general account of Sexual Dimorphism in Fishes, see Cunningham's Sexual Dimorphism in the Animal Kingdom, London, 1900, pp. 178-227. Some of the more striking examples of Sexual Dimorphism are mentioned in the chapters dealing with the different families of Fishes.
[502] Holt, "On the Breeding of the Dragonet (Callionymus lyra)," P.Z.S. 1898, p. 281.
[503] Howes, Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool. xxiii. 1891, p. 539, where references are given to the literature of the subject.
[504] The American Hags probably belong to a distinct species, M. limosa Girard; Bashford Dean, Science (N.S.), xvii. 1903, p. 433.
[505] Bashford Dean, Kupffer's "Festschrift," Jena, 1809, p. 227 et seq.
[506] Journ. Morph. xvii. 1898, p. 213.
[507] Jordan and Evermann, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 47; The Fishes of North and Middle America, Pt. i. 1896, p. 6.
[508] B. Dean, op. cit. p. 230 et seq.
[509] Jordan and Evermann, op. cit. p. 9 et seq.
[510] Plate, Sitzungsb. d. Gesellsch. Naturforsch. Freunde Berlin, No. 8, 1897, p. 137.
[511] Bashford Dean and F. B. Sumner, Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. xvi. 1897, p. 321.
[512] Dohrn, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neapel, vi. 1886, p. 59; Shipley, Quart. Journ. Microsc. Sci. xxvii. 1887, p. 325.
[513] R. Alcock, Journ. Anat. and Phys. xiii. (N.S.), 1899, p. 623.
[514] Day, Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, Lond. ii. 1880-84, p. 360.
[515] Den Danske Ingolf-Expedition, ii. No. 2, Copenhagen, 1898.
[516] Cunningham, Marketable Marine Fishes, London, 1896, p. 64.
[517] Wood-Mason and Alcock, Proc. Roy. Soc. 49, 1891, p. 359.
[518] Leydig, Mikrosk. Anat. u. Entwick. d. Rochen u. Haie, Leipzig, 1852, p. 90 et seq.
[519] T. J. Parker, Trans. New Zealand Instit. xxii. 1889 (1890), p. 331.
[520] Smith Woodward, Vertebrate Palaeontology, Cambridge, 1898, p. 32.
[521] B. Dean, Journ. Morph. ix. 1894, p. 87. Trans. New York Acad. Sci. xiii. 1894, p. 115.
[522] Traquair, Geol. Mag. (3), v. 1888, p. 81; Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, xi. 1897, p. 41.
[523] For references see Zittel's Text-Book of Palaeontology (Eng. trans. ed. by C. R. Eastman), London and New York, ii. 1902, pp. 22-23.
[524] See also restoration of Pleuracanthus gaudryi from the Coal-Measures of Commentry, Allier, France, by C. Brongniart; Zittel, op. cit. p. 23.
[525] A. Fritsch, Fauna der Gaskohle in Böhmen, ii. Prague, 1889; Kner, SB. Akad. Wiss. Wien Math.-Naturw. Cl. lvii. Pt. i. 1868, p. 290; Traquair, Geol. Mag. (3), v. 1888, p. 511, and (4) i. 1894, p. 254.
[526] Günther, Study of Fishes, Edin. 1880; British Mus. Cat. Fishes, viii. 1870; Müller and Henle, Syst. Beschr. d. Plagiost. Berlin, 1841. Hasse, Natürl. Syst. d. Elasmobr. Jena, 1879. Goode and Bean, Oceanic Ichthyology, Washington, 1895. Jordan and Evermann, Fishes of North and Middle America, Washington, 1896, Pt. i. Smith Woodward, Vertebrate Palaeontology, Cambridge, 1898; id. Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, i. 1889, ii. 1891; Zittel, op. cit.
[527] Garman, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xii. No. 1, 1885, p. 1; Günther, Chall. Rep. Zool. xxii. 1887, p. 2.
[528] Smith Woodward, Nat. Science, i. 1892, p. 671.
[529] Günther, Study of Fishes, p. 328.
[530] Goode and Bean, op. cit. p. 23.
[531] Müller and Henle, op. cit.
[532] Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), x. 1902, p. 51.
[533] Day, British Fishes, London, 1880-84, ii. p. 294.
[534] Cantor, quoted by Günther, op. cit. p. 318.
[535] T. J. Parker, P.Z.S. 1887, p. 27.
[536] D. S. Jordan, California Acad. Sci. (3), Zool. i. 1898; Bashford Dean, Science (N.S.), xvii. 1903, p. 630.
[537] Smith Woodward, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), iii. 1899, p. 487.
[538] Kershaw, Victorian Natural. xix. 1901, p. 62; Waite, Rec. Austral. Mus. iv. 1901, p. 263.
[539] Alcock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), iv. 1889, p. 379.
[540] Day, op. cit. p. 324. See also Stead, Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. iv. 1895-97, p. 264.
[541] Vertebrate Palaeontology, Cambridge, 1898, p. 32.
[542] I am indebted to Mr. Boulenger for these observations.
[543] Alcock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), iv. 1889, p. 380.
[544] Jordan and Evermann, op. cit. p. 76.
[545] Day, op. cit. p. 336.
[546] Zittel, op. cit. p. 41.
[547] Jordan and Evermann, op. cit. p. 85.
[548] Günther, op. cit. p. 348.
[549] Duméril, quoted by Jordan and Evermann, op. cit. p. 92.
[550] Rohon, Verhandl. k. Min. Ges. Petersburg, xxxiii. 1895, p. 1.
[551] Smith Woodward, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1886, p. 527; and 1887, p. 481.
[552] Id., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. iv. (6), 1889, p. 275.
[553] Günther, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) iv. 1889, p. 415.
[554] See also an account of the egg-case of a Chimaeroid dredged from a depth of 516 fathoms in the Bay of Bengal (Wood-Mason and Alcock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) viii. 1891, p. 21).
[555] Goode and Bean, op. cit. p. 32.
[556] Mitsukuri, Zool. Mag. Tokyo, 1895, quoted in Nat. Sci. viii. 1896, p. 10.
[557] Günther, Chall. Reports, Zool. xxii. 1887, p. 12.
[558] Bashford Dean, Mem. New York Acad. Sci. ii. Pt. i. 1899, p. 28; Biol. Bull. iv. 1903, p. 270.
[559] E. T. Newton, Mem. Geol. Surv. Monogr. iv. 1878; Riess, Palaeontogr. xxxiv. 1887, p. 1; Smith Woodward, _Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes_, ii. 1891, p. 52; Zittel, Text-Book of Palaeontology, English ed., London and New York, ii. 1902, p. 46.
[560] Hence the name "Teleostomi" or "perfect-mouthed" Fishes.
[561] Boulenger, Poissons du Bassin du Congo, Bruxelles, 1901, p. 2. Smith Woodward (Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, ii. 1891, p. 317; and Vert. Palaeont. Cambridge, 1898, p. 78), following Cope, recognises four sub-orders, the Haplistia, Rhipidistia, Actinistia, and Cladistia. The first sub-order is reserved for the Tarrasiidae, a family which includes only the little known Tarrasius problematicus from the Lower Carboniferous of Scotland.
[562] Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxvii. 1875, p. 383.
[563] Whiteaves, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, vi. 1888, p. 77.
[564] Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxx. 1881, p. 169.
[565] Traquair, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xvii. p. 388.
[566] Reiss, Die Coelacanthinen, Palaeontogr. xxxi. 1888, p. 1; Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, ii. 1891, p. 394.
[567] See also Kurtus indicus, p. 688.
[568] Smith Woodward, op. cit. p. 412.
[569] Boulenger, Poiss. Bass. Congo, p. 10. For a list of the more important papers, see pp. 18-19 of that work.
[570] Mr. Boulenger informs me that he regards these spines as modified ridge scales or fulcra. The latter are median spine-like or Λ-shaped scales in relation with the anterior margins of the median fins in some Crossopterygii (e.g. Osteolepidae) and in many Chondrostei and Holostei.
[571] Boulenger, op. cit. p. 20 et seq.; id. Ann. Mus. Congo, Zool. (1), i. Fasc. 4, Bruxelles, 1899, p. 61; ii. Fasc. 2, 1902, p. 23.
[572] Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. x. 1900, p. 236; Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. ii. 1901, p. 115.
[573] Amer. Nat. xxxiii. 1899, p. 721; Science (2), ix. 1899, p. 314.
[574] Budgett, Trans. Zool. Soc. xv. Pt. vii. 1901, p. 330.
[575] Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. ii. 1901, p. 118; also footnote on p. 317.
[576] p. 290.
[577] Traquair, Journ. Geol. Soc. Ireland (2), 1871, p. 249.
[578] Boulenger, Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo, Bruxelles, 1901, p. 27.
[579] Traquair, Monogr. Palaeont. Soc. 1877; Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxxiii. 1877; Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxx. 1883, p. 22; _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist_. (4) xv. 1875, p. 237; Smith Woodward, _Mem. Geol. Surv. N. S. Wales, Palaeont_. No. 4, 1890, and No. 9, 1895.
[580] Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxix. 1879, p. 343.
[581] Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, iii. 1875, p. 7.
[582] Traquair, Geol. Mag. (3) iv. 1887, p. 248; Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, iii. 1895, p. 23.
[583] Jordan and Evermann, "Fishes of North and Middle America," Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. No. 47, Pt. i. 1896, p. 101.
[584] Jordan and Evermann, op. cit. p. 102.
[585] Day, Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland, ii. 1880-84, p. 282.
[586] Id., op. cit. p. 279.
[587] Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, iii. pp. 48, 415.
[588] Bashford Dean, Q.J.M.S. xxxviii. p. 413.
[589] This genus also occurs in the Cretaceous of Brazil (Smith Woodward, A.M.N.H. (7) ix. 1902, p. 87.)
[590] It is possible that a similar articulation is present in Lepidotus (Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, iii. p. 79).
[591] Jordan and Evermann, op. cit. p. 108, et seq.
[592] Alex. Agassiz, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sc. xiii. 1878, p. 65; Mark, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, xix. 1890, p. 1.
[593] Mark, op. cit. p. 3.
[594] Pander, Ueber die Ctenodipterinen des Devonischen Systems, St. Petersb. 1858.
[595] Traquair, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), ii. 1878, p. 1; Geol. Mag. (3), vi. 1889, p. 97; Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, ii. 1891, p. 235 et seq.
[596] Traquair, Journ. Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland (N.S.), iii. 1873, p. 41; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xvii. 1890, p. 393.
[597] Kner, SB. k. Akad. Wiss. Math.-Naturw. Cl. lvii. Pt. ii. 1868, p. 279.
[598] See Chaps. XI. XII. and XIV.
[599] Miall, Palaeont. Soc. 1878; Teller, "Ueber Ceratodus sturi," Abh. k. k. Geol. Reichsanst. Wien. xv. 1891.
[600] Günther, Phil. Trans. 161, 1871, p. 511.
[601] Semon, Zool. Forsch. im Australien, i. Jena, 1893, p. 13 et seq.
[602] Semon, op. cit. p. 115.
[603] For a list of the more important papers on Protopterus, see Boulenger, Les Poissons du Bassin du Congo, Bruxelles, 1901, pp. 40-42.
[604] Traquair, Rep. Brit. Ass. 1871 (2), p. 143; Boulenger, P.Z.S. 1891, p. 147.
[605] Newton Parker, Trans. Roy. Irish Acad. xxx. 1892, p. 201.
[606] Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. Pt. ii. 1901, p. 119.
[607] Bohls, Gött. Nachrichten, 1894, p. 84; Lankester, _Trans. Zool. Soc_. xiv. Pt. i. 1896, p. 11; Goeldi, xiv. Pt. vii. 1898, p. 413; Graham Kerr, Phil. Trans. (B), 192, 1900, p. 299.
[608] Hunt, P.Z.S. 1898, p. 41.
[609] Lankester, Nature, 49, 1894, p. 555; id. Trans. Zool. Soc. xiv. Pt. i. 1896; Graham Kerr, op. cit. p. 306.
[610] For further information about the development of Lepidosiren, see Graham Kerr's valuable paper, op. cit.
[611] Dollo, Sur la Phylogénie des Dipneustes, Bruxelles, 1895.
[612] For critical remarks, see Traquair, Brit. Ass. Reports, 1900, p. 776 et seq.
[613] Compare Figs. 301 and 304.
[614] It is worthy of note that Protopterus dolloi approaches Lepidosiren in the more Eel-like shape of its body, and in the large number of pairs of ribs (54) which it possesses (Boulenger, op. cit. p. 37).
[615] Traquair, Ann. Nat. Hist. (6) vi. 1890, p. 485; _Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb_. xii. 1893, p. 87; ibid. p. 312; P.Z.S. 1897, p. 314; Bashford Dean, Trans. New York Acad. Sci. xv. 1896, p. 101; _Mem. New York Acad. Sci_. ii. 1900, p. 1.
[616] In a recently published and important contribution to our knowledge of Palaeospondylus, by Professor and Miss Sollas (Phil. Trans. 196, 1903, p. 343), they describe structures on the ventral surface of the head, which they maintain to be branchial arches, as well as others which, in their view, may represent hyomandibular and mandibular elements.
[617] Graham Kerr, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. x. 1900, p. 298.
[618] Lankester, Nat. Sci. xi. 1897, p. 45.
[619] Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxxix. 1899, pp. 595 and 828.
[620] Id. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxxix. 1899, p. 844; Geol. Mag. vii. 1900, p. 153; ix. 1902, p. 289; Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xl. Pt. iv. 1903, p. 723.
[621] Lankester, Monogr. Palaeont. Soc. 1868, 1870; Geol. Mag. x. 1873, p. 241; Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, ii. 1891, p. 159.
[622] Traquair, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxxix. 1899, p. 834.
[623] Lankester, Monogr. Palaeont. Soc. 1868 and 1870; Smith Woodward, Brit. Mus. Cat. Foss. Fishes, ii. 1891, p. 176.
[624] Traquair, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb. xii. 1894, p. 269.
[625] Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. xxxix. p. 843 et seq.; Rep. Brit. Ass. 1900, p. 768.
[626] See critical remarks by Smith Woodward, Geol. Mag. vii. 1900, p. 66.
[627] Lankester, Nat. Sci. xi. 1897, p. 46.
[628] Traquair, op. cit. p. 837.
[629] Smith Woodward, Ann. Nat. Hist. (7), v. 1900, p. 416.
[630] Traquair, Monogr. Palaeont. Soc. 1894.
[631] Traquair, Ann. Nat. Hist. (6), ii. 1888, p. 485.
[632] Traquair, Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb. xi. 1891-92, p. 283.
[633] Traquair, Ann. Nat. Hist. (6), v. 1890, p. 125.
[634] Traquair, Geol. Mag. (3), vii. 1890, p. 55; Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb. x. p. 227.
[635] Id. Geol. Mag. (3), vi. 1889, p. 1.
[636] Newberry, _The Palaeozoic Fishes of North America, Mon. U.S. Geol. Survey_, xvi. 1889; Bashford Dean, Fishes, Living and Fossil, New York, 1895, p. 129 et seq.; New York Acad. Sci. Mem. ii. 1901, p. 87; Eastman, Amer. Journ. Sci. (4), ii. 1896, p. 46; Amer. Geol. xviii. 1896, p. 222; Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. xxxi. 1897, p. 19.
[637] Rept. Brit. Assoc. 1900, p. 779.
[638] The natural position of the Teleostei in the series of Fishes is indicated on p. 149.
[639] This exists in Dapedius, as pointed out by A. S. Woodward. But this genus should certainly be removed from the vicinity of Lepidotus, and it seems to bear affinity with the Pholidophoridae.
[640] A synopsis of the classification followed in this work has been published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (7), xiii. 1904, p. 161. Some corrections have been introduced, chiefly due to the investigations of Dr. W. G. Ridewood.
[641] See p. 553, Fig. 333, B.
[642] Cf. Boas, Morph. Jahrb. vi. 1880, p. 527, who has found the conus, but in a still more rudimentary condition, and with a single row of valvules, in Heterotis and Notopterus also.
[643] For a general account of the Fishes of this family, cf. Boulenger, P.Z.S. 1898, p. 775, and Poissons du Bassin du Congo, p. 49 (1901), where a bibliographical index to the principal anatomical and physiological publications will be found.
[644] Trans. Zool. Soc. xvi. 1901, p. 126.
[645] Journ. Linn. Soc. xxvii. 1900, p. 503.
[646] On the Anatomy, cf. Agassiz, in Spix, "Pisc. Brasil." p. 32; Hyrtl, Denkschr. Ak. Wien, viii. 1855, p. 73; Hemprich and Ehrenberg, "Symb. Phys." Zootom. pls. viii. and ix.; Bridge, P.Z.S. 1895, p. 302.
[647] I have not been able to convince myself of the existence of an intergular plate in this genus, but I am satisfied that the postclavicle rests on the outer side of the clavicular arch. The bone that has been regarded as a small intergular plate in Spaniodon is, in my opinion, the glossohyal.
[648] On the life-histories of the British Clupeids, cf. Heincke, "Naturgeschichte des Herings" (Abh. Deutsch. Seefisch. Ver. ii. 1898); J. T. Cunningham, "Life-History of the Pilchard" (J. Mar. Biol. Ass. [2] iii. 1894, p. 148), and the manuals of the latter author (Marketable Fishes of Great Britain, 1896) and of M‘Intosh and Masterman (British Marine Food-Fishes, 1897).
On the accessory branchial organs of some genera, see p. 294.
[649] For important contributions to our knowledge of European and American Salmonids since the publication of Günther's account in the British Museum Catalogue, cf. F. Day, British and Irish Salmonidae (1887), Smitt, Krit. Förteckn. Riksmus. Salmonider (1886), Fatio, Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse, v. (1890), and Jordan and Evermann, Fish. N. America, i. (1896).
[650] In Anomalopterus, however, a sort of adipose fin exists, as a fold or cushion on the back, but in front of the rayed dorsal.
[651] A detailed description of the skull of Alepocephalus rostratus has been given by Gegenbaur, Morphol. Jahrb. iv. Suppl. 1878, p. 1.
[652] As pointed out by Gegenbaur. These forms are, however, placed by Gill in a division characterised by the atrophy or absence of the mesocoracoid.
[653] See above, p. 178.
[654] Zool. Jahrb. Anat. xviii. 1903, p. 58.
[655] Morphol. Jahrb. x. 1885, p. 22.
[656] For the nomenclature of these ossicles, cf. Bridge and Haddon, Proc. Roy. Soc. xlvi. 1889, p. 310.
[657] On the anatomy of the Characinidae, cf. Sagemehl, Morphol. Jahrb. x. 1885, p. 102, and xii. 1887, p. 307, and Rowntree, _Tr. Linn. Soc_. ix. 1903, p. 247.
[658] The end of the tail, when injured, is easily reproduced. As in Lizards, the axis of the regenerated part is an undivided calcified tube.
[659] Cf. Reinhardt, Arch. f. Naturg. 1854, p. 159.
[660] For the anatomy and physiology, cf. C. Sachs's posthumous work, Untersuchungen am Zitteraal, edited by E. du Bois-Reymond (Leipzig, 1881).
[661] For an illustrated account of the principal types of pharyngeal teeth, cf. Heckel, Russegger's Reisen, i. p. 1001, pl. i. (1843). On their variations in certain European species, cf. Heincke, Leuckart Festschrift, p. 85 (1892).
[662] Cf. Baudelot, Ann. Sci. Nat. (5), vii. 1867, p. 339, and Leydig, "Unters. Anat. u. Histol. d. Thiere" (1885).
[663] Cf. Noll, Zool. Gart. 1869, p. 257, and 1877, p. 351; Olt, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lv. 1893, p. 543; Cuénot, _Bull. Soc. Zool. France_, 1898, p. 53.
[664] Boulenger, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), viii. 1901, p. 186.
[665] Watase, Journ. Coll. Sci. Japan, i. 1887, p. 247.
[666] On the anatomy of the Cyprinids, cf. Sagemehl, Morphol. Jahrb. xvii. 1891, p. 489.
[667] Cf. Boulenger, "Poissons du Bassin du Congo," p. 238 (1901).
[668] In Exostoma these bones are two in number and so elongate as to resemble the condition characteristic of the Pediculati.
[669] Proc. Canad. Inst. (2) ii. 1884, p. 376.
[670] Cf. Bridge and Haddon, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. clxxxiv. 1893, p. 65.
[671] The absence of these fishes from the United States west of the Rocky Mountains is very remarkable. Amiurus nebulosus was introduced about 1877 into some parts of California, where it is said to be now excessively abundant.
[672] Cf. Sörensen, C. R. Ac. Sci. lxxxviii. 1879, p. 1042, and "Lydorgane hos Fiske" (Copenhagen, 1884); Bridge and Haddon, P.R.S. lv. 1894, p. 439.
[673] Cf. Hancock, Zool. Journ. iv. 1829, p. 242.
[674] Cf. G. Fritsch, "Die Elektrischen Fische, I. Malopterurus" (Leipzig, 1887); E. Ballowitz, "Das elektrische Organ des Afrikanischen Zitterwelses" (Jena, 1899).
[675] Cf. Eycleshymer, Amer. Nat. 1901, p. 911.
[676] Zool. Journ. iv. 1829, p. 245.
[677] P.Z.S. 1836, p. 330.
[678] Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 1880, p. 288.
[679] Zool. Forsch. Austral. v. ii. 1895, p. 273. See also Wyman, _Amer. Journ. Sci_. (2) xxvii. 1859, p. 12; Hensel, Arch. f. Nat. 1870, p. 70; Turner, J. Anat. and Physiol. i. 1867, p. 78.
[680] Cf. H. v. Ihering, Biol. Centralbl. viii. 1888, p. 298.
[681] Cf. Boulenger, P.Z.S. 1891, p. 148.
[682] Cf. Day, Fish. Ind. 1878, p. 456.
[683] Cf. Boulenger, P.Z.S. 1897, pp. 901 and 920; Jobert, Arch. de Parasitol. i. 1898, p. 493.
[684] Vidensk. Meddel. (Copenhagen), 1858, p. 79.
[685] A monograph of these Fishes, by Mr. C. T. Regan, will shortly appear in the Transactions of the Zoological Society.
[686] Cf. Moritz Wagner, Abh. Akad. Münch. x. 1866, p. 101, and Whymper, Trav. Andes Ecuador, 1892, p. 251.
[687] Cf. Wyman, Amer. Journ. Sci. (2) xxvii. 1859, p. 9, and Vaillant, C. R. Ac. Sci. cxxvi. 1898, p. 544.
[688] Cf. Taylor, Edinb. Journ. Sci. v. 1831, p. 33; Hyrtl, _Denkschr. Ak. Wien_, xiv. 1858, p. 39. On the osteology, cf. Gill, _Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus_. xiii. 1890, p. 299.
[689] Cf. L. Jacoby, Zeitschr. Ges. Naturw. 1867, p. 257.
[690] The biology of the Eel embraces an enormous literature. The following general recent accounts should be consulted:—L. Jacoby, Die Aalfrage (Berlin, 1880), translated in Rep. U.S. Fish Comm. 1882, p. 463; H. C. Williamson, Rep. Fish. Board Scotl. xiii. 3, 1895, p. 192; G. B. Grassi, Proc. R. Soc. lx. 1896, p. 260, and Mon. Zool. Ital. viii. 1897, p. 233; C. H. Eigenmann, Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. xxiv. 1902, p. 5. For a summary of our knowledge of the larval forms of European species, cf. J. T. Cunningham, Journ. Mar. Biol. Ass. (2) iii. 1895, p. 278.
[691] Forming, with the bases of the neurapophyses, the cross-shaped arrangement which has been described in the Pike as well as in Amia.
[692] Cf. Raffaele, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap. ix. 1889, p. 179; Lütken, "Spolia Atlantica," ii. 1892; Goode and Bean, "Ocean. Ichthyol." p. 70 (1895).
[693] K. spekii has been described as from Central Africa, but the only known specimens were obtained by Speke in Uzaramo, a district on the coast of German East Africa, just south of Zanzibar.
[694] The most recent account of the Cyprinodonts, with much information on the habits, development, and anatomy, is by S. Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. xix. No. 1, 1895.
[695] On the history and habits of the Blind Fishes of the Mammoth Cave, cf. Putnam, Amer. Nat. 1872, p. 6, and Proc. Boston Soc. xvii. 1875, p. 222. For a recent account of the eyes of the Amblyopsidae, cf. C. H. Eigenmann's paper in Arch. f. Entwickelungsmech. viii. 1899, p. 545, to which is appended a complete bibliographical index to the subject.
[696] Vaillant was inclined to take a different view, but with considerable diffidence, owing to his inability actually to trace an open duct. I believe Günther to be right on this point, as well as in his account of the suspension of the pectoral arch in Notacanthus, which I have been able to verify. Besides, Mr. W. S. Rowntree, who has great experience in these matters, has kindly examined at my request a well-preserved example of Halosauropsis macrochir, and informs me that "the air-bladder passes anteriorly into a tapering band of tissue which ends in a thread-like ligament attached to the stomach near its posterior end and in the mid-dorsal line—not to the oesophagus; no trace of an open communication could be found."
[697] Fauna u. Flora d. Golf. v. Neap. ii. 1880.
[698] Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xlv. 1902, p. 503.
[699] Ann. Sci. Nat. (8), xiv. 1902, p. 197.
[700] Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) x. 1902, p. 147.
[701] E. C. Starks, in an important paper on "The Shoulder Girdle and Characteristic Osteology of the Hemibranchiate Fishes" (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxv. 1902, p. 619), has shown that the so-called infraclavicle of Sticklebacks and allies does not exist as a distinct element. The definition of the Catosteomi, as I had originally drawn it up, has accordingly had to be modified.
[702] Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxvi. 1903, p. 915.
[703] On the nesting habits, cf. Coste, Mém. Acad. Sci. Paris, x. 1848, p. 575, Pl.; Warington, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) x. 1852, p. 276; Prince, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5) xvi. 1885, p. 487, Pl. xiv. On the spinning organ: Möbius, Arch. Mikr. Anat. xxv. 1886, p. 554, Pl. xxii.
[704] Dr. Sauvage has described a Gastrosteus texanus, but the locality is probably incorrect, as recent American works do not mention the occurrence of Sticklebacks in Texas.
[705] Protaulopsis, from Monte Bolca, appears to me to belong to the Scombresocidae. The anterior vertebrae are equal in size; long, slender ribs are present, the body is scaly, and the so-called infraclavicles are absent. The rostrum is so much crushed that no opinion can be formed as to its structure.
[706] Swinnerton (Quart. J. Micr. Sci. xlv. 1902, p. 554) has pointed out that the skull of the Scombresoces belongs to what he terms the Acrartete type (i.e. in which the attachment of the palatine cartilage or its derivates is confined to the pre-ethmoid cornua), whilst the other Percesoces examined by him, as well as the Cyprinodonts are Disartete (the attachment being at the parethmoid and pre-ethmoid cornua); but the character is so indistinctly defined in some adult Cyprinodonts that I feel some diffidence in making use of this character for systematic purposes in the present state of our knowledge.
[707] Kükenthal, Abh. Senck. Ges. xxii. 1896, p. 9; Möbius, _Zeitschr. wiss. Zool_. xxx. Suppl. 1878, p. 343, and Arch. Physiol. (Leipzig), 1889, p. 348; Jordan and Evermann, Fish. N. Amer. p. 730.
[708] A revision of these fishes has recently been published by C. T. Regan in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) x. 1902, p. 115.
[709] Rec. Austral. Mus. iv. 1901, p. 40. Cf. also S. Garman, Bull. Labor. Univ. Iowa, iv. 1896, p. 81.
[710] Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), x. 1902, p. 295.
[711] Ibid. (7), xi. 1903, p. 460.
[712] In the very aberrant Hake (Merluccius) ribs are absent on the vertebrae bearing the strongly expanded, plate-like parapophyses.
[713] The increased number of pectoral pterygials has been regarded by Sagemehl (Morphol. Jahrb. x. 1885, p. 17) as indicating generalisation, and has been a great stumbling-block in his discussion of the affinities of Gymnotus with the other Ostariophysi, and especially the Characinidae. The fact that the same feature is repeated in three such distinct families as the Gymnotidae, Anguillidae, and Muraenolepididae, and occurs in genera which are in all other respects more specialised than their neighbours, goes far to prove that Sagemehl was mistaken in his interpretation of this character.
[714] Siboga Expedition, Introd. 1902, p. 108.
[715] Poissons venimeux (Paris, 1889), p. 169.
[716] For recent accounts of the anatomy, embryology, and ethology, cf. C. H. Eigenmann, Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. for 1892, p. 381, and _Arch. Entwickelungsmech_. iv. 1896, p. 125.
[717] It has recently been ascertained, on a large number of specimens, that in the African species the female alone performs the buccal nursing duties.
[718] Cf. Monograph by J. Pellegrin (Paris, 1904).
[719] Gerbe, Rev. et Mag. de Zool. xvi. 1864, p. 255.
[720] Zool. Garten, 1867, p. 148. See also Verrill, Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) iii. 1897, p. 136.
[721] Naucrates. In this genus most of the epipleurals of the praecaudal region are inserted on the ribs, but the hinder ones are on the centra.
[722] Cf. Geoffroy, Ann. du Mus. ix. 1807, p. 473; F. J. F. Meyen, Reise um die Erde, i. p. 56 (1834).
[723] For a detailed account of these fishes and of Xiphias, cf. Brown Goode, Proc. U.S. Mus. iv. 1881, p. 415, and Rep. U.S. Fish Comm. f. 1880, 1883, p. 289.
[724] Monographs by Lunel, Mém. Soc. Phys. Genève, xviii. 1865, p. 165, and by Lütken, Spolia Atlantica, i. 1880, p. 491.
[725] Troschel, Sitzb. Ver. Preuss. Rheinl. xx. 1863, p. 51 (Brama raii and B. longipinnis).
[726] Cf. Thilo, Zool. Anz. 1902, p. 305.
[727] Cf. Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), 1902, p. 295, and C. R. Ac. Sci. cxxxvii. 1903, p. 523.
[728] Cf. Steenstrup, Vid. Selsk. Skr. 1863, p. 253, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist_. xv. 1865, p. 361, and Overs. Selsk. Skr. 1876, p. 174; Malm, Svensk. Vet. Ak. Handl. vii. 1868, No. 4, p. 28; A. Agassiz, _P. Amer. Ac_. xiv. 1878, p. 1; Emery, Mitth. Zool. Stat. Neap. iv. 1883, p. 413; Facciola, Natural. Sicil. iv. 1885, p. 261, and vi. 1887, p. 74; Ehrenbaum, Wiss. Meeresunters. (2), ii. 1897, p. 255; Nishikawa, Annot. Zool. Japan, i. 1897, p. 73.
[729] On the morphology and classification, cf. Traquair, Tr. Linn. Soc. xxv. 1865, p. 263; Jordan and Goss, Rep. U.S. Fish Comm. f. 1886 (1889); Kyle, Rep. Fish. Board Scotland, 1900, p. 335. Also the Monographs of the Sole, by J. T. Cunningham (Plymouth, 1890, 4to), and of the Plaice by Cole and Johnstone, Liverpool M.B.C. Memoirs, viii. 1901.
[730] On the breeding habits and eggs, cf. F. de Filippi, "Mem. s. sviluppo del Ghiozzo" (Ann. Univ. Med. Milano, 1841); Holt, _Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist_. (6); vi. 1890, p. 34; Petersen, Vid. Meddel. 1891, p. 243; Guitel, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) viii. 1891, p. 407, and _Arch. Zool. Expér_. (2), x. 1892, p. 499, and (3) iii. 1895, p. 263.
[731] Cf. W. E. Ritter, Bull. Mus. Harvard, xxiv. 1893, p. 51.
[732] For a good figure from life of Periophthalmus koelreuteri and an account of its habits, cf. S. J. Hickson, A Naturalist in North Celebes (London, 1889).
[733] For the theories on the formation of the disk, cf. R. Storms, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), ii. 1888, p. 67.
[734] Cf. Holmwood, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1884, p. 411.
[735] This character suffers one exception, to be found in Comephorus, a degraded form otherwise closely related to Cottocomephorus, in which the skeleton is typical of the present division.
[736] Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), x. 1892, p. 212; and Zool. Gleanings Investigator, 1901, p. 41.
[737] Cf. Bottard, Poissons Venimeux (Paris, 1889, 8vo), and Marie Sacchi, Atti Soc. Ligust. vi. 1895, p. 89.
[738] Cf. Dybowsky, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien, xxiii. 1873, p. 475, and Zool. Centralbl. viii. 1901, p. 475; Zograf, Tagebl. zool. Congr. Berlin, No. 8 (1901), p. 9.
[739] The anatomy and external characters of these fishes have been fully monographed by S. Garman, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. xiv. No. 2, 1892.
[740] Moseley, Notes Natur. Challenger, 2nd edition, p. 495.
[741] Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) viii. 1901, p. 261.
[742] Op. cit. xi. 1903, p. 460.
[743] Cf. Allman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. vi. 1841, p. 161; Schmidt, _Nord. Med. Ark_. vi. No. 2, 1875; Gressin, _Contribution à l'étude de l'appareil à venin chez les Poissons du genre Vive_ (Paris, 1884, 8vo); W. N. Parker, P.Z.S. 1888, p. 359; Phisalix, _Bull. Mus. Paris_, 1899, p. 256.
[744] This is really the second, the first having entirely disappeared, as in some Gobiesocidae.
[745] P.Z.S. 1898, p. 281.
[746] The vertebral column in this family shows that the first segment has been lost in Callionymus, as could be deduced from the fact that, in that genus, the first rib is on the second vertebra instead of on the third as is usual in Teleosteans. In the Gobiesocidae, as in Callionymus, there are three occipital condyles on a straight transverse line, the outer, formed by the exoccipitals, invariably articulating with the second vertebra.
[747] Which have been described as ribs by Günther and by Guitel.
[748] On the habits and anatomy of the French species, cf. Guitel, Arch. Zool. Expér. (2) vi. 1888, p. 423.
[749] Arch. Zool. Expér. (3) i. 1893, p. 325.
[750] What has been described as the rib of the first vertebra is an ossified ligament, probably homologous with the first epipleural, which extends from the clavicle to the neural arch of the first vertebra (ligamentum scapulo-occipitale of Siebenrock).
[751] On the breeding habits and development of this fish, cf. J. A. Ryder, Bull. U.S. Fish Comm. vi. 1886, p. 4, and Proc. Acad. Philad. 1890, p. 407.
[752] Cf. Günther, Trans. Zool. Soc. vi. 1869, p. 437.
[753] Cf. C. W. Greene, Journ. of Morphol. xv. 1899, p. 667.
[754] It is in fact, in some cases, difficult to decide whether a genus should be referred to the Gadidae or to the Zoarcidae.
[755] Cf. Poey, Mem. Cuba, ii. p. 96 (1860).
[756] On the general structure, anatomy, and metamorphoses, cf. L. Powell, Tr. N. Zeal. Inst. ii. 1878, p. 269; Emery, Atti Ace. Lincei, iii. 1879, p. 390; Lütken, Vid. Meddel. 1881, p. 190, and _Overs. Vid. Selsk. Skr_. 1882, Suppl. p. 21; Collett, _Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ_. 1883, No. 16; T. J. Parker, Tr. Z. S. xii. 1886, p. 5; Smitt, Bih. Fören. Förh. i. 1889, p. 17; A. Meek, _Stud. Mus. Univ. Coll. Dundee_, i. 1890, No. vi.; F. Mazza, Int. Monatschr. Anat. xviii. 1901, p. 129.
[757] Cf. A. Agassiz, Amer. Journ. Sci. (3), iii. 1872, p. 154; J. M. Jones, Nature, xix. 1879, p. 363; Vaillant, C. R. Soc. Biol. (8), iv. 1887, p. 732.
[758] Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (3), xiv. 1850, p. 105, and C. R. Ac. Sci. lxxiv. 1872, p. 1527.
[759] Proc. Zool. Soc. 1902, ii. p. 284.
[760] Cf. Pellegrin, Poissons Vénéneux (Paris, 1900, 8vo), which contains a very full résumé of what is known of the toxic properties of the various Plectognaths.
[761] Sitzb. Akad. Berl. 1889, p. 999.
[762] Cf. Thilo, Anat. Anz. xvi. 1899, p. 73.