Spons' Household Manual A treasury of domestic receipts and a guide for home management (part 8 of 9)

Spons' Household Manual A treasury of domestic receipts and a guide for home management (part 8 of 9)

Negroes and Indians in a state of nature run daily in pursuit of game for food with a facility at which we are astonished, but they are not more liable to consumption on this account than those beasts that are so famed for swiftness. The body of no animal seems better adapted to running than man’s. The nobler parts, which might be injured by an immoderate reflux of blood, are uppermost, and the laws of gravitation assist in propelling the runner forward. He has little to do but to strengthen his limbs by practice and concentrate his mind on the effort, and there is nothing severe in this, as experience has shown. Indeed, running may be made very beneficial to the lungs, and perhaps there is nothing better calculated to strengthen these organs, in those who are shortwinded, than gradual, careful training in running. It should only be practised in cool weather. The clothing should be light, the head bare, and the neck uncovered. As soon as the exercise is finished, warm clothing should be put on and gentle exercise continued for some time. It is not necessary to have a race-course. The teacher of a school may take his pupils into the fields and find suitable ground for them. Care must be taken not to overdo, and thus, perhaps for life, weaken or injure the heart. The race, at first, should be short and frequently repeated, rather than long, and full speed should not be attempted for some time. Running is well adapted to young and middle-aged persons, but not to those who are fat. Sedentary persons may find great benefit in it after the day’s work. If they live in cities, a quiet spot may be selected, and short trials adapted to the strength entered into. Invalids may do the same thing, only they must be more careful than the robust never to over-exert themselves. Girls may run as well as boys, from 10 to 12 years of age. After puberty, the change in the formation of the bones of the pelvis in girls renders running less easy and graceful. The modern style of dress for girls after puberty is also entirely unsuited to running.

=Games.=--It would be impossible here to enter into a description of all our outdoor games, nor is it necessary to do so. The following remarks embody information which cannot readily be found elsewhere, and which is therefore more useful than would be a repetition of the already well-known rules of the chief games.

Badminton.--A level bit of turf is the most pleasant ground, though any level surface will do. The dimensions may be varied according to the number playing on each side, and to whether a shuttlecock or a ball is used, the latter not requiring so small a ground as the former. The sizes recommended vary from 40 ft. long by 20 ft. broad, to 30 ft. long by 15 ft. broad. The ground is divided into courts, as in Fig. 157, which represents the full-size.

The boundaries should be clearly defined by a white line; chalk or whiting and water, laid on with a straight-edge and brush, makes the best line. At the spots marked “pole,” which are just half-way from the boundaries taken lengthways, and 2½ ft. within the boundary measured across, poles should be erected, about 7 ft. high, to hang the net to. This, of course, is for the outdoor game; indoors, the net may be suspended from nails, or hung to any convenient projection. The net should be tightly stretched across from pole to pole, at a height of 5 ft. from the ground. The depth of the net varies from 9 in. to 3 ft., but the best is a medium depth, 12-15 in. The poles should be supported with guy ropes. When the net and poles are fixed, they present the appearance shown in Fig 158. If shuttlecocks are used, the ordinary toy ones do very well for indoors; but for outdoors a loaded shuttlecock is not so much disturbed by the wind, and can be made to fly farther. Common battledores will answer indoors; for outdoor games small racquet bats are preferred, about 2 ft. long, with a widish face, and rather more elliptical in the handle than the full-sized bat. Balls for the outdoor game should be made of hollow indiarubber, about the size of a tennis ball.

The outdoor game by 4 persons, played with a ball, is with slight modifications the same as lawn tennis. The courts being marked out, the players take their stand one in each court, and toss for first “service.” The player winning the toss has choice of courts, and places himself in the right-hand court of his side and serves first. Serving is done by holding the ball in the left hand, the bat in the right, and then, when in the act of dropping the ball from the hand, but without allowing it to touch the ground, driving it with the bat diagonally clean over the net into the opposite right-hand court. When serving, the player may stand in any part of his court he pleases, but he must have both feet within the boundary line. The “servee” (i.e. the player served), who stands in the opposite right-hand court, has to “take the service,” i.e. he has to hit the ball back clean over the net, either before it touches the ground or on its first bound. If he succeeds in doing either, his adversaries have to return the ball again, clean over the net, and so on alternately forwards and backwards until one side fails to comply with the necessary conditions, when that round is over, and certain scores accrue, as will be explained. After the first service in each round, no distinction is made between right and left courts, nor as to the player who may take the ball. On the first return the ball may be sent into either court of the opposite side, and taken by either player of that side, and so on in all subsequent returns of that round.

If the ball touches the boundary line, it is out of the court. If the conditions are complied with, it is a “good” service, and if the servee fails to return the ball clean over the net, the server’s side scores one point, called an “ace.” If the conditions are not complied with, and the servee takes or attempts to take the serve, it counts as a good service. But if the server does not comply with the conditions, and the servee does not attempt to take the serve, the server’s “hand is out.” There is, however, one exception to this, viz. if the ball falls on the neutral ground short of the court, in which case it is a “let”--that is, the server is let or allowed to have another serve. Two consecutive lets put the server’s hand out. Some players consider it a let if the ball is served into the wrong court. This is perhaps the best rule for beginners, but for more experienced performers serving into the wrong court should put the server’s hand out. The server’s hand is also out if after the first return either he or his partner fails to return the ball again clean over the net by hitting it once only, or returns it so that it does not fall into one of the opposite courts. If, however, the opponents attempt to return the ball, notwithstanding that it falls out of the court, the return is “good,” and it counts just the same as though the ball had fallen within the court.

When the server’s hand is out, the opponents commence serving from their right-hand court. This rule only applies to the first service in every game, and for this reason: It is a considerable advantage to serve first, as skilful players serve in such a manner as to render it difficult for the opponent to take the service. Also the side serving cannot lose an ace until their hand is out, and the opponents have the serve. If, as before remarked, the servee’s side fail to take a good service, or to return the ball clean over the net at any subsequent stroke by hitting it once only, they lose an ace. The original server then serves again, but this time from the left-hand court, and so on alternately, and his side scores an ace each time the opponents fail to return a good service clean over the net, and so that it falls into one of the opposite courts. After the first service in each game, the side which serves has “two hands in,” i.e. as soon as the server’s hand is out, his partner serves as before. He commences to serve from the right or left hand court as the case may be, following the rule of changing courts after every service. Thus, A served last from the right court; A’s hand is now out; B (A’s partner) now serves from the left court into the opposite left court, and so on alternately until B’s hand is out, when both hands being out, the right of serving goes to the opponents, who commence serving from the right-hand court of their side; the player who originally stood in that court serving first to the player who originally stood in the diagonally opposite court. Once in the game the players may change courts for the purpose of taking serves; thus A (right court) serves to C (opposite right court). A’s hand is put out, and presently A’s side are hand in again. When this happens A must commence the round of his side by serving from his right court to C in the opposite right court, but once in the game C and D (partners) may change courts to take the service, when A would serve to D instead of to C. The game proceeds thus until one side gains 15 aces, when the game is won by that side. If the game arrives at 13-all it may be “set” to 5-all, or at 14-all it may be set to 3-all. After a set, the game continues until one side scores 5 or 3, as the case may be. After a game, the sides change courts. A match or rubber is the best of 3 games.

Cricket. Forming a Ground.--The field should be as near level as possible; a fall of 1 in. to the yd. is not an insurmountable objection; 240 yd. each way is a nice size. In the centre of this there must be at least 42 yd. square of drained or naturally dry land, laid nearly level, and, if possible, of poor, tough, and wiry grass and sod. This piece should be highest in the centre, and with a fall of ½ in. in the yd. all round, that the ground may dry quicker after rain. With a dry subsoil, you can at once make a cricket ground, without the expense of any drainage. If an open loose subsoil, sand, gravel, peat, and wet, it must be made dry; in subsoils of this kind one deep and large drain will frequently effectually cure a large field. Until the subsoil is dry you cannot put soil and sod on it that will be good and safe to play cricket upon. As to clay subsoil, there is no other way to dry this kind of ground except by drainage. Drains must be near together, and deep enough to take away the water sufficiently low down to prevent the earth from sucking it up to the surface: 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. deep, and 4-5 yd. apart, 3 in. tiles, and a fall of not less than ½ in. to the yd., will make this subsoil dry enough to put on a cricket surface. These drains should be filled with broken stone, coarse gravel, or rough cinders to within 12-18 in. of the surface of the ground. The tiles of main drain should be larger than the 3 in. pipes of which branch drains are made, and larger in proportion to the number of branches it has to receive. The opposite ends of branch drains to the main drain should be connected by an air drain, one end of which should be open to the air; for in dry weather, when drains are making no water, a draught of air through and under the ground may cause the seams in the ground to open and crack, and so prepare it for more effectual and quick drainage when wet weather comes. The first thing to be done is to take up the sod: 1½ in. is about the thickness. Wheel them to one side of the piece you intend to take up, and stack them 5 or 6 cartloads together; this presses them, and causes the old rough coarse grass to rot off. When the sods are off is the best time to drain. If chalk is handy, it is the best possible foundation. Not more than 1½-2 in. of mould is required between the turf and the chalk; or dig out some 6-7 in. of the soil, and replace with cinder-ashes procured from a furnace, if chalk cannot be obtained. Pass the ashes through a coarse riddle, and put the rough at the bottom, the fine at the top, ramming it well down; return the sod, and make firm by rolling with the heaviest roller at command--daily rolling for an hour or two; mow when necessary, and that by a machine.

Renovating a Ground.--Before applying any stimulant to encourage growth, first of all get the bare patches filled up with plants of the finest kinds of grass. For 70 yd. by 40, 1 bush. fine lawn grass mixture, obtained from some trustworthy seed establishment, should be sown at once and covered with finely sifted soil of a gritty character, such as road scrapings; when dry enough, run a light roller over it, and repeat the rolling frequently. As soon as the young seedling grasses appear, a dressing of soot and lime should be given to keep slugs in check, and also to act as a stimulant. When the young grass gets any way long, it should be cut with a scythe; the mowing machine should not be used until it has become well established, and sheep be kept off during periods of drought. After many years’ wear and tear it would be advisable to relay the ground with fresh turf, for when once it begins to get patchy and worn, any other remedial measures are seldom entirely satisfactory. Guano sown during showery weather, about 2 lb. mixed with wood ashes, and sprinkled evenly over the surface, will impart verdure to the grass and otherwise help it, for where it is kept closely mown, the soil soon gets exhausted.

Playing on Coconut Matting.--The matting must be well stretched and pegged down lightly; spikes will be found to damage the matting and trip up the wearer. The thing to see to is that the ground (whatever it be) below the matting is quite smooth, as, if there are any inequalities in it, the ball will bump off the matting just as it would off an ordinary pitch. In India they remove what grass there is, so as to have a perfectly smooth surface; this is watered and rolled and kept hard, and on it the mat is pegged down. The result is a very good and fast pitch.

Football. Association.--The following memoranda have been drawn up by the committee of the Football Association for guidance.

(1) Calling attention to two points in Law 2 of the game--First, that the kick-off must be in the direction of the opposite goal line, and, therefore, all back kicking is illegal; and, secondly, that the other side shall not approach within 10 yd. of the ball until it is kicked off.

(2) Law 4 enacts that “a goal shall be won when the ball has passed between the goal posts.” A goal, therefore, cannot be scored until the whole ball has passed over the goal line. The ball is also in play until the whole ball has passed over the touch line.

(3) Law 6 commences thus:--“When a player kicks the ball, or it is thrown out of touch, any one of the same side who at such moment of kicking or throwing is nearer to the opponents’ goal line is out of play.” This is plain enough. All players of the same side as the player kicking the ball are off-side if they are in front of but not if they are behind the ball. If players would always remember that when they are behind the ball, at the moment of kicking or throwing, they cannot be off-side, but when they are in front of the ball they are always liable to be off-side, it would simplify the reading of this Rule very much.

Briefly then, (1) A player is always off-side if he is in front of the ball at the time of kicking unless there are 3 or more of his opponents nearer the goal line than himself. (2) A player is never off-side if there are 3 or more of his opponents nearer their goal line than himself at the moment the ball was last played. (3) A player cannot be off-side if the ball was last played (i.e. touched, kicked, or thrown) by one of his opponents or by one of his own side who at the time of kicking is nearer his opponents’ goal than himself.

Law 6 further enacts that a player being off-side shall not in any way whatever interfere with any other player.

(4) By Law 8 a goal-keeper “is allowed to use his hands in defence of his goal.” The committee do not consider a goal-keeper to be in defence of his own goal when he is in his opponents’ half of the ground.

(5) Rule 11, which reads as follows, should be strictly carried out by the umpires and referees in all matches. “No player shall wear any nails, excepting such as have their heads driven in flush with the leather, or iron plates, or gutta-percha on the soles or heels of his boots or on his shin guards. Any player discovered infringing this Rule shall be prohibited from taking further part in the game.”

The attention of referees is particularly called to the following new Challenge Cup Rule, which should be rigidly enforced in all matches in the competition. “If bars or studs on the soles of the boots are used they shall not project more than ½ in., and shall have all their fastenings driven in flush with the leather, and in no case shall they be conical or pointed. Any infringement of this Rule shall lead to the disqualification of the player, and the referee shall prohibit him from taking any part in the game.” It is not necessary for a referee to have an appeal made to him before putting this Rule in force.

(6) Rule 13, “In the event of an appeal for any supposed infringement of the Rules, the ball shall be in play until a decision has been given.” Umpires should remember how very important it is for the proper working of this Rule that their decisions should be given as quickly as possible, and if a claim is made and one umpire allows it, the referee, if he agrees with him, should instantly sound his whistle, without waiting to ascertain the opinion of the other umpire, it being understood that the umpires should allow an appeal by holding up a stick, and the referee by sounding a whistle.

(7) A ball touching an umpire or referee is not dead.

(8) It is the duty of the referee to see that all free kicks, kicks off from goal, and corner kicks are properly taken, and it is not necessary for him to wait for an appeal in the event of any infringement of the Rules referring to those points. In the case, though, of a throw-in from touch, where a penalty is attached, an appeal is necessary before he can give a decision.

(9) Umpires should bear in mind that it is entirely against the spirit of the Rules to give any advice to or make any claim on behalf of either side, and should be careful to ascertain that a claim is made by one of the players and not by a spectator. Also that they are bound to give a decision one way or the other when appealed to. In cases where an umpire is so placed as to be doubtful about a claim, he should decide in favour of the side appealed against.

Rugby.--The referee must not interfere except on an appeal to the umpires otherwise than in the following cases, and then only on a claim by the opposite side:--

(a) At “kick off,” when it shall be his duty to see that the players on the side which has the “kick off” are not in front of the ball when it is kicked off.

(b) At “kick out,” when it shall be his duty to see that the kicker’s side are behind the ball when kicked out.

(c) In the case of a “fair catch,” when it shall be his duty to see that the kicker’s side are behind the ball when it is kicked. In the event of players (in his opinion) breaking the law on any of these points, he shall, on a claim by the opposite side, order a scrummage to be formed in the case of “kick off” in the centre of the ground, and in case of “kick out” at a spot 23 yd. from the kicker’s goal line, and equidistant from both the touch lines, and in the case of a “fair catch” at the spot where the “fair catch” was made.

(d) In the case of a try at goal, if any of the defending side charge before the ball touches the ground, he may, provided the kicker has not taken his kick, on a claim by the opposite side, disallow the charge.

When a player is down in a scrummage, and the referee considers it dangerous for the game to proceed, it shall be his duty to order the game to stop until he thinks the danger is over.

The ball is dead whenever it touches an umpire or referee, and a scrummage shall be formed forthwith at the spot where the touching occurs.

In the case of an appeal to an umpire play shall not cease pending a decision.

A player who is off-side may, nevertheless, run until an opponent actually has the ball, but must stop directly he has it.

Hockey.--Fig. 159 shows the ground properly marked out. The lines must be marked with white, as in lawn tennis, and not cut, as it has been proved that the ball mis-bounds as it is dribbled past the striking circle if the line has been cut in the turf.

The cricket ball must be painted white with ordinary oil paint.

A player is off-side unless there are 3 of his opponents nearer their own goal line, and when off-side he must not prevent his opponent in any way whatever from playing the ball. If, where a player is off-side, the ball is hit by one of his own side, he is still off-side, unless the players have moved sufficiently to place 3 of his opponents between him and their goal line.

The ball must be played from right to left, but a player, by twisting his stick so as to present the playing side of it to the ball, may poke or hit the ball in any direction, except that when hitting behind him it must pass to his left-hand side. If the ball passes between his legs, and the right foot is on the ground, it is a fair stroke.

Lacrosse.--The following notes are taken from a couple of letters which appeared in the Field some time since.

Where the checking is patient and sure, the man who holds the ball, instead of passing it on, merely delays the game for just so long as he detains the ball; his chance of scoring is nil. When the ball is thus held it is usually done by a player who is being kept by a defence player some 30 yd. or more from the goal. Carrying his crosse on the far side of him, he is endeavouring, by running in wide circles and suddenly doubling back, &c., to get on the inside of the checker, or to induce another opponent to molest him, and so leave another of his side uncovered. This manœuvre in good matches is pure waste of time. The checker simply moves with his man, keeping his eye steadily on his body, and no more regarding the ball than if it were not there. As the checker is inside the attacker, he is moving in smaller circles, and so finds it very easy to keep between the latter and the goal, whilst nothing is more remote than the possibility of a second checker, who is looking after another home man, leaving that man so long as the holder of the ball is taken care of. In the end the ball is merely lobbed on the goal, as it might have been in first instance, when a far greater chance would have existed of the defenders being out of position. In lacrosse, all movements should be as rapid and as unexpected as possible. Given the defenders all in position, scoring becomes exceedingly difficult, and the defence show their knowledge of this fact by their extreme reluctance to leave their posts to follow roving opponents. The evil worked by the man who holds the ball is in the fact that he gives the opposing defence ample opportunity for quietly arranging themselves in position, and when the ball does come it finds them prepared and cool, instead of flustered by the rapidity of its arrival.

One cause of this phase of weak play is the want of confidence in homes of their throwing power. In Canada, a home devotes himself assiduously to the art of throwing the ball at express speed at goal the instant it touches his crosse. If he be only 30 yd. from goal he is able to put in a shot which will take some stopping. We are not saying that, as they throw now, English homes should throw 25-30 yd., but that they should practise assiduously until they make their shots dangerous at that distance. Any one desirous of perfecting his throwing at goal can do so by the simple aid of a wall. Upon the wall mark out a goal, and then, standing 25 yd. away, commence peppering, the ball always being thrown as soon as possible after it is received upon the crosse. Nothing could be more simple or satisfactory, as the ball is always returned to the thrower by the rebound. It is better to have 2 men throwing at once, as one can toss the ball to the other, and so more nearly approach the conditions met with in the field; whilst, of course, the instant the practice can be obtained against a goal-keeper, the wall should be discarded. In thus practising the thrower should be careful to make the ball pitch some 6 ft. in front of the goal. A ground shot, which touches only once, and that a few feet only in front of the goal keeper, is the most deadly.

The attack player’s task is far harder, since his object is not attained unless he directs the ball at a space only 6 ft. square, and that in such a manner as to elude the vigilance of a person stationed there for the special purpose of guarding it. Of the defence men pure and simple, i.e. the 3 men out from goal, point, cover-point, and third man, it is only demanded that they shall throw the ball as hard as they can to the other end of the field, so soon as they come into possession of it. The more directly they can throw towards their opponents’ goal the better undoubtedly; but, as a matter of fact, the whole breadth of the field is open to them; and, if they throw wide, they are not throwing a chance away, as is a man shooting at goal and missing it, although they undoubtedly give the homes a lot of unnecessary work.

Yet, simple as this feat of getting rid of the ball to some kind of advantage is, it is astonishing how extremely difficult some contrive to make it for themselves. A powerful defence man, capable of throwing the ball 120 yd. with ease, shall have the missile upon his crosse, with nothing to do but to cast it from him into the air, and yet unable to do so because a small but nimble antagonist watches every movement, and meets it with a counter one. The reason for all this trouble is that defence men learn to throw in one way only, and that way generally a very bad one. The long throw, which is the easiest to check, is the one made low down past the side, with the face turned nearly full towards the direction in which the ball is thrown; and yet this is the throw which the majority of players who do not throw overhand are adopting. When this throw is employed, it is impossible to keep the bend, from whence the ball invariably quits the crosse, out of range of the crosse of the checking opponent, who can either actually arrest the ball itself before it has travelled a yard through the air, or, what is both easier and safer, he can always interfere with the throwing crosse sufficiently to spoil the throw. The low underhand throw is bad, for two reasons. First, it is more easily checked than any other; and, secondly, the greatest distance for the power expended is not attained, whilst the ball travels with a large amount of spin upon it, which renders it extremely difficult of capture by those for whom it is intended at the other end of the field of play. In this throw the ball, whilst upon the crosse, is made to descend from a height, to a lower one, from whence it again rises, to quit the crosse. Hence the spin put upon the ball, and the loss of power sustained.

Players do not seem to grasp the fact that, to make the ball travel smoothly, i.e. without spin, and with the least expenditure of force, the crosse must travel, as it were, on even keel. Between the points at which the throw is commenced and finished, the crosse must not describe the least curve, but move in a perfectly straight line. When this is done the ball can be transmitted to a considerable distance at the expenditure of a surprisingly small amount of power. But it is impossible of accomplishment if the thrower place himself so as to almost face the direction in which the ball is thrown, as then the crosse, in order to attain directness, must be brought close past the body of the thrower, with the bend describing a segment of a circle, and nearly, if not actually, as is often the case, striking the ground at its lowest point. All this would be avoided if the thrower were to turn away from the object aimed at, so as to almost turn his back upon it, and throw, more round than past himself, over the left shoulder. It is a good plan to commence by throwing the ball straight backwards over the head, and then by degrees bring the crosse lower towards the left shoulder, with succceding throws. The first gain is that the ball travels evenly, and the second that, owing to the high point at which the ball leaves the crosse, it is very difficult to check it. It may be taken as a standard rule that the closer one is checked the more perpendicularly should the throw be made, so as to keep the bend as high out of reach as possible. But there is another very important advantage gained in assuming this recommended attitude. It is that the thrower is enabled to change his throw instantly from the underhand one over the left shoulder, backwards, to the overhand throw from the left shoulder, whilst facing the direction thrown to. If a player be facing his opponent’s goal, and about to make the underhand forward scoop, and he is checked on his throwing side, his only tactic is to suspend the operation of throwing, turn round so as to bring his crosse out of the checker’s reach, and run and dodge until he succeeds in getting the latter on the wrong side of him. If the checker is good, as in good matches he would be, he will take care always to keep on the throwing side, and the trouble he thereby causes may be imagined. Now, if the thrower would only learn the left shoulder shot as well as the underhand throw over the left shoulder, and would condescend to take a wrinkle and stand as above directed, he would find matters greatly simplified. Standing almost with his back towards the foe, with his left leg well to the rear, all he has to do on being checked on the throwing side is to lower the crosse (keeping it nearly horizontal), turn the left hand under with the knuckles up, in preparation for the shoulder shot, and bring the left leg a yard or so further round to the right. All this can be done in one movement, and in an instant, and the ball is propelled on the side of the player opposite to that intended. The cause of all the trouble introductorily alluded to is this want of ability to throw from corresponding sides. There are plenty of men who throw from the right shoulder overhand and pass the left side underhand, and vice versâ, but there is no assistance derivable from these accomplishments, since the check which frustrates a right-hand shoulder throw is equally successful in the case of an underhand throw past the left.

The crowning fault of all English players is, that they trust so much more to their legs than to dexterity with the “stick.” The beauty of the game lies in the ability with which the crosse is handled.

Lawn Bowls.--The players arrange themselves in sides, usually of 4 each, and each player is provided with 2 bowls. These bowls, instead of being the large lignum-vitæ bowls of 6-8 in. in diameter, are but little bigger than a tennis ball, easily held in the hand, and are enamelled with ornamental colours and various designs, looking bright and pretty on the green turf. A white ball is first thrown to one end of the lawn, and the aim of the players, who stand at the other end, is so to send their bowls that they may lie as near as possible to the white ball. The side whose bowls are nearest the white ball reckon one point for each bowl so placed--7, 14, 21, or 31 make game, according to mutual arrangement beforehand. It requires a little practice to send the bowls straight. The game also has the advantage of not taking up much room, and may be played in some quiet corner of the garden, provided the ground be level, and the grass short and well mown.

Lawn Skittles.--This game may be played in the shade, even under the branches of a tree; it does not occupy much space, and any number of players, if divided into two equal sides, may be pressed into the service. The apparatus consists of a pole firmly fixed in the ground, and to which is attached a rope, from whose end a heavy ball is suspended. Two square slabs of stone are let into the ground at opposite sides, and at certain distances from the pole. On one of these stands the player, and on the other are ranged 9 pyramids, resembling large ninepins. The player takes the ball in his hand, and, swinging it round the pole, aims at knocking down the ninepins. He is allowed 6 chances, and then another player takes his turn. This sounds easy enough, but is far more difficult than would be imagined, as it requires a good player to swing the ball round the pole before letting it fly at the men or ninepins. Before commencing, the number which is to be considered game is agreed upon.

Lawn Tennis.--Grass Courts.--The following ways of making lawn-tennis grounds suggest themselves: (a) The adaptation of an existing field or lawn; (b) laying down turf to form a lawn; (c) making a lawn by sowing grass seeds.

(a) Having determined upon the particular portion of the field, the first work to be done will be to roll it as soon after rain as may be, with a heavy smooth agricultural roller. This will generally level the lawn sufficiently, at least as a first process. This done 2 or 3 times will show if there are any serious uprisings or tumps, or, on the other hand, hollows or depressions. If the latter, let the turf be lifted from such sunken parts, which should be filled up with some good garden soil. This should be rolled down to a smaller extent by a somewhat heavy garden roller, and when pretty firm the farm implement may be applied, as it will perhaps smooth down the hillocks to a level with the mended-up depressions; if not, it may be that the turf should be lifted beneath these slight hillocks, some of the earth removed, and the turf pressed into place. In operations of this kind, wherever the turf has been cut, it is well to sift some fine mould over the parts before the rolling is performed--at least for the first time the roller is used. The rolling will soon show if there be any hard-rooted tussocky kind of grass or other plants interfering; if so they should be removed, and the same finely-sifted earth restored, and a very small quantity of fine grass seeds sown on the bare spots before the roller be used.

(b) In laying down turves, care has to be taken to make the base as level and solid as possible; this is done by filling up and paring down, while the turves are being got ready from some nice even and fine grass, cut of uniform size and thickness, laid and stamped down with the utmost care, and when laid, fine rich mould should be sifted over the whole, especially over the joints. This, if dry weather supervenes, should be watered. At first light rollers should be used, to be succeeded by heavier ones. If well done, it is the quickest and most efficacious way of planting a lawn.

(c) Lawns may be well made by preparing the soil, then levelling, and sowing with grass seeds, which should be well rolled down. If only a temporary lawn is required, the best grass to sow will be Poa annua (annual meadow grass). This should be sown somewhat thickly; it comes up quickly, bears clipping well, and, if not allowed to flower, it will become almost a permanent grass. If the lawn, as is mostly the case, is to be permanent, less of the Poa should be used; but its quantity should be made up with the following proportions: Poa annua (annual meadow), 1 lb.; Poa pratensis (smooth meadow), 1 lb.; Festuca duriuscula (hard fescue), 2 lb.; Lolium perenne Devoniensis, (Devon ever), 4 lb. With this mixture the Poa annua will soon be lost, unless the grasses be seeded, which would not be good for the lawn; but the other three species, which grow well together, will soon form a good lawn. Lawns to be kept even and smooth want to be frequently mown and rolled; but, if the soil be poor, the constant mowing and removal of the grass will damage the turf. Injury of this kind may be prevented by a dressing of superphosphate in autumn, and of soot soon after the breaking up of frost.

Marking Grass Courts.--The following plan might be very useful to those who do not wish to disfigure a lawn with whiting, and do not object to some expense. The webbing ought to be 1½ in. wide, and if strained tight should be rather bare of the true measurements. Purchase 75 yd. webbing at 1¾_d._ a yard, being sufficient to go round a court 78 ft. by 30 ft. and allow for splicing and corners as follows (the webbing is that used in the manufacture of chairs): Take 5 rings nearly 3 in. in diameter; curtain rings would answer the purpose. Sew the first ring to the end of the webbing with saddlers’ needle and twine, lapping the webbing once through the ring. At 78 ft. farther cut the webbing and sew it to one side of a second ring; on the other side of the same ring again sew on the webbing, and you have turned the first corner of the court. The next corners, at distances of 30 ft., 78 ft., and 30 ft. are treated in the same way, except that the 2 ends should not be joined. Then, for convenience of painting, wind the webbing perpendicularly over a door or a gate; or a sort of tambour frame, made of 4 poles tied together to the shape of an Oxford picture frame, answers the purpose. Paint the webbing with 2 coats of white paint on one side, and one coat on the other. It will take a boy 2 long days, and consume about 3 kettles of paint. Make 4 hoops, about 3 in. high, and 1½ in. wide, of iron wire, nearly as thick as croquet hoop wire. Peg the webbing down by the corner rings with these hoops, putting as heavy a strain as possible on each piece before pegging. The 2 end rings will be pegged by the fourth hoop. Webbing so treated does not trip the players, only requires the above 4 hoops or pegs, is too heavy to be moved by wind, does not twist and kink like tape, and is practically indestructible. A light drum or winch, 16 in. diameter, 6 in. flange, and 5 in. wide, much facilitates carriage of the webbing to and from the courts, and keeps it stored in small compass. (D. W.)

Waterproof Net.--The nets dressed with gutta-percha by the Manchester Cotton Twine Spinning Company, Corporation Street, Manchester, are impervious to wet, are not affected by the sun, and may be left out in all weathers without injury.

Asphalte Courts.--(a) The probable cost ought not to exceed 10_l._ if laid down by own workpeople, and less if tar has not to be purchased. It is pleasanter to play on than real asphalte, having more elasticity, and the colour is excellent for seeing the balls, which are not blackened or worn out quickly, as is the case on cinder courts. Mix thoroughly well sand and gas tar, in the proportions of 1 cub. yd. sand to 24 gal. tar (the more it is mixed the better). About 8⅓ cub. yd. sand and 200 gal. tar will make a court. This quantity is to be made into a heap 3 days before laying down. Keep turning the heap every day, and, immediately before putting down, add 5 or 6 shovelfuls of dry lime to each cub. yd., and 24 gal. tar. For foundation, 6 in. of small broken stone or brick rubbish, on which put some fine gravel, or, better still, coal cinders, to give a smooth surface; bring this to a level with straight-edge and spirit level, and press down with a heavy roller. The mixture of sand and tar should be laid on 1 in. thick, and should be rolled well with a roller having round edges, sprinkling fine sand on it all the time to prevent the roller sticking to it. The court should have a slight fall of 4 in. from centre to ends, and the ground should be well drained underneath and around the court, which should be laid down with a large margin, to give plenty of room at the ends and sides. The best time for making the court would be late in the spring, after all chance of frost has disappeared, the ground having previously been prepared by drainage, &c.

(b) A mixture of coal tar and cinders makes a rough and dirty court, and is very liable to work uneven from the nature of the material. It is necessary to lay these courts on a dry foundation, or they would be lifted by frost, and the cost is from 20_l._ to 30_l._ Covered balls cannot be used on them, and shoes are soon cut to pieces. A way might be found to put a finer surface on these courts, but they can never be made very durable.

(c) Real asphalte runs into a very high figure.

Cinder Courts.--(a) Plain cinder courts may be laid at very trifling cost, wherever steam power is used, and engine ashes can be had gratis, and only cost the carriage. Cinders, however, if not laid on a dry foundation, after they have been beaten down to a smooth surface, will puddle up with frost.

(b) Pare the turf off, and level the ground; give a sprinkling of agricultural salt, to kill the grass roots; put in a drain or two of 2 in. pipes, if the subsoil is clayey or retentive. Get 25 cartloads of factory or other cinders; wheel on (as they are) as many as will make a strip all across about 9 ft. in width and 2½ in. in thickness; rake off the very large ones as a foundation for next strip. Roll all thoroughly well; then put on the 9 ft. strip a layer or covering of finely riddled cinders, and again well roll, and so on throughout. Keep the roll going every day for a week, and then you may play every day in the year except during snow or rain. Use uncovered balls in wet weather; they bounce sharper, and wash clean. (Geo. H. Wade.)

(c) Foundations are first prepared of broken stones as for cement, into which a few field drain pipes are laid, upon this a covering of 3 in. of coarse cinders; and over this a finishing coat of riddled ashes mixed with a tenacious clay laid on with plenty of water, and worked up with a trowel in the same manner as cement. The ashes used may be furnace ashes from a colliery engine, of a red colour, the reddest being selected. The result is a fine smooth surface of an agreeable colour (an important consideration), and easily kept in order by a small roller. No ordinary shower affects it, and it can be placed on very soon after heavy and continuous rain. The surface is sufficiently yielding to be agreeable to the feet, and prevent the balls from playing too lively.

(d) Take 50 chaldrons fine cinders, 2 barrels tar, 1 chaldron white builder’s sand, and 2 cwt. agricultural salt. Having prepared a piece of ground by removing the grass roots, and making it quite level, sprinkle the salt to kill any remaining roots of grass, then spread the cinders 6 in. deep quite smooth; boil the tar, and pour all over the surface with a watering pot; then sieve the sand over it to prevent the roller from sticking. Then roll with a heavy garden roller with 2 men constantly for 2 days. Occasionally roll for a month after it is finished, and before it gets firmly set. There should be no rain during the operation. Around the ashes put small red gravel, the same depth as the cinders, for a pathway. The court slopes on one side enough for the rain water to run off; all along the outer edge of the lower path place a drain pipe 6 in. under the surface for the water to escape. After the hardest rain, in one hour the court will be quite playable. (A. H.)

Concrete Courts.--(a) First lay out the level with pegs, rather over 6 in. high, and fill up the floor with broken brick and stone rubbish to within about 1½ in. of the peg tops. Have a quantity of river gravel first passed through an ordinary gravel screen, putting the large aside for the roads. The gravel that passes through the first screen is again passed through a fine wire lime screen to separate the sand. The medium gravel thus separated is mixed with 1 part Portland cement to 4 of gravel, and laid over the broken bricks, bedded well among it, and coming nearly up to the top of the pegs. This covering is worked as level as possible, and allowed about an hour to stiffen, after which a fine surface is laid on of 1 part cement mixed with 2 of the sharp sand and grit that has been screened from the gravel. This surface is dressed over and finished about an hour after it is laid on.

(b) Take 50 loads broken rubbish (brick or stone), 5½ tons Portland cement, 11 tons screened gravel, 5½ tons sharp sand. The expense will depend on the prices at which the rubbish and gravel can be procured, but the cement will cost 11_l._; and if the rubbish is put at 3_s._ per load, the gravel at 5_s._ per ton, and the sand at 4_s._, the cost of material will be 22_l._ 7_s._; allowing 5_l._ for labour, in laying and levelling the court, the whole expense will amount to about 27_l._ Such a court will be as good and as durable, for light work, as one costing 100_l._ A court with a good surface could be made considerably cheaper by using less cement and less solid foundation; but with a concrete court it is necessary to secure such dryness and solidity below as will prevent the risk of the floor being lifted and cracked by frost. (P. S. W.)

(c) One authority quotes the price per yard at 2_s._ 9_d._, for a floor of concrete, 4 in. thick, faced with 2 in. of best cement.

(d) A proportion of 1 (by weight) of cement to 2 of clean sharp sand and 4 of clean gravel, broken stone, &c., makes excellent concrete. These proportions are 6 to 1.

Quoits.--Rules of the Game.--(1) The quoits shall be not more than 5¼ lb. in weight, nor more than 8½ in. diameter outside, and 5½ in. in the inside, nor more than 1½ in. in height, and made of malleable iron. Quoits faced, or partially faced, with steel shall not in any case be allowed.

(2) The pins shall be placed in tempered clay ends, confined by a wooden frame, and shall not project more than 3 in. Pins to be not less than 3 ft. long, and the exposed point ½ in. in diameter.

(3) The pins shall be placed at such distances apart as may be agreed upon, and in the centre of the clay. The pins to be readjusted and the clay made up only at the discretion of the umpire.

(4) No quoit shall count that is a greater distance than 18 in. from the pin.

(5) When a match is played, one umpire shall be chosen by each side, and their decision shall be final. Should, however, an umpire have occasion to appoint another in his place, the last-named in all cases shall be the umpire for the time being. No person except the umpires shall interfere, but each captain may instruct his men if requested.

(6) A player in delivering his quoit shall stand with his foot opposite the pin, but not more than 2 ft. therefrom, and must deliver his quoit before the second step is completed. Should he not do so, the quoit pitched shall be called a “no quoit,” and treated the same as a “no quoit,” as per Rule 11.

(7) The 2 quoits nearest the pin shall count one each, if belonging to the same side. If not, then only the nearest quoit counts one. The quoit touching the top of the pin to count before a side-toucher.

(8) When the inside of a quoit, taken perpendicularly from the pin upwards, shall surround the top of the pin, it shall be called a ringer, and count 2. If a player has 2 quoits in this position, they shall count 2 each, unless his opponent has one dividing them, then the last ringer only shall count.

(9) No quoit shall count as a ringer when a quoit under it covers, in a perpendicular direction, any part of the top of the pin.

(10) If a quoit when pitched shall hit the frame surrounding the clay in alighting, or shall alight outside the frame, it shall be called a “no quoit,” and shall not count or hinder any other quoit from counting, and shall at once be removed.

(11) No clay shall be removed in measuring the distance of a quoit from the pin, neither shall any quoit be removed to facilitate the measurements.

(12) When 2 quoits belonging to opposite parties shall rest at equal distances from the pin, the leading player shall retain his lead.

(13) Any player claiming a point or points after pitching one quoit shall not be at liberty to go back and play his second quoit.

(14) A player in any match must have been a member of the club he plays with for at least one calendar month previous to that time.

Making a Ground.--(a) Procure a large treacle or oil cask, cut the ends off (leaving them about 5 in. deep inside); take care that there are 2 iron hoops on each end; fix an iron pin (¾ in.) firmly in the centre of each, to stand about 7 in. above the edges of the tub, then fill it with stiff clay, raising it from the sides towards the top of the iron pin, leaving so much bare as shall be sufficient for a mark; have a waller’s trowel to smooth the surface when required. These can be placed in any convenient position for quoiting into, and may be removed when not required. Have a frame made of lightwood or iron, cone-shaped, and covered with waterproof canvas, to cover the tubs when not in use.

(b) If the land lies high and dry, and the soil is clay, which during hot weather becomes very hard, dig 2 pits the size required, and about 2 ft. deep. Asphalte the bottom and fill in with the clay.

Racquets.--Making a Racquet Court.--A court should be about 65 ft. by 30 ft. front wall 30 ft. high; back wall 12 ft. high; floor made of asphalte, and walls plastered very smoothly. The expense varies according to size, and cost of labour and materials. It must be lighted by skylights. The area of a double court should be 80 ft. by 40 ft.; front wall 30 ft. high, back wall 12 ft.; side walls sloping towards back wall, with a very slight decline of floor down towards the back wall.

Sail Skating.--When the ports of the Baltic are closed by ice during winter, the pilots and sailors of Arnager Isle, at Copenhagen, occupy their leisure hours with the exercise of skating by sail. This sport requires much skill and quite a long apprenticeship; but, after a person has become dexterous at it, it offers a very peculiar charm, and, when a swift wind causes him to glide over the surface of the ice, he feels himself lifted, as it were, and experiences a sensation analogous to that of flight. Fig. 160_a_ shows a diagram of the apparatus, as employed by the Danish skaters. The sail, which is formed of a light but strong fabric (such as Chinese pongee silk) is stretched over a bamboo frame whose dimensions are given in the cut. The centre crosspiece, which must be placed at the level of the shoulders, is fastened to the skater’s body by bands that cross the breast and afterwards pass around the waist, so that they may be tied together in front. Large crosspieces of wood, attached to the lower corners of the system, are held in the skater’s hands, so that he may trim the sail in one direction or another. When the skater wishes to be carried along by the wind, he must stand very erect, without stiffening his body too much, and bend backward in proportion as the wind blows fresher. Confidence is acquired by practice. Fig. b gives the position of the skater going with the wind and under full sail. When the wind is too violent, the topsail may be readily lowered (Fig. c), so as to thus moderate the impulsion derived from the moving air. By inclining the sail in one direction or the other, the skater may tack to the larboard or starboard (Figs. d and f). Finally, when it is desired to move against the wind, by skating in the usual way, the body is bent forward in such a way that the sail lies horizontally, and no longer offers a purchase to the aerial current (Fig. e). The skater can thus return to his starting point, and from thence be driven forward again by the wind.

This exercise is a very agreeable one, and not very dangerous; and the falls that a person gets in beginning are not to be dreaded, because they almost always occur backward. The degree of speed that can be attained by a practised skater is considerable. When the skater has done with his apparatus, he detaches it from his shoulders, winds the sails around the bamboo sticks, which may be separated from them, and thus has an object that is no more trouble to carry than an umbrella would be. When the winters are severe, it is not unusual to meet upon the ice numerous groups of skaters by sail who are endeavouring to excel each other in speed. Young people are often seen, too, setting out on an expedition over the frozen sea between Denmark and Sweden, and traversing the entire Sound. These latter use the sail when the wind is favourable, but fold up the apparatus when the contrary is the case, and make use of their skates in the ordinary way. Danish hunters, likewise, often have recourse to skating by sail in order to rapidly reach points where wild ducks and geese have been observed.

Skating.--The art of skating is far too intricate to admit of being dealt with in a chapter, but the following notes on skates will interest all skaters.

To a man who simply makes skating an excuse for an outing and a jollification, the Acme is the best skate, because it is easily carried, easily put on and off, and with it he is enabled to do the little skating he is capable of as well as if he had the most expensive and elaborate pair.

To the enthusiast who looks on figure skating as a science to be studied, it is essential that he should have what he conceives to be the best skates that can be made.

Assuming, then, that the skater will not object to carrying a bag large enough to hold a pair of boots and skates, we think that the “Mount Charles” is the best, as it is the simplest, lightest, and neatest. It consists of a skate blade attached by means of plates screwed to the sole of the boot. The front plate is under the ball of the foot, and the heel plate at the heel, and if a very thick-soled boot be used, the absence of support between the two points of attachment, is not practically felt. But a heavy boot is not only unsightly, but fatiguing. If a thinner-soled boot be used, the heat of the foot softens the leather of the sole, which, bending, no longer supports the instep, and fatigue and cramp ensue. Gillett and Co., of Sheffield, hit on a plan which obviates the necessity of a thick and heavy boot, by making the sole of wood instead of leather. A Mount Charles skate with Dowler blades, fitted to wooden-soled boots or clogs, is perhaps the most comfortable, effective, and neat skate produced.

Next in merit to the Mount Charles come the “Barney and Berry.” These also are skeleton skates, being fastened to the boot, either with a T plate for the heel and movable clamps for the toe (the clamps worked by a key), or having movable clamps at both heel and toe. The mechanical arrangement of the Barney and Berry is a great advance on the Acme; but, as the toe clamps catch the sides of the welt, and do not lap over it as in the old club skate with toe clamps, it is necessary to screw the toe clamps somewhat tightly, and this has a tendency to curl up the soles of the boots, especially if the sole be rather thin, or when it gets soft from the heat of the foot or from skating on wet ice.

Skaters, as a rule, use the boots they skate in simply as skating boots, and never attempt to walk any distance in them; a rigid sole of wood would therefore be no disadvantage. If a piece of oak board the length of the boot be shaped so as to touch the footstock of the Barney and Berry all along the iron plate, which extends from the instep to the toe, and the board be attached to a thin pair of well-fitting laced-up boots, all the discomforts of the clamps pinching the sole will be obviated, and the heavy thick boot may of course be dispensed with. There is no doubt that a rigid-soled boot is a distinct advantage, whether the Mount Charles or the Barney and Berry skate be used.

It sometimes happens that the skater has to change his boots some little distance from the ice and walk down in his skates--a proceeding that in nowise improves them; and under these circumstances the Barney and Berry has a decided advantage over the Mount Charles, as the skater can put on his boots and walk down in them to the ice, and then adjust his skates.

It is unnecessary to go into the merits of the “Dowler” blade, as its advantages over the straight-sided blade were duly chronicled in The Field of Oct. 11, 1879. Since that time the new form of skate blade has been gradually growing in favour. There was some difficulty at first in getting these blades properly made; but Hill and Son, of the Haymarket, and Walter Thornhill and Co., of New Bond Street, turn out Dowler blades in a way that leaves nothing to be desired.

There are, of course, numerous skates other than the Mount Charles and the Barney and Berry, most of which display considerable mechanical ingenuity; but, if we were asked to point out the skate we considered “the best,” we should, without hesitation select either the Mount Charles or the Barney and Berry. (Field.)

Swimming.--This can never be learned from books; it should form a part of every boy’s school training as much as reading or writing. A few hints to non-swimmers will be acceptable, and may prove highly valuable if kept in mind.

The human body weighs 1 lb. in the water, and a chair will carry 2 persons--that is, it will keep the head above water, which is all that is necessary when it is a question of life or death. One finger placed upon a stool or chair or a small box or board will easily keep the head above water, while the two feet and the other hand may be used as paddles to propel toward the shore.

It is not necessary to know how to swim to be able to keep from drowning. A little experience of the buoyant power of water, and faith in it, is all that is required. A small boy who cannot swim a stroke may propel himself back and forth across a deep, wide pond by means of a board, that would not sustain 5 lb. weight. Children and all others should have practice in the sustaining power of water. In many cases the knowledge that what will sustain a lb. weight is all that is necessary to keep one’s head above water will serve better in emergencies than the greatest expertness as a swimmer.

A person unfamiliar with the buoyant power will naturally try to climb on top of the floating object on which he tries to save himself. If it is large enough, that is all right. But it is generally not large enough to keep all entirely above water. This often happens when pleasure boats capsize. All immediately want to get out of the water on top of the overturned or half-filled boat, and all are drowned except those whom the craft will wholly bear up.

If they simply trust the water to sustain 99 per cent. of the weight of their bodies, and the disabled boat the other 1 per cent., they all might be saved under most circumstances. An overturned or half-filled wooden boat will sustain more than it will carry. It would keep the heads above the water of as many people as could get their hands on the gunwale. These are simple facts easily learned, and may every day save life.

Velocipeding.--The following are a few hints on the prevention and cure of accidents to tricycles.

A very common accident in tricycles fitted with plain bearings, is “firing.” The cause is generally want of oil. Friction, which oil greatly reduces, makes the bearing heat. The heat increases, and, after running heavily for some little time, the metal expands, so that a dead-lock is the result, and the part refuses to move. The best remedy is to get some boiling water and cloths, which, being soaked, and laid round the outside, will in a short time unfix the most obstinate bearing. A good oiling should be given. In a new front steerer, unless the balance gear and driving axle be well oiled there is a tendency to “fire,” as the fitting is very close. It is better to over-do the lubrication than otherwise in a new machine, owing to this same close fitting.

Another accident tricycles are liable to, especially in light ones, is a bent axle. The cause is either the jar occasioned by riding over a large stone or brick, a thick dress being violently “wound up” in the chain, or the fact that the rider is too heavy for the machine. The fact of the axle being bent is painfully evident in a bad case from the “wobbling” of the wheel nearest the seat of the damage. A slight bend may be detected by tilting the machine, and spinning one wheel with the hand, watching the stationary one. If this oscillates slightly, there is a bend. If the axle is bent, it can only be rectified by a skilled mechanic. If an axle bends again it is most politic to have a new axle fitted, as, for an axle to break at full speed, is the most dangerous of accidents.

A bent steering rod is a very common occurrence. It often happens that the adjusting screw at the end of the fork arm works tight, and, as the screw is only meant to work as a pivot, the tight joint often “jams,” and, unless slackened, the rod either bends, or, worse still, breaks. Another cause of the same accident is the steering head working tightly--deficient lubrication again. A blow on the rod or a flaw in the steel may cause a like result. A bent steering rod may be pulled straight without much trouble, a broken one is a more serious matter. A good plan is to tie the head of an umbrella or walking stick, if of a suitable shape, to the spanner fitted on the head or the arm of the steering head, and steer in the Bath-chair fashion.

The screw connected with the steering rod has a trick of working loose, and, if the lock-nut drops off, the screw may become so loose as to follow. A hairpin twisted in the hole and round, forms a very good temporary connection.

A broken crank is a very tiresome and awkward accident. The cause is either a flaw in the metal or the crank being of insufficient strength. A smart snap is generally the only warning given, and the crank “yields” all round as though made of putty. A crank does not, as a rule, break clean through unless in very faulty iron. It begins to open and “gape,” and finally breaks. The rider can do nothing except tie up the fracture (if not occurring at one of the crank axles) in splints with string, and then inquire for the nearest station, or trundle the machine to the nearest smith, and let him weld it together, in the case of the crank being solid. It often happens that country smiths are only used to rough work. It must, therefore, be impressed upon them most strenuously, that rule-of-thumb will not do. The following method of mending a solid crank has been given by a skilful repairer:--

The broken crank axle, when taken out, should be laid upon a board or piece of stout paper; then, ends being joined at the fracture, the smith should carefully mark round with a pencil the exact size, and, referring to his plan, he will see and mark the amount he may allow to weld, so that the thickness may be the same, and also the throw, and that the two projections fitting into the bearings are straight and level with each other.

Hollow cranks are mended by putting a piece of iron inside, riveting and brazing.

For a broken axle, the best remedy is to get the machine along as well as possible on one driving wheel and the steerer, getting it either carted or carried to the nearest station, from which, if no qualified repairer is near at hand, it can be sent to the maker to be fitted with a new one. It may be comforting to know that, unless in a very light machine, broken axles occur in the proportion of one in a thousand.

Very unpleasant and very common among lady riders is the accident called “being wound up” in the driving chain. Insufficient dress guard is one reason; a full skirt and a gusty day are others. Such misfortunes are to be prevented by fitting a piece of tanned cord netting at the side from the framework to the tilt rod stay, if it is on the same side as the chain, which most of them are. This netting is laced on with fine waterproof twine, both of which can be obtained of Unite, in Edgware Road. The cost altogether of a yard of netting is 2_d._, and whipcord 2_d._ more. The netting is impervious to wet, can hardly be seen when riding, and is easily attached, making no noise or rattle. Wire netting rattles dreadfully, and is not nearly as good, whilst 20 times more expensive.

Most bad accidents are due to recklessness. An opinion is common amongst people that to ride a tricycle is the simplest thing in the world, and that, as the machine will stand alone and is tolerably safe when going slowly, no care is requisite in descending hills. It is easy to distinguish between an old rider and a novice in going down a steep hill. The experienced rider, knowing the danger, goes with feet on the pedals and machine well in hand, both braking and back-pedalling until the bottom of the hill is well in view, when she indulges in a “fly,” still keeping under control, although going fast.

The novice, not knowing how dangerous it is to lose control, comes down erratically--in many cases quite unable to stop--and if she does manage to, by means of a strong brake, strains the machine, and does damage that way. Most of the notoriously dangerous hills in England have danger boards erected by the National Cyclists’ Union--in the form of small painted iron plates on a post, bearing the following: “Notice to Cyclists.--This hill is dangerous.” Accidents may be avoided by “braking” and back-pedalling down the steepest part until well in sight of the bottom of the hill. If the hand brake of a front steerer get oily it fails to check the machine properly. The remedy for this is to dust powdered resin over the drum, which dries up the oil, but makes the brake almost too powerful; therefore, after applying resin, it should be used with caution. If a machine from any cause--such as the brake refusing to act, or being out of order--runs away down-hill, the only thing is to try to keep clear of ruts, and avoid swerving by keeping a firm hand on the steering and a cool head. If presence of mind is once lost, a bad accident is a foregone conclusion. On the other hand, a cool rider may manage to guide her machine safely to the bottom.

A common consequence of a run-away is a “buckled wheel.” This looks a most alarming accident, but can be rectified in a few minutes if the wheel is well built. The wheel assumes the form of an erratic 8, the spokes are bulging, loose, and twisted.

To set matters right, the rider should place her knee on the bow of the hub, and, putting one foot on the rim at the bottom, with the two hands take hold of the rim furthest from her inwards. Pulling at these simultaneously, and pressing with the knee the rim with a snap will resume its round form, and a little adjustment with the spoke-tightener of such spokes as are loose completes the operation.

Loose tyres can hardly be called an accident in themselves, but as causes of such they demand attention. If they become loose, a gas jet should be held under the rim until the cement begins to bubble and ooze out between the rim and the rubber. The tyre should be pressed into place and tied firmly with string, and left like that for 12 hours to set. If no cement remains in the rim, some of Rockhill’s, or, if nothing better can be obtained, Prout’s elastic glue, should be melted in an iron spoon and run into the felloes. Singer’s tyre heater is a good one to use where gas is to be had; but if in the country, where it is not available, recourse must be had to a blacksmith, who should be persuaded to heat relays of red-hot irons, which are held under the rim, as in the case of gas. If a tyre comes loose suddenly, it may be firmly fastened by tying it to the iron felloe with thin string at every 2 in. Each tie should be quite distinct from the others, and the string drawn so tightly as to sink into the indiarubber tyre. A machine will run many scores of miles before any of these strings is cut, and then they can be easily replaced. (F. J. Erskine, Field.)

SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE.

‘Revised Laws of Lawn Tennis.’ London. 6_d._

M. S. F. and S. F. Monier-Williams: ‘Combined Figure Skating.’ London, 1882. 5_s._

H. E. Vandervell and T. Maxwell-Witham: ‘A System of Figure Skating, being the theory and practice of the art as developed in England, with a glance at its origin and history.’ London, 1869. 6_s._

‘Rules of the Game of Hockey.’ London. 6_d._

E. D. Brickwood: ‘Boatracing, or the arts of Rowing and Training.’ London. 5_s._

E. D. Brickwood: ‘The Rowing Almanack and Oarsman’s Companion.’ London. Yearly. 1_s._

W. Wilson: ‘The Swimming Instructor: a treatise on the arts of Swimming and Diving.’ London. 2_s._ 6_d._

C. Box: ‘The English Game of Cricket: comprising a digest of its origin, character, history, and progress, together with an exposition of its laws and language.’ London. 21_s._

H. F. Wilkinson: ‘Modern Athletics.’ London. 1_s._ 6_d._

THE WORKROOM.

It is impossible within reasonable limits to give a comprehensive treatise on all the various forms of useful and ornamental needlework. Moreover, so many changes take place in fashions that no book can keep pace with them, and the best information is to be found in the newspapers specially devoted to women’s wants, notably the Queen. To this journal readers are referred for the many developments of fancy needlework, and to it is due the credit of the following brief notes on some of the most widely useful methods of effecting darns, patches, and repairs.

=Patching.=--When a large hole or thin place makes its appearance, it must be mended by a patch, matching exactly in texture and pattern. The fresh piece should, if possible, be slightly worn, to prevent a too great strain on the old, causing the tear to start afresh. Hence the importance of storing up odds and ends. A careful housewife has always a good stock in her piece-bags, one of which she reserves for white, the other for coloured scraps. In repair, and with a plain material, patching is comparatively an easy matter; but stripes, checks, and brocades call for some ingenuity in arranging the design so well that no break is perceived. When the fabric is cut on the bias, the renovating piece must correspond, though as a rule patches are either square or rectangular in form. Squaring corners constitutes the chief difficulty of patching. To manage these perfectly, they need mitreing or nicking as the case may be, and both piece and hole have to be sewn even to a thread. Garments, specially children’s, occasionally require mending at the elbows and under the arms. To prevent an unsightly repair, it is necessary to rip up the seams, and, having sewn the patch in neatly on either side of them, to join the sleeves or armholes again. In articles too shabby to be worth very careful doing up, the added piece may be slip-stitched on, provided it follows and never breaks the seam. Judgment is likewise requisite in the choice of cotton and needles, both as to colour and size. If too coarse, they draw up the threads, and the cotton if too fine breaks away from the stuff altogether. The easiest way of patching is to fix the fresh piece on the right side before removing the old. There are three different methods of doing this, viz. counter-hemming, slip-stitching, and sewing and felling. These are by some considered best for new materials.

Counter-hemmed Patch.--This could be utilised for almost any repairing, except that it takes such wide turnings. For its execution, cut out a piece of material considerably larger than the hole or worn part, and turn it down all round about ¼ in. Place it smoothly over the decayed fabric, taking care not to strain too much, or the stuff underneath will set in rucks. Tack and hem down neatly on each side, letting the stitches be extremely close at the corners. Turn the work on the wrong side, cut out the worn part, and make a hem on the patch itself.

Slip-stitched Patch.--Proceed as before, but, instead of hemming, slip-stitch neatly on the right side. The result will be a very tidy patch, specially suitable for cashmere, silk, merino, and other fine materials that do not wash. Slip-stitching also answers remarkably well in home contrivances, such as recovering ball shoes when faded, and thus utilising scraps of silk, &c., to harmonise with the toilette.

Sewn and Felled Patch (Fig. 161).--Crease the material on the right side at about 2 in. beyond the thin place. Cut a suitable patch straight to a thread, allowing ¼ in. turning all round for the wrong side. Tack or pin it upon the fabric, and sew regularly; flatten the seam, and turn the work. Lastly, remove the worn place, and finish off the patch by a narrow hem on the under surface. If necessary, make a tiny slit at each corner to keep the fresh piece square. More experienced menders prefer to cut away the threadbare portion first, and then let in the patch. This is decidedly the best way, though it makes the management of the corners more tiresome; however, a little practice soon overcomes the difficulty.

The Sewn Patch (Fig. 162).--Remove the worn part entirely, and nick the corners of the hole for the turnings. Cut out the patch ¼ in. wider all round. Crease the edges of both hole and patch, and tack them together on the wrong side. Mitre the corners of the piece to make the repair set well. Sew the four sides neatly and closely, taking the stitches only one or two threads into the stuff, and fasten off securely. Fell down the turnings, or only overcast them if mending a woollen, silken, or extremely stout fabric, such as coutil, &c. When completed, flatten the seams by the thumb-nail or thimble or, if necessary, press with a hot iron.

The Run Patch (Fig. 163).--Prepare the hole exactly as for the sewn patch, and crease down a turning as a guide to the stitches. Cut out a fresh piece to fit, allowing ¼ in. on each side. Fix it in place, and run carefully on the wrong side, taking care not to pucker in the least, and letting the stitches be closer together at the corners. Make the seam neat by felling which will set without mitreing the corners.

The Darned Patch is frequently employed, when short of scraps, for mending or strengthening play-room knickerbockers, carpets, or any rough fabrics. The small bit, or even a piece of another material, matching as nearly as possible in colour, may be placed under the hole, then secured, and almost concealed, by rows of neat darning.

The Seamless Patch is very similar to the preceding, but the darning, instead of covering the weak part, merely surrounds the edge. The repair often appears in sheets, towels, &c., wherever, from scarcity or frailty of stuff, a seam is undesirable. Cut a piece of the same material a little wider than the hole itself; tack it upon the wrong side of the fabric, letting the edges of piece and hole overlap. When both have been pared, secure the patch to the stuff on the right side by darning backwards and forwards about 6 stitches in height. Leave regular loops, and see that the needle takes in both upper and under surfaces. The darning crosses at the corners, thereby giving them additional strength. With the exception of the corners, neither rows nor stitches should be as close together as in ordinary mending.

The Buttonhole Patch surpasses the seamless patch in neatness and flatness, and is reserved for the best linen in cases of accidental burns, stains, &c., where the damage cannot well be rectified by darning. The patch is very valuable in stockings, and has recently suggested an excellent plan for seaming petticoat bodices without the slightest ridge, thus facilitating the perfect fit of the fashionable corsages. To make it, cut out the worn part and prepare a piece, identical in material, and of the exact dimensions of the hole; work separately the edges of patch and hole in close buttonhole stitch, with embroidery or flourishing thread. Secure the piece to the fabric by 2 or 4 pins at the corners, and sew it on by passing the needle from the loop of each stitch over the opposite one.

The Flannel Patch.--There are three ways of mending flannel. In the first fix the piece exactly like the seamless patch, then herringbone all round on the right and wrong side, letting the upper row of stitches exactly cover the under one. For the second process, commence as for the run patch, but, instead of felling, herringbone the turnings. In the third and lightest method, crease the 4 sides; manage the corners as already described; set in the patch so that the former exactly correspond with those of the material; then herringbone the edges of the renewed part and hole together. Flannel patches are equally well adapted to the repairing of old quilts.

Flannel Strengthening Patch (Fig. 164).--This repair, as shown by the illustration, is in frequent requisition for thin places round the armholes, &c. Cut out a piece of fresh flannel the desired shape, tack it upon the material, and herringbone all round. The stuff, being so apt to stretch, needs the hand to be held rather loosely in working.

=Joining.=--In the alteration as well as the mending of garments, joining is in constant requisition; hence a neat and imperceptible mode is invaluable for all kinds of needlework. To this department belong herringboning, matting seams, net mending, laced and fine drawing, besides various ways of joining fur, canvas, carpets, and velvets.

The well-known herringboning is a most useful method of uniting two hemmed or stitched edges of flannel, list, or woven underclothing. It also replaces drawn-work insertion, in antimacassars composed of linen or embroidered strips, as well as in coloured handkerchief borders, where it unites squares, &c., of lawn or cambric. The lacey stitch adds to the ornament of the handkerchief, besides suggesting a pretty way of using up scraps. When not utilised for the join itself, herringbone stitches are often made on the right side of the material to conceal the seam. These are sometimes caught down with stitches in a contrasting tint, and at others worked over a braid.

Fur Joining.--When a piece of fur has to be divided into narrower bands, say about 4 in. in width, no scissors must be used. To separate it, lay the fur lightly on the table, hair downwards, and with a ruler and red chalk pencil mark out the divisions boldly on the skin. Take a sharp-pointed penknife, or, still better, a chisel, and, holding it quite perpendicularly, cut by the red chalk lines, resting the penknife against the ruler, in case of slips. Bear slightly when cutting, just enough to let the knife pierce quite through the pelt without touching the hairs. If this operation be successfully performed the skin will separate into bands with smooth, even edges, and the fur remain untouched. Before joining, two things have to be considered--the right way of the fur, and its various shadings. Some specimens, such as the skunk, chinchilla, and squirrel, graduate very much in tint; therefore a little contrivance is required for the ends to match as nearly as possible, and not to place a dark hue close to a light one. If this, however, cannot be avoided, let it be done regularly, in order that the colour shades off at equal distances and the fur has no patched-up appearance. With regard to the right way of the fur, the joining offers no difficulty in straight bands, but calls for some management in corners, &c., especially when the pieces in hand, being already worn, have slits or shabby spots that need replacing. Now the fur is quite ready for joining. Take a fine needle and smooth cotton or silk, bring the two edges of the pelt together, and unite them by a flat sewing, pushing back meanwhile any stray hairs. Do not pull the cotton too tightly, for fear of spoiling the skin.

Transferring.--In applying old or new woolwork to satin, cloth, or velvet, cut about ¼ in. beyond the design, turn under the edge and tack firmly on the foundation. Conceal the join by a silk cord, chenille, or rows of gold thread. Appliqué work suggests many good ways of utilising ancient needlework, that has lasted intact long after the ground is threadbare. The embroidery is cut out with sharp scissors, and lightly tacked to a fresh foundation; then secured with a kind of running, taken invisibly--a buttonhole, cord on net, herringbone, or any stitch employed in appliqué. Washing fabrics obviously require the firmest sewing. By such means, the well-known Swiss muslin embroidery is transposed, and antiquated collars, handkerchiefs, &c., are adapted to the reigning styles.

Canvas Joining.--Strips of Berlin woolwork frequently run too short for the purpose intended, and need joining to additional bands. To accomplish this neatly, overlap the edges for about 1 in., letting every bar lie exactly in a line with the one underneath. Tack them in place, and cover with cross-stitch in the groundwork colour, drawing the wool rather tightly at the join, to keep the double thickness as flat as the rest of the work. In the same way squares for Berlin wool carpets are united. Borders with a running or broken pattern are more easily connected, as the scroll, spray, &c., merely require matching; but with equidistant medallions or geometrical figures the necessary space has often to be made up by letting in strips of canvas. The same process can be applied to tapestry repairing, which now comes more within the sphere of ladies’ work, thanks to the introduction of the faded tints, so much admired. Time-worn or worm-eaten spots are cut away, and a piece of new canvas basted outside the hole. Then, with wool matching precisely each tint, the decayed part is copied in again, perhaps with the alteration of a stitch here or there, to make it meet unbrokenly the original work; if well done the replenishing cannot be detected. In woven tapestries the woof threads, after a lapse of years, give way, and countless slits make their appearance between the ribs. These may be effectually mended by drawing together the breaks, with crewels of the same colour, fastening off on the wrong side by passing the needle in and out 2 or 3 tapestry threads. If extremely worn a good strengthening is a backing of stout crash.

Carpet Joining.--Felts and all light fabrics are simply seamed by flat sewing; but in Brussels, Wilton, and thick piles the joins to lie smooth are connected by passing the needle in and out first one edge and then the other. Should the seam set full, dashing on a little water will rectify it. If in case of accidental burns, &c., the carpet has to be mended on the floor, the only available plan consists in placing on the patch, and securing both surfaces by darning. Repairing carpets when up gives the opportunity of strengthening patches, hems, &c., by felling stout webbing on the wrong side. When stair carpets require binding, the webbing matches the predominant colour in the pattern.

Matting Seams.--These are made in the following manner: Bring the two edges together, take a straight stitch over both, pass the needle slantwise under one edge, and through the adjacent one. Thus the right side presents a row of slight sewing, the wrong a series of sloping stitches taking in one selvedge only.

Velvet Joining.--Faults or cuts, &c., in velvet and plush are concealed by very careful seaming on the wrong side. The needle enters half the thickness of the material (Fig. 165), leaving no stitches visible on the upper surface, and the sewing is drawn till the edges just meet and no more. Care must be taken to work in all stray filaments that no fluffiness disturbs the smoothness of the pile. When finished make the seam still firmer by rows of darning, 4 or 5 stitches in height, and running parallel to the sewing; leave no loops, but pass a horizontal stitch from one darning line to the other (Fig. 166). The preceding is also adapted to satin repairing, though on account of the close shiny surface this cannot be quite as satisfactorily made. Complete the mending by passing the wrong side of the fabric over a cool iron, the steam of which raises the pile.

Laced Joining (Fig. 167) consists in the uniting of torn edges of a slit accidentally made by a thorn, knife, or scissors. In every home it is constantly needed for the temporary repair of those well-known three-cornered rents caused by mischievous nails, knobs, spikes, &c. Laced joining is also the only way of stopping cracks in old silk dresses, umbrellas, and parasols; for the latter being neatly strengthened and concealed by a narrow galloon run on both right and wrong sides. To execute the seam, trim the torn edges, and draw them together, holding the work between the thumb and fourth finger of the left hand. Imitate a kind of lacing thus: point the needle from the chest, and pass it under the right edge; turn the needle in the contrary direction, and slip it beneath the left edge, and so on. Be sure to take in enough of the fabric to bear the stitches, which are to be as close as necessary for the material. Judgment is indispensable also for the placing of the stitches; a knife-cut in a delicate material has a sharply defined edge, and can be drawn together straight to a thread, but in a jagged or worn part the stitches enter more or less deeply into the worn part, according to the state of the piece.

Fine-drawing.--This is almost exclusively used by tailors in their beautiful repairs, and is suitable for all kinds of cloth and thick woollen textures. The method of working is as follows: Having, if possible, turned the article wrong side outwards, place the rent horizontally across the second and third fingers of the left hand. Thread the needle with very fine sewing silk, and slip it between the cloth nearly ¼ in. from one edge. Bring the needle out and take a tiny stitch on the top of the cloth, slip it through the fabric back to the edge again, then insert into the opposite side, repeat the small stitch, and return in the same manner. Continue thus to the end. If skilfully done the seam can scarcely be unripped, and completely defies detection, provided all the cloth be the right way of the grain. Fine-drawing comes in excellently for connecting stars, &c., in cloth patchwork. For more ordinary purposes an invisible, though not equally strong join, is by a flat sewing taken midway through the thickness of the stuff. In either case the repair needs careful pressing.

=Darning.=--The plain, or ordinary darn, was for a long time the only one employed in repairing any material, whether linen or woollen; the materials, soft darning cotton, merino, Angola worsted or Berlin wool, and filoselle, rather finer than the fabric to be mended.

In using filoselle for darning or for embroidery, it is necessary to feel for the right way of the thread, or the filoselle will become rough and work against the grain. Before threading your needle, draw the filoselle through your finger and thumb, and you will soon learn to know the difference between the smooth and the rough way. A great help in feeling anything is to shut the eyes. When you buy new stockings and socks, do not wear them until you have sewed them over heel and toe. There is an open bar in heels and toes that soon breaks, unless secured by sewing over. To do this, stretch the heel or toe very tightly over your left hand; this opens these little bars, and enables you to see holes top and bottom, when you can sew them over. You must not do it like herringboning, but straight, and from left to right. This plan prevents many a darn.

The Plain Darn is not limited to the repairing of house linen or garments; it is also applied to carpets, curtains, tapestry hangings, and even chair cushions and covers, which all need a close inspection after a periodical cleaning. For all these we mostly have recourse to the darn called point de reprise--the great distinction between this and the point de toile being that, instead of precisely taking up one and leaving down one, it consists in taking up and leaving down an irregular number of stitches, according to the value and strength of the material. The point de reprise is also used in lace-making, embroidery, wool and guipure work; besides, on account of its quick execution, it is generally chosen for the mending of stockings. Materials: A darning or egg-eyed needle, and either cotton, silk, merino, Angola, or linen thread. Method of working: When a hole has to be mended it may be prepared in two ways, either by drawing together all the broken threads as nearly as possible into their original position, and securing them with a needle and fine cotton, or by cutting off all irregularities, and carefully paring the edges; the latter method is undoubtedly the neater. Hold the part to be mended well stretched over the first and second fingers of the left hand, and for the foundation proceed as follows: Point the needle from the chest, and make an ascending row of regular perpendicular stitches, leaving a rather long loop to allow for stretching or shrinking in washing. For the descending row turn the needle towards the chest, and return in the same manner, taking up the thread left down in the preceding row, thus inverting the order of stitches; continue to do this till the hole is well covered by a series of long threads parallel to each other. Crossing: Place the work so that the threads run horizontally, and darn as before, commencing the same distance from the sides, as from the upper and lower edge, or else a hole will soon make its unwelcome appearance close to the new darn. A little judgment is necessary in deciding the closeness of the stitches, as it is evident that a worn-out material will not bear such close and heavy mending as a comparatively new one. The best mode of covering a plain darn is that which gives it the form of a cross; to this there are a few exceptions, such as the diagonal darn and the double square darn shown in Fig. 169.

Double Square Darn.--When a fabric wears gradually from actual age, the hole is more generally confined to one spot, but in these accidental slits the damage extends over a considerable portion of the material, while the latter is still sound, hence the necessity of specially shaped darns, in which the crossing to avoid clumsiness merely covers the part suddenly torn. The double square darn is principally used for sheets, tablecloths, &c., which have been blown about by the wind while drying, and caught by an unlucky thorn or nail. Materials: A fine darning needle and linen thread. Method of working: With the needle bring the torn edges together, and secure them on a piece of toile cirée, then conceal the slit with rows of darning, which measure exactly double its width and its length; reverse the work, and repeat the process, so that the tear forms two sides of a square of crossed darning.

Diagonal Darn.--This is an irregular-shaped darn, often had recourse to by experienced housekeepers in the repair of those unfortunate slits, constantly discovered in kitchen or nursery tablecloths, or in linen pillow-cases, sheets, &c., when they have seen their best days. As the tear is made on the bias, the mending threads must of course run in a corresponding direction; this imparts to the work the peculiar shape of a double pyramid or egg-boiler, with a square in the centre, inclosing the slit, putting us in mind of the star pattern familiar in knitted quilts. Materials: Flourishing thread, and a fine darning needle. Method of working: Commence at the extremity of the slit at the distance of its own length above it, and terminate the first row of darning at an equal length below it; proceed by letting each row decrease one stitch on the upper side, and increase one stitch on the lower side in harmony with the tear. Turn the work, and cross in exactly the same manner.

Mottled Darn.--To mend a material woven in two shades, form the fresh warp by a series of foundation stitches matching exactly the texture and tint of the ground; then cross the former threads by others of the same colour as the woof. This method will produce a speckled darn.

Strengthening Darn.--When upon inspection an article is found to be wearing thin, strengthen the weak parts by a few rows of darning, worked rather far apart, so as not to put too much strain on the material. Both cotton and needle must be very fine, for fear of breaking the threads. For strengthening stockings there is a new and pretty way of doing so on the right side, which imitates a spotted pattern, and leaves no loops. It consists in crossing the webs with horizontal rows of stitches, passing the needle over and under one web alternately. This style is very appropriate for heels and toes, but in the case of frail spots here and there an invisible strengthening may be effected by passing the needle upwards and downwards between the webs.

Reprise Perdue or Imperceptible Darn is nothing more than a skilful execution of the linen stitch, with the exception that it is worked with the ravellings of the material itself, and that no loops are left, the thread being cut as each row is completed. In the days when linen held pre-eminence in fabrics, the reprise perdue was a name which belonged exclusively to this particular darn; but, as each new material was introduced, the need of a repair in its exact imitation was naturally felt and met; hence the term has now extended itself to any darn which reproduces the worn fabric so exactly that the most practised eye can scarcely detect any difference. The imperceptible darn is specially used to conceal an accidental tear or burn in costly textures, such as Indian muslins, cashmeres, and fine cambric, and in spots where the defects would be likely to attract much notice, as the front or sides of boots and slippers made of satin or prunella, &c. Above all, however, is this style of darn valuable to manufacturers, for hiding either the faults or the accidental damages done to their goods. Materials: A long fine darning or straw needle, and ravellings of the fabric. There are one or two materials, such as cloth and baize, which do not ravel out. For the repair of the former it is best to use very fine silk, and for the latter ravellings of mohair braid of the same colour. When the exact shade of the material cannot be matched by the mending thread, the darn should be well stretched on a board in front of the light, and completed by a few touches of paint carefully applied with a camel’s-hair pencil. Method of working: Draw the broken threads as nearly as possible to their original position, and cut off the frayed parts so as to have the edges perfectly even. When practicable, turn the stuff on the wrong side, and mount the hole on a piece of stiff paper--not newspaper, as the printing will dazzle the eyes. A piece of toile cirée would here be specially valuable, as its green colour affords great relief to the strained sight. The work being now ready, execute the darn in the pattern of the material, letting the rows, instead of forming a decided line, be rather irregular, and lose themselves in the fabric.

The Rep Darn, as its name implies, is employed in the repairing of rep, as well as poplin, Brussels carpeting, and, in fact, any ribbed material. This darn generally consists merely in replacing the surface by covering each rib with a perpendicular row of sewing stitches, slanting one thread downwards. If by chance the warp threads be also much worn, they will require strengthening by one or two threads passed across vertically, and secured to the back by a few run stitches. Materials: Worsted, wool, or twist to match precisely the colours of the fabric, and a darning needle.

Lace Patch or Darn.--This circular patch is a light and pretty way of mending a hole caused by the accidental fall of a spark or cigar-ash on tablecloths, napkins, &c. It may be executed in any of the open stitches so much used in guipure work, though the feston stitch, being the one generally adopted, is illustrated in Fig. 172. The same stitch can also be applied to lessening the width of stretched-out buttonholes, making an openwork gusset between the fore-finger and thumb of a kid glove, widening the sides of fingers, or filling in a hole that has split near the welt, to which is then added an elastic loop.

Detail of Lace Patch.--Materials: Embroidery cotton or flourishing thread, which, being soft and flat, fills up the little interstices after washing, and renders the patch almost invisible even in damask; in this case, therefore, twisted cotton or silk should never be employed. Egg-eyed needle.--Shape the circle carefully, then overcast the edge of the hole by buttonhole stitches placed rather far apart, and taken in more or less deeply, according to the texture of the stuff. Fill in the space by working rows of feston or buttonhole stitches round and round, keeping the thread all the time under the needle, and gradually decreasing in circumference till the centre is reached, when draw the thread closely, and secure it safely on the wrong side. Before attempting this patch on the article itself, it is well to practise it upon a piece of coarse material, in order to acquire dexterity in the work, and thus avoid either puckering or tightening. For a triangular patch such as the one used in gloves, lay the foundation on the widest side, letting the stitches be more or less apart, according to the size of the silk or the openness of the work. Form the patch by rows of buttonhole stitches, going from left to right and from right to left, without breaking off the silk, putting the needle in the centre of every loop, and slipping a stitch at each row, until at the angle there is but one left.

Swiss or German Darn.--More appropriately called web stitch, as it imitates exactly the web itself, and is, therefore, the true stitch for mending all hosiery and knitted articles. By the web is understood the texture of threads woven in a loom, forming a tissue of threads interwoven with each other, those extending in length being called the warp, and those stretched across, the weft or woof. The origin of this stitch is comparatively of recent date, for it can only have been known since the introduction of stocking knitting in the reign of Elizabeth. The method comprehends the plain web, the rib, Jacob’s ladder, and grafting. Materials: A sewing needle, rather finer than the loop through which it has to pass, smooth darning, or, still better, embroidery cotton, wool or silk matching to a shade, a wooden or indiarubber ball, and a piece of stiff brown paper or toile cirée. Method of working: Cut the hole even, ravel out the edges of the horizontal sides, leaving at each a row of open loops, clear and distinct as if prepared for picking up dropped stitches in knitting. (Fig. 174).--Foundation. Secure the thread on the wrong side by 3 or 4 perpendicular stitches of common darning. Turn the work, stretching it over the first and second fingers of the left hand; keep it in place by the third finger and thumb. Cover the gap by a succession of vertical threads, commencing, one or two webs from the edge. Bring the needle out at the top between two webs, pass the thread alongside the hole, and insert the needle at the lower part, in the centre of the right-hand web, and draw it through the centre of the left-hand web. Carry the thread upward to the same point from which it started, that is, by putting the needle in the same hole, and take up a complete web. The result will be an elongated V, with the angle uppermost. Form a second V in the same manner, and there will then remain half a web only from the hole. Pick up, on the needle, this half web and the first loop, and pass the thread upwards to form the point of the V, by meeting the thread on the last bar; that is, put the needle in the hole from which the previous thread has emerged, and again take up two loops. Continue thus till the gap is covered, letting the needle point always towards the left, and passing it back one loop to the right at each stitch. This fresh ground will then represent a series of long narrow vandykes. Finish by fastening the thread on the wrong side, in the same manner as at the beginning.

Crossing.--Conceal the foundation by working backwards and forwards rows parallel to each loop in identical imitation of the web. For the first line attach the thread to the work, and bring the needle out between two webs, precisely as for the first process. Take up the two bars on either side of the thread, entering where the woven stitch is indented, and emerging where it comes out; then insert the needle above, and one bar to the right, picking up again two bars or stitches (Fig. 175). Next enter one bar below, and to the right raise two bars, and so on to the end of the row; each web thus forms a V shape. Special care is needed for the 1st row, as on it depends the arrangement of the webs. This line completed, bring the needle out one bar perpendicularly downwards, in readiness for the second, and work from left to right instead of from right to left, putting the needle above every accompanying purl of the wrong side, or the stitches will be disconnected. The beauty of the work consists entirely in its evenness and flatness, hence the utility of the toile cirée or wooden ball, as it keeps the work well stretched. When a ball is used, the stocking is strained over it and held in place by the left hand, the thumb meanwhile resting on the top of the ball.

Single Web.--Having now thoroughly explained the ordinary or double web stitch we will just mention the single one, a lighter and consequently less durable mode of repairing, often employed in silk and Lisle thread stockings. Its execution is very similar to that of the former stitch. For the foundation, bring the needle out in the centre of a web, pass the thread across, along the side of the hole, insert the needle again in the centre of a web and the first loop. Then continue to take up alternately two loops on the upper and lower edge, letting the last loop of one stitch be the first of the next. The foundation will then have the appearance of a succession of elongated U’s in contrast with the series of V’s formed by the double web stitch (Fig. 176). The crossing follows the same rule as the foundation (Fig. 177). Another single web, more rapid, but not so neat, is executed as follows: Make the whole perfectly even, and holding the stocking lengthwise towards you, fill up the gap with common darning, taking up the edge web on either side, not placing the rows too closely. Now for the imitation of the web, turn the work so that the darning lines are horizontal, commencing at the lower part of the hole, and ascend to the top by twisting the thread under each bar, to resemble a kind of cord stitch. Descend by stitches in the reverse direction, and thus complete an exact web.

The Rib is a variety of Swiss darning scarcely known, and will doubtless be highly appreciated by mothers in particular. This stitch, though apparently showing the wrong and right side alternately, is really completely executed on the right side alone. Method of working: Lay the foundation, as for a simple web; then cover by an equal number of pearl and plain stitches. The change from plain to pearl is executed thus: instead of putting the needle straight under two threads, pass it beneath the second bar of the raised web, and over the first bar of the adjoining one; point the needle downwards and bring it out one bar to the right, cross over two bars and slant it upwards one thread to the left, so that it emerges from the identical hole the first stitch entered. Continue to slip the needle over two bars, sloping it alternately upwards and downwards, till the hollowed web or purl stitches are completed. Then reverse the work by crossing over the last bar, and passing under the first bar of the raised web or garter stitches, in readiness for the next plain one. The wider the rib, the more easy its imitation.

Jacob’s Ladder, or Dropped Stitch.--This frequently occurs in stockings, as well as in silk or cotton gloves, knitted petticoats, &c., and so rapidly forms a long ladder of open bars that we can here almost literally apply the maxim, “A stitch in time saves nine.” No better remedy seems to be devised by careless workers than passing the needle under and over the bars, which, being wider than the space left for them, cannot be properly stretched, and the result is an unsightly and puckered darn, especially when the mischief extends to two or three adjacent rows. The following mode is undoubtedly the right one: Take up a dropped or slipped stitch, as in knitting, by inserting a fine crochet hook into the first loop below, and draw through it the first rung or bar of the ladder. Then continue to pass each succeeding row into the loop left on the crochet needle till all are raised, when the last remaining loop is fastened firmly and neatly by a needle threaded with cotton, silk, or wool. A chain stitch is thus formed, very similar to the web.

Grafting.--To graft means to join one thing so that it receives support from another. In the mending of stockings, &c., the term signifies joining two pieces together, or strengthening a thin part. The joining consists of seaming, patching, and refooting. In stockings, vests, sleeves, &c., where the worn part can be taken off all round, a fresh piece is put in by means of a seam perfectly invisible, provided the cotton or silk match precisely in colour and quality. Cut off the decayed portion, and prepare the edges of the piece to be united. Rest the work on the first and second fingers of the left hand, keeping it flat by the pressure of the thumb; or hold it as for sewing, in which case graft rather loosely to avoid any ridge. Take up on the needle two loops parallel to each other (Fig. 178), pass the thread through these, drawing two webs together. Repeat on the opposite side, and continue thus to the end of the row; the needle at each time enters a loop already picked up and a fresh one. Fasten off as for web stitch.

Patching is a neat and expeditious method of filling up large holes, specially valuable for weak sight, or in repairing silk and thread stockings; or, in short, any fine material with loops so small as to render the raising up of each stitch a very tedious task. It is very similar to the linen buttonhole patch. Method of working: Cut out the unsound part straight to a thread, and prepare a patch of the same material to fit the gap exactly. Border with rather close buttonhole stitch the perpendicular edges of both hole and patch (Fig. 179). Attach lightly the 4 corners, graft the upper and lower edge, and sew the buttonholed by drawing together the opposite loops of each stitch (Fig. 180).

Refooting.--This process comprises herringboning, and the three different stocking, seams--grafting, buttonholing, and stitching. When the foot of a stocking is apparently past mending, separate it from the sound part of the leg, and rip up the 4 seams, thus detaching the sole from the upper part with the heel. Pin or tack each part on brown paper, outline the shape in chalk, then cut out, allowing nearly ¼ in. for turnings. Unpick the leg seam of any old stockings, spread them flat, and upon them place the paper pattern, the lines of which are followed precisely in the cutting out. The two pieces being ready, unite by buttonholing the side seams of the foot, and the centre seam of the leg. Method of working: Leave ¼ in. turnings, and buttonhole each folded edge. Then holding the work as for sewing, join the rows, either by a buttonhole stitch taken in each of the opposite loops, or by neat sewing. In most cases, however, a single buttonholed or sewn seam may suffice. When completed flatten the seam, and secure each turning by tiny herringbone stitches, carefully avoiding puckering. If preferred, a tiny ribbon sewn over the seam, can replace the turnings, though it will not be equally lasting. The toes and the two parts of the heel are united by stitching on the right side. Ravel out the edge loops, and lay the pieces opposite each other as for sewing, with the loops of the back in exact correspondence with the front ones. Insert the needle in the first loop, and bring it out in the next one, pass it back to the hole it first entered and bring it out again; thus each stitch occupies two bars. The joining of the sole and heel is accomplished on the wrong side. The ravelled-out loops of the sole are stitched on the ⅛ in. turning of the heel, which is fastened down on the latter itself by an almost imperceptible herringbone. This stitched seam is also occasionally used in stockings reheeled by knitting. The new foot is lastly grafted to the leg. It is almost useless to make any remarks on the most advantageous way of cutting out the pieces, as this depends so much on the size and condition of old legs at command. Nevertheless it may be advisable to suggest that if the width is insufficient to manage the instep and heel in one single piece, the latter can be slit up at the clocks, thus making two heel parts, to be connected with the front by the buttonhole seam, scarcely visible on the right side, especially when hidden by an embroidered spray. Such refooting may be considered rather long and complicated, but is most important for the elaborate and expensive hose now worn.

SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE.

Misses S. F. A. Caulfield and B. C. Saward: ‘The Dictionary of Needlework; an Encyclopædia of artistic, plain, and fancy needlework; with over 800 illustrations.’ London, 1882. 21_s._

Beeton’s ‘Book of Needlework; including tatting, crochet, knitting, netting, embroidery, point lace, guipure d’art, Berlin work, monograms, initials, names, crewel work, pillow lace, and lace stitches.’ London. Latest edition. 7_s._ 6_d._

THE LIBRARY.

The library in a house is a haven to which the unlucky wight, kept indoors by a steady rain overhead and a slushy mire underfoot, may, or ought to be able to, seek retreat and pass many hours of quiet and thorough enjoyment, instead of wandering aimlessly about the house, and looking out of the windows with an idiotic expression on his face at the dim and misty landscape. But how can it be a peaceful, restful refuge, when the would-be reader finds a vast number of volumes, treating of all manner of subjects, intermixed in a most marvellous fashion; flighty romantists, witty memoir writers, heavy theologians, enigmatic scientists, and deep-thinking philosophers elbowing each other and almost crushing the unlucky poets out of sight? Dismay seizes the daring explorer of the wonders of a country-house library; the book he wants is not to be found, and what is more he does not know where to look for it, great names stare at him from all sides, and seem to sneer at him for being so foolish as not to read them; but then he wants a particular book, and in despair, rather than face the long row of books which seem to jeer at his unsuccessful attempt to get what he is in search of, he composes himself down to read Punch, or stare out at the drip, drip, dripping rain.

Let us see if this can be avoided. Of course it can; the way to change the whole aspect of affairs is so to arrange the books on their shelves that the veriest stranger, after he has been in the library a couple of minutes, should know where to look for what he wants, and put his hand on the book if it be in the collection.

The twelve essential rules for the management of the library are:

1. Arrange your books on their shelves into classes, according to the subjects they treat of.

2. Put everything in its proper place.

3. Always keep directories, peerages, gazetteers, atlases, county maps, and lexicons in convenient and easily got at places. It will often save much time and trouble to keep them in book slides on the table, or in a separate bookcase.

4. Write your name and address in a large bold handwriting on the fly-leaf of every volume.

5. If you have your books specially bound, let the same style and colour of binding be used for one class of books.

6. Never allow animals in a library. They are apt to do serious mischief to MSS. and books, while chasing some imaginary rat. Newton had the results of many years of hard brain work completely destroyed through the pranks of his favourite little dog.

7. Keep servants out of the library, except at stated intervals, and, when admitted, let them be under your personal supervision. Everybody will remember that the first part of Carlyle’s ‘History of the French Revolution,’ while yet in MS., was used by a servant to light a fire.

8. Avoid dampness or excessive heat; books require warm dry air, in order to preserve their bindings. Thus it will be seen that the more the books are read the better it will be for the books.

9. On no account let the library be turned into a refreshment room for a juvenile party.

10. Never allow MS. notes, letters, &c., to litter the tables and the room. MS. notes should be kept in folding pads, or in drawers, and letters carefully filed and put away.

11. No book should be left open and placed face downwards, in order to mark the place where the reader has left off; no other practice so speedily spoils books as this.

12. Always have a good index or catalogue of the contents of your library.

The last is as important a rule as any. A library without a catalogue is, as Thomas Carlyle expresses it, “A Polyphemus without an eye in his head.” Isaac D’Israeli, who has left us such a vast treasure-house of book lore, says that the man who possesses a fine library cannot be “more animated than a leaden Mercury who does not aspire to make some small addition to his library, were it only by a critical catalogue. He must be as indolent as that animal called the sloth, who perishes on the tree he climbs, after he has eaten all its leaves.”

The task of cataloguing must not dismay the amateur; the task is a most useful one, and can easily be managed. The best catalogue would be this:

Let it be divided into three primary divisions: The body, containing the titles, authors’ names, date, and place of publication, and the size and description may be added if considered necessary; index of authors’ names, with the number of the pages of the catalogue on which their works will be found, and an index of subjects.

The body should be divided into thirteen divisions, which are: 1, Theology; 2, history and biography; 3, science and philosophy; 4, art; 5, bibliography; 6, antiquities; 7, political and commercial; 8, poetry; 9, travels; 10, MSS.; 11, novels; 12, miscellaneous; 13, periodical literature. These may be subdivided, if necessary. The subdivisions are: History into (1) national, (2) local, (3) biography, and (4) genealogy; science into (1) medicine, surgery, and chemistry, (2) natural history, (3) geology, and (4) mechanics; art into (1) painting, sculpture, &c., (2) music; antiquities into (1) chronicles, ballads, and other ancient literature, (2) history of antiquities; political into (1) standard works, (2) pamphlets, &c.; travels into (1) ancient, (2) modern; miscellaneous into (1) law, (2) drama, (3) educational, (4) miscellaneous.

The books in the body should be entered under the authors’ names, alphabetically arranged, under each division, the full titles, description, &c., following. A very good plan is to tack to each entry in the catalogue finding symbols, as “Bookcase A, shelf 3,” which denotes where the book is to be found.

Now as to the actual mode of taking the census of the books to be catalogued. A large number of sheets of paper, about the size of ordinary writing paper, must be procured, each sheet being divided into three columns. The centre column (the largest of the three) is reserved for the full description of the book as it is to stand in the body of the catalogue; the column on the left is reserved for the exact account of the subject treated of by the book; that on the right for the author’s name, as in the following example:

--------------------+-------------------------+-------------------- Subject Index. | Travels. | Author’s Index. --------------------+-------------------------+-------------------- Columbus, Life and | Irving, Washington. | Irving, Washington. Voyages. | | | The Life and Voyages of | Page* | Christopher Columbus. | Page* | 3 vols. Crown 8vo. One | | vignette. London, 1850. | --------------------+-------------------------+--------------------

* Of course, the number of the page which should follow these entries cannot be filled in until the body of the catalogue is properly written out, when, as each entry is made in the catalogue, the number of the page in which the entry is made is placed both in the left and right columns.

The slips, when duly filled up, should be set aside in packets under their respective divisions. As soon as every book has been noted down, there remains nothing more to be done but to transcribe alphabetically the various slips on sheets of foolscap, and the task is completed.

Any works which are published anonymously should be entered in the third primary division under the heading “Anonymous,” and have the abbreviation “Anon.” added in the body or first primary division. Supplements may be from time to time prepared, carefully pursuing the same method as observed in forming the original catalogue. The supplement is then attached to the catalogue, the first page having a piece of parchment gummed on, with about an inch protruding from the cover; on this the words “Supplement of 188-” should be written.

The ancient learned Greeks and Romans had their book-shelves, or rather rows of niches, in which the parchment rolls were placed, made of cedar wood, encrusted with precious metals. Although this would, perhaps, be impracticable in our days, still the bookcases should be solid and massive, yet elegant. In some libraries the bookcases run right round the room, but no higher than 3 ft. to 4 ft., the tops forming a resting-place for various curiosities. This method, of course, leaves the upper part of the wall clear, whereon to hang pictures, trophies of arms, armorial shields, or other mural decorations. Other libraries have cupboards, or rather bookcases, with wooden panelled doors of 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. high, the regular bookcases being placed on the top of these. This is a very good plan, for the lower part of the bookcase may serve as a convenient resting-place for magazines, pamphlets, newspapers, and drawings.

One great point to be observed is to have the books protected by good glass; it gives a better appearance to the whole room when the glass is really good, and, above all, the books are safe from the injurious effect of dust or damp.

Magazines and periodicals are generally bound, and, therefore, may be placed on the shelves. A number of pamphlets relating to a certain subject may be cheaply, neatly and easily bound at home. Each pamphlet should be taken and opened at the middle; then, with the aid of a needle and some strong twine, it should be sewn in such a manner as to leave two loops, occupying about two-thirds of the length, on the outside at the back. When each pamphlet has been treated in a like way, taking especial care that each loop is of equal size, two strips of coarse canvas must be cut, long enough to wrap entirely round the whole set of pamphlets. Two pieces of pasteboard, of the exact size you wish the volume to be, must be procured; then, having previously passed the canvas strips under the loops of twine, you carefully paste or glue the canvas, and place them on the boards. Two pieces of clean paper, well gummed, are placed inside the cover over the canvas strips. A piece of canvas, or, better still, leather, of about double the thickness of the back of your volume, and the exact height of the pasteboard cover, is glued on to the back, a good piece overlapping on each side of the cover. Now nothing remains to be done but to glue a piece of parchment behind, writing on it the description of the contents. The whole is placed under a substantial weight, and in a couple of days you have a neat volume instead of a collection of stray sheets of printed paper.

Dabblers in literature, and the searchers after general knowledge, frequently cut out from papers and periodicals articles and paragraphs which interest them. These accumulate and soon encumber the writing-table, library-table, and the mantelpiece, and ultimately find their way into the fire or the waste-paper basket. This may be obviated and a more orderly appearance be given to the room, by collecting these newspaper scraps in a box or drawer, and at convenient intervals pasting them, in alphabetical order, into a large book formed of cheap paper. The cartridge paper should be folded twice; thus each sheet gives eight pages, and the printed scraps pasted in in two rows or three columns, leaving a good margin, whereon the subject treated of in the newspaper scraps should be legibly written, the date and name of the paper whence the scrap has been cut being written at the end of each cutting.

The foregoing notes are due to the late E. C. Rye, Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society.

Books placed in a library should be thoroughly dusted two or three times a year, not only to keep them in all their freshness, but also to prevent any development of insects and to disclose signs of dampness. The interior of a book also asks that care, which unfortunately is neglected very often. After having taken a book from the shelves, it should not be opened before ascertaining that the top edge is not covered with dust. If it is a book that has had the edge cut, it should be dusted with a soft duster, or the dust simply blown off. If it is a book which has uncut edges it should be brushed with rather a hard brush. By this method in opening the volume, one need not be afraid that the dust will enter between the leaves and soil them.

A library has generally three kinds of enemies to be guarded against, viz. insects, damp, and rats or mice. Every one knows how to guard against damp and rats or mice. Several means are adopted to keep insects at a distance. The first consists in the proper choice of woods: these are cedar, cypress, mahogany, sandal, or very dry and sound oak. All these are compact or of very strong aroma, and are such as insects do not like to pierce. Another source of safety is the use of astringent or poisonous chemicals in the binding of books.

The insects that make ravages in books multiply very rapidly; and very few libraries are free from them. The microscopic eggs, that are left by the female, give birth to a small grub, which pierces the leather boards and book for its nourishment, and to get to the air. These are familiarly called bookworms, but by the scientific world they are known as Hypothenemus eruditus which eats the leather, and Anobium striatum which bores through the paper. The larvæ of the Dermestes also attack wood as well as books.

Alum, as employed in the paste used by binders, is not an absolute preventive, although it contributes greatly to the preservation of the leather. Resin as used by shoe-makers is preferable, and in effect works in the same way; but oil of turpentine has a greater effect. Anything of strong odour, like aniseed or bergamot, mixed perfectly but in small quantities, preserves the paste during an unlimited time.

THE FARMYARD.

This chapter will embrace the ordinary domestic animals, birds, &c., usually kept at a country-house.

=Horse.=--Choosing and Buying.--The weak points of a horse can be better discovered while standing than while moving. If sound, he will stand firmly and squarely in his limbs without moving any of them, the feet flat upon the ground, with legs plump and naturally poised; if a foot is lifted from the ground, or the weight taken from it, disease may be suspected, or at least tenderness, which is a precursor of disease. If the horse stands with his feet spread apart, or straddles with his hind legs, there is a weakness in the loins, and the kidneys are disordered. Heavy pulling bends the knees. Bluish, milky cast eyes in horses indicate moon blindness. A bad tempered horse keeps his ears thrown back. A kicking horse is apt to have scarred legs. A stumbling horse has blemished knees. When the skin is rough and harsh, and does not move easily to the touch, the horse is a heavy eater, and digestion is bad. Never buy a horse whose breathing organs are at all impaired. Place your ear at the side of the heart, and if a wheezing sound is heard it is an indication of trouble. (Rural Record.)

Examine the eyes in the stable, then in the light; if they are in any degree defective, reject. Examine the teeth to determine the age. Examine the poll or crown of the head, and the withers, or top of the shoulders, as the former is the seat of poll evil, and the latter that of fistula. Examine the front feet; and if the frog has fallen, or settled down between the heels of the shoes, and the heels are contracted, reject him, as, if not already lame, he is liable to become so at any moment. Observe the knees and ankles, and, if cocked, you may be sure that it is the result of the displacement of the internal organs of the foot, a consequence of neglect of the form of the foot, and injudicious shoeing. Examine for interfering, from the ankle to the knees, and if it proves that he cuts the knee, or the leg between the knee and the ankle, or the latter badly, reject. “Speedy cuts” of the knee and leg are most serious in their effects. Many trotting horses, which would be of great value were it not for this single defect, are by it rendered valueless. Carefully examine the hoofs for cracks, as jockeys have acquired great skill in concealing cracks in the hoofs. If cracks are observable in any degree, reject. Also both look and feel for ringbones, which are callosities on the bones of the pastern near the foot; if apparent, reject. Examine the hind feet for the same defects of the foot and ankle named in connection with the front feet. Then proceed to the hock, which is the seat of curb, and both bone and blood spavins. The former is a bony enlargement of the posterior and lower portion of the hock-joint; the second a bony excrescence on the lower, inner, and rather anterior portion of the hock; and the last is a soft enlargement of the synovial membrane on the inner and upper portion of the hock. Either is sufficient reason for rejecting. See that the horse stands with the front feet well under him, and observe both the heels of the feet and shoes to see if he “forges” or overreaches; and in case he does, and the toes of the front feet are low, the heels high, and the heels of the front shoes a good thickness, and the toes of the hind feet are of no proper length, reject him; for if he still overreaches with his feet in the condition described, he is incurable. If he props out both front feet, or points them alternately, reject. In testing the driving qualities, take the reins while on the ground, invite the owner to get in the vehicle first, then drive yourself. Avoid the display or the use of the whip; and if he has not sufficient spirit to exhibit his best speed without it, reject. Should he drive satisfactorily without, it will then be proper to test his amiability and the extent of his training in the use of the whip. Thoroughly test his walking qualities first, as that gait is more important in the horse of all work than great trotting speed. The value of a horse, safe for all purposes without blinds, is greatly enhanced thereby. Purchase of the breeder, if practicable.

The Field has often warned its readers against describing any horse they might have for sale as a “perfect” hunter, or “good” hunter. Describing a horse as a good hunter is giving a very comprehensive warranty of performance, and to a certain extent of soundness as well. No horse can be called a hunter unless he can jump, and his jumping powers may depend a great deal upon the man who rides him. If he jumps at all, he may either take the bit in his teeth and “commit” his rider to a fence 40 yd. off; or he may require a resolute man and a cutting whip to get him over anything like a ditch. No horse to whom either of these peculiarities attaches could be called a “good,” much less a “perfect,” hunter. It has never been expressly decided whether, under these assumed conditions, there would be a breach of warranty if the horse were so described, but the probabilities are against the seller. A horse that is in the very slightest degree touched in the wind is unsound, yet for practical purposes a whistler or a grunter is ten times more useful as a hunter than a horse with bad navicular, or a sprained sinew. But, so far as the law goes, the lame horse might be sold as a good hunter, while the whistler could not. Upon this ground, if a court were to decide that a horse described as a good or perfect hunter must be sound in wind and eyes, there would be every reason to expect that the same tribunal would hold that he must be sound on his feet and legs, or at any rate fit for immediate use. In the case of harness horses, however, it has been held that a warranty of soundness is not involved in one of quietness. Warranties of soundness are going out of fashion. But as the pedigree, or antecedents, of a horse often have a material influence on the price paid for him, a statement concerning one or both is often made by the seller as an integral part of the contract. Such assertions are just as much a warranty as if they referred to his quietness, age, or soundness, and, should they prove false, render the seller liable to an action for breach of warranty. It would be wise of the seller to say nothing, unless he himself received a written description with the horse, which statement he could show and explain to the person purchasing from him, when, should the contents be untrue, he will not be liable. When a horse is sent for sale to a commission stable, the commission agent is justified in repeating to a buyer the description given to him (the agent) by the owner of the horse, and the seller will be bound by that description. Of course the agent has no right to exceed his instructions and give a warranty on his own account. Should he do so, the seller will not be bound. But a warranty by an ordinary servant, or by a person directed by another to sell a horse, and put, for that purpose, in a position which to a stranger might seem to imply an authority to warrant, would bind the seller.

Keeping.--Horse keeping must always be costly. Grooms’ wages, rent of stabling, hay, oats, straw, beans, carrots, bran, linseed, taxes, coals and candles, gas or oil, shoeing, stable implements, and veterinary attendance cost money in every establishment. When the whole cost is taken into account it will be found that in the case of full-sized horses the expense of each varies, according to circumstances, from about 30_s._ to 36_s._ or more a week, even when there is no waste. The prime cost of horses, carriages, and harness will depend to a great extent upon the purpose for which they are required. It is well to be circumspect in buying a second-hand vehicle, as getting up worthless carriages for sale is a regular trade. With harness and saddlery the best goods are everywhere the best economy.

The first item is the stable. If one is attached to the house, no extra cost will be incurred. The average charge for renting will be about 5_s._ per horse per week, inclusive of rates and taxes, but exclusive of fire, lights, or straw. If stabling be rented by the year, the weekly average will be less, as also in places where there is not much demand, and where it is rather of makeshift.

The groom should be a thorough stableman, conversant with the proper mode of dressing horses, methodical in habit, and honest. From 25_s._ to 30_s._ per week should secure the services of a good man, and for this sum he would find himself in everything. If accommodation allows, he might sleep on the premises, but should he sleep and live in the house his wages will be much less. He should know how to clip, singe, foment, put on a bandage properly, and give a horse a ball; but it is well to allow no drugs or physic to be given without the directions of a veterinary surgeon. If the man is a hard worker, he will look after 3 saddle horses and clean his master’s breeches and boots, single-handed; but this is rather trying him, and is more than the majority of grooms would undertake; in most instances it would be necessary to have a second hand--a lad at about 14_s._ a week would do--to “muck out” the stables, help dress the horses, and do rough work. Similarly, 2 hunters, a harness horse, and vehicle, will be heavy work for one man.

Many persons have their horses foraged by contract, supplies being sent in at fixed periods. In London some contractors do it for about 1_s._ or 1_s._ 2_d._ a hand, i.e. a horse not exceeding 16 hands will be foraged for about 16_s._ per week, while a pony not exceeding 12 hands would only cost 12_s._ When living in the country, purchase of neighbouring farmers. Let all forage be of the best quality--it is cheapest in the end. Oats and hay must be old--that is to say, oats and hay harvested in 1884 should not be used in the stables till the July or August following at the earliest. Some people give the last cut oats after Christmas; but it should never be done. A horse requires feeding often; though 3 times a day is sufficient, 4 times is better. Horses should drink before they eat, because water does not remain in the stomach, but passes through it into a large intestine called the cæcum. If a horse be fed first, the water passing through the stomach would be likely to carry with it particles of food, and thus bring about colic. Whatever a groom may say, let a horse drink just as much as he likes. If he be watered 4 times a day he will never take too much to be good for him. It will be cheaper to buy enough forage to last the season or more, than to be perpetually getting in small quantities. If a hunter--taking him as the typical horse, because he requires the best keep--be fed 4 times a day, he will have a quartern of oats at each feed, or a peck a day (4 quarterns = 1 peck), or 1 bush. of oats will last 4 days, and in 1 week he will eat 1¾ bush. With each feed a couple or three double handfuls of chaff should be given, as this will cause the food to be more thoroughly masticated. Hay is given in the rack morning and evening, about 6-8 lb. each time; though where horses are not limited as to oats they will not require so much. A truss of hay weighs 56 lb., so the weekly allowance to each horse may be set down at about 1½ truss. Some good judges recommend that hay should be in the rack between feeding times. Beans are more nutritive than oats, but are heating, and should not be given to a 4-year-old at all. A 5-year-old should not have them unless he works hard, and then not more than 1 lb. per diem; aged horses may have about 2 lb. per day divided into 3 feeds; but during a frost, or when only used for gentle work, such as hacking in the London season, beans should be dispensed with. Bran is chiefly used for mashes, and it is advisable to follow the time-honoured plan of giving one every Saturday night. Linseed gruel is, by some horses, preferred to that made from oatmeal; but the latter is refreshing and soothing if the horse will take it. A few carrots given every now and then will tend to keep the blood cool. Study the appetite of each horse.

For bedding there is nothing better than wheat straw. Oat straw is permissible, and cheaper. Barley straw must on no account be used. The quantity of straw required per week will vary with the care with which the groom separates the clean from the soiled in the morning, the wish of the owner as to the look of his stable, and the size of the box or stall. Speaking roughly, a careful groom can manage in an ordinary sized loose box with about 50-60 lb. per week, and with this allowance a horse can be well bedded and kept clean; this, of course, after the bed has been originally formed with about 2 trusses.

As to cost. Oats vary from 3_s._ to 4_s._ per bush.; best upland hay may be set down at 5_l._ a ton (40 trusses of 56 lb. in a ton); straw at 3_l._ 10_s._ a ton; and beans at a trifle more than 1_d._ a lb. Thus the cost of keeping a horse for a week will be:--

s. d.

2 bush. oats, at 3_s._ 6_d._ 7 0 1½ trusses hay, at 2_s._ 6_d._ 3 9 14 lb. beans 1 6 60 lb. straw (say) 2 0 ----- 14 3

Something must be allowed for bran, linseed, and carrots; these may be set down at about 2_s._ per week.

Groom’s wages must be added. Suppose he receives 25_s._ per week, and only has one horse to look after, that one horse will cost the owner 39_s._ 3_d._ at the lowest estimate; if there be 2 horses, they will each stand at 26_s._ 9_d._, and so on. Shoeing may be set down roughly at 3_l._ per annum; the tax for a groom is 15_s._ per year; the veterinary surgeon may have to be called in occasionally; while coals and lights must not be left out of sight. From a money point of view, therefore, keeping horses in a private stable is, generally speaking, no cheaper than sending them to livery at 30_s._ per week; but the advantage is that they are generally better done at home. (Field.)

Horses need well-ventilated stables, free from draught and damp. The floor should be smooth and nearly level. It should be well drained and light, for sudden change from darkness to light is trying to the eyes, and a damp, offensive odour is injurious. Then, again, the bedding and litter should be carefully separated from that which is foul. They should be well shaken up and dried, and the stall should be thoroughly cleansed; and when the stable is empty, let in plenty of fresh air. A horse’s stall should be large enough to allow him to lie down comfortably in any position. A tired horse will be glad to lie down with his legs stretched out if he has room; but if you cannot give him a loose box, then a light halter block should be used, and care taken to arrange the halter so that it may travel freely to allow the head to come easily to the litter, for rest and sleep are as necessary as food and water. If a horse comes to the stable wet, he should be rubbed dry before the blanket is put on. If he is standing about in the cold, it should be put on. The legs should be rubbed, and the hoofs always examined for stones. When dressed and made comfortable, leave a bucket of chilled water in the box, which should be filled up with cold the last thing at night when closing the stables.

Cleaning.--One of the most important things in the management of farm horses is their cleaning, and yet nothing is more neglected. The horse should never be cleaned or harnessed while it is eating breakfast. Let horses eat their food in peace, for many, from sanguine temperament or greed, bolt their oats when handled during the time of feeding. Harness can be quickly enough put on after the feed is eaten, and time should then be taken to comb the mane and tail, and use a wisp of straw on the body and legs. When the horses come in at dinner-time, they should at once be unharnessed. The feed is then to be given, and before the harness is again put on, the horse should be thoroughly rubbed down with a wisp of straw or hay. If the horses are very warm on coming in, they should be rubbed down immediately after the removal of the harness.

The cleaning or grooming, which should be done at night, consists first in currying the horse with a currycomb to free him of the dirt adhering to the hair, and which being now dry, is easily removed. A wisping of straw removes the roughest of the dirt loosened by the currycomb. The legs ought to be thoroughly wisped, not only to make them clean, but to dry up any moisture that may have been left in the evening; and at this time the feet should be picked clean by the foot-picker--i.e. an iron instrument made for the purpose--of any dirt adhering between the shoe and the foot. The brush is then to be used to remove the remaining and finer portions of dust from the hair, which is cleared from the brush by a few rasps along the currycomb. This wisping and brushing, if done with some force and dexterity, with a combing of the tail and mane, should render the horse pretty clean. The skin of the farm horse should at all times be clean if not sleek, and a slap of the hand upon the horse will show if there is loose dust in the hair. The currycomb should not be used below the knees, as it is apt to cause injury. For cleaning the legs and feet, nothing is better than the water brush.

At morning stables, after the carriage horse is “mucked out,” the next step is to quarter him over and pick and wash his feet out. The first quartering may be done with an old water brush, and means roughly removing from the horse with water alone anything imparted to his side by manure. By the time the horse has done feeding the quartering will have nearly dried. If the animal is for morning exercise the above is sufficient. The dressing proper can be done when he comes home. If he is for hunting or hacking that day a good stableman will set to work at him as soon as the horse has finished his feed. If he is a grey, and has become stained with manure in the night, the groom should well rub in, with his hands only, plenty of common brown soap (not soft soap), and use plenty of tepid water in doing it. Then take a clean water brush, and let his shoulder go at his work until the stain is out. This is easily seen, because if the man finds no discoloration in the water in the bucket when he has sponged (with a perfectly clean sponge) all the soap off, no particle of stain will remain. If the water used in stable work is hard, a little soda dissolved in it will cause the soap to lather well. The horse should be tied up short while being washed, and after the sponging the wet places should be thoroughly dried with a rubber, which should be cleanliness itself. Worn-out table linen makes the best stable rubbers, the older the better. When the washed parts are quite dry, the horse should be well dressed with a clean horse-brush; one with any old dirt or grease in it will make fresh stains. After dressing with the horse brush, his coat should be again well rubbed the right way with another dry rubber fresh from the towel-horse and the saddle-room fire. Lazy stablemen are in the habit of using powdered charcoal to remove stains from grey horses. The practice is idle and dirty. In the case of clipped horses, stable stains can be removed in a very short time, and not much more is requisite with that of a well-done horse with his summer coat on. When the coat is shifting, a little more labour is requisite.

Driving.--Strict adherence to the rule of the road will not necessarily protect a driver from being liable for the result of a collision between another vehicle and his own. Sometimes he may be held to be negligent because he remained on the near side, and did not pull out of the way, even into the opposite gutter, if necessary. It is not possible to say what acts constitute negligent driving; the nearest rule that can be given is that drivers should act as reasonable men in the management of their vehicles. If they do anything that a reasonable man would not do, or omit to do anything that he would, then they are guilty of negligence; but acts that would amount to negligence in one case would not necessarily be so in another. Negligence on the part of a driver is not excused merely because the victim was also guilty of some degree of negligence, provided of course that it did not contribute to the immediate cause of the accident. If, however, the proximate cause of an accident be a driver’s unskilfulness, the injured driver may not recover, although the primary cause of the accident was the wrong-doing of some one else. If a man leave a horse and cart standing in the street without any one to look after them, and the horse, either by itself, or on being struck by a passer-by, backs into the window of a shop, and damages goods, the owner of the cart, having chosen to leave it in the street, must take the risk of any mischief. In cases where there is negligence on both sides, the rule to be deduced is, that a person injured by the negligent driving of another, cannot recover damages if but for own negligence, the accident would not have happened at all. Sometimes it may happen that a person who is driven into, or over, must bring his action, not against the driver of the vehicle inflicting the injury, but against a third party; as, for instance, if one carriage be so improperly driven as to compel a second carriage to take such a line as to make it collide with a third, the driver of the first carriage would be liable to the owner of the third. Lastly, in a pure accident, in which no one has been guilty of negligence, the injured party has no right of action at all. It is not because a man’s horse runs away, or becomes unmanageable, that the owner is to be responsible for any harm that may be sustained by a member of the public; a mutilated person is always entitled to sympathy, but not invariably to damages. (Field.)

Hiring.--Horses, carriages, or both, may be hired under 3 conditions: (a) Where the hired property remains on the owner’s premises; (b) Where, during the period of hire, it is transferred to the premises of the hirer; (c) Where it is hired from the owner for a particular journey, and returned to him as soon as this is performed. Under either of the 2 first conditions, the hiring may be for a period exceeding a year, or for any shorter time. All contracts not to be performed within one year from the time of making must be in writing and signed. An agreement made on the 1st of May, 1887, to hire horses for one year from that day, will terminate on 1st of May, 1888, and therefore be completed within the year, and so not require writing; but if the agreement (made on the 1st) be for a year’s hire, to commence on the 20th of May, the contract will not be completely performed until the 20th of May, or 20 days after the expiration of the year, consequently writing will be needed.

The chief inducement to hire instead of buying carriages and horses is, that by payment of an inclusive charge, the trouble and annoyance inseparable from keeping a private stable are avoided. The owner of a carriage let out to hire undertakes, in return for the sum paid, to do certain repairs, varying according to circumstances.

Most coachmakers now bind themselves to execute only such repairs as may be rendered necessary by fair wear and tear; accidents, however arising, being expressly exempted. The result is that, in the event of a “smash,” the hirer has to pay the owner for the damage; and, if the former or his servant is in fault, the loss falls on him; while, if the other vehicle be in the wrong, the hirer has to get his damages from its proprietor--the owner of the hired carriage being indemnified either way. If the carriage is bought out-and-out during the period for which it was originally hired, the seller is not bound to repair gratis after he has sold it.

Under ordinary circumstances the hirer of a horse is not responsible for any damage that may happen to it, so long as he has not been guilty either of negligence or of using the horse for a purpose other than that for which it was hired. But if he has broken the agreement made at the time of hiring, then he is liable for the loss resulting from his conduct. Where a horse is hired to take the hirer to a certain place, the usual and customary route should be taken, for should the hirer deviate unnecessarily from the most convenient road, he will be liable. In hiring horses for a special journey, care should be taken by the hirer to point out when he does and when he does not mean to go from place to place by the most direct or usual route. So long as he provides for a deviation he is answerable only for negligence or improper driving; but if he deviate materially, such deviation will amount to improper driving, although his coachmanship may be without reproach.

If a person hire a horse or carriage for a stated period, but return it before the expiration of the time, the owner must keep it on his premises till the time for hire has determined, if he wishes to recover the charge from the hirer. He cannot earn his money twice over; so, if he sells in the meantime, the hirer will not be liable for the price of the hiring.

The liability of a person sitting in a carriage to make good any damage occasioned to the property of others by the driver’s negligence, depends upon the relationship subsisting between the driver and the person driven. This relationship differs according to the ownership of the equipage, or its component parts. The owner of horses and a carriage, driven by a servant in his exclusive employ, has cast upon him the most extended liability for his servant’s negligence; while, on the other hand, the occupant of a hack fly is discharged from any thought of the horses or the driver. If horses and a carriage are jobbed in the manner already described, they are the hirer’s own, so far as the general public are concerned; and if driven by his own coachman, he will be as liable for the latter’s negligence as though he purchased them outright. Provided the hirer of horses use ordinary care in the selection of his coachman--not a job one--he will not be answerable to the owner of the horses for the casual negligence of the servant so engaged. If the driver be a servant of the jobmaster, he does not cease to be so by reason of the owner of the carriage preferring to be driven by that particular servant where there is a choice amongst more, any more than a hack postboy ceases to be the servant of an innkeeper, where a traveller has a particular preference for one over the rest, on account of his sobriety and carefulness. Even wearing the hirer’s livery does not affect the question.

No satisfactory line can be drawn, at which, as a matter of law, the general owner of a carriage, or rather the general employer of the driver, ceased to be responsible, and the temporary hirer became so. Each case of this class must depend upon its own circumstances; and the jury taking these circumstances into consideration, must decide whether, at the time of an accident, the driver is acting as the servant of the hirer, or as the servant of the owner. Generally it may be taken that when the hirer of horses also has the owner’s servant to drive, the servant still continues in the jobmaster’s employ, the ownership of the carriage being immaterial. The horses and man may be reckoned as one, as constituting the motive and guiding power.

A hirer of horses may by his own conduct render himself a co-trespasser with the driver, or even constitute the driver his own servant for the purpose of becoming liable for the result of an accident. If the hirer of a whole equipage direct the owner’s servant to drive at an increased pace in a crowded thoroughfare, or in some other way assume the control of the horses, he will draw on to his own shoulders that responsibility which would under ordinary circumstances rest with the jobmaster. Still more will this be the case if he drives himself. (Field.)

Care of Carriages.--(a) The coach-room should be large, dry, and well ventilated; the walls and ceiling lined and finished in oil or varnish; the windows large, but curtained with blue curtains, so as to admit a moderate amount of light; the floors and ceilings should be kept free from dust or dirt; if the floor is wet when sweeping, the carriage should not be put in until it is dry.

(b) If the stable is of brick or stone, the walls should be lined with a close board partition at least 3 in. from the wall, with openings at the top and bottom to allow a circulation of air between the wall and partition. Never allow a carriage to stand near a brick or stone wall, or any other that is damp, as the dampness affects the paint and trimmings.

(c) Ammonia destroys varnish and affects colours. Care should be taken, therefore, to locate the carriage-room in such a manner that it will not be exposed to the fumes of the stable or manure heap.

(d) A carriage should never be allowed to stand in the carriage-room without being protected from dust by a cotton or linen cover; but this cover should not be put on when the carriage is wet or dusty. Dust if allowed to remain on eats into varnish: the cover should be so arranged as not to touch the carriage.

(e) Carriages should be washed frequently, even when not in use. They should also be dusted every 2 or 3 days, and be exposed to the air in a shady place. In washing, use cold water and a sponge. Soften the mud by squeezing the water from the sponge on the panel or other part, and do not pass the sponge over the paint until the mud is soaked off. After sponging, dry with a “shammy,” but do not use the sponge and “shammy” in the same pail of water. Be careful to dry thoroughly, and protect the trimming from injury by water. Do not allow any part of the carriage that is washed to dry before wiping with the “shammy,” as it will stain the paint. Hot or even warm water or soap should not be used. Never allow mud to dry on a carriage, as it will produce spots or stains. Always wash in a shady place.

(f) Enamelled leather while new does not need much washing; it should be well dusted, and may be wiped with a moist “shammy”; if it becomes dimmed, make a suds of soft water and Castile or crown soap. Apply it with a sponge and dry with a “shammy” moistened in clean water; if the leather shows spots, rub them with cotton waste and linseed oil; if the leather becomes hard, wash it clean and oil with neatsfoot oil; when the oil has permeated the leather, wash the surface oil off with crown soap suds. Dash and other smooth leather should be treated in the same manner as the paint.

(g) The trimmings require a great deal of attention. All roll-up curtains, aprons, &c., should be unrolled and stretched out smooth. The joints should be “struck” so as to slack the leather, but not enough to allow the top to fall. Cloths, cushions, and other removable portions must be well beaten and brushed, and all immovable parts be well brushed; this, while preventing injury from dust, is also a protection from moths. Moroccos can be cleaned by rubbing them with a moist “shammy.”

(h) Mountings should be kept clean by repeated rubbing; all acids or powders injure the paint, leather or cloth, and it is impossible to clean metals with them without coming in contact with the trimmings. If the metal is tarnished, use a small piece of “shammy,” that has been prepared by having rottenstone, or other fine polishing powder, rubbed into it and afterwards whipped and brushed to remove all surplus powder, then rub with a dry rag. To clean lamps mix whiting with spirits of wine; apply to the reflector and other inside plating; when dry rub off with a rag, clean the glass with water and polish with paper.

(i) Oil the axles frequently, but use but little oil at one time. Support the axle by a jack, having a leather padded top; take off the nuts, and if much soiled, remove the grease with spirits of turpentine; remove the wheel and clean the axle arm and hub box thoroughly, then apply a few drops of castor oil, replace the washers, wheel, and nuts, seeing that each has a thin coating of oil. The fifth wheel and king bolt should also be oiled enough to prevent the metal surfaces from grinding.

(j) A carriage should be inspected carefully to see that there are no moths in the trimming, carpet, &c.; if discovered they can be expelled by beating and brushing; moth preventatives are valueless as against the moth grub, but they will prevent the fly depositing its eggs. Musk and other strong perfumes will keep the flies from depositing their eggs in the trimmings.

(k) If repairs are needed, it is best to send to the carriage shop; but the paint will become worn off of step pads and tires, which can be restored by a little black japan, which should be laid on thin.

(l) Carriages should be revarnished as often as once a year; but if the paint cracks badly, varnishing increases the deformity, and there is but one way to correct it--to burn off the paint and repaint from the wood. Repairing is as much of an art as building, therefore do not send a carriage for repairs to any but skilful mechanics.

(m) If a carriage is not in regular use it should be run out of the coach-house once or twice a week, and thoroughly ventilated, by removing cushions, carpets, &c., and opening the doors and windows. After being well aired, it should be thoroughly dusted, and washed before it is returned to the house.

(n) The person having charge of the carriage should examine it closely each day after it has been used, to see that there are no loose or broken nuts, bolts, tires, &c. If proper attention is given to this matter the carriage will always be ready for use.

=Cow.=--Choosing.--Form, general appearance, and the “touch” of the skin, are points to be attended to; with regard to these, an idea may be obtained from the following description of a good dairy cow:--Head small, long, and narrow towards the muzzle; horns small, clear, bent, and placed at considerable distance from each other; eyes not large, but brisk and lively; neck slender and long, tapering towards the head, with a little loose skin below; shoulders and fore-quarters light and thin; hind-quarters large and broad; back straight, and joints slack and open; carcass deep in the rib; tail small and long, reaching to the heels; legs small and short, with firm joints; udder square, but a little oblong, stretching forward, thin-skinned and capacious, but not low hung; teats or paps small, pointing outwards, and at a considerable distance from each other; milk-veins capacious and prominent; skin loose, thin, and soft like a glove; hair short, soft, and woolly; general figure, when in flesh, handsome and well-proportioned. The extent of the upturned hairs on the escutcheon indicate the properties of the 2 hind-quarters of the cow’s udder as to the quantity of yield of milk, but not as to the 2 fore-quarters. These latter should be separately investigated; judges generally look at the size of these and examine the size of “milk vein” which runs along the belly.

Breeds.--The Yorkshire yields very large quantities of milk when fed liberally; the Ayrshire is held in high estimation for cheese making; and the Alderney (Jersey) for butter and cream. The Suffolk is well fitted for districts where the pastures are poor; the yield of milk is good, and it is comparatively rich in butter. Weight for weight, shorthorns are about 50 per cent. heavier than Ayrshires, and require ⅓ more food. At the same time, it is found that Ayrshires yield quite as much milk as shorthorns. The only difference claimed in favour of the shorthorn is, that it maintains more flesh than the Ayrshire, keeps its money value together better, and can be finished for the butcher with greater ease and more satisfactory results. The small Scotch race is found to be, when used for the production of milk for sale, of greater value than the ordinary dairy shorthorn, producing an equal amount of milk at much less cost, while a far smaller amount of capital is required in the formation of the herd. As a butter maker, the Holstein is nowhere with the Jersey; nor yet as a converter of ordinary farm produce into milk, because no value set upon the Dutch superiority in skim milk can bring them up to the Jersey standard for butter, when the difference in consumption is taken into account. The Jersey milk contains 26 per cent. more solids of all kinds than the Dutch; whilst of butter-fat the Jersey milk contains 80 per cent. more.

Keeping.--Amateur cowkeepers are advised not to think of breeding at all. Buy a cow, newly calved; do not let her be served; feed her very highly all through her time, and when the milk ceases to pay for the keep, sell her at once to the butcher and get another. This is the town dairymen’s system, and they would not so universally follow this plan if it were not the safest. Above all, sentiment must be shunned. The amateur must keep a close watch over each week’s expenditure and income, and sell the cow, however favourite a one, directly these approximate. Then the trouble of settling a newcomer will have to be faced over again. On the whole, it may be doubted if one amateur in a hundred will ever succeed in making a cow pay, even where there is a garden and small paddock, by reason of the costliness of good dairy servants. (Field.)

The great art of feeding is in selecting the foods most suitable for the purpose in view, without entailing waste, or an undue strain on the digestive system. Every cow should have no less than 650 cub. ft. of breathing space; the cold air should be admitted near the floor line, with ample ridge ventilation, for the escape of the vitiated air; the building itself should be kept clean and free from fermenting or decaying animal odours or vegetable matter (underground drainage, however skilfully executed, is an utter abomination in a cowshed); all the inside walls should be limewashed at least twice a year, and the beds, floors, and passages well washed and scrubbed once a week. Whatever tends to increase the health and comfort of the animal economises food, as well as increases its effective results; every source of irritation, whether in the field or the stall, entails an undue waste of food, whilst for the time it reduces the flow and deteriorates the quality of the milk. The quality of the drinking water has a great influence on the yield of milk. Soft water is preferable to hard; hence the water from running streams or ponds is preferable to well water, which is generally at a low temperature. The action of the atmosphere on ponds or reservoirs has a softening influence on the water, a favourable condition for milk cows; impure or tainted water should be excluded. Unlike the food, a portion of the water taken in by the cows passes direct to the third stomach, and enters at once into the circulation. The influence of the food on the yield of milk is well known. Chemical investigation proves that the milk solids are only slightly affected by the food, the casein and sugar being nearly stationary, whilst the quantity of butter fat varies considerably; the greatest variation is in that of the watery constituents.

Decorticated cotton cake exclusively used as an auxiliary in conjunction with large quantities of roots and hay is not an economical food for dairy cows, owing to the large percentage of flesh formers it contains, whilst practically cotton cake, though admirably adapted for rearing and fattening purposes, when given to milking cows in quantities of 4-6 lb. a day produces a leathery cream, and certainly not a superfine quality of butter. A mixture of pea and palm-nut meals will produce a rich milk, though not of the finest quality. A mixture of rice and linseed meals will produce a large yield of butter of a somewhat oily character. If quality is, as it should be, the chief desideratum, nothing can equal the home-grown cereals--beans, peas, wheat, barley, and oats; under ordinary circumstances these will produce a quality of milk, cream, and butter that cannot be surpassed.

The cowhouse must be kept as near as possible at a uniform temperature of 60° F.; the cows may be turned into the fold-yard daily for ½ hour, about noon. Large quantities of cold water taken into the system are positively injurious, lowering the temperature of the body, which is maintained in a normal state at the expense of the food. For cows in full milk, cooked food is much preferable to raw, entailing less labour on the organs of digestion and assimilation. The mixture of chop, meal, roots, and grain may either be boiled in the ordinary cast-iron boiler or steamed. To obtain the most effective results, the food should be given to the animals in a sloppy state, and at a temperature of 55° to 60° F. Regularity of feeding and milking must be strictly observed. The morning meal should be given before milking commences, and the dung removed from the beds and grip. As milkers, females are preferable, the hands being soft and pliable compared with the horny hand of man. The quantity of food necessary to supply the wants of individual animals is governed by its weight. A cow in full profit consumes daily 3 per cent. of her live weight. During April, a cow in full milk should have, in addition to boiled or steamed roots and hay or straw chaff, 2 lb. bean or pea meal, 2 lb. wheat meal, 2 lb. ground oats, and 2 lb. bran. If these cannot be grown on the farm or purchased at moderate cost, 2 lb. linseed, barley, or Indian corn meal may be substituted for the wheat meal. If the aim is quality, it is essential that bean, pea, or oat meals be used. Care must be exercised in regulating the quantity of food to meet the wants of the different animals, and not, as is too often the practice, of serving a uniform quantity to each. In every case the mangers should be cleanly swept out before feeding. By far the best kind of hay for milking cows is well-saved clover or mixed seeds cut just before coming into flower. Dusty or highly heated hay injures the health and deteriorates the quality of the produce. The chief part of the hay and straw should be cut and mixed with the meal and boiled roots. Only a small quantity of long hay should be given twice a day in order to excite rumination. Raw roots are only admissible when given as a mid-day meal. As in the case of the steam boiler a quantity of fuel is wasted in raising the temperature of the water from the freezing to the boiling point, so it is in the animal system; the fat producers which, under favourable conditions, would increase the quality of the milk, are expended in bringing a large quantity of water to the heat of the body. Brewers’ grains are highly charged with water, and consequently open to a similar objection. Pastures, if saved during the spring months, will be ready for stocking from the first to the middle of May. With the first bite of spring grass the food must be changed; the boiled roots should be gradually discontinued; the same quantity of meals cooked and mixed with chopped hay as before, fed in a less soppy state, in order to counteract the opening tendency of the young succulent grasses. This régime may be continued to the middle of June, when the quantity of meal may be reduced one half, or, if the pastures are good, discontinued till the autumn. So long as the artificial feeding is continued, cows must be fed in the stalls twice a day. By the beginning or middle of September, the early cabbage should be ready for use; this will increase the flow of milk at the expense of the quality. To maintain the standard, the use of meals and chop must again be continued, commencing with 2 lb. a day, with a gradual increase, arriving at the standard allowance by the 1st of November, which will be maintained throughout the winter and following months.

The estimated cost of keeping a dairy cow in full profit during the winter months, including labour of milking and attendance, is not less than 1_s._ a day, charging the home-grown produce at market price. Green hay is greatly to be preferred for milking cows, tending to enhance the value of the produce. Grasses should not be allowed to stand till over-ripe, causing the soluble matters to become converted into indigestible woody fibre; and sufficient labour should be employed; the hay should be constantly stirred from the time it is cut until it is placed in the stack, unless meantime showery weather should intervene; hay barns, too, are indispensable to the dairy farmer. (Gilbert Murray.)

Turnips give a disagreeable flavour to butter, when used in feeding, in autumn and winter. No mode which will prevent the taste of turnips being imparted to the milk is better than the practice of giving the turnips to the cow after she has been milked, instead of before.

When at pasture, cows are often tethered with chains or ropes of 12 ft. and upwards in length, having swivels to prevent twisting. At one end there is a ring, through which the chain is passed to form a loop that is passed over and tightened round the base of the horns, or secured to a head stall. The lower half from the swivel is sometimes made of rope, and at this end the tether is attached to an eye in a pointed iron peg of 9 in. or so long and about 1¼ in. in diameter at the head, which is flattened like the head of a nail. This peg is driven into the ground. The cows are shifted according to the weather and the grass they have eaten, averaging perhaps 6 times a day, the swivel referred to usually preventing the chain from fouling; and they are left out at night in warm weather only. The amount of grass economised by the tethering system is considerable.

=Pig=.--To make it pay, any kind of stock must be well treated. This is even true of the pig, and no animal pays better when well housed and fed. Much depends upon the system adopted--whether sows are kept for breeding, or whether the pigs are fattened. Some persons do best with breeding sows, and cannot make any profit out of the fatting process; others declare that fatting is very lucrative. In keeping pigs for profit, several points are to be considered.

Styes.--The styes must be practicable, dry, warm, and easily cleaned, not facing the north, nor with a moist or damp earth bottom. Farmers generally fill the bottoms 1 ft. deep with chalk; but although this is better than nothing, it is a poor substitute for a proper floor, which should be of concrete, with a nice dry raised wooden bench at one end for sleeping. Wherever earth is found in a stye, there will be mud very soon--and very filthy, unhealthy mud too. The stye must be warm, and the straw clean--wheat barley straw is not so healthy, and encourages vermin as well as dirt. If it is true that a pig, put up to fatten, should be either sleeping or eating, then the bed must be as sweet as the food, and even at 35_s._ a load in the country straw will be paid for; but in a bad stye twice as much will be used as is necessary.

Breed.--Choice small breeds are too small for the market; they have not quick growth, and that is what is wanted in breeding for sale at 8-10 weeks; again, choice breeds, from men who exhibit, are sometimes wanting in vitality, sometimes diseased, and never produce so many or such vigorous litters as hardy breeds of another type. The best breed to select is, perhaps, the larger or middle York, which has quickness of growth, and makes a big strapping youngster in a few weeks. A cross with a strain of the same type, but of entirely different blood, is quite necessary for vigour, and to obtain large, strong, and frequent litters.

Breeding.--It is an old practice to advise that the pig should never be used for breeding until at least 15 months old. There is soundness in the advice, if a man desires to obtain the finest animals for stock or exhibition: but not when the object is to obtain as much money out of your stock as you can. Some make a practice of obtaining first litters from yelts under a year old. A September litter is divided into boars and sows; the former are cut and fattened; the latter are well fed, and allowed to run out to increase their vigour until the following September, when they have a litter, having been put to the boar about the end of May. They thus grow fast during the best months of the year, and approach maturity just as they litter. The young do not show any symptoms of deficiency in stamina, but grow well, and are sold off in 8-9 weeks at 20_s._-22_s._ each, and the mother is soon prepared for mating to the boar again, bringing the litter about the beginning of April.

A breeding sow costs very little when she is without pigs; but she is naturally an expensive animal when she has a litter. It has been said by many that a sow should be always in pig or with pigs, and this is very near the truth. When her pigs are taken from her, she should be dried and fed up for taking the boar as quickly as possible. Thus, as she goes 16 weeks with young, she will, if they are taken from her at 8 weeks produce 2 litters a year, if she has no accident, and if she is rightly managed, for she will at each time have just a fortnight for taking the boar. Of course, the thing will not always be managed so exact and so regular as could be wished; at the same time it is a good guide, and if 2 litters can be managed in the year, so much the better. Taking the pigs at 10_l._ at 8 weeks, this gives a return of 20_l._ and the value of the manure. Against this you may place 8_l._ as the cost of keeping the sow, where everything has to be bought, but much less where there is plenty of house wash, milk, roots, and refuse from gardens, &c.

In breeding little pigs for sale, there is not the same element of chance that exists when pigs are fatted. The little ones vary but a shilling or two if they have not done so well as usual, whereas with a fat pig the process is longer, much more expensive, and may not turn out so profitable after all. When a large quantity of skim milk or refuse has to be consumed, fatting may be necessary, and, valuing the food at much less than meal and corn would cost, it may pay very well; but as there are plenty of men who buy young pigs for the express purpose of fatting, and who have no milk, no refuse, and, indeed, no stubble for them to clear up at all, but have to purchase everything, there must be some return.

Fatting.--When fatting will invariably pay for purchased food, is when porkers come in just right for the London market, nice in size and quality, and realise about 5_s._ 9_d._ per stone. A 16-stone pig would at this rate realise 4_l._ 12_s._; and there is no reason in the world why it should not be attained in 16-20 weeks, instead of which it would, as a store, be worth at this age some 2_l._ Breed, attention, and feeding will help to bring this about. The youngsters must be continually pushing ahead; if they get a check, so much profit goes, and so much time is lost. To this end, too, it is of no use to go in for a small breed--the York or the York and Lincoln will do very well.

Feeding.--With regard to feeding there are many opinions; but barley meal is perhaps better than anything, only it must be good, and feeders should always grind their own. Mills are now generally made, and by no means expensive. Boiled barley is, again, first-rate food, and may be given with capital effect. Peas are useful for finishing off little pigs, and they make the flesh of fat hogs firm and sweet; but cannot be compared with barley when cheap, and do not yield the same return. Maize is a good food when cheap; but it is better boiled than raw or ground. Feeding upon potatoes, although very cheap, is not the way to sell a second lot; a buyer of potato-fed pork is not very often anxious for a second consignment. (Field.)

=Fowls.=--House.--Where eggs alone are required, a few pullets may be kept in a moderate-sized run, and, when they cease to be prolific, may be changed for fresh birds, whose stamina has not been injured by confinement over ground saturated with their own excretions; but for rearing chickens satisfactorily, a good run is absolutely necessary. No particular dwelling is essential; any unused cart-shed, coach or tool house, stable, or similar building may be modified to suit the requirements of the inmates. It is exceedingly desirable that the perches should be of one uniform height; otherwise the contest for the highest leads to quarrelling and fighting. Nor should the perches be high, as in that case the confined space in a house renders it necessary that the birds should fly down perpendicularly, to the great injury of the feet, and frequent fracture of the keel of the breast bone. The house must be kept clean, which is best accomplished by movable boards under the perches, from which the droppings can be removed daily. The house must be ventilated, and so constructed that the fowls can be out at daybreak. The nest places, if intended for hatching, should be on the ground; eggs, to hatch well, must be placed in natural conditions, i.e. on the comparatively cold ground, so that they are cooler below than above, and exposed to the moisture arising from the soil.

Breeds.--In selecting a breed, the first question is the principal requirement of the household. If eggs are the main object, it would be absurd to select Dorking or game. Nothing can exceed the prolificacy of fowls of the Mediterranean type, which includes Spanish, Andalusian, Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona, and other less known varieties. Of these, as regards hardihood and size, Minorcas are in the front rank, and can be strongly recommended as splendid egg producers--not show birds with combs 4 in. high, such as some breeders aim at producing, but the ordinary bird common in the south-western counties of England. Leghorn is good, but smaller in size of egg; Andalusian very good, but not so much in demand as Minorca. All these birds are non-incubators, and their production of eggs is consequently not interfered with by weeks of broodiness, which renders Cochins, Brahmas, and other birds of the Asiatic type so unprofitable where eggs alone are required; though nothing can surpass the pullets as winter layers, as they produce eggs quite irrespective of temperature. Hamburghs, particularly the black and the spangled breeds, are admirable egg-producers, but the eggs are small as compared with those of the Minorca. The recently introduced Plymouth Rocks are very good layers, but they are sitters, and therefore not as prolific as the Mediterranean type. The same may be said of Houdans and some others. If eggs alone are required, the choice lies between the Minorcas and the Hamburghs. The latter may possibly excel in numbers; but, if weight and size of eggs be taken into consideration, the Minorcas will certainly carry off the palm. The birds of the Mediterranean type may be described as somewhat leggy, of small or moderate size, with largely-developed single combs, which are erect in the cocks and flaccid in the hens. They are not remarkable for abundance of breast meat, plumpness of body when killed, or any great tendency to fatten. The plumpest are the brown Leghorns; but these have been produced by crossing the white Leghorns with black and red game, and what they have gained as table fowl they have lost in egg-producing properties.

If there be no free and extended range, such as a farmyard, or grass run in orchard or paddock, the attempt to rear fowls for the table should be altogether abandoned; the profitable raising of chickens on ground saturated with the excrement of old birds is not to be thought of. But given a good grass run, the question arises as to the variety of fowls to be kept. If large household fowls are desired, the pullets of which will lay well in the winter, the Asiatic breeds may be selected, such as the Cochins, Brahmas, and Plymouth Rock. As table fowl the last is certainly preferable of the three, as, in consequence of its being bred from a cross with the old American farmyard fowl, the Dominique, it has more flesh on the breast, and, being free from the useless incumbrance of feathers on the legs, it is a better forager and scratcher on its own account. But as table fowl these breeds are far surpassed by a variety which has long been most highly esteemed in the West of England, where it is known as Indian Game. For plumpness and quantity of meat on the breast, these birds are unequalled by any large breed. The fighting Indian Game, known as Aseels, equal them in plumpness, but not in size. In both these breeds there is an absence of offal and waste parts that is remarkable. The bones are small, there is no large comb or superfluous feather, and the size of the pectoral muscles, which constitute the flesh on the breast, is very great. As market fowls, the fact that their legs are not white may in some cases be an objection, as there is in the minds of some cooks a stupid prejudice against any but white shanks.

The Dorking is of great excellence, but has its drawbacks. Dorkings are harder to rear than many other varieties; the chickens are delicate; and the deformity of the extra toe is most objectionable, leading to extra deaths among the chickens, which are trampled in the mire by the splay-footed hens; and the plumpness on the breast is not equal to that of the Game or Indian Game. Where fowls are bred for home use, no better large birds can be raised than will result from a cross between the Dorking and a large game, either the ordinary English breed or the so-called Indian Game, which, out of Cornwall and Devon, is frequently termed the Pheasant Malay. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

The French breeds good for table purposes are La Flèche, Crèvecœur, and Houdan. The two latter have topknots, which are a disadvantage. La Flèche is most prized, as it grows to an enormous size, and is a prolific layer. They are usually prepared for market by penning them separately, fattening them with freshly-ground barley and buckwheat meal, mixed to about the consistency of gruel with milk; they will then require no water. They are crammed for the last few days. Another mode is to force the food down their throats, giving them as much as they can take without overtaxing the digestive organs. The usual time is about 3 weeks, but in France it is carried on sometimes for 3-4 months.

Formation of Eggs.--The chief egg-producing organ is the ovary, which is situated under the backbone at the end of the ribs, and protected by the pelvis. A young chicken has an ovary on both sides of the vertebræ, but only the one on the left side developes. The ova consists of different-sized granules, which, as the bird grows, become larger in size. They are attached to the ovary by a slight pedicle; when ready to enter the oviduct the ova breaks from this membrane, and sometimes, when eggs are formed too rapidly, this becomes ruptured, and a drop of blood will go down with the yolk--eggs in which this occurs should not be kept for breeding purposes. The oviduct is a funnel-mouthed canal into which the yolk enters; at its upper end it is very thin, but thickens as it nears the intestinal canal--the oviduct of a laying fowl is about 2 ft. long, and is folded backwards and forwards in the body of the bird. The yolk or ovum passes down the oviduct in a spiral manner, and becomes covered with layers of albumen, which are secreted by the oviduct. At one place the ovum is covered with a thicker stratum, and here the albumen becomes twisted at either end of the yolk into two cords which fasten the egg to the shell in such a manner, that the yolk, with the germ uppermost, is always near the upper side of the shell, though not touching it; if the egg is kept too long, and in one position, the albumen glues the germ to the shell when its vitality is destroyed. The ovum, covered with several layers of albumen, and the 2 cords (chalazæ), then goes down the oviduct, and becomes covered with 2 skins or membranes, which separate at the larger end to let the air into the germ; finally the egg is covered with its shell, which is formed with great resisting powers, its arch is much like a tunnel arch, and between the particles, or bricks, air passes into the egg. This shell, which is very strong at first, with the heat of the hen’s body disintegrates, and the particles separate, so that, when the chicken is ready to hatch, it is so brittle that the slight pecks of the horny cap on the mandible of the chicken is enough to break it to pieces. If the bird is fed on over-stimulating food, eggs are often produced too quickly. When such is the case monstrosities--such as two yolks in one shell, or two eggs one inside another--are produced, and very often they are laid without a shell.

Laying.--Several circumstances bear on the question of the supply of winter eggs; the most important are--(a) the food of the fowls; (b) their breed; (c) their age; and (d) their locality and lodging.

(a) The Food of the Fowls.--It cannot be too strongly impressed upon all poultry keepers that fowls do not create eggs: they only form them out of the materials existing in their food. This food also serves other purposes--namely, to keep up the warmth of the body, and to support the vital actions. If only sufficient food is given to supply these demands, it is evident that there can be none left for the production of eggs. The obvious inference from this is that it is necessary to feed your fowls very well if eggs are wanted in winter; and as the supply of nitrogenous food in the form of worms and insects is diminished, a little cooked refuse meat may be advantageously added during the very hard weather. A proportion of Indian corn, either whole or in the form of scalded meal, is a good addition to the winter food. It contains a larger amount of warmth-giving fat or oil than any other grain, and, by so keeping up the temperature of the animal, sets free the other foods to be employed in the secretion of the substances that compose the eggs.

(b) The Breed of the Fowls.--Small birds offer a much greater amount of surface to the action of the cold in proportion to their bulk than such as are larger. These latter especially, when thickly clothed with fluffy feathers, as are the Cochins and Brahmas, are hardly amenable to frost; hence, all other circumstances being equal, they will be found the best layers in winter.

(c) The age of the hens is a matter of great importance. Early hatched pullets that have passed completely through the moult and acquired their adult feathers some weeks since, can be readily induced to lay by good feeding; whereas old hens that moult later and later each succeeding season only produce eggs at this season very sparsely, if at all.

(d) Much depends on the locality and lodging. To produce eggs in winter, the fowls must be in comfortable circumstances; they must have dry and well sheltered runs; they should not be confined to a small place, as they are apt to lose that high condition necessary to robust health, and then the production of eggs immediately ceases. Their roosting place should be well sheltered, and free from draughts of cold air or the access of moisture. Some suggest the use of a stove; but such an appliance is rather injurious than useful. The fowls are exposed to the cold during the day, and this alternating with the stuffy, close atmosphere produced by heating a fowl-house must be injurious. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

Setting Eggs.--The favourite egg for setting appears to be as nearly oval as possible. The best breeders reject every pointed or irregular egg or a very large one. It is customary to pick out the eggs very carefully in breeding fine stock. Generally 80 per cent. are rejected as liable to produce inferior chickens. In the ordinary practice little attention is paid to the shape of the egg; 13 eggs are picked out “just as they come,” and put under the hen. Farmers generally have as an argument that the hen that “steals her nest” always brings out good chickens, even though the eggs are of all shapes and sizes. But few farmers can tell how really good these “stolen” chickens are. They appear to be vigorous when young, but running about as they do with other hens, any comparison as to egg production is mere guesswork. The ordinary farm poultry could be greatly improved by a more careful selection of eggs for setting. Eggs with soft shells, with a ring or crust on the shells, or with an uneven or rough surface, should be rejected. Very large eggs containing a double yolk are frequently set in hope of producing a very large chicken, two chickens, or a curious monstrosity. Such eggs very rarely hatch.

Testing Eggs.--All eggs should be tested on the tenth day of incubation. The best and easiest way is to cut a hole in a stiff piece of cardboard, a little smaller than the egg, hold the egg on its side close into the hole and put a strong light behind the cardboard, when the state of the eggs will be quite distinct. If the egg is fertile by the seventh day the body of the egg will be quite dark and a sharply cut air space will be quite distinct at the large end. If it is a sterile egg, the whole of the egg will have much the appearance of melted wax and the air space will not be very distinct. If the egg is sterile it is much better to take it away, as it is still fresh enough to be used for cooking, some people even using them for eating; they would at any rate be good for feeding young chickens, whilst if they were left in the nest they would decay, probably be broken, and dirty the whole nest. If the nests are dirtied by a broken egg, the straw should all be taken away, and fresh put in its place, and the eggs washed in warm water, care being taken to prevent the eggs being shaken more than possible. If an addled egg is left in the nest, the germ, having been killed either by inherent weakness or by chilling, would decay, and sulphuretted gas would be generated, which would burst the shell, if it were moved about, and taint the atmosphere, and in that way hurt the chances of the others hatching.

Sitting.--The best method, if practicable, is to let the hen choose her own nest, leaving the eggs that she lays in the nest, and when she has laid her clutch of eggs she will sit and probably bring out a chick from each egg. A hen in a state of nature would only sit at a seasonable time of year; she would scoop out a shallow hole under the shade of a bush so that the moisture rising from the ground should not all evaporate. If a hen cannot sit in the place she has laid her eggs in, the best method is to put her into a coop with the earth as a floor, scooping it out slightly, then putting in a thin layer of straw or leaves, and sitting the hen at night on a few dummy eggs for the first 24-36 hours. When she has fed and returned quietly to the nest by herself, she may be given the good eggs, and, unless disturbed by animals or vermin, which latter can be kept away by allowing the hen a heap of ashes about the nest to dust herself in, she will bring out her brood at the proper time. A very good nest for a sitting hen can be made from a flour barrel turned on its side with ½ barrow load of mould put in, or a half sieve basket nearly filled with earth. Care must be taken that the hen has not to jump from any height on to her eggs, or she is likely to break them. Reynolds’s terra coop is a good one, as the wire flooring having mould put into it allows the moisture to rise from the earth to the under side of the egg. The sitting hen should not be disturbed by other fowls coming to lay in the same nest.

Incubators.--Taking into consideration the number of conditions absolutely necessary, a home-made, roughly constructed incubator is not likely to be successful. A machine which automatically regulates the temperature of the eggs, irrespective of that of the external atmosphere, is essential. Regulators are attached to all incubators in use at the present time. Tomlinson’s works by the expansion of air; Christy’s by the flexing of a compound metallic bar; and Hearson’s by the volatilisation of fluid in a metallic capsule, which, by its sudden expansion at any desired temperature, cuts off the source of heat, and prevents the degree to which the machine is regulated being ever exceeded. In addition to the exact regulation of the temperature, an incubator, to be successful, must be so arranged that the eggs are heated from above, and that there must be a constant supply of fresh, moist air (not saturated with watery vapour). The advantages of incubators from a practical point of view as regards market and table poultry are due to their supplying hens with full clutches of chickens. In France, chickens are hatched in large numbers for sale to small proprietors, and reared by them under ordinary fowls, or in larger numbers under turkey hens. In our own country numbers of fancy poultry for the early shows are reared under artificial foster-mothers heated by paraffin lamps; but the results of endeavouring to rear chickens, except upon fresh runs where they can obtain natural food, are not sufficiently encouraging to render it likely that foster-mothers will supersede the employment of hens in rearing fowls for the purposes of utility.

Chickens.--Chickens require no food for 24 hours, as just before they are hatched the yolk is absorbed, and they live upon this till it is finished. When the chickens are all out and dry, the hen would naturally come off and take them to where she could find them suitable food, such as eggs of ants, gentles, and small germinating seeds. The best food that can be given young chickens for the first week is custard, made of equal proportions of egg and milk, beaten up together, and just set by the fire. They should always be allowed from the very first plenty of green food, lettuces running to seed, dandelions, or onion tops chopped very fine. Rice boiled in milk, and with a little freshly-ground meal, is very good. Dari, millet, and canary seed are all good; grits and coarse oatmeal should only be given quite freshly ground, as they soon become pungent and rancid, and put the digestive organs out of order. Gentles, or flesh maggots, can easily be got in the summer for the young chickens by hanging a piece of meat or a dead fowl on a branch of a tree, or suspending it in some way out of doors, cutting a few slashes in the skin, and leaving it for a few days, when it will become thoroughly fly-blown; then bury it a few inches under the earth in a place that the fowls can get at; in a very short while the ova of the fly will hatch, and the maggots come to the surface of the earth; the hens will soon find them, and bring their chickens to them, and they will eat the maggots greedily. Milk is very good for the young chickens, but great care must be taken to prevent its turning sour. The chickens should also have fine-crushed quartz or gravel, such as is swept down the roadsides by heavy rain, to help their digestion. It is much better to let the hen free with her chickens, but if she must be cooped, the best method is to put a coop with an open front to it, and the back against the wall of some building, and then tether the hen. A good tether is made with a strip of leather, one end being turned down about 1½ in., and a small slit being made through the 2 thicknesses of the leather, put the leg of the hen between these, and then pull the other end through the 2 holes, through the turned-down end first; in this way it cannot be tightened or hurt the leg of the fowl; then fasten a long piece of string to the end of the leather so that the hen can have a good run, as in a state of nature the hen would move to fresh ground day after day.

Fatting for Table.--However young a cockerel may be, if he has been running with hens, and if on killing he appears blue, there is considerable risk of its eating hard, though only 7 months old. A pullet which has only laid one or two of her first eggs is anything but first-class, and after laying out, and getting once broody, is no better than a hen 5 years old. A first-class table bird is a young, “straight,” thick-breasted cockerel which has had nothing to do with hens, or a pullet a month before laying her first eggs.

In France, fowls to be fattened do not exceed 6-7 mouths old; pullets, put up before they have laid, are in good condition and well fed, from their birth up to the day on which they are cooped. Cramming is regarded as the most economical and effectual mode of proceeding. The fowls to be fattened are placed in coops in which each has its own compartment. The coop is a long narrow wooden box, standing on short legs; the outer walls and partitions are close boarded, and the bottom is made with rounded spars 1½ in. in diameter, running lengthways of the coop; on these spars the fowls perch. The top consists of a sliding door, by which the chickens are taken out and replaced. The partitions are 8 in. apart, so that the fowls cannot turn round. The length of each box is regulated by the number of divisions required, the cocks and pullets, and the lean and fat lots, not being mixed up indiscriminately, because their rations differ, and the new-comers would disturb the old settlers by their noise. The floor below the boxes is covered with ashes or dry earth, which is removed every 2 days with a scraper. The food is chiefly buckwheat meal, bolted quite fine. This is kneaded up with sweet milk till it acquires the consistency of baker’s dough; it is then cut up into rations each about the size of 2 eggs, which are made up into rolls about the thickness of a woman’s finger, but varying with the sizes of the fowls; these are subdivided by a sloping cut into pellets about 2½ in. long. A board is used for mixing the flour with the milk, which in winter should be lukewarm. This is poured into a hole made in the heap of flour, and mixed up little by little with a wooden spoon as long as it is taken up; the dough is then needed by the hands till it no longer adheres to them. Oatmeal, or after that barley-meal, is the best substitute for buckwheat-meal. Indian corn-meal makes a short crumbly paste, and produces yellow oily fat.

In cramming, the attendant has the buckwheat pellets at hand with a bowl of clear water; she takes the first fowl from its cage gently and carefully, not by the wings or the legs, but with both hands under the breast; she then seats herself with the fowl upon her knees, putting its tail under her left arm, by which she supports it; the left hand then opens its mouth (a little practice makes it very easy), and the right hand takes up a pellet, dips it in the water, shakes it on its way to the open mouth, puts it straight down and carefully crams it with the forefinger well into the gullet; when it is so far settled down that the fowl cannot eject it, she presses it down with the thumb and forefinger into the crop, taking care not to fracture the pellet. Other pellets follow the first, till the feeding is finished in less time than one would imagine. It sometimes happens in cramming that the windpipe is pressed together with the gullet; this causes the fowl to cough, but it is not of any serious consequence, and with a little care is easily avoided. The fowl when fed is again held with both hands under its breast, and replaced in its cage without fluttering; and so on with each fowl. The chickens have 2 meals in 24 hours, 12 hours apart, provided with the utmost punctuality. If they have to wait, they become uneasy; if fed too soon, they suffer from indigestion, and in either case lose weight. On the first day of cramming only a few pellets are given; the allowance being gradually increased till it reaches 12-15 pellets. The crop may be filled, but before the next meal the last must have passed out of the crop, which is easily ascertained by gentle handling. If there be any food in it, digestion has not gone on properly; the fowl must then miss a meal, have a little water or milk given it, and a smaller allowance next time; if too much food be forced upon the animal at first, it will get out of health and have to be set at liberty.

The fattening process ought to be complete in 2-3 weeks, but for extra fat poultry 25-26 days are required; with good management you may go on for 30 days; after this the creature may become choked with accumulated fat, waste away and die.

The fowls are killed instantaneously by piercing the brain with a sharp knife thrust through the back of the roof of the mouth.

After plucking and trussing, the chicken is bandaged, until cold, to mould its form; and if the weather is warm it is plunged for a short time into very cold water. A fowl takes usually rather more than a peck of buckwheat to fatten it. The fat of fowls so managed is of a dull white colour, and their flesh is covered with a transparent, delicate skin. Plucking should be done instantly the fowl is dead, as the feathers then come off with the greatest ease, and the skin is not liable to be torn. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

Packing Eggs.--Packing in newspaper is found to be the best for the inside protection, and a wooden box better than anything for holding the eggs. Baskets and hampers are of no use at all; they are sure to get pressed in travelling, and cardboard boxes would be crushed directly. A wooden box, not necessarily of thick wood, resists all pressure, and the eggs are not likely to suffer from anything short of an actual fall if properly packed. Newspaper is best, and the Times best of all for packing them, the paper itself being so much stiffer than other newspapers. Tear the paper into pieces about 8-10 in. square; slightly crumple it in the hand in wrapping a piece round each egg, so as to show a rough surface; on no account rub it or make it soft, as it is the stiffness which gives support, and prevents the eggs getting too close together; they must neither be very near each other, nor to the sides or bottom of the box. Put a good layer of the crumpled paper at the bottom, then the eggs one at a time, each in its own crumpled wrapper; they must be so arranged as to fit closely and firmly together, the paper giving enough pressure to keep them firm; there must be no spaces; every corner must be filled with the crumpled paper, of which there must also be a good covering before closing the box.

=Ducks.=--With regard to the variety that should be kept, two circumstances have to be considered. If large size, early maturity, and white appearance for the market are required, the Aylesbury will be found pre-eminent. If, on the other hand, small size with a strongly pronounced suspicion of wild duck is required, then choose a smaller variety, as the small black, called with equal inaccuracy East Indian, Buenos Ayres, and Labrador, or, still better, the tame-bred wild, or a cross between the two; but for family use Aylesburies must be relied on.

The great error in the usual management of ducks is not bringing them to rapid maturity. A duck should be so fed as to be large enough to kill under 10 weeks old. If it is allowed to live longer, it begins to moult, and consequently is not so good in flavour, and the nourishment given to it goes to form feathers, and not to increase its weight. It is obvious that if one duck can be made ready for the market in 2 months, it must yield a larger profit than another that is not fit for use till it is 4 or 6.

Ducks should be always shut up during the night, as they generally lay at that time, and, if allowed to be at large, drop their eggs in the water, where they sink and are lost. As early as possible in the season they should be set under large hens. A good-sized Cochin, Brahma, or Dorking will cover 12 or 13. The hens should not be set in the crowded, vermin-infested nest places that are usually seen in fowl-houses, but on the ground or in a circular basket or American cheese box, nearly filled with moist earth, and covered with a very little bruised straw, not hay; this earth should be kept moist during the whole time of setting, so as to imitate the conditions of the nest in a state of nature.

The young should be hatched on the twenty-eighth day, that is, the same day of the week one month after they are placed under the hen.

When the young are hatched they should be left with the hen till well nestled, well dried, and strong enough to stand. Many scores of ducklings are lost by inexperienced persons through their impatience to remove them from the nest. The little duckling is at first clad with soft yellow down, which gradually disappears as the feathers grow. After a few days, 3 or 4 broods are put together with one hen, who is quite able to take care of them all. For market purposes the treatment of the ducklings is as follows: They are not allowed to go into any water, but are kept in hovels, or the rooms of cottages, each lot of 30 or 40 separated by low boards; it is no uncommon thing at Aylesbury to see 2000-3000 all in one establishment. They are kept very clean and dry on barley straw. Their food consists of hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, and mixed with boiled rice and bullock’s liver cut up small. This is given to them several times in the day for about a fortnight or more. When they are capable of consuming more, they are fed on barley meal and tallow greaves mixed, together with the water in which the greaves have previously been boiled; some also use horseflesh to mix with their other food. This constitutes all that is necessary to produce early ducklings for the table.

They are killed at 10-12 weeks old, just before the adult feathers come; as the energy up to that time has been spent in the growth of flesh, but is then directed to the feathers, and a duck at 5-6 months when plucked often does not weigh so much as one of 3 months. The hens should be set in December and not later than March, for then the demand for ducklings is greater than the supply.

As to the treatment of such as are intended for breeding and exhibition. To produce birds of great frame and weight, the same food is given during the earliest stage; but, after about 3 weeks, they are allowed to go to the water, and their food is varied as soon as possible, by giving them maize (or better, oats) and barley alternately, when they can eat the same. They should be fed 3 times a day, and always have a trough of water by them, or the grain be thrown into the water; and it is an advantage to have some gravel or sand at the bottom, so that when drinking they also get hold of some grit, which helps digestion, and tends to keep the bill in proper colour. Maize is apt to render the birds too fat, and increase the tendency to accumulate internal abnormal fat, and to go “down behind,” in which condition they are perfectly useless as stock birds.

=Geese.=--Geese can only be profitably kept where there is abundance of grazing ground, as they derive the greater part of their nourishment from grass. Under suitable conditions no birds can be more profitable, but under other circumstances they cannot be recommended.

Of the three varieties, namely, the pure white or Emden, the grey or Toulouse, and the common saddle-back, the first name is to be preferred, as the birds pluck much better and clearer than the grey, and are much larger than the common parti-coloured breed.

The management of these birds in suitable localities is attended with very little trouble. In the early part of the year the old geese should be well fed with oats thrown into water, so as to stimulate them to early laying in February, if possible. When she has laid from eight to thirteen eggs, the goose remains on the nest, and her eggs may then be given to her.

The nest should be on the ground, without any intervening boards; and, if in a dry situation, should be watered, so as to keep the mould moist. The hatching goose should be well fed with oats thrown into a pan of water when she leaves the nest, and she should be allowed to go on to the pond or river.

When hatched, the goslings require grass, meal slaked with water, or porridge made with oatmeal. After a few days, oats, in water, may be given, and with the food they find by grazing, the young will do well until fattening time, when they should be fed on oats, in water. In many parts the geese are partially plucked two or three times a year for the sake of the feathers. Nothing can be more injurious than the practice; the small sum obtained for the plumage is much less than the deterioration in the value of the bird.

In rearing geese for the market, every endeavour should be made to attain early maturity. Young birds should never cease growing from the time they are hatched until they are ready to kill. If they are so fed as to be kept without growing, not only is all the food they eat during the time wasted, but they are deteriorating in quality and in tenderness of flesh.

=Turkeys.=--Turkeys dislike all that is necessary for their well-doing. They like to roam far and wide like peafowl, and will roost, if allowed to, in the open air, whereas they should sleep under cover, have an elevated roost, and a well-ventilated sleeping room. A turkey hen sits on her eggs for 32 days; she is a very gentle constant sitter, but a very careless mother, for she will, unless carefully watched or cooped, lead her chicks out in the damp grass or into a bed of stinging nettles, both of which proceedings are fatal to the brood, for wet kills them, and so does nettles; but boiled nettles are good for their health, and should be given chopped small mixed with barley meal.

The young birds should be left to effect their exit, if possible, unassisted, and allowed to remain for 12 hours afterwards under the mother’s wings. After that time they must be continually attended to and fed on curds, hard-boiled eggs, and crumbs, having a good boarded coop. Meal and grits must be given after the lapse of about 10 days; and when they are 5 weeks old, boiled potatoes, turnips, nettles, and lettuces may be chopped and mixed with their food.

Norfolk turkeys are considered the best breed to keep. When turkeys are put up to fatten, barley meal, bran, and potatoes well mashed and mixed, are the best food for them. Half-a-crown’s worth of meal and potatoes, with other garden produce, is about the cost of feeding each bird for one month, when it is considered fat enough for the table; but the birds will generally be in pretty good case when put up, if they have been allowed the run of the fields and the woods, for turkey chicks are only delicate in their first stages of growth. Some poultry-keepers cram their birds, but such turkeys are never so delicately flavoured as those fed in the natural way. (Helen Watney.)

Turkey hens are such admirable mothers, that they are largely employed in France to hatch and rear ordinary chickens. When young turkeys are hatched, they should be left undisturbed until they come out from under the mother, about 20-30 hours, and fed at first with equal parts of egg and milk beaten up together and set by heat. Fresh-ground oatmeal and milk should be given, and lettuces running to seed, full of bitter milky juice; this old and young will eat in large quantity and thrive exceedingly on it. Turkeys are much larger green vegetable eaters than fowls. In dry situations and seasons they are not delicate if properly fed and cared for. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

=Pigeons=.--First and foremost comes the selection of the birds. The old-fashioned English so-called carrier is perfectly useless as a messenger or homing pigeon. The only breeds of any real value are Belgians. Of these, several somewhat distinct types exist, which are known as Liege, Antwerp birds, &c. In these birds the homing faculty has been developed by training for many generations, until at last an acquired instinct of indomitable perseverance in seeking their distant home has been developed, and this has become hereditary. Hence the necessity of breeding from good birds, and those which have been accustomed to fly long distances. To breed from birds without pedigrees is useless. So high a value is placed on the performance of the parents, that amateurs will spare no pains or expense in getting good, well-trained birds. Good birds, however, can be bought for moderate sums, when amateurs in Belgium are selling off the superfluous birds after the racing season is over; 1_l._ 10_s._ to 2_l._ a pair will often procure birds that have done good work.

A flight of birds may be established in two modes. First, by obtaining pairs of old birds, shutting them up as prisoners, breeding from them, and turning out the young as soon as they can feed themselves and fly. The second is by buying young birds as they leave the nest, and letting them fly after they have been confined a few days in their new home.

As old birds would not remain in a new locality, they have necessarily to be confined as prisoners. For this purpose never select a close room or loft. A dry shed, not exposed to the north or east, if wired on the open side, is always filled with pure air. Shelves or open lockers, in which the birds will build their nests and rear their young, should be attached to the walls. A long, straight inclosure, covered at the top and sides with wire work, should communicate with the shed. In this the birds can take exercise, flying from the perch or landing-place at one end to that at the other. This open flight place should be, if possible, some 10 yd. long, and, being open-wired above, the birds enjoy the three great luxuries of fresh air, bright sunshine, and, above all, exposure to the rain.

For food, wheat, small round maize, sound beans, dark peas, and tares may all be given, and also millet, if it be accessible; some old mortar rubbish mixed with salt should be provided for the pigeons to pick at, this being most essential to their health; and, above all, a supply of clean water to drink, placed in vessels in which it cannot be defiled, is indispensable; also water for bathing, which may be put in a milk pan or shallow trough in the open flight place. Thus treated, the old birds do not suffer in health. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

Homing pigeons are protected from birds of prey in China by means of a whistling machine made of about 10 small bamboo tubes, which is secured to the bird’s tail in such a manner that the rush of air across the tubes produces a shrill sound.

=Bees.=--The modern system of bee-keeping is entirely opposed to the older method, in which honey was obtained by the destruction of the bees, and almost equally to the more recent plan of removing the surplus honey in large supers. By the present system the hives and bees are under perfect control. The sizes of the former can be increased or diminished at the will of the owner to any required extent. The combs are in movable frames, which can be transferred at will from one hive to another without the slightest difficulty. The formation of new colonies can be accomplished as desired, or prevented altogether, and the whole energy of the bees devoted to honey gathering. The waste of honey in the secretion of wax can be in great part obviated--a most important matter, as each lb. of wax requires the consumption of 15-20 lb. of honey for its formation; and the pure honey, uncontaminated with brood or pollen, can be stored in small boxes, each containing 1-2 lb., capable of being conveyed by rail without injury, and possessing a marketable value at least 3 times as great as that of ordinary run honey. But in order to accomplish these desirable ends, bee-keeping must be followed with some amount of intelligence and interest, and a certain amount of capital must be invested in the pursuit. The knowledge of the modern system of bee-keeping has been very greatly extended by the labour of the British Bee-keepers’ Association, which has published an admirable series of tracts, with a sixpenny handbook for cottagers, has organised annual shows and expositions in many parts of the kingdom, and has raised bee-keeping in England to its present standard of excellence. Through its exertions a fixed size for frames has been determined, so that in a well-arranged apiary any frame of honey or brood comb can be transferred from one hive to any other with the greatest facility. The honey harvest is now gathered in great part in convenient sectional supers of a most marketable and attractive character, obtained without the destruction of a single bee; whereas it formerly consisted merely of run honey, acquired by the suffocation of the bees and the crushing of the comb, when honey, the fluid contents of the bodies of the larvæ, pollen, propolis, and wax, were all mixed indiscriminately together--the market value of this mess obtained by the destruction of the colony being less than one-third of the value of pure honey in virgin comb, as is obtained by the modern system.

Improved hives such as are now employed by all intelligent bee-keepers are made, as before stated, on one uniform standard, and, thanks to the energy of the association, may be procured of a number of makers in various parts of the country. In the modern system the old-fashioned bell-shaped straw skep is discarded, and bees are kept in wooden hives, the best of which have double sides, with an interval between, so as to equalise the temperature. The combs are in frames, each of which is movable, so that the hive can be enlarged or diminished at any time, movable partitions, termed dummy boards, being used to shut off the empty space.

As an example of a practically useful modern hive may be taken one made by Baldwin, of Bromley, Kent. A flat platform or floor supported on 4 stout legs, and having a large oblique alighting board projecting to the front, supports the body of the hive. This has double sides, with air spaces, which may be filled with any non-conducting material, as powdered cork. On the front is a grooved penthouse, to prevent rain entering into the hive. The interior contains 9 movable frames, each of which is fitted with a thin sheet of pure wax foundation, which the beep utilise, to the great saving of honey, labour, and time. There are 2 dummy boards, so as to adjust the size of the interior to the number of frames in use. One section frame is made broader than the rest, so as to contain 6 sectional boxes, each fitted with a triangular piece of wax comb foundation. These in the season are rapidly filled with honey in virgin comb, and can when filled be removed and utilised separately. This frame is filled with sections, each with a triangular piece of wax foundation.

In order to prevent the queen bees laying eggs in any of these sections, a piece of perforated zinc is placed when required between the section frame and the front of the hive. The perforations are sufficiently small to prevent the queen passing through, but the workers pass readily.

The section frame is of use when the quantity of honey collected is comparatively small. In general the surplus stores, those that are available by the bee-keeper, are stored above the frames in a sectional super. This holds 21 sections, each perfectly distinct from the others, and all are furnished with triangular slips of foundation comb. As fast as these supers are filled they can be removed and marketed. The costlessness of these supers is one of their most remarkable qualities. Each is made of a slip of wood partially divided and stamped, so as to form the four sides of the super when folded, the ends being tongued so as to interlock when pressed together. The demand for these sectional supers may be inferred from the fact that they are made in thousands by means of machinery, and are so cheaply produced that their cost varies from ⅓_d._ to less than ½_d._ each.

Such time as the supers are not in use the frames are covered over with warm quilting, which gives access to the frames and interior of the hive at any time, as it is easily removed. Apertures are cut through the quilts, so as to permit of feeding when requisite. The top of the hive is covered by a deep capacious roof, which protects the interior, sheltering the supers when being filled, or the feeding bottle when in use, and keeping the quilts dry and snug during winter.

The demand for improved hives of the construction recommended is so great that machinery is brought into play in their construction, and the consequence is extreme cheapness. The hive described can be sold at somewhat about 20_s._, and cheaper hives, of the same kind, not quite so elaborately fitted, are made from 10_s._ to 15_s._, and can be obtained of Baldwin, Bromley; Neighbour, London; Abbott, Southall; Walton, Newark, and many other makers. (W. B. Tegetmeier.)

SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE.

Sir F. Fitz-Wygram, Bart.: ‘Horses and Stables.’ London, 1886. 5_s._

M. Horace Hayes: ‘Riding on the Flat and across Country: a Guide to Practical Horsemanship.’ London. 10_s._ 6_d._

Mrs. Power O’Donoghue: ‘Ladies on Horseback: Learning, Park-riding, and Hunting, with Hints upon Costumes, and numerous anecdotes.’ London. 1882. 5_s._

James Long: ‘The Book of the Pig: its Selection, Breeding, Feeding, and Management.’ London, 1885. 15_s._

Modern Bee-keeping. London. 6_d._

T. W. Cowan: ‘British Bee-keeper’s Guide Book.’ London, 1885. 1_s._ 6_d._

F. R. Cheshire: ‘Bees and Bee-keeping.’ London, 1886. 7_s._ 6_d._

L. Wright: ‘The Practical Poultry-keeper: a Complete and Standard Guide to the Management of Poultry, whether for domestic use, the markets, or exhibition.’ London. Latest Edition. 3_s._ 6_d._

J. Coleman: ‘The Sheep and Pigs of Great Britain; being a series of articles on the various breeds of sheep and pigs of the United Kingdom, their history, management, &c.’ London. 18_s._

I. E. B. C.: ‘The Farm.’ London. 5_s._

I. E. B. C.: ‘The Stable.’ London, 5_s._

THE GARDEN.

GARDENERS’ CALENDAR.

January.--Wheel out manure, trench and make ground for crops, mend fences, clean the stems of fruit-trees, do rough pruning and felling, and complete all arrears in winter work, as weather may permit. Every effort should be made to lay up as much land in the rough as possible; the more it is frozen through, the greater will be its fertility. In hard frost, wheel out manure; in rain, clear up all rubbish and let it smoulder in a heap, using the ashes as manure. Make ready for sowing peas, beans, cabbages, lettuce, silver-skin onions, radishes, carrots, and spinach in warm borders or frames. Protect artichokes. Manure asparagus beds without digging. Sow beans in rich deeply-dug ground in the open in the last week. Plant out cabbages. Sow cauliflower in frames for putting out in March-April. Plant crowns of horseradish 15 in. deep in dunged trenches. Sow peas in wooden or old zinc troughs in frames, and put out in the last week. Sow mustard and cress (separate) in pans or boxes in frames. Cover seakale with pots or plenty of litter.

Lawns should be well rolled after wet weather, and kept clear of rubbish. Walks should be re-gravelled and rolled, and the edgings kept level and regular. In favourable weather all empty borders may be manured and deeply dug, leaving them as rough as possible on the surface, so that the soil may be acted on by frost. Rose-beds should receive a heavy dressing of a mixture of pig-dung and horse-dung, lightly forked in during dry open weather; and see that the plants have the necessary protection. Planting may still be done when the soil is dry, but November is the best time for planting roses. Standard roses must be well secured to stakes. After severe frost, carnations, pinks, wallflowers, alyssum, arabis, pansies, and other spring flowering-plants should be examined; if heaved or loosened, the soil when dry should be made firm round them. Hyacinths, tulips, and kindred flowers will be benefited by a mulching of old mushroom-dung or leaf-soil, and must be protected from heavy rain. If slugs are troublesome, occasional dustings with soot and dry wood-ashes will keep them in check; but hand-picking, resorted to early on mild mornings, is the best remedy. Examine crocuses frequently to see if they are discovered by mice. Keep conifers and evergreen shrubs free from snow, to prevent them from being broken or disfigured by its weight; and prune any deciduous trees and shrubs that may require it. Choice trees, shrubs, and any herbaceous plants that were set out in autumn or early winter should have their roots protected from frost by a mulching of fern or litter. Keep shrubberies free from fallen leaves and weeds; but digging amongst shrubs cannot be too severely condemned, for many of the fibrous feeders must be destroyed, and the plants injured in consequence. About the middle or end of the month place stock bedding plants (ageratums, alyssa, heliotropes, lobelias, verbenas) in moist heat, when they will readily furnish cuttings, which can be propagated in a hotbed of leaves and dung if no house is available. Calceolarias and pelargoniums must be kept cool and dry by ventilation, and decayed leaves should be picked off. Dahlia roots should have rotten portions removed with a sharp knife. Sow lobelias early in heat, and prepare to sow all subtropical plants. Get ready for potting pelargoniums.

February.--All empty ground must be dug deep and thrown up rough to admit the frost. On cropped ground, prick over lightly between the plants. Sow several sorts of cabbage for filling up blanks; also broccoli, in pans and on warm slopes. Sow early beans in warm dry situations, and late ones on strong land. Sow frame plants (capsicums, cucumbers, melons, tomatoes) in moderate heat, and avoid over-watering while frosts endure. When capsicums are large enough, prick out in good light soil, in greenhouse or a hot corner, for pickling pods. Early carrots may be sown in frames or warmest borders; and parsnips in very deep-dug ground. Cauliflower, sown in mild heat, on richest soil, well watered, should be pricked out in good mould when quite small, and finally transplanted at 2½-3 ft. apart. Plant early potatoes in warm, sheltered, dry ground, in open weather. Alternate 2 or 3 rows of potatoes with a row of early peas, at the same time; they help each other. Sow long radishes for early crops and round ones for stock, in old frames with plenty of manure. Let celery for September use be sown in gentle heat, and pricked out 3 in. apart on an old hotbed, watering well. Plant garlic and shallots on dry, strong, deep land. Make new rhubarb plantations, and cover old plants to induce early growth. Sow lettuce in frames and warm borders; plant out when hardened. Make very small sowings of mustard in frames at successive intervals. Sow parsley, and sow or divide most other herbs. Round-seeded spinach and small white turnips can be sown in warm borders.

Have the lawn rough-broomed or bush-harrowed to remove worm-casts, then rolled, and turfed where needed. New grass may be sown, having the land previously well-drained, deep-dug, and levelled, sow in dry weather, rake and roll the seeds in, and repeat the rolling at intervals. Finish planting shrubs and climbers, and do pruning to these and summer-flowering roses in mild weather. Cleanse ferneries from dead fronds and weeds, and replace the surface soil with a dressing of peat and loam pressed well round the plants. Dig and manure beds filled with herbaceous plants. Plant choice kinds of ranunculus, and set out calceolarias and violas that have been confined in cold frames during the winter, pinching off the tops when they begin to grow. Pelargoniums may be boxed or potted off in leaf-soil, loam, and a little sand, keeping them in mild heat till well rooted. Take cuttings from plants put in heat last month, e.g. heliotropes, lobelias, and verbenas. Seeds of subtropical plants may be sown in heat, for putting out in large beds. Hardy annuals to succeed those sown in autumn may now be sown in pots.

March.--Hotbeds are now all-important for sowing capsicums, celery, egg-plants, lettuce, melons, New Zealand spinach, tomatoes, and vegetable marrow. Suckers of globe artichokes should be set out 2 ft. apart in rows 4 ft. asunder; whole sets of Jerusalem artichokes may be planted in strong soil, and are especially useful for hiding ugly fences. Weed and manure asparagus beds, and prepare for sowing new beds. Earth up early beans, set out seedlings raised in frames, and sow for main crop. Sow early beet. Several kinds of broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and kale, should be sown now, the more delicate sorts in frames, and planted out in mild weather when forward enough. A second sowing of capsicums may be wanted. Early carrots may be sown at once, but main crops somewhat later in the spring. Set out early-sown cauliflower, and sow later kinds. Renew sowing and pricking out of celery. Divide and re-plant chives, and lose no time in planting garlic and horseradish. Sow leeks for planting out. Plant out and re-sow lettuce of several kinds. Onions for salading and pickling may be sown in quantity. Do not forget parsley. The main crop of parsnips must be sown in good time. The later kinds of pea must now be sown for the main supply. Plant late potatoes in quantity and follow with early kinds (to avoid May frost). Make successive sowings of radishes out of doors. Sow or plant seakale. Sow plenty of spinach and turnips. Try watercress in pans standing in water.

Fork over the ground between spring-flowering plants and in shrubberies when the weather is dry and favourable. Remove protection from roses, and finish pruning. Start dahlias in a hotbed, and divide and pot when they show shoots 1-2 in. long; treat cannas and Salvia patens in a similar manner. Finish potting ageratums, coleus, cupheas, heliotropes and pelargoniums. Box variegated alyssum, lobelias and verbenas, or, when hardened, plant them in frames. Prick off subtropical plants into pans, or place them singly in small pots, when large enough to handle; remove into larger pots as they require it. Plant gladiolus bulbs either in warm sheltered beds, or first in pots in a cold frame. Canary creeper and sweet pea should be sown in pots for early flowers; the latter also in the open. Harden all annuals sown last month in pots, ready for planting out in April. Sow asters and stocks in a frame in mild heat. Watering needs much care this month, on account of drying winds and frosts.

April.--Pay the utmost attention to weeding and hoeing, and keep the soil opened to sunshine and rain. Again weed and dress asparagus beds and sow or plant new ones. Sow a few beans towards the end of the month. Make a sowing of beet early in the month and a heavier one towards the end. Renew the sowing of broccoli at intervals, and keep up a constant succession of cabbage. Sow cardoons on level, heavily-dunged land, and main crops of carrots. Plant out cauliflower in mild weather, and protect with old flower-pots in keen winds and frost. Sow successive lots of celery in a warm open bed, and some in pans under frames for pricking out. Sow egg-plants in heat and pot when ready. Herbs such as chervil, chicory, clary, fennel, and hyssop, should be sown now in a dry sunny spot. Sow a little kohlrabi towards the close of the month; re-sow leeks. Keep up a succession of lettuce, sowing in frames and planting out. Sow maize in boxes in pits; harden off for transplanting at the end of May. Sow winter onions, and parsley for roots. Keep sowing peas for succession. Sow salsify and scorzonera early in the month in deep rich soil. Renew sowing of seakale in any good deep soil. Sow spinach (prickly seeded), and have a succession of turnips, freely hoeing and thinning as they come on. Sow vegetable marrow in gentle heat.

Let lawns be regularly rolled and mowed, and weeds rooted out. On thin places scratch up the surface with an iron rake, sow some seed, dress with fine soil and wood-ashes, and finish by bush harrowing and rolling. Mulch newly planted roses, shrubs, and trees, and well water in dry weather. Set out golden lilies from their winter frames among shrubs. Keep up potting and boxing cuttings. Plant hardy edging flowers, and those for carpet-bedding. Divide and re-plant violets, which, if massed in a border, can be taken up in October, put in a frame, and will then continue flowering through the winter. Make two sowings of hardy annuals, one early the other late in the month; cover the seeds very lightly. Beware of slugs as soon as the plants show up. Sow half-hardy annuals in the frame prepared for them, in shallow drills, and shade with mats till the plants appear; apply tepid water through a very fine rose, air when the weather permits, and prick out in frames to harden gradually when large enough. Sow perennials and give them the same care as the last-named group.

May.--Every vegetable may be sown in this month, and it will often happen that seeds sown out of doors now will afford better plants than those sown previously in heat and gradually hardened. This said hardening process demands the most constant wariness. Thin asparagus seed-beds, scatter dry litter as a protection on the bearing beds, and cut shoots for table in a regular manner. Beans will hardly pay for sowing now; top the plants when in flower if black fly is present. Sow dwarf and runner kidney beans for summer supply. Make an early sowing of winter beet. Sow broccoli for succession and put out as convenient. Plant out the most forward Brussels sprouts for an early crop in a sunny spot; it is rather late for further sowing. Cabbage may be continually sown and planted out. Sow capsicums in the open in the second half of the month, and plant out from hotbeds in warmest localities. Thin carrots, and sow a little seed to afford a crop of miniature ones in late summer. Plant out cauliflower as weather and ground admit, providing shelter on cold nights and abundant water. In forward situations, celery may be planted out in well-damped trenches and kept well watered. Sow and plant cucumbers in large frames and out of doors, selecting the sorts. Sow dandelion for next spring’s salads, and endive for autumn and winter use. Keep on sowing and planting out lettuce, not neglecting water and shade. Sow melons in frames, which need a high temperature; never shade after first planting. Sow and plant out New Zealand spinach on poor but sunny ground. Sow pickling onions in poor soil and allow to grow as thickly as possible. Renew sowings of peas, if needed. Sow Savoy cabbages for small hearts for early winter consumption. Plant out tomatoes in warm weather, choosing sunny spots. Sow turnips for succession. Plant out vegetable marrows and their allies (gourds, pumpkins, &c.) in warm weather, and cultivate like common “ridge” cucumbers, covering during cold nights.

Attend to lawn and footpaths, and plentifully water flowering shrubs in dry weather. Apply liquid manure to roses, search for insects and syringe often; disbud, and remove the weakest shoots and all suckers from the stocks. Lift plants which have done flowering; divide and replant them for autumn use. Propagate cuttings from them under glass. Lift bulbs, and spread them in a warm place to mature, storing as soon as the tops are dead. Dig and dress the borders ready for summer bedding-plants, which must now be hardened. Use soft tepid water only. Bed out the hardiest plants in good weather at the close of the month, beginning with calceolarias, verbenas, &c. Plant hollyhocks and pentstemons around shrubberies and in mixed borders, securing them to stakes. Thin hardy annuals and perennials, and sow again for the later season. Stake and tie out plants needing it. Plant out tender annuals when forward enough.

June.--Pay attention to weeding and watering, and remember with reference to the latter that it is better to water less often and copiously than frequently and in driblets. When the supply is short, reserve it for newly planted stuff. Dress asparagus with salt and liquid manure; cease cutting about mid-June. A few beans may still be sown for late crop. Plant out broccoli, and sow a little seed for the next April cutting. Sow plenty of cabbage and greens to put out as the ground becomes empty. Plant out, water, and shade cauliflowers, and sow for the autumn crop. Plant out celery, and give plenty of water and shade. Sow pickling cucumbers (gherkins) in the open. Repeat sowing and planting lettuce. Sow mushroom spawn in cucumber frames or in heaps of horse-dung. Sow salad onions and thin out keeping sorts. A few peas (earliest kinds) may still be sown. Sow turnips abundantly in the last week, hastening the early growth, then thinning well.

Keep shrubberies well hoed, remove or shorten sprawling branches, and gather seed vessels. Trim box edging. Thin and tie shoots of climbing shrubs. Mulch rose bushes, and never cease hunting for grubs. Hasten the filling of borders with bedding plants, avoiding too fine a surface to the soil. Plant strong-growing things deep, and press the soil well about them, not omitting stakes and pegs when wind may do damage. Let subtropical plants have good deep soil and shelter from shrubberies. Plant chrysanthemums and dahlias in mixed borders and around shrubberies. Keep the hoe going everywhere, and remove all dead flower-stalks except such as are needed for seed. Propagate cuttings of pansies and wallflowers; sow mignonette and sweet peas for late returns; sow and prick out stocks, and do not cease planting tender annuals, such as asters.

July.--Watering is the most important item in this month, even though occasionally showery. Avoid nuisance from rotting refuse by digging it into trenches. Sow a few early dwarf beans. Broccoli for succession may still be planted out, not forgetting the water; also sow walcheren. Sow several kinds of cabbage in some quantity. Thin out cardoons. Water and fork among cauliflower, and shade young heads from too much sun. Plant out celery, and sow a little seed for a supply for soups if liked. Water ridge and frame cucumbers with soft sunned water abundantly at intervals of some days. Sow endive early and late in the month, and plant out in frames or sheltered beds when ready. Take up garlic, onions and shallots when fully ripe, and plant out leeks in trenches as celery. Sow parsley. A few early peas may be sown still. Lift potatoes as soon as mature, leaving the foliage to finish withering afterwards; plant a few of a quick growing sort for digging as “new” in the autumn. Sow black Spanish radishes for winter crop. Make an early and plentiful sowing of turnips, and keep them thinned and weeded. Plant out abundance of winter green-stuff, in well-dug land, and water if needful.

Do not neglect the lawn; daisy-heads are best removed by a scythe. Cut back expanding shrubs, and trim box-edging and hedges, using the knife for large-leaved growths. Supply rose bushes with liquid manure, and begin budding when the sap flows freely and the bark commences to peel; take cuttings late in the month. Weed and fork round bedding plants and regulate edging plants, leading out and pegging down specimens required to fill a certain vacancy. Freely administer liquid manure to strong subtropical plants in dry weather. Lay carnations, cloves, and picotees, and prick out stocks and other seedlings. Get a shady bed ready for cuttings of pinks, taken at the third or fourth joint on bottom shoots from old plants. Take cuttings of wallflowers and pansies, potting or planting out the former, and transplanting the latter when rooted. Hoe round, trim, water, and thoroughly syringe violets. Stake and thin out chrysanthemums, freely dosing with liquid manure.

August.--Autumn seed-sowing demands the greatest care, to ensure the ground being previously sufficiently moist, and to avoid having the plants too forward when frosts commence. Cut down artichokes as soon as the heads are taken. Plant out broccoli where they will have a low screen against the north wind. Sow Brussels sprouts for spring planting out. Renew sowings and plantings of cabbages. Sow cauliflower in shelter or frames for spring growth, and water standing heads in driest weather. Earth-up celery when well grown. Sow corn salad for spring use. Plant out endive in shelter, and sow a little more. Sow hardy lettuce in a dry poor plot for winter and spring supplies. Make a couple of sowings (early and late) of several kinds of onion to stand the winter; take up and sun-dry the ripe crop. Sow prickly spinach at both ends of the month. Cut tomatoes and hang indoors in the sun to mature. Make a final sowing of turnips for spring crop.

Continue industrious in weeding, cleaning, trimming, pegging, and staking the flower beds, and begin to propagate cuttings. With the latter, commence with those which straggle and weak-growing kinds of plant first in order. Strike flowers of the heliotrope and verbena class in pots, put in a cold frame, shaded and watered. Look after dahlias, staking, thinning, and applying liquid manure. Propagate pansies and phloxes, and stake chrysanthemums and gladioli. Bud, thin, and well water roses.

September.--Weeding now demands more energy than is often devoted to it, and the remains of gathered crops must be cleared off. Keep on planting all available ground with cabbage while plants last. Plant out winter cauliflower, and re-sow a little under cover. Earth-up celery. Plant out and blanche endive; ditto lettuce, and make occasional fresh sowings where dry and open. Thin parsley by pulling out whole plants as wanted; cut down the strongest plants to induce fresh growth. Take up potatoes before wet weather sets in. Thin spinach when well up.

Harden all rooted cuttings of flowers by thorough ventilation of the frames. Keep up watering and vermin-hunting. Remove dead leaves and blooms from pelargoniums, and pinch out the points of heliotropes, verbenas, &c. Well weed and water the reserve of daisies, forget-me-nots, &c. Stake all plants needing it. Select firm and well-matured bulbs for flowering in beds, embracing crocus, hyacinth, narcissus, ranunculus, snowdrop, tulip, &c. At the end of the month sow hardy annuals for next spring flowers. Plant out seedling perennials where they are to remain, so that they may get well rooted before frosts come. Sever layers of carnations, clove-pinks, and picotees when rooted, and pot them in cold frames, protected from sun and rain. Plant out pinks that have been rooted under frames. Continue budding roses, and loosen tiers which are injuring the bark. Trim and secure all climbers. Prepare for planting pansies.

October.--Keep every part of the garden freed from fallen leaves and decaying rubbish, which should be dug into trenches as manure. Let the hoe be kept going where it cannot injure roots or stems. Dig all vacant ground and throw it up in the rough, so that the frost may penetrate. When digging, manure if the land is cold and heavy. Clear off asparagus beds and cover them with a good coat of half-rotten stable dung. Take up beet. Finish up cabbage planting at once. Earth-up and tie round cardoons. Take up carrots for storing; weed and thin the young crop. Plant out cauliflower. Earth-up celery, and prepare to cover it during frost. Blanche full-grown endive as required. Plant garlic in warm dry ground. Keep on planting lettuce. Take up parsnips for storing or as needed. Take up and store potatoes. Plant potato-onions in dry warm ground. Take up rhubarb for forcing and lay it by in a dry but cold place. Take up salsify for store. Plant winter greens on the chance of a mild winter.

This is the time for planting trees and shrubs. In advance of the frost, lift all flowers intended for keeping through the winter, not neglecting a good supply of pelargoniums. Propagate sturdy cuttings of calceolarias. Clean, dig, and manure all emptied flower-beds, and plant them with bulbs and hardy annuals for the spring show of flowers. Divide and transplant herbaceous plants.

November.--Maintain the activity in cleaning, trenching, and manuring; take in new ground where wanted; repair paths and fences; and be prepared with means of protecting things from frost. Scatter some litter among but not upon globe artichokes; lift and store Jerusalem artichokes. Complete unfinished asparagus beds. Sow beans in really warm dry land for the first crop. Cover remaining cauliflowers, or cut and store them in a dry shed. If much wet threatens, take up celery and store like cauliflower heads. Plant garlic. Take up and store horseradish, and re-plant. Plant potato-onions. Sow several sorts of early peas in a very warm, dry, sunny spot. Plant potatoes where the soil is light. Lift seakale for forcing in cellars or pits.

Lift all flowering plants which will suffer from frost. Finish planting beds of bulbs and other spring flowers. Complete the planting of trees and shrubs. Pay special attention to the watering, protection and ventilation of bedding plants, taking care to exclude frost and damp, and remove insects and decaying matter. Collect and dig in falling leaves and other garden refuse. Mulch between standing plants, especially around the stems, and secure a quantity of dry bracken or similar material for general covering and protecting purposes.

December.--Continue the efforts of last month in making preparations for the ensuing spring--clearing, digging, repairing, &c. Earth-up beans and celery, and provide a little covering for the latter. Give endive every protection. Put a hand frame over outdoor parsley or have some in a frame. Earth-up peas, and hand pick them free from drifted dead leaves. Prepare a warm border for early spring work, making it as light and rich as possible.

Carry on trenching and leaf-gathering, and roll lawns and paths. The draining of lawns and flower-beds can now be executed. Let spring flowering plants have the same attention as in January, and bedding plants the same as in November. Do not omit to help the branches of delicate trees to withstand the effects of snow and wind by tying them up with rope yarn (tarred twine).

SUPPLEMENTARY LITERATURE.

Robert Thompson: ‘The Gardener’s Assistant; Practical and Scientific.’ London. Latest edition. 35_s._

See also p. 1012.

DOMESTIC MOTORS.

It is an acknowledged fact that when an establishment has developed sufficiently to necessitate the employment of a considerable amount of manual labour to meet its various requirements, it is more economical and satisfactory in results to introduce mechanical labour in one or more of its many forms; this especially applies to country residences, where wood cutting, chaff and root cutting, pumping, &c., has to be done, and the machines of the dairy, laundry, &c., need propelling, and the same engine can be also utilised for electric lighting, as the light is only needed when the other machines are at rest. The superiority of mechanical over manual labour is obvious and the economy is now fully acknowledged. An engine has the advantage of executing the work with perfect regularity, the last hour’s work being executed as well and as rapidly as the first, and it works all day, and every day and, if desired, all night; and the one motor, if of sufficient power, is capable of being adapted to so many different purposes, together or independently.

Wind.--Wind engines or mills have the decided advantage of being very economical, but are necessarily irregular in action and are only suited for high or open situations. They are rarely of practical use in towns, or where buildings, trees, &c., exist in any size or number, but where the situation is favourable they are to be highly commended for several purposes, pumping especially. They invariably take the form of a strong vertical structure or framework, surmounted with the mechanism to which the sails are attached, and from which is carried a shaft to the base (somewhat similar to Miller’s wind mills). Warner & Co., of Cripplegate, London, make a specialty of these motors, adapted for numberless purposes, and in which high powers are attainable. Fig. 181 shows an annular sailed wind engine, as applied for pumping; it will be understood that the engine can be stood immediately over the well, or it can be fixed in some more convenient and suitable position and connected with the well by shaft or by pipe.

The illustration will acquaint the reader with details more fully, and it will be noticed that these engines are self-regulating, i.e. means are provided to shift the position of the sail automatically as the wind varies; in the larger sizes “striking” gear is fitted for setting the blades of the sail out of the wind when needed. The illustration represents a No. 2 Warner’s wind engine, with 10 ft. sail, price 25_l._, including pump and timber supports; this size is capable of raising 240 gal. of water per hour 50 ft. high, but the sizes may be smaller or larger as the requirements demand; after the first cost the expense is comparatively ended, as only lubrication is needed.

Water.--Water wheels also have the advantage of being economical, and greater reliance can be placed on the regularity of water than in wind power; but it is only for those that have rivers, streams, &c., at disposal. Those that are favourably situated cannot too highly prize the power they possess, as very regular and very high powers can be obtained at will and at a moment’s notice, free of cost (excepting first outlay), and requiring scarcely any attention.

Water wheels are of three kinds, viz. overshot, breast, and undershot; as the names signify, the water flows over, or to the breast, or under the wheel, the difference in construction consisting in the shape of the blades on the wheel’s circumference. The first of the three is undoubtedly the most powerful, as not only is the impulse of the flowing water imparted to the blades, but the blades themselves are so constructed that they retain a portion of the water for about a third of a revolution and thus very materially assist by gravitation; the breast wheel is driven by the weight of the water retained by the blades only, and the undershot wheel is driven by the impulse of the water flowing beneath.

Warner & Co., of Cripplegate, London, make a specialty of these machines. Fig. 182 shows an overshot wheel adapted for pumping pure water from a well, and delivering it at any high elevation while being worked by a stream of impure water.

There is practically no limit to the size and power of these wheels, a 50 ft. wheel giving as high as 54 horse-power. The illustration is a No. 1 Warner’s galvanised iron overshot wheel, price 25_l._, including framework and double action pump, with air vessel complete, capable of lifting ½ gal. of water per minute 60 ft. high through 400 ft. of delivery pipe. The power of these wheels is not only increased as the diameter increases, but also by increasing the width of the blades; for instance, a Warner’s wrought iron overshot or high breast wheel of 20 ft. diameter with blades 3 ft. wide, develops 11 horse-power, and the same diameter with 6 ft. blades very naturally gives double (22 horse-power), but with only about 30 per cent. increased cost.

Turbines are a form of water motor which require a head of water, i.e. the water for propelling them must be supplied by means of pipes from a height; for a moderate power, with the majority of turbines, it should be not less than 12 ft.; the higher the head of water the greater the pressure, and the smaller the turbine requires to be for a given amount of work or power (this applies to all water motors), consequently the cost of the motor is less, the pipes smaller, and there is decided economy in the quantity of water used as the height increases. The pressure of water in pipes is 1 lb. to the square inch for every 2 ft. 4 in. in height (not allowing for friction); thus it will be seen that the surface in a turbine upon which the pressure of water is exerted, requires to be double the area with a 20 ft. fall than with a 40 ft. fall for given power. A Warner’s 5 horse-power turbine for 16 ft. fall uses 220 ft. of water per minute with a wheel of 13 in. diameter, giving 377 revolutions a minute, and costing 60_l._, whereas a 5 horse-power turbine for 30 ft. fall uses 118 ft. of water with an 8 in. wheel giving 853 revolutions a minute and costs 45_l._ Fig. 183 shows a Warner’s (Redtenbacher Jouval) improved turbine fitted and connected to a driving shaft. This turbine is made to work with as low a fall as 2 ft., giving 1 horse-power, but the cost is necessarily high. It will be seen from the illustration (which is in section), that the water is made to pass between fixed oblique blades or palettes, and strikes on the oblique blades of the wheel beneath, these latter blades being at an opposite angle to the fixed blades above; thus a pressure, varying with the height of head of water, is directly exerted on every square inch of the blades of the wheel and great power is obtained.

Hydraulic Rams are self-acting water motors, for the supply of water to great heights and distances; they require a fall of water of 12 in. upwards, and are made to supply either the water that works them, or to supply well water while being worked by a stream of impure water; one of the best makers and authorities upon these motors is John Blake, of Oxford Street Works, Accrington, Lancashire. Fig. 184 shows a Blake’s ram of ordinary construction, for raising a portion of the water that works it; a No. 2 (smallest size), price 12_l._, will raise 300 gal. per day, to say 800 ft. high; a No. 16 will raise 100,000 gal. per day. Fig. 185 shows a ram raising water to a reservoir for general purposes.

A hydraulic ram is undoubtedly the most economical means of raising a supply of water, either for a single residence or for a small town, as they work day and night without attention (or intermittently if desired), and work as well submerged as above water; but they, of course, depend entirely upon a fall of water being obtainable, and this fall or supply must be constant.

Hydraulic Engines are made in various forms, being commonly worked in a similar manner to a steam engine, water under pressure acting upon the piston in place of steam. Fig. 186 represents a “Haag’s” patent water motor adapted for a chaff-cutting machine; Fig. 187 a series of “Thirlmere” water motors, showing the capacities; Fig. 188 a Bailey’s patent hydraulic blower, for chamber or church organs, smiths’ bellows, &c. All these motors are manufactured by W. H. Bailey & Co., of Albion Works, Salford, Manchester, and being small and inexpensive, they are very suitable and convenient for working sewing machines, knife cleaners, washers and manglers, and any domestic machine that entails considerable labour. The power of these motors varies with the pressure of water, if connected with the town’s main (by arrangement with the water company), a very high pressure is generally obtained.

A “Haag’s” motor, No. 2 (smallest size), gives from ¼ to ½ horse-power, 220 revolutions (of the flywheel) a minute, and costs 10_l._ A “Thirlmere” motor, No. 00 (smallest size) gives from 1/70th to 1/30th of a horse-power, and costs 2_l._ 2_s._ A Bailey’s blower No. 1 (smallest size), at 50 lb. pressure, gives a boy power with a 10 in. stroke, and costs 6_l._ 6_s._, and is suitable for a chamber organ; these latter are made to work either vertically or horizontally.

Fig. 189 is a “Ramsbottom” 3 cylinder hydraulic engine (Jno. Ramsbottom, Saynor Road, Hunslet, Leeds). This is considered one of the most efficient hydraulic motors yet made, and it possesses an advantage in having no dead points (see Flywheel of Steam Engine), and its action is exceedingly steady and uniform. The illustration will acquaint the reader with its constructive details, which are simple and few in number.

No correct idea can be given as to the cost of working these motors, for as before explained, it depends entirely upon the pressure of water obtainable.

Steam.--Steam engines are made in very many forms, and it would be impossible for us to describe even a small proportion of those made; for small purposes they are most generally made having engine and boiler combined, but where moderately high powers are needed, and space has to be considered, it is found more economical and convenient to keep them separate; the supply of steam from boiler to engine being conveyed by a pipe. It might be here mentioned that it is necessary that all steam chambers and pipes be coated or covered with some non-conducting material, to prevent loss of heat and consequent condensation of steam, and it is found advantageous to keep the steam at as high a temperature as possible, to increase its efficiency; with most large engines the steam is superheated (i.e. heated to higher than its ordinary temperature) as it passes from boiler to engine.

It is not our intention, neither would it be possible in our limited space, to give a practical treatise upon the steam engine, but it will doubtless be interesting and instructive to many if a general description of the chief features be given. They practically consist of the “boiler,” to which is attached the “feed pump,” “water gauge,” “steam gauge,” and “safety valve.” The “engine,” which consists of the cylinder and piston, “governor,” “cranks,” “eccentrics,” and flywheel.

Boilers take many forms, but in actual principle consist of two sorts, both being cylindrical, one being clear inside, and the other nearly filled with flue tubes, which very greatly increase the heating surface. The first mentioned, which is generally used for large works, and is known as a Cornish boiler, Fig. 190, has a cylindrical outer shell, within which is a smaller cylinder, the space between the two, which is closed at both ends, containing the water as shown. This boiler is fixed in brick-work, and the furnace is situated within the inner cylinder. To increase the power of these boilers, large water tubes are carried across the inside of the inner cylinder (opening into the water chamber at each end) where the flame and heat pass after leaving the furnace.

Multitubular Boilers are generally those that are attached to or combined with the engine, where space is a primary object (locomotive engines have multitubular boilers). Fig. 191 shows the arrangement of this boiler in a vertical position with horizontal tubes (shown without the engine); they are also very commonly made with vertical tubes. All boilers are, or should be, provided with ample accommodation for removing the incrustated deposit, which forms with moderate rapidity, as the water is continually boiling, and as evaporation in a steam boiler is very rapid, the supply of water is constantly being renewed, and each successive charge of water brings its proportion of lime to be deposited. (For fuller details upon incrustation and causes, see Bathroom.)

The Feed Pump is a small pump of ordinary shape and construction, situated near and worked by the engine, its purpose being to supply water to the boiler when needed. Mechanism is provided for throwing it in and out of gear as the water gauge indicates; it will be readily understood that no means can be provided for filling a steam boiler by hand, that is to say, it must be done mechanically, as no loose cover can be provided.

The Water Gauge (Fig. 192) consists of two suitably constructed cocks, both being screwed into the boiler one above and one below the correct or average water level, a strong glass tube extending between them as shown; the water level is necessarily the same in the glass tube as in the boiler and consequently the attendant can see at a glance when water is needed; the object of having cocks at each end of the tube is to prevent the escape of water and steam by closing the cocks should the tube be broken.

The Steam or Pressure Gauge (Fig. 193) is a circular brass case with a dial in front, somewhat similar to a clock; within the case is a small curved tube made so as to be somewhat elastic, this tube is in direct communication with the steam in the boiler. A somewhat peculiar action is relied upon, which is, that as the pressure of steam is exerted within this curved tube, it tends to straighten it, and this, by a simple arrangement of wheels, causes the pointer to move round the dial, which is provided with figures round its edge showing the pressure in pounds (to the square inch) that is exerted in the boiler as the indicator points to them.

The utility of the safety valve (Fig. 194) is obvious. They are invariably made so that by means of a weight or other device they can be regulated to blow off at whatever pressure the engineer dictates, the pressure being indicated by the pressure gauge.

Fig. 195 represents a cylinder with piston inside; the cylinder should be encased with wood or some non-conducting material, or be provided with an outer iron casing or “jacket,” the space between the casing and the cylinder being converted into a steam chamber. Whatever method is adopted, the object is to keep the cylinder from losing its heat and to prevent condensation. The “ports” are openings through which the steam passes; by means of “slide valves” the steam is alternately admitted and expelled from each of these, so that the opening which serves to admit steam on the instroke serves as an exit for the steam on the outstroke, and the slide valves are worked from the main crank shaft by valve gear and eccentrics.

The Valve Gear is the arrangement of rods that connect the eccentrics with the slide valves.

The Piston consists of a circular disc of metal made to most accurately fit the interior of the cylinder; to this is connected a rod as shown, called the piston rod, which is in direct communication with the crank. It will be seen that when the steam is admitted into one end of the cylinder the pressure causes the piston to travel towards the other end; when the piston reaches a certain point (called the dead point) the slide valve shifts and the inflow of steam is changed to the other end, and this causes the piston to travel back again, and so it continues; an instroke and outstroke give one revolution to the crank and flywheel.

An Eccentric (Fig. 196) is an ingenious piece of mechanism that answers exactly the opposite purpose of a crank, viz. to convert a rotary motion into a backward and forward movement. An eccentric is a circular iron disc, with the main crank shaft passing tightly through it, but the shaft does not pass through the centre; hence the term “eccentric.” This disc is encircled and revolves within an iron strap, which is attached to the valve rod or gear. It will be readily seen that as the disc revolves it gives a reciprocating movement to the rod, causing the slide valve to which it is connected to open and close the ports in the cylinder, and the object in attaching the eccentrics to the crank shaft is that the piston rod and valve rods may have an equal and corresponding action, which it will be understood is absolutely necessary.

The Crank (Fig. 197), which on small engines is generally attached to one end of the crank shaft, is one of Watts’ most famous inventions (but which, however, was pirated from him), and its object is to convert the backward and forward movement of the piston rod into a rotary motion at the shaft. Disc crank plates (Fig. 198) are now getting into favour as having a steadier action, and it is to all intents and purposes a crank, but of improved form.

The Flywheel is a heavy cast-iron wheel attached to the crank shaft on the opposite end to the crank itself; it serves more than one useful purpose, viz. giving great steadiness to the motion, assisting propulsion to some extent by its momentum and carrying the piston over the dead points (a dead point is the position which the piston is in when it has finished one stroke and about to return just at the time it becomes quite still for an instant, and this is called the dead point, and it happens at the end of each stroke).

The Pulleys are of two kinds, fast and loose; they are light wheels about one-sixth the diameter of the flywheel, at whose side they are attached to the extreme end of the shaft. They have broad flat faces or rims, and their object is to carry the strap or belting which transmits the power from the engine to the work. The fast or driving pulley is the one that is secured to the shaft and revolves with the flywheel; the loose pulley is the one that is not secured to the shaft, and rotates loosely upon it when occasion demands; a forked arrangement transfers the belting from the fast to the loose pulley when it is necessary to stop the machinery, or vice versâ.

The Governor (Fig. 199) is another ingenious and important invention of Watts, and serves a most useful purpose; it will be understood that if when an engine was working with the full strain of the machinery upon it, the belting was to break, the engine would immediately begin working at an alarming speed, most destructive to itself (this does not apply to engines, such as locomotives, that have constant attention); the governor, as the name implies, controls this. By referring to the illustration, it will be seen that as the speed of the engine increases, the faster the governor rotates (it being connected with the crank shaft); this, by centrifugal action, makes the two balls fly out, and this causes a valve in the steam inlet to partially close and so check the supply of steam from boiler to engine, thus very naturally reducing the speed.

Lubricators (self-acting) are provided wherever necessary, and it is important that a motor of any description be well lubricated at its wearing parts or wherever friction takes place; this reduces the wear and tear to a minimum, and very greatly adds to the motor’s efficiency.

Steam is produced by subjecting water to heat, and so causing it to evaporate; steam is commonly understood to be (by those that have not studied the subject) a white watery vapour, whereas it is exactly the reverse, it is practically as dry and colourless as the atmosphere, and possesses similar characteristics in its unlimited expansibility and compressibility; it only assumes the white vapoury appearance when it escapes in the air which is at a lower temperature than itself, as it then condenses into its original form, water; if steam was ejected into a compartment that was heated to say 220° the steam would retain its own form and be quite colourless and invisible. The expansive power of steam is put to good purpose in what is known as the “cut-off” and also in compound engines; the cut-off is an arrangement whereby the steam is cut off from the cylinder, when the piston has been impelled ½ or ⅝ of a stroke, and the expansion of the steam completes the stroke. In compound engines (which are large and have 2 cylinders) the steam, after doing service in the first cylinder, is conducted to a second of greater diameter, where by expansion it exerts a lower pressure, but on 2 or 3 times the piston area, so giving units of work equal to the first cylinder. Engines are now made with 3 cylinders, thus fully utilising this economical plan.

Horse-power.--When steam engines first came into use they were applied to work previously done by horses which worked the mills; it was, therefore, convenient and desirable to say what number of horses an engine would supersede, hence the term horse-power, which means a capacity to produce a mechanical effect equivalent to raising 33,000 lb. one foot per minute. The indicated horse-power of an engine is the pressure exerted by the steam on the piston without allowing for friction, the indicated horse-power is therefore higher than the power that will be realised; the nominal horse-power is that which is obtained by measurement of the cylinder and piston area, and is a commercial standard, but a deficient one, and most makers’ lists now show engines which by improvements will give 1 and 2 actual horse-power higher than the nominal.

The makers of steam engines might be named “legion,” but the two following are firms of repute, making somewhat a specialty of small motors. Fig. 200 shows a combined vertical engine and boiler complete with feed pump and water tank base, and requiring no fixing (makers Hindley & Co., 11 Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C.); the boiler is multitubular (vertical tubes) and the sizes vary from 2 to 6 horse-power, costing from 62_l._, to 122_l._; if coal fuel is not available, and it is desired to burn wood, peat or inferior fuel, it is usual to have the boiler a size larger costing from 3_l._ to 10_l._ extra. It will be noticed that the water tank forming the base, causes the feed water to become heated. The plan of heating the feed water is now universally followed, as it will be understood how disadvantageous it is to pump cold water into the boiler when it is in full work. Feed pumps are now made to pump boiling water if required. Fig. 201 shows a Hindley’s horizontal steam engine complete with pump, but without boiler, made in sizes from 2 to 15 horse-power, costing from 24_l._ to 100_l._

Fig. 202 is a Tangyes’ (Tangyes, Limited, 35 Queen Victoria Street, London) vertical steam engine and boiler complete, and mounted on a wheeled bed for portability, the cost being 2 horse-power 63_l._, 3 horse-power 79_l._ Fig. 203 is a Tangyes’ vertical engine without boiler, and on firm base, price, 2 horse-power 22_l._, 3 horse-power 29_l._, including feed pumps.

We have purposely omitted the use and description of condensers, as they are only of real use with very large engines (except with marine engines to which condensers are always fitted as the cold water for condensing is at hand in unlimited quantities); a good use to which the exhaust steam can be put is to heat the feed water; Fig. 204 is a Tangyes’ feed-water heater; it will be seen that the heating medium is the exhaust steam from the engine. These are made with brass tubes, which on account of great expansion and contraction will not permit the incrustation to adhere to their surface, and it falls in a scaley and sandy mass to the bottom where a mudhole and handhole are provided for periodical cleaning; the cost of these varies with the size of the steam exhaust pipe, for a 2 in. pipe the price is 13_l._

If the exhaust pipe is carried any distance, it must be thoroughly well insulated, or the steam will condense, and the water will run back into the cylinder; this really occurs to a small extent with the best management, consequently a “steam trap” is used, the object of which is to discharge water resulting from condensation. The management of a small steam motor is practically simple, but moderately constant attention is needed; it must be seen that the supply of water is kept up in the boiler, the water and pressure gauges must be occasionally looked to, and the lubricators must be replenished regularly. The want of skilled attention is felt when a small accident or breakdown occurs, but this of course applies to all motors.

Davey’s Safety Motor (Fig. 205) is a revival of the atmospheric engine of 1705 in general principle, but with various decided improvements. The word “safety” is used advisedly, as there is no pressure exerted by the steam higher than atmospheric pressure (15 lb. to the square inch), consequently it is as non-explosive as a teakettle, and no steam gauge or safety valve is required and the motor can be placed in charge of the most unskilled attendant. The power is obtained by the condensation of steam producing a vacuum and thereby making available the pressure of the atmosphere. This motor has a cylinder and piston; as the piston is proceeding on the outstroke the cylinder is charged with steam at low pressure; at the proper moment a jet of cold water is admitted which instantly condenses the steam, producing a vacuum, the pressure of the atmosphere immediately asserts itself outside of the piston pressing it back on the instroke, after which the action is repeated; so it will be seen that the piston relies upon the momentum of the flywheel for the outstroke and the pressure of the atmosphere (15 lb. to sq. in.) for the instroke. This is an economical motor, the consumption of fuel (gas coke) averaging 6 lb. per horse-power per hour, and the makers claim that the cost of fuel and water (if the latter has to be paid for) combined is less than the cost of gas for working a gas engine for a given amount of work.

These motors are also made to work with a pressure of steam about 2 lb. above atmospheric pressure, and this can then be utilised for steaming purposes, such as for cattle foods, &c.; this also applies to any steam motor. The cost of these motors is for ¾ indicated horse-power 45_l._, with a 2 ft. flywheel 160 revolutions a minute, or a larger size, 4½ indicated horse-power, 100_l._, with a 4 ft. flywheel.

Gas.--Gas engines are now occupying considerable attention and receiving general favour; the attention needed in working these motors is comparatively nil, and they admit of such exact regulation that there is practically no loss of power and fuel, for in reducing speed or work the supply of fuel (gas) must first be reduced. A noticeable feature is the extreme cleanliness, as there is no furnace and stoking, no boiler safety-valve nor pressure gauge, &c.; and it is a common thing to find these motors left for hours without attention, as the supply of fuel is unvarying and self-acting lubricators of good make only require attention about once a day. A still further and important advantage possessed by these motors is the almost instantaneous starting and stopping, making them particularly well adapted for electric lighting apparatus in event of a sudden darkness arising. The majority of these remarks, it will be noticed, apply to many motors. All gas engines are practically worked upon the same principle, but differing in detail; there is, however, a practical difference in one respect, and that is, that some consume the gas in its ordinary state as supplied from the gas mains, whilst others consume it after the piston has first compressed it; the latter is undoubtedly the most effective in results, as the difference may be compared to igniting gunpowder in the barrel of a gun in a loose state, or after it has been rammed close.

These motors are in construction somewhat similar to steam engines, having a cylinder and piston, crank, flywheel, governor, &c.; the gas is utilised by leading it to a combustion chamber (one end of the cylinder) and at a proper moment igniting it, the expansion (or explosion) impelling the piston forward; the piston is brought back by the momentum of the flywheel, and on its return journey passes off the products of combustion; most gas engines are worked with one ignition or impulse to every 2 or 3 strokes, or they can be regulated to an impulse for every stroke for high speeds; the cylinders of these motors usually have water jackets, as the temperature naturally becomes very high, a small pump circulating the water which is supplied from a small water tank at the side, or the engine may have a water tank base, the same water being used over and over again.

A desirable feature in a gas engine is that it be “noiseless,” they are now made that even the exhaust pipe is noiseless. Speaking of the exhaust pipe, this should be carried into the open air, as if carried into a flue or chamber, a leakage of gas up this pipe would be a source of danger, and this pipe must be kept clear of woodwork some 6 or 10 in., according to size.

Large motors are provided with a self-starting apparatus, but small motors require a turn or two given to the flywheel by hand at starting.

The consumption of gas with these motors costs from 1_d._ to 2_d._ per horse-power per hour, varying with the size; a 1 horse-power costs about 1¾_d._ The following are a few gas engines by reliable makers. Fig. 206 shows an “Otto” vertical gas engine (Crossley Bros., Limited, 24 Poultry, London), made in sizes from 5 man to 5 horse-power (nominal), giving from 1 to 9 indicated horse-power; a medium size, 1½ nominal horse-power (3 indicated horse-power), costs 103_l._, with water vessel, 4 ft flywheel, 180 revolutions a minute.

Fig. 207 shows an “Otto” horizontal, made in sizes from ½ to 16 nominal horse-power, giving 2 to 40 indicated horse-power (the larger sizes have 2 flywheels); the cost of a 2 nominal horse-power (4 indicated horse-power) is 138_l._, with water vessel, 4 ft. 6 in. flywheel, 160 revolutions a minute. The Otto is at present receiving the greatest share of favour, and it certainly is a good one.

Fig. 208 shows a “Stockport” horizontal gas engine (J. E. Andrew & Co., Limited, 80 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from 6 man to 8 nominal horse-power, giving from 1½ to 15½ indicated horse-power; a medium size, 2 nominal horse-power (4 indicated horse-power), costs 128_l._, with water tank complete.

Fig. 209 shows a “Bisschop” vertical gas engine (J. E. Andrew & Co., as above), made in sizes from 1 man to 4 man power, costing from 28_l._ to 40_l._ This small engine requires no water tank.

Fig. 210 is the “Hercules” vertical gas engine (Turner Bros., St. Albans), sizes 1 man to 3 horse-power, costing from 18_l._ 15_s._ to 105_l._, with water tank complete. This is about the cheapest engine in the market.

Fig. 211 is an Atkinson’s differential compression gas engine (British Gas Engine Co., 11 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from ¾ to 8 nominal horse-power, costing from 62_l._, to 210_l._, with water tank complete. The chief feature and novelty in this engine is its having a piston at each end of the cylinder, as will be seen by the illustration. This engine is somewhat new, but the principle is good, and it has, no doubt, a good future.

Fig. 212 is a 6 horse-power Atkinson’s horizontal gas engine. This engine is made in sizes from 3½ to 16 nominal horse-power, costing from 153_l._ upwards, with water tank complete.

A disadvantage which all gas engines very naturally have is the inability to use them in rural districts, where no gas supply exists.

Petroleum engines are now gaining favour, as they are equal to gas engines in cleanliness and results, and need as little attention, and they can be used anywhere, as a supply of fuel is so easily attainable. The ordinary and common petroleum of commerce is the fuel used, and the various makers contend that these motors are more economical than gas engines, the cost of fuel varying from ¾_d._ to 1¼_d._ per horse-power per hour, according to size. The construction of this motor is very similar to a gas engine, ignition and expansion (explosion) of petroleum taking the place of gas.

Fig. 213 is a “Spiel’s” vertical petroleum engine (Shawlaw & Co., Suffolk Works, Birmingham), made in one size only, 3 man nominal power (1 horse-power indicated), price 46_l._ 8_s._, with water tank.

“Spiel’s” horizontal petroleum engine, made in sizes from ½ to 8 nominal horse-power (1½ to 17 indicated horse-power), with 3 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 9 in. flywheels, and costing from 59_l._ to 246_l._, with water tank complete. The extra cost of a centrifugal oil pump attached is from 50_s._ to 70_s._

Fig. 214 is the “Etéve” horizontal petroleum engine (Priestmann Bros., 52 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from ½ to 10 nominal horse-power (1¼ to 20 indicated horse-power), with from 3 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. flywheels, and costing from 60_l._ to 275_l._, with water tank complete. This motor is also made mounted on a truck for agricultural purposes.

A petroleum motor is especially suited for launches and small yachts, on account of its cleanliness, and dispensing with the roomy and dirty coal bunker, the store of oil being in tanks under the seats, &c.; what is most important is that there is no smoke, and the engine requires but a few minutes to start and attain full speed.

A high authority gave his opinion to the writer that the small motor of the future will be undoubtedly the petroleum engine.

Hot-air or Caloric Engine.--This motor is worked by the expansion of atmospheric air when subjected to heat. Fig. 215 is a sectional drawing of the “Rider” hot-air pumping engine (Hayward, Tyler & Co., 39 Queen Victoria Street, London), and we cannot do better than copy the makers’ description of its working parts. “The compression piston C first compresses the cold air in the lower part of the compression cylinder A, into about one-third its normal volume, when by the advancing of the power piston D and the completion of the down stroke of piston C, the air is transferred from the cylinder A through the regenerator H and into the heater F, without appreciable change of volume. The result is a further increase of pressure, and this impels the power piston up to the end of its stroke. The pressure still remaining in the power cylinder and reacting on the piston C, forces the latter upwards till it reaches nearly the top of its stroke, when, by the cooling of the charge of air, the pressure falls to its minimum, the power piston descends, and the compression again begins, the same air being used continuously. E is a water jacket for cooling the air more effectually, K K are leather packings, L is a check valve which remedies any leakage of air.” This engine is made in three sizes, ¼, ½, and 1 horse-power, costing 40_l._ to 100_l._ including lift and force pump, as at Fig. 216, the higher prices being fitted with driving pulley for power. These engines are especially well adapted for pumping, a ¼ horse-power with 2 in. pump delivering 500 gal. per hour 40 ft. high, the engine costing 42_l._ complete. There is no skill required in working them, the only labour needed being to start and stop the engine, to replenish the fire (coke fuel), and the necessary attention to lubricators. The consumption of coke is 2½ lb., 4 lb. and 9 lb. per hour for the three sizes respectively; this represents a cost of about one halfpenny per 1000 gal. of water raised 30 ft. high; it will be understood that all pumping engines can be fitted with gear for deep-well work when necessary.

Fig. 217 is “Bailey’s” horizontal hot-air engine (W. H. Bailey & Co., Albion Works, Salford, Manchester) with pulley for driving, made in sizes from ¼ to 3½ horse-power, costing from 35_l._ to 150_l._ complete, but requiring a brick stove to be built in connection with it.

Fig. 218 is a “Bailey’s” vertical hot-air driving engine, made in sizes from ⅛ to ½ horse-power, costing from 80_l._ to 42_l._ This engine, it will be noticed, has the stove or furnace complete. These engines are also made with pump attached for domestic and other water supply, similar to the “Rider.” Coke fuel is the best, but any combustible can be used, such as wood, peat, cinders, or common coal. The cost of working the “Bailey” engines is about the same as the “Rider.”

Electricity.--Electric motors are not of practical use except in residences, &c., where an electrical installation (worked by an engine) already exists or is going to be fitted; as, to attempt to propel an electric motor by a battery would, though possible, be very expensive, and the battery would have to be of enormous size to obtain any power of importance,--to work a sewing machine, for instance.

In buildings that are lighted by electricity or have an electric apparatus of any description that is worked by an engine and dynamo, an electric motor can be used with success and good results. This form of motor has several advantages, foremost amongst which is its portability and the absence of shaft and belting to transmit the power, and the power can be transmitted long distances, the connection between the dynamo (which is always near the engine) and the motor being by two wires only; thus the power generated by the engine can be carried throughout a building into the most obscure nooks or attics if desired, or one engine of good size will provide power for a neighbourhood, or in other words, the electric power for motive purposes can be transmitted anywhere and everywhere, the same as for lighting.

Fig. 219 is an Immisch electric motor (Mr. M. Immisch, Malden Crescent, Kentish Town), made in sizes up to 30 and 40 horse-power. The price of 1 horse-power is 24_l._ Fig. 219 shows the motor as applied to domestic purposes, driving a knife-cleaner and coffee-grinding machine: the same motor can of course be applied to other purposes where rotary motion is applicable.

The Electrical Power Storage Company, Limited, 4 Great Winchester Street, London, E.C., also make electric motors in various powers; Fig. 220 is their smallest pattern, made in sizes from ⅓ to 7 horse-power (effective), costing from 10_l._ to 90_l._ The cost of working with power transmitted from the engine (gas or steam, &c.) by means of dynamo and electric motor can be computed as being but little in excess of working direct from the engine itself, but with the advantages already stated; this especially applies where the engine and dynamo are already in existence, as before stated.

Clockwork.--Motors with the mechanism propelled by a spring have not yet been brought to any degree of perfection or efficiency. A self-acting motor of this description was being manufactured and attached to sewing machines by a company formed in London, but it is to be regretted that for some reason the company has now ceased to exist: their motor could be adapted to any make of sewing machine, and their efforts were worthy of success, for they were applied to the domestic machine, which, although a grand institution, entails labour both trying and harmful.

See also p. 1012.

HOUSEHOLD LAW.

The wants of modern society are so various, and the relations consequently created are so far-reaching, that it is absolutely impossible, within the space that can be spared to the subject in this manual, to fully explain the position in law of a householder or head of a family. The reader of the following remarks must never forget that they attempt to state a few general rules merely, and that there are few, if any, households which are not in some respects under the sway of some special Act of Parliament or some special agreement with somebody. The chapter will, it is hoped, keep its reader, with these limitations, clear of some litigation, and show him some of his rights; but it has been written on the principle that silence is far better than a misleading statement.

=The House.= Renting and Letting.--Agreement.--In all cases have a memorandum of agreement written in duplicate, stamped, and signed by both parties, each keeping a copy. This should state clearly the commencement of the tenancy and its duration (quarterly, yearly, or for a term of years), the rental, the share of repairs to be borne by the landlord and the share to be done by the tenant, and attached to it should be a schedule detailing the dilapidations (if any) on entering on the tenancy, and any fixtures, such as gaseliers, blinds, &c., which may be intended to be included in the letting, and to remain the property of the landlord. An agreement for a tenancy for three years or less, which, of course, includes a yearly or monthly tenancy, may be made verbally if the rent is two-thirds or more of the full yearly value, which may be assumed to be the rateable value as appearing in the parish books.

Insanitary Houses.--The mere letting of a furnished house implies a contract on the part of the landlord that the house is “fit for human habitation.” What constitutes “fitness” is a matter of degree. The presence of bugs, infection from measles, or defective drains, has each in turn been held to justify the tenant in declaring his tenancy at an end. But with regard to an unfurnished house the law has been in the habit of taking a different view. In such a case the old maxim of “caveat emptor” applies, and the tenant is presumed, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, to have taken the house as he found it. More especially when there is a lease or a written agreement, such a document is presumed to embody all the covenants, on either side, which are required for the protection of the interests of either landlord or tenant; and in such a case no tacit or implied covenant of a conflicting nature can be inferred. The house may be defective in sundry details, but the tenant is presumed to have informed himself beforehand on these points, and to have taken them into consideration when he agreed to the rent. Therefore, every one who is about to take a house should have it properly surveyed before committing himself by signing an agreement even for a yearly tenancy, or should have inserted in the lease an undertaking by the landlord that the drainage of the premises is in perfect order, which possibly would be the better way, as defects in drains are not found out at once. It is possible that the landlord would object to putting a clause of this kind in. It is unusual, but that is no reason why it should not be made usual and universal.

In the case of a house or lodgings in which there has been any dangerous infectious disorder, any person letting the same without a medical man’s certificate as to the satisfactory disinfection thereof is liable to a penalty of 20_l._; and any person who lets or shows a house or lodgings, and on being asked whether there has been there any dangerous infectious disorder knowingly makes a false answer, is liable to the same penalty or to a month’s hard labour.

Repairs.--Apart from express agreement, there is no obligation on the landlord to do any repairs whatever, but the tenant is liable to make good any damage done to the premises by his own wilful or negligent conduct, or by his having suffered the house to become ruinous or in decay for want of necessary repairs. If the house is accidentally burnt down, however, the tenant cannot be made to rebuild unless he has agreed to repair and leave in repair, but he will not be relieved from payment of rent.

Possession.--The landlord must give possession at the time mentioned for the commencement of the tenancy, and the tenant’s failure to enter will make no difference as to rent, which commences to accrue due at the time specified.

Rent.--Rent accrues due throughout the whole of the specified term, and is payable on the appointed days, even though the premises may have been burnt down without any fault of the tenant, unless there is provision in the lease for such an event. The tenant cannot be required to pay rent, or a portion of it, before the appointed day, and he has the whole of that day in which to make the payment, and until it has expired no distress can be put in.

Distress.--If the rent is not duly paid as above mentioned the landlord may himself, or by an agent or bailiff, seize all the goods on the premises, with certain exceptions stated below, and may hold them until the rent is paid, or sell them as hereinafter mentioned. The landlord will be liable to an action if goods are seized beyond such a quantity as may be reasonably expected by him to satisfy the rent and expenses, or if the seizure is proceeded with after such a sum has been tendered to him; and if he distrains where no rent is due, and sells the goods, he is liable for double their value. A distress cannot be made between sunset and sunrise, nor can the person distraining break into the house or get in through a chimney, but he may enter through an open window or door, or through a door which he can open from the outside by turning the handle or raising the latch in the ordinary way, and once he has lawfully entered he may break open inner doors. He may not distrain fixtures, gas or water fittings let by the companies to the tenant, goods of strangers which have been delivered to the tenant to be worked upon or taken care of in the way of the tenant’s business, perishable commodities, such as butcher’s meat, or things in actual use at the time of the distress, or perhaps dogs; nor, if there be other things liable and of sufficient value, may he seize the instruments of the trade or profession carried on by any member of the household. Property of the tenant removed fraudulently to avoid distress after sunrise of the rent-day may be followed by the bailiff, and seized at any time within 30 days after removal.

The tenant is entitled to 5 days of grace after seizure in which to pay the rent and expenses, thereby dismissing the bailiff, and recovering all his property. Failing this, the bailiff will call in two appraisers to value the goods, putting a memorandum of the value upon the inventory; the goods may then be sold for the best price that can be got.

When the distraint is for an amount not exceeding 20_l._, the costs are thus limited--levying distress, 3_s._; man in possession, 2_s._ 6_d._ a day; advertisements, if any, 10_s._; appraisement, 6_d._ in the £, and for the stamp, 1_s._, expenses of sale, 1_s._ in the £ on the net proceeds. In case of excess charges, apply to a justice of the peace. When the rent due is more than 20_l._ there are no defined rules as to costs, which must, however, be reasonable in amount, being usually one or two guineas for the levy, and 3_s._ 6_d._ a day for the man in possession.

It will be seen that the goods of undertenants are liable to distress for rent due by the middleman to the head landlord. Lodgers, however, are specially favoured by Act of Parliament in such a case, but the proceedings necessary to protect their goods are very troublesome. The lodger must deliver to the bailiff a written and signed inventory of his property, with a declaration that he is in lawful possession of it, and that the tenant has no right or interest in any of it; also stating what amount of rent is due from the lodger to the tenant. If the lodger owes any rent he must pay it to the bailiff or landlord instead of to the tenant. If the bailiff or landlord still proceeds with the seizure, the lodger should at once apply to a magistrate for an order for restoration of the property. If the lodger is absent, and leaves no person authorised to act for him during the seizure and succeeding 5 days, his goods are liable to be seized and sold.

Lodgers are liable to distress by their own landlord like other tenants; but in furnished lodgings with attendance, the distress must be limited to the rent of the rooms, and not include the charges for attendance or “extras,” or for food supplied.

Rates and Taxes.--These are almost invariably, if not always, payable in the first instance by the tenant, but he may always deduct any property-tax which he has paid from the next payment of rent, and he may also, unless he has agreed to the contrary, deduct any payment for land-tax or sewers rate, or for tithe rent-charge. If payment is not made on demand, the ratepayer must take or send the amount to the collector. In case of non-payment, the ratepayer is liable without notice to be summoned before the magistrates. If the rates are then paid before the time appointed to hear the case, the expense is trifling, but otherwise it is considerable. Magistrates have power to authorise an immediate distraint on goods to the amount of rates and costs; and if sufficient goods cannot be found on the premises of the ratepayer, he is liable to imprisonment.

Determination of Tenancy.--All tenancies may of course be put an end to at any time by mutual consent, though the consent should be declared in a deed if the tenancy was by deed. But without such consent a tenancy for a fixed period must continue according and subject to the special terms, if any, of the lease until the period expire when the tenancy comes to an end, and the tenant must give up possession, and may leave without any notice. Subject to any special agreement, a tenancy from year to year can be determined by one party only at the day of the year corresponding to that from which it was agreed that the tenancy should run by giving to the other a half year’s previous notice of his intention. If the tenancy runs from one of the usual quarter-days, then the necessary and sufficient notice is that which is given on or before the quarter-day next but one preceding that from which the tenancy runs. A quarter’s notice in a quarterly tenancy, a month’s notice in a monthly tenancy, and a week’s notice in a weekly tenancy are undoubtedly sufficient, and should be given so as to expire at the end of the current quarter, month, or week respectively of the tenancy. In the metropolis there seems to be a general custom as to weekly tenancies which renders a week’s notice necessary, and County Court judges usually so hold.

Fixtures.--A tenant may during his occupation remove fixtures which he has put up at his own expense for ornament or domestic convenience, in such a way that they have not become a permanent part of the house. But if, on giving up possession of the house, he leaves any behind by mistake, he cannot re-enter to recover them; and if the incoming tenant once obtains possession, including the fixtures, he is entitled to detain and use them, unless he has expressly agreed to pay for them or deliver them up. Tenants may not pull down buildings or permanent structures which they have erected on their own responsibility, and must make good any damage done to the house by the removal of such fixtures as they are entitled to remove.

Dilapidations.--Under the ordinary covenants by the tenant to keep and deliver up the premises in repair, it seems that the view generally taken by surveyors of his liability--which will extend to permanent erections made by the tenant himself--is as follows:--If the parts can be repaired they may be so treated; but if the decay or injury has gone so far as to render repairs insufficient to restore the usefulness of the part, it must be made good. Thus, among the items the tenant is called upon to make good is that of roofing; such as to replace all loose and broken tiles, to strip and retile where the laths are broken, or where the rafters, feet or purlins are decayed; to restore all defective filleting and pointing. Defective brickwork in walls, chimneys, shafts, parapets, and gables; portions out of the perpendicular, or bulged, or cracked, have to be made good, besides repointing where necessary, and refixing broken chimney pots. Slated roofs also come under the same general clauses. Repairs to woodwork include such items as the following: Making good all loose or decayed timbers, whether injured by wet or dry-rot; to fix timbers where not straight, through neglect or decay; to secure and make good all loose, broken, or decayed weather boarding, frames, skylights, wooden gutters, dormer boarding, and other external work; also to make good broken or decayed wooden fences, door frames, &c.; to secure and make good all loose, broken, or rotten floors; to fix up and relay where not level, if by reason of neglect, and to rehang where required all doors and shutters; replace broken lines, repair sashes, nosings to stairs where defective, and treads. Questions are continually arising regarding the liability of tenants to repair joiners’ work, but it appears clear that the burden of repairs falls upon the tenant. With respect to masons’ work, all defective stonework of whatever description falls upon him. Thus, broken cornices, lintels, and sills have to be made good by filling-in pieces; also broken steps and landings, both inside and out. In case of broken nosings, or of treads worn down as to become dangerous, the piecing is to extend to cutting out the upper surface and filling in the depth of nosing with a slab of sufficient thickness to form a new nosing. Broken chimney pieces, slabs, and inner hearths are to be made good or relaid; and loose and sunken pavings to be taken up and relaid. All panes of glass having two cracks in them are to be reinstated, besides making good all putty work. With respect to painting, it is usual for the tenant to repaint all wood and ironwork for their preservation, and where defaced, also on stone, stucco, or other external work. Inside painting is exempted, except in cases of misuse. To other trades the same rules apply; all broken fittings, fixtures, and parts of buildings to be repaired or made good by the tenant. The term “to make good” implies a renewal of the part, and ought not to be confused with the general words “to repair.”

Water.--Subject to anything in their special Act, a waterworks company having pipes in the street where the house is situate may be required by the occupier, with the consent in writing of the owner, and upon payment or tender of the water rate in advance, to make the needful communications, and are liable to forfeit 5_l._ for non-compliance within seven days. Due care must be exercised by the company to render the supply regular, but they are not responsible for discontinuance caused by frost, drought, or other unavoidable circumstance. The water must always be pure and wholesome, and in this connection it may be mentioned that water is nearly always purer as delivered by the company than as drawn from the householder’s cistern, owing to gross neglect to keep the latter clean. The company’s inspector may enter any day between 9 A.M. and 4 P.M. to examine the fittings, and the householder is liable to heavy fines for allowing water to be wasted or misused, or contaminated, besides having his supply cut off till the evil is remedied, and incurring all the cost incidental thereto. An incoming tenant should ascertain by application at the offices of the company whether the previous tenant is in arrears with his water rates, as it is said that in some districts the newcomer may be compelled to pay the deficit before getting a supply. This is certainly not the law in the metropolis, at all events, where the incoming tenant is expressly declared to be free from this liability, unless he has undertaken with his predecessor to pay the arrears. The company are bound under heavy penalties to keep a copy of their special act for inspection on payment of a fee of 1_s._ per hour. This will show the charges they are authorised to make, and the amount of the rate which is payable in advance and usually based on the annual value, i.e. the net annual value, or about the same as the net rateable value appearing in the parochial rate-book.

Gas.--Subject to anything in the special Act, the owner or occupier of a house within twenty-five yards of a gas main, may, by notice in writing, require the company to supply gas; they are bound by penalties to comply within a reasonable time, provided the occupier will agree to take gas for two years, and is ready to give security for payment of his rates. The companies must supply gas of a certain standard as regards purity and lighting power, but are not governed as to pressure, hence the householder’s only means of preventing the waste due to constantly changing pressure is to have a “regulator,” as described in another section (p. 88). Gas is supplied at a price per 1000 cubic feet used, the consumption being measured by a meter. This meter may be supplied by the gas company and a rental charged on it, the company keeping it in repair; or it may be supplied by the householder at his own cost for purchase and maintenance; but the householder must not alter the fixing or provide his own meter without 24 hours’ notice to the company. The company, in either case, have right of entry to examine the fittings at reasonable times. The householder is liable to heavy penalties in respect of waste or misuse of the gas or injury to the pipes, &c. Gas rates are usually delivered quarterly and are payable at once, failing which the company may proceed to recover and cut off supply, and may demand security for the future before renewing supply, cost of which will fall upon the householder. No incoming tenant is liable for rates unpaid by his predecessor unless he has undertaken to pay them. The company are bound under heavy penalties to keep a copy of their special Act for inspection on payment of a fee of 1_s._ per hour.

=Servants.=--A general or indefinite hiring of domestic or menial servants is said to be in law a hiring for a year, and the contract therefore, unless the service is to begin on the same day or the day following, ought, strictly to be in writing and signed; but it may be made out by the letters of the parties, and does not require any stamp. Wages, though reckoned by the year, are usually payable in monthly instalments, but sometimes quarterly or yearly.

The service may, however, be freely terminated at any time by either party giving to the other a month’s notice, or in lieu thereof paying a month’s wages; and it has been ruled that payment of board wages is not necessary in the latter case. But the law is that where a servant is guilty of conduct which is inconsistent with the true and faithful discharge of his or her service, the master has a right of instant dismissal. Immorality, drunkenness, gross impertinence, disobedience, dishonesty of course, or incompetence to do the work contracted to be done, are all facts which may justify the master. Disobedience means a refusal to comply with a reasonable order within the scope of the servant’s duties--a housemaid cannot be required to groom a horse; nor is a servant bound to perform any service in which he reasonably apprehends injury to himself, and which he has not clearly agreed to perform. If your servant, when summarily dismissed, refuses to leave the house, you may turn him or her out of doors, if you feel yourself strong enough to do so; but, to avoid the risk of an unseemly scuffle, your best plan is to send for the police.

Wages.--As to the wages of a servant who has been summarily dismissed upon legally sufficient ground, considerable misapprehension seems to prevail. Strictly speaking she is not only not entitled to a month’s wages in lieu of a month’s warning, but not to anything at all for the intervening period from the last regular pay day. Thus, if your cook, whose wages fell due and were paid on the 5th of March, so misconducts herself on the 1st of April as to justify her immediate discharge, she has no claim upon you for any wages between the 5th of March and the 1st of April. But if there is doubt as to your being able to prove the misconduct in court, it may often be better to pay a month’s wages and the accruing wages than to expose yourself to the risk of an action and the certainty of costs. Of course if the wages due on the 5th of March had not been paid on the 1st of April, your cook, badly as she might have since behaved, would not lose her right to them. If, on the other hand, you have discharged your servant for your own pleasure, so to speak, although you are not bound to keep her in your house a moment longer than suits you, she is entitled to the accruing wages up to the time when she was discharged, and to a calendar month’s wages in addition, but not to board wages for that period, as has been seen. In the absence of any agreement, the master is not liable to pay a discharged servant the expenses of her journey home.

Breakages.--Servants have no right to break or damage their master’s property, and if it is proved that damage has been caused by any particular servant’s failure to use such care as it was reasonable, under all the circumstances, to require from him, being such as he is, he is liable in law to pay for the same. Formerly, no deductions from the servant’s wages could be made on this account, but recent reforms in legal procedure in effect permit them; but the master when sued for the balance of the full wages must counterclaim in respect of the damage, and had better consult a solicitor. The best plan is to have an express agreement on the subject that deductions may be made.

Character.--A lady, when asked about the character of a servant in whose favour she cannot say much, would do well in the first place to ascertain that the request is made at the suggestion of the person whose character is in question. If it is, and if the lady takes care to speak only of what she knows, she will be safe enough; she will be acting fairly by both the persons interested. Of course, if she has only pleasant things to say, there is no difficulty in answering such inquiries; but if she cannot give a favourable answer, a stranger could not complain if she replied that she did not feel at liberty to discuss a person’s character without that person’s knowledge. Some people never give a character. This is most unfair, and indeed cruel, in the case of a servant whose reputation and competency are above reproach, for silence always implies that there is something which one would rather not mention. Silence is the appropriate refuge in the case of one who has given a reference which he was not justified in using. It is easy to say, in such a case, that the writer is afraid she cannot write such a testimonial as would prove of service to the applicant; but in all other cases it is always, practically as well as theoretically, safe to give a character, if it is given fairly and honestly. A character when given is a privileged communication; and, even if it be incorrect, unless the servant who thinks herself aggrieved can show that it was given with actual malice--as with knowledge of its falsity--she cannot succeed in an action for defamation. To sustain such an action and deprive the communication of its ordinary privilege, a strong case of malicious and officious interference to the detriment of the servant would require to be made out. But there is no privilege attaching to information given to a neighbour of what is going on in her household, if it was given in an idle, gossiping and malicious spirit, rather than with the honest intention of giving important information.

It is best always to interview the late mistress rather than apply by letter, and a little shrewdness in studying the character of the mistress is very desirable, for personal feeling takes the place of impartial judgment in most, if not all, women.

Illness.--A master is not bound to provide medical attendance and medicine for even his menial servants; but if a servant falls ill, and the master voluntarily calls in his own medical man, he will not be allowed to deduct the charges for such attendance out of the servant’s wages unless the servant specially agrees that he may do so.

=The Householder.= Parochial matters.--Parochial business is managed by a “vestry,” at which the parish clergyman has a right to preside. Public notice of vestry meetings must be given 3 days beforehand, and copies of the notice fixed to the principal doors of churches and chapels, signed by rector, vicar, churchwarden, or overseer. Every parishioner paying rates is entitled to votes. If assessed at or above 50_l._, he may give one vote for every 25_l._, but no individual can have more than 6 votes; no person can vote by proxy. The chairman has a casting vote. Churchwardens are chosen, in the first week after Easter, by joint consent of minister and parishioners, or one by the minister and another by the parishioners. Peers, members of Parliament, clergymen, dissenting ministers, medical men, and attorneys, are exempt from serving as churchwarden. Churchwardens are trustees of money given for the benefit of the church, and must attend to repairs of the church and fences of the churchyard. The pews in a parish church are the property of the parish; distribution rests with the bishop or the churchwardens. The churchwardens of a parish in which a dead body is cast ashore from the sea, must have it interred in the parish burial ground.

The local management of this country is far too elaborate to be even sketched here; for instance, the Public Health Act 1875 contains 343 sections, most of them of great length, and a variety of subsequent amendments further complicate things, while the metropolis has its own long series of enactments on the same part of the subject. The whole matter is one which requires special study of countless Acts of Parliament, based upon no theory in particular, and which will no doubt shortly be thoroughly revised and reformed. The householder desirous of information should have recourse to the officers of the local authority or some member of that body, and if he cannot thus get the satisfaction he wants he must recognise the inevitable result of the activity of his own representatives and consult his solicitor.

Juries.--All “good and lawful men” are eligible and liable to be called on to serve on a coroner’s jury at an inquest held in the neighbourhood, and non-attendance of a duly-summoned person is punished with a fine which may amount to 5_l._

On juries at the assizes or sessions, or for the trial of causes in Middlesex, any person who holds a freehold or copyhold of an annual value of 10_l._, or a lease of 21 years or upwards at an annual rent of 20_l._, or who pays rates of 20_l._ per annum (30_l._ in Middlesex) is eligible and liable to serve, provided his age is between 21 and 60; when over 60, he remains liable till he has notified his age to the authorities. Peers, members of Parliament, judges, clergymen of every sect or faith, barristers, solicitors, notaries, officers of legal courts, coroners, gaolers, physicians, surgeons, dentists, apothecaries, chemists, officers of the army, navy, militia, and yeomanry on full pay, officers of the post-office, customs, inland revenue, or police, metropolitan police-court officials, and officers of the Houses of Lords and Commons, are exempted from serving; and members of the council of a municipal borough cannot be called on to serve in the county where the borough is situate, nor can burgesses of a borough having separate sessions be summoned to the county sessions. The churchwardens and overseers must make a list of the persons so liable to serve, and on the three first Sundays in September fix a copy on the door of every place of worship in the district, with a proper notification of the special sessions for hearing objections, at which sessions the justices may revise the list either by striking out the names of persons who are exempt or not qualified, or under permanent physical disability, or by adding other persons after due notice given to them. Jurors who are esquires by law, bankers, or merchants, or who occupy a farm rated at 300_l._, or other premises at 100_l._, or a private dwelling-house rated at 50_l._ elsewhere than in a town of 20,000 inhabitants and upwards, are to be distinguished, and are qualified and liable to serve on special juries, but they remain as liable as before to be summoned for a common jury. A juror must attend according to the tenor of his summons, which may be served either by being shown to him or by being left at his usual place of abode with some person there inhabiting, or by being sent by post to him; and if, the summons having been so served six days previously, he fails to attend, he is liable to such a fine as the court thinks fit to impose. The liability to serve on a grand jury is unlimited, but apart from this a juror cannot be summoned more than once a year for the assizes and sessions unless the list is exhausted.

A juror may also be compelled under a five pounds penalty to serve in the County Court of his district twice in the year, but is exempt if he has served at the assizes or at the Royal Courts or Central Criminal Court within six months previously. There is still a further liability in various districts in respect of the local courts, such as the Mayor’s Court, London, and the Salford Hundred Court; and the sheriff requires the attendance of a jury in cases of assessment of damages or compensation, or an inquiry as to the sanity of an alleged lunatic, or as to claims made by virtue of the prerogative of the Crown.

Aliens otherwise qualified, who have been domiciled in England or Wales for ten years or upwards, but no others, are qualified and liable to serve--since 1870, in which year was abolished the right of an alien prisoner to have half the jury aliens.

The Franchise.--Every man of full age who on the 31st July and for the twelve months preceding is an inhabitant occupier, as owner or tenant, whether in a county or a borough, of any dwelling-house, or any part of a house separately occupied as a dwelling, the poor rates in respect of which have been duly paid, is entitled to be placed on the register of Parliamentary voters. There are various other qualifications which confer the franchise, but full information and assistance in obtaining registration are so readily given by the political associations everywhere, that it seems unnecessary to state them here. But the lodger franchise deserves some notice. For alike in counties and boroughs any man who, being of full age, occupies on the 31st July, and for the twelve months preceding, in the same dwelling-house, separate lodgings, at a rent which would be not lower than 4_s._ a week if the rooms were unfurnished, and who has resided there for the twelve months, and who makes claim in the prescribed form between the 1st and 25th of August, is entitled to be registered as a voter.

Fire Insurance.--The premiums payable in common insurances of houses used for residence and the ordinary furniture therein are so moderate that every householder ought to insure. China, glass, watches, jewels, musical instruments, and pictures have to be paid for at an average rate of from 4_s._ to 5_s._ per 100_l._, but otherwise the rate for house and furniture may be taken to be from 1_s._ to 2_s._ 6_d._ per 100_l._ Circumstances alter cases, however, and the rates of course vary with the risk in each instance, and those given here are only mentioned as an index of their moderation. It is essential that a full disclosure of the circumstances be made to the office, for the contract of insurance is one requiring the most complete candour and good faith on the part of the insured. There should be a survey by the office, and every information given to the inspector. Of course no office is bound to accept an insurance, and while considering the proposal they will usually, on payment of a deposit, effect a temporary insurance for two or three weeks. A policy usually contains and is subject to many express conditions which speak, more or less distinctly, for themselves in each case, and need not be here discussed. But the contract contained in the policy is one of indemnity against loss, and therefore a person cannot validly insure property in which he has no interest at all, nor can he in any case recover beyond the amount of the interest which he has in the property insured. And as a policy cannot be assigned without the consent of the assurers, a change of ownership may render the policy useless pro tanto. It is obvious that where the wife owns all or part of the furniture, the better plan is to take out the policy in her husband’s and her names jointly, for even if she owns it all, her husband while living with her has an insurable interest in it. It is usually provided that the company may reinstate the things destroyed or damaged, instead of paying for the loss, while as regards insurances on buildings there is an Act of Parliament which provides that any person interested may require the insurance money to be laid out in repairs or rebuilding. It is important to notice that a change in the state of the premises may invalidate the policy, for the company contract to insure against the risk described in the policy, and cannot be held liable in respect of one which is materially different, or one which is greater. The sanction of the company should therefore be asked for, and the conditions usually contain express stipulations on the subject. Lastly, it may be added that even if the fire has been caused by the negligence of the insured person, the company are still liable on the policy.

Nuisance.--The law upon this point is to be referred to a principle very simple in itself, though its limitations are sometimes difficult to observe. The principle is that one must not use one’s own property so as to injure one’s neighbour. So one must keep one’s beasts, filth, stenches, &c., within the boundaries of one’s own property; and if they transgress, the transgression imposes liability for the damage caused thereby. But in questions of this nature the law does not regard trifling and small inconveniences or allow persons to stand on extreme rights, for things could not go on if it did, and everything must be looked at from a reasonable point of view. The noise resulting from the ordinary use of the dwelling-house next door may penetrate the intervening wall, but it must be put up with. On the other hand, the noise may be so great as to amount to a nuisance, and the constant ringing of bells and other noises have been stopped by the Court for this reason, and howling dogs or crowing cocks may give the neighbours good grounds for complaint. In the case of any premises, gutter, privy, drain, ashpit, or any deposit which are or is in such a state as to be injurious to health, or any animal which is so kept, information should be given to the local sanitary authority, who have special powers given them. Overcrowded houses, and factory or workshop chimneys sending out black smoke so as to cause a nuisance, are within the same category. As to these matters, the metropolis is not governed by the same enactment as the rest of England, but it will always be a safe plan to apply to the vestry or the local board of the district with a proper description of the matter complained of, when the applicant will at any rate receive attention in exchange for courtesy. It will often be more convenient to make inquiry at the nearest police station, and the police will put the inquirer in the right course.

Any person suffering from a dangerous infectious disease, who wilfully makes use without proper precautions of any street or any public conveyance, is liable to a penalty of 5_l._, and so is the person in charge of him.

Keep out of law. If you are involved in it, remember that what costs little is usually worth less; take good advice and act thereon.

INDEX.

Abbotsford grate, 66

Abernethy biscuits, 210

Absinthe, 181

Accidents, 780

---- with boilers, 838

Accumulators, electric, 94

Acetate of soda stove, 82

Acetic acid poisoning, 793

Acid stains, removing, 553

Acne, 822

Aconite poisoning, 792

Addressing persons, 648

Administering medicine, 776

Aerated drinks, 171

Agnew pudding, 387

Agro dolce sauce, 460

Aim of exercise, 870

Air, cooling, 59

---- from hot-air furnaces, 76

---- of rooms, freshening, 56

---- pressure experiments, 673

---- pump ventilators, 58

----, purifying, 57

---- space necessary in rooms, 55

----, testing, 55, 518

----, warming fresh, 77

Airing infants, 748

---- rooms, 55

Ajo blanco, 509

Alabaster, cleaning, 536

Albanian dress, 735

Albert pudding, 387

Albo-carbon gas light, 92

Alcohol in feeding, 601

Alcoholic poisoning, 792

Ale, see Beer.

Alexandra cream, 771

---- ice pudding, 387

Alkaline poisons, 793

Alkermes cordial, 182

Almond bread, 210

---- cakes, 210

---- flavour, 478

---- Génoise pastry, 387

---- hardbake, 437

---- jumbles, 388

---- milk, 775

---- pastry, 388

---- pudding, 388

---- rice pudding, 388

---- savarin, 388

---- Savoy cake, 210

Almonds, 582

Aloes, 777

Alum, 778

Amateur theatricals, 654

Amazon bitters, 180

Amber pudding, 388

Ambrosia syrup, 176

American biscuits, 210

American dishes, 481

---- outfit, 727

---- stoves, 70

Ammonia poisoning, 793

Ammonio-citrate of iron, 778

Amnastich, 504

Anchovy butter, 271, 460

----, fried, 272

---- sandwiches, 272

---- toast, 272

---- with eggs and endive, 272

---- with olives, 272

Angelica cordial, 182

---- ratafia, 182

Angels’ food, 388

Angels on horseback, 288

Angostura bitters, 180

Animal charcoal as a filter, 24

---- foods, 591

Anise liqueur, 182

Anise-seed cordial, 182

Anisette cordial, 182

Answering invitations, 650

Antidotes to poisons, 792

Anti-fat diet, 595

Antimonial wine, 778

Antimony poisoning, 793

Ants, destroying, 557

Appert’s translucent glass, 56

Apple and currant soup, 247

---- ---- quince tart, 389

---- brandy, 182

---- bread, 210

---- cake, 389

---- Charlotte, 389

---- chips, 565

---- chutney, 132

---- compote, 389

---- cordial, 189

---- cream cakes, 389

---- custard, 390

---- devil, 390

---- dumplings, 390

---- flavour, 478

---- fool, 390

---- ginger, 138, 391

---- jam, 139

---- jelly, 139

---- marmalade, 139

---- pudding, 391

---- rings, 391

---- roly-poly, 392

---- sauce, 460

---- snow, 392

---- soup, 247

---- syrup, 176

---- tart, 392

---- wine, 191

Apples, 565, 566, 568, 569, 574, 576, 577, 579, 582

---- and tapioca, 389

----, baked, 389

----, keeping, 114, 115, 116

----, stewed, 392

Apricot cake, 393

---- chartreuse, 393

---- cream, 393

---- flavour, 478

---- omelet, 393, 454

---- sauce, 460

---- toast, 393

---- wine, 191

Apricots, 569, 572, 574

----, keeping, 121

April gardening, 932

---- markets, 569

Argand gas burners, 87

Armchair, 98

Arnotto for colouring cheese, 159

Arnott’s stove, 70

---- ventilator for ranges, 226

Aromatic bitters, 180

---- chalk, 778

---- wine-bitters, 182

Arrowroot, 772

---- blancmange, 393

---- pudding, 394

---- shape, 394

Arsenic poisoning, 793

Artichoke salad, 383

---- soup, 247

Artichokes, 568, 573, 576, 579, 582

---- and eggs, 450

----, boiled, 371

----, fried, 372

----, Jerusalem, 376

----, keeping, 117

----, stewed, 372

----, stuffed, 372

Artificial feeding, 598

Asbestos, incandescent, 77

Ashpits, disinfecting, 50

Asparagus, 484, 568, 569, 570, 572

----, boiled, 372

----, keeping, 117

---- salad, 383

---- soup, 247

Aspect compass, 3

---- for dwellings, 2

Asphalte tennis courts, 881

Aspic jelly, 367

Asuree, 511

Atkins’s filters, 27

Aubergines, 579

August gardening, 934

---- markets, 574

Aunt Eleanor’s tartlets, 394

Australian outfit, 722

Austrian dress, 728

Autumn milk, 156

Baba, 394

Babies’ clothing, 746

Bacalao, 510

Backboard for electric bell, 106

Back-to-back houses, 7

Bacon, boiled, 331

----, broiled, 332

----, buying, 575

---- fat, 332

----, fried, 332

----, salting, 125

----, spiced, 125

---- with cabbage, 331

---- ---- potatoes, 331

---- ---- spinach, 332

Bacon’s high-pressure heating system, 81

Bacteria in water, 23

Baden-Baden pudding, 394

Badminton (drink), 191

---- (game), 872

Bailey-Denton’s cistern filter, 33

Bailey’s oven pyrometer, 207

Bain marie, 242

Bakers’ ovens, 207

---- pyrometer, 207

Bakewell pudding, 394

Baking bread, 207

---- fish, 268

---- ovens in ranges, 222

Balcony pipes, 49

Baldness, 707, 809

Balm wine, 191

Banana syrup, 176

Banbury cake, 210

Bandaging, 783

Barbel, 580

----, broiled, 272

----, roast, 272

Barberries, preserved, 139

Barley gruel, 410

---- milk, 776

---- soup, 247

---- sugar, 437

---- water, 191, 775

Barm, 207

Barrel stand, 168

Barreling wine, 190

Barrels, cleaning, 169

Barszcz soup, 261, 506

Basement sinks, 50

---- walls, 96

Basting, 241

Bath buns, 211

---- cake, 211

---- chaps, 125

Bath, water apertures in, 49

Bathing, 828

---- dresses, 718

---- rules, 830

Bathroom, 49, 828

----, situation, 49

---- waste, 49

Batter-cream soup, 247

----, frying, 407

---- pudding, 395

Battery for electric bell, 102

Bean soup, 256

Beans, 582

----, broad, boiled, 372

----, French, 375

----, haricot, 375

----, keeping, 114, 118

Becaficos, 571

Béchamel sauce, 460

Bedclothes, 702

Bedding, disinfecting, 818

Bedfellows, 703

Bed of sickroom, 758

Bed rests, 760

Bedroom, 699

----, aspect for, 3

---- carpets, 101

---- cupboard, 98

---- curtains, 98, 101

----, decorating, 101

---- fire economiser, 64

---- floors, 101

----, furnishing, 101

---- furniture, 98

----, servants’, 700

---- suite, 99

---- walls, 101

----, warming, 699

---- woodwork, 101

Beds, 701

----, airing, 760

----, making, 702

----, position of, 760

Bedsteads, 98, 101, 700

Bed table, 760

Bed ticks, cleaning, 549

Beef, 309

---- à la financière, 309

---- à la macédoine, 309

---- à la mode, 309

---- à la Napolitaine, 309

----, boiled, 309

----, braised, 310

----, brasciolette, 310

----, bubble and squeak, 310

----, buying, 563, 565, 567

----, carving, 622

----, collared, 125

----, corned, 125

---- croquettes, 311

----, fillet, 311

----, frizzled, 311

----, Hamburgh, 127

---- hams, 125

---- hash, 311

----, hung, 311

----, Hungarian, 128

---- kidney, 311

----, minced collops, 311

----, mock brawn, 312

---- pot au feu, 313

----, potted, 125, 313

----, pressed, 313

----, roast, 314

----, salt, 314

----, salting, 125

----, scalloped, 314

----, spiced, 126, 314

---- tea, 258, 316, 771

---- tournedos, 316

---- vinaigrette, 316

Beefsteak à la Bordelaise, 315

---- pie, 315

---- pudding, 315

----, stewed, 315

Beer, 179

----, bottling, 179

----, brightening cloudy, 179

----, finings for, 180

----, restoring sour, 180

---- soup, 247, 489

----, summer, 179

Bees, keeping, 928

Beetroot, 565, 582

----, baked, 372

---- beer, 191

----, boiled, 372

----, preserving, 139

---- salad, 383

---- with cream sauce, 372

Belgian dishes, 484

Bell and telephone, 103

Belladonna liniment, 778

---- poisoning, 792

Bells, 102

Bells, electric, 102

Bell traps, 39, 45, 50

Bell-wire pipes, 49, 102

Bell wires, 102

Belts, 711

Benches, 862

Benzol poisoning, 792

Bernays’s manganese filter, 29

Bethlehem dress, 742

Bézique, Polish, 686

Bhartas, 495

Bicarbonate of potash, 778

---- ---- soda, 778

Bichromate of potash poisoning, 793

---- pile, 93

Bilberry wine, 192

Billiard room, aspect for, 3

Bills of fare, dinners, 635

Bins for wine, 190

Birch wine, 192

Birds’-nests soup, 247

Bischof’s spongy iron filter, 30

Biscuit charlotte, 395

---- powder, 211

Biscuits, 210

----, Abernethy, 210

----, American, 210

----, Brighton, 212

----, buttered, 212

----, Captain’s, 212

----, cracknel, 212

----, drop, 213

----, filbert, 213

----, lemon, 214

----, macaroons, 214

----, Naples, 214

----, Queen’s, 217

----, rout, 217

----, Savoy, 218

----, sweetmeat nuts, 219

----, tops and bottoms, 220

----, wine, 220

----, York, 220

Bishop (drink), 192

Bishop pudding, 395

Bites, 780

Bitter-almonds flavour, 478

Bitters, 180

Blackbeetles, destroying, 557

Blackberries, 579

Blackberry brandy, 182

---- cordial, 183

---- jam, 137, 139

---- jelly, 140

---- mould, 395

---- pudding, 395

---- syrup, 176

---- tart, 395

---- wine, 192

Black butter, 461

Blackcock, carving, 632

Black currant cordial, 189

---- ---- jam, 137

---- ---- jelly, 140

---- currants, bottled, 140

Blackened ceilings, 85

Black Forest dress, 731

Black Ghost, 682

Black puddings, 511

Blanched turkey, 366

Blancmange, 395, 601, 770

Blankets, 702

Bleeding, 781

Blind area walls, 5

Blinds of nursery, 746

Blistering fluid poisoning, 793

Blisters, 763

Bloater à la Sefton, 272

---- on toast, 272

Bloaters, pickled, 487

----, potted, 126

Block, 688

Blowers, 80

Blowing out candles, 83

Blue gum for colds, 801

Blue pill, 778

Bluestone poisoning, 793

Blue vinney cheese, 164

Blueing machine, 855

Boar’s head, 126, 332

Bobbins for bells, 106

Bobotie, 487

Boiled potatoes, keeping, 113

Boiler explosions, 838

Boilers, 832

----, steam, 940

Boiling, 241

---- fish, 268

Boker’s bitters, 180

Bola d’amor, 504

Bolding’s gas regulator burner, 89

Bolsters, 702

Bombay ducks, 272

---- pudding, 395

Bondon cheese, 166

Bone, cleaning, 533

---- soup, 247

Boned ham, 334

---- shoulder of mutton, 330

Bones, broken, 783

---- for soup, keeping, 112

Boning fowl, 349, 350

---- turkey, 367

Bonne femme soup, 248, 267

Books, care of, 903

----, cleaning, 541

---- on bedroom, 705

---- on dairy, 167

---- on dining room, 647

---- on drawing room, 698

---- on dressing room, 745

---- on dwelling, 111

---- on farmyard. 929

---- on garden, 935

---- on housewife’s room, 582

---- on kitchen, 517

---- on playground, 888

---- on schoolroom, 869

---- on sickroom, 826

---- on workroom, 902

Boots, 711

----, buying, 712

----, preserving, 713

Borax, 778

Bordeaux cake, 211

Bordelaise sauce, 461

Borshch, 507

Boston brown bread, 481

---- pudding, 396

Bottles, cleaning, 170, 531

----, corking, 170

----, drying, 170

----, tying down, 170

Bottling beer, 179

---- black currants, 140

---- cherries, 140

---- cider, 194

---- currants, 138

---- damsons, 142

---- fruit, 138

---- gooseberries 138, 142

---- plums, 138, 148

---- raspberries, 138

---- rhubarb, 138, 151

---- strawberries, 138

---- wine, 190

Bottling-wax, 138

Boudin of fish, 269

Boudoir furniture, 98

Bouillabaisse, 269, 505

Bouilli, 242

Bouillon, 242

Bournes, 13

Bowle, 489

Box gutters, 18

---- mangle, 857

Boyle’s air cooler, 59

---- ---- warmer, 77

---- ventilator, 58

Bracciolette, 503

Braces, 711

Brain worries, 794

Brains, 569

Braising, 242

Bramah closets, 47, 48

Bran bread, 593

Brandied peaches, 147

---- plums, 149

---- quinces, 150

Brandy bitters, 180

---- butter, 461

---- flavour, 478

---- sauce, 461

---- shrub, 183

---- snaps, 211

Brass, cleaning, 536

Brawn, 126, 333

----, mock, 312

Bread, 207, 592

----, almond, 210

----, baking, 207

----, Colchester, 212

----, curing sour dough, 208

----, diet, 213

----, fancy, 210

----, flour for, 208

---- for invalids, 772

----, gas ovens, 208

---- in tins, 209

----, Italian, 214

----, keeping, 113

----, kneading, 209

----, milk for, 208

---- mould, 492

---- ovens, 207

---- potatoes for, 208

----, short-, 218

----, steam ovens, 208

----, testing, 520

----, Vienna, 220

---- with barm, 207

---- ---- German yeast, 208

---- ---- seconds flour, 209

Breadcrumbs, baked, 461

----, fried, 354, 461

----, plain, 461

Bread-making in hot weather, 209

Bread poultice, 762

---- puddings, 396

---- sauce, 461

Breadstuffs, buying, 566

Breakages, law of, 961

Breakfast cake, 211

---- cloth, laying, 607

Breakfasts, 641

----, wedding, 646

Bream, 272

----, broiled, 273

----, buying, 565

----, roast, 273

----, soused, 273

----, stewed, 273

Breast of mutton, 317

---- veal, 343

Breathing in smoke, 110

Bretzeln, 489

Brewers’ yeast, 207

Brewing, 179

Brianees, 496

Brick drains, evils of, 52

---- ----, objections to, 53

---- ----, signs of perishing, 53

Brick-flue ranges, 221

Bride cake, 211, 216

Brie cheese, 166

Brightening cloudy beer, 179

Brighton biscuits, 212

Brill, 273, 565, 566, 568, 570, 576, 580

Brioche, 397

Briquettes, 581

British cheeses, 164

Brittany dress, 739, 742

Broad beans, 573

---- ----, boiled, 372

Broccoli, 372, 565, 582

---- with white sauce, 373

Brochan, 509

Broiling fish, 268

Broken bones, 783

Bronze, cleaning, 537

Broth, mutton, 259, 318

----, Scotch, 265

----, tea-kettle, 266

Broths as food, 599

Brown and Green’s kitchener, 228

Brown bread, 593

---- ---- ice, 442

---- butter sauce, 462

---- pudding, 397

---- sauce, 462

---- sharp sauce, 473

Browned crab, 277

Brunoise soup, 248, 267

Brushing the hair, 810

Brussels carpet, 96

---- sprouts, 579, 582

---- ----, boiled, 373

---- ---- omelet, 454

Bubble and squeak, 310

Bucellas (drink), 193

Buckskin gloves, cleaning, 532

Buckwheat cakes, 481

Bugs, destroying, 558

Bulgarian dress, 728, 731

Bullaces, 579

Bullock’s heart, 310

Bumaloes, 272

Bunions, 806

Buns, Bath, 211

----, Chelsea, 212

----, cinnamon, 212

----, hot cross, 213

----, saffron, 218

Burdwan, 496

Burglars, precautions, 108

Burgundy cup, 193

Burners, Argand, 87

----, gas, number needed, 85, 87

---- of gas fires, 78

----, regulating, 89

Burning kitchen waste without causing smell, 49

Burns, 785

Bursting water-pipes, 846

Butter, 156

----, churning, 157

----, English, inferior, 157

----, keeping, 113

----, making, English faults, 157

----, ----, Normandy, 158

----, potting, 159

----, putting up, 158

----, rancid, 159

---- room, 156

----, testing, 520

---- yield, 156

Buttered biscuits, 212

---- jack (drink), 193

---- lobster, 283

Buttermilk creams, 403

Butters, 460

Buttonhole patch, 892

Buying clothes, 714

---- fish, 565, 566, 567, 569, 570, 571, 573, 575

---- fruit, 565, 566, 568, 569, 570, 572, 573, 576

---- game, 565, 566, 568, 569, 571, 573, 574, 575

---- meat, 563, 565, 567, 569, 570, 572, 575

---- poultry, 565, 566, 568, 569, 571, 573, 575

---- vegetables, 565, 566, 568, 569, 570, 572, 573, 574, 576

Cabbage, 565, 570, 573

----, boiled, 373

----, cold slaugh, 374

----, hot slaugh, 374

----, keeping, 114

----, pickling, 132

----, red, 379

---- salad, 383, 484

---- soup, 264

----, stuffed, 374

Cabinet pudding, 393

Cacao cordial, 183

Cakes, 210

----, almond, 210

----, almond Savoy, 210

----, Banbury, 210

----, Bath, 211

----, Bordeaux, 211

----, breakfast, 211

----, bride, 211, 216

----, cheese, 212

----, cinnamon, currant, and caraway, 212

----, curd cheese, 213

----, Derby, 213

----, farls, 215

----, fish, 269

----, ginger, 213

----, iced, 442

----, lemon cheese, 214

----, Lord Mayor’s, 214

----, lunch, 214

----, Madeira, 214

----, mothering, 219

----, oatmeal, 214

----, plum, 215

----, pound, 216

----, Prussian, 216

----, Queen’s, 217

----, rice pound, 217

----, rout, 217

----, Savoy, 218

----, school, 214

----, seed, 218

----, Shrewsbury, 218

----, Simnel, 219

----, sponge, 219

----, tea, 219

----, twelfth, 216, 220

----, Venice, 220

----, Yorkshire, 220

----, Yule, 220

Calcium sulphide in luminous paint, 83

Calecannon, 378

Caledonian cream, 398

Calendering machine, 858

Calf’s brains, 337

---- ---- and tongue, 337

---- feet, 337

---- ---- fritters, 337

---- ---- jelly, 338

---- ---- pie, 338

---- ---- pudding, 338

---- head, 338

---- ----, boiled, 338

Calf’s head, carving, 626

---- ---- fritters, 339

---- ----, hashed, 339

---- ---- pie, 339

---- ---- soup, 248

---- liver, 339

---- sweetbread, 343

Californian Gamblers, 679

Calisthenics, 867

Calls, 102

Calomel, 778

Caloric engine, 951

Calorigen stove, 78

Cambridge pudding, 398

Camembert cheese, 165

Camphor liniment, 778

Canadian dishes, 486

Canary pudding, 398

Candied chestnuts, 437

---- lemon peel, 144

Candles, 83

----, blowing out, 83

----, silver torch, 83

Candying syrups, 175

Canvas-back duck, 565

Canvas joining, 893

Cape dishes, 487

Caper sauce, 462

Capercailzie, 565, 581

----, carving, 633

Capillaire syrup, 176

Capsicum flavour, 478

Captain’s biscuits, 212

Caramel custards, 398

---- pudding, 399

Caraway cordial, 183

Carbide of iron filter, 29

Carbocalcis filters, 29

Carbolic acid poisoning, 793

Carbonate magnesia, 778

Carcel lamp, 83

Card sleights, 667

Cardinal (drink), 193

Cardoons, 579, 582

----, boiled, 374

Carnival krapfen, 489

Carp, 273, 580

---- au bleu, 273

----, broiled, 273

---- en matelote, 273

---- in brown sauce, 273

---- pie, 274

----, roast, 274

----, soused, 274

----, stewed, 274

---- with Polish sauce, 274

Carpet joining, 894

---- lining, 96

---- made into oilcloth, 524

----, sweeping, 525

Carpets, 96

----, bedroom, 101

----, cleaning, 524

----, sickroom, 756

Carriage, care of, 913

Carrot jam, 140

---- pudding, 399

---- salad, 383

---- soup, 248

Carrots, 568, 569, 570, 573, 579, 582

---- à la Flamande, 374

---- à la maître d’hôtel, 374

---- à la Nivernaise, 374

Carrying infants, 749

---- injured persons, 787

Carving, 620

---- beef, 622

---- blackcock, 632

---- calf’s head, 626

---- capercailzie, 633

---- cod, 620

Carving duck, 629

---- fish, 620

---- flounders, 621

---- fowl, 628

---- game, 630

---- goose, 630

---- grouse, 632

---- guinea fowl, 630

---- gurnet, 621

---- haddock, 621

---- ham, 627

---- hare, 631

---- herring, 621

---- John Dory, 621

---- lamb, 625

---- landrail, 631

---- loin of mutton, 625

---- mackerel, 621

---- meat, 622

---- mullet, 621

---- mutton, 624

---- odd dishes, 627

---- partridge, 632

---- pheasant, 632

---- pigeon, 630

---- plover, 631

---- pork, 627

---- poultry, 628

---- ptarmigan, 633

---- rabbit, 630

---- salmon, 621

---- sheep’s head, 627

---- shell-fish, 622

---- snipe, 631

---- sole, 622

---- sucking pig, 627

---- turbot, 622

---- turkey, 629

---- veal, 626

---- venison, 625

---- whiting, 622

---- wild fowl, 631

---- woodcock, 630

Carving-knife, wielding, 627

Cask stand, 168

Casks, cleaning, 169

Cast-iron cisterns, 19

---- drains, 54

---- ----, joining, 54

Castle pudding, 399

Castor oil, 778

---- ---- as an aperient, 805

Catching complaints, 813

Catsup, 134

Caucasian dress, 742

Caudles, 773

Cauliflower, 372, 570, 573, 576, 579

----, dressed, 373

---- salad, 383

---- soup, 249

Causes of fires, 108

Caustic poisoning, 793

Cavalier’s broil, 331

Cavershed fish, 514

Caviar and eggs, 450

Cavies, 356

Cavity walls, 5

Cedrat cordial, 183

---- essence, 178

Ceilings, 7, 99

---- blackened by gas, 85

----, dairy, 155

----, nursery, 746

Celeriac, boiled, 374

Celery, 565, 582

----, boiled, 374

---- cordial, 183

---- flavour, 478

---- on toast, 374

---- salad, 383

---- sauce, 462

Celery soup, 249

----, stewed, 375

Cellars, 168

----, curing damp in, 9

----, disinfecting after floods, 55

----, ventilating, 168

Cement, fireproof, 232

Cemented cisterns, 19

Cerkestal, 511

Cesspools, 38

---- and wells, 14

Chablis cup, 193

Chachki, 496

Chaff beds, 701

Chair rail, 99

Chairs, drawing-room, 97

Chalk as fuel, 82

Chamberland filter, 32

Chamois leather, cleaning, 534

Champagne beer, 179

---- cider, 171

---- cup, 193

----, sham, 204

Chancery, 689

Changing sheets, 759

Chapatis, 497

Chapman’s entire wheat flour, 751

Chapped hands, 797

Char, 570

----, potted, 126

Character of servant, 960

Charcoal as a filter, 23

---- filters, 27

Charity Girl dress, 735

Charlotte Russe, 399

Chartreuse, 183

Chaudeau sauce, 462

Chaudfroid sauce, 462

Cheap fuel, 82

---- soups, 249

Cheddar cheese, 164

Cheese, 159

----, arnotto for colouring, 159

----, baked, 444

---- biscuits, 445, 481

----, blue vinney, 164

----, boiled, 445

----, Bondon, 166

---- boulettes, 445

----, Brie, 166

----, British, 164

---- cake, 212

----, Camembert, 165

---- canapés, 445

----, cheddar, 164

----, Cheshire, 164

----, colour for, 159

----, colouring, 163

----, Cottenham, 164

----, cracks in, 163

----, cream, 160

---- cream, 446

---- custard, 445

----, Daventry, 164

----, defects in, 163

----, Derbyshire, 165

---- dishes, 444

----, double Dorset, 164

----, dunlop, 165

----, Dutch, 166

----, eating, 634

----, foreign, 165

---- fritters, 446

----, Gloucester, 165

----, Gorgonzola, 166

----, Gruyère, 166

----, heaving, 163

----, holes in, 163

----, keeping, 113

----, Leicester, 165

----, macaroni, 414

Cheese making in France, 163

----, marbling, 163

----, Marolles, 166

---- meringues, 446

----, milk for, 159

----, moulds in, 161

----, Neufchatel, 166

----, new-milk, 160

----, North Wilts, 165

---- omelets, 454

----, Parmesan, 166

----, peach, 421

----, Pont l’évêque, 166

----, Port du Salut, 167

----, potato, 446

----, potted, 446

---- pudding, 417

---- puffs, 447

---- ramakins, 447

----, rankness, 164

----, rennet for, 159

----, ripening, 161

----, roasted, 448

----, Roquefort, 167

----, rush cream, 160

----, sage, 160

---- sandwiches, 448

---- scallop, 448

----, Schabzieger, 167

---- soufflé, 448

---- soup, 261

----, stewed, 448

----, Stilton, 165

----, Stracchino, 166

---- straws, 448

----, surface, 163

----, sweating, 163

---- tartlets, 449

----, texture, 163

---- toast, 449

----, tomato, 449

Chelsea buns, 212

Chemical experiments, 674

Chemicals for heating, 82

Cherries, 572, 574

----, bottled, 140

----, dried, 140

----, keeping, 117

----, preserved, 141

Cherry bitters, 181

---- bounce, 183

---- brandy, 184, 193

---- cordial, 184

---- flavour, 479

---- jam, 137, 141

---- jelly, 399

---- pudding, 400

---- ratafia, 184

---- sauce, 462

---- soup, 250, 490

---- tart, 400

---- water ice, 442

Cheshire cheese, 164

Chestnut and truffle stuffing, 477

---- compote, 400

---- cream, 400

---- mould, 492

---- pudding, 400, 506

---- sauce, 462

---- soup, 250

---- stuffing, 367, 463

Chestnuts, 579

----, candied, 437

Chicken, see Fowl

---- broth, 769

---- carving, 628

---- country captain, 497

---- curry, 497

----, Malay, 500

---- soup 250

Chicken-pox, 813

Chickens, 923

Chiffonade soup, 267

Chilblains, 798

Children’s diet, 596

Chimney cowls, 59

----, smoky, 80

----, ventilating by, 57

Chimneys affecting ventilation pipes, 43

----, place of, 43

Chinaman dress, 731

Chinks in floors, stopping, 56

---- ---- windows, stopping, 56

Chintzes, cleaning, 549

Chip goods, cleaning, 522

Chloral hydrate poisoning, 792

Chlorate of potash, 778

Chloric ether, 778

Chloride of mercury poisoning, 793

Chlorodyne poisoning, 793

Chloroform, 778, 792

Chocolate blancmange, 400

---- creams, 438

---- ice cream, 442

---- icing, 442

---- pudding, 400

---- soup, 490

---- strudels, 401

Choking, 790

Choosing furniture, 97

Chorizos, 510

Chotodriec, 507

Chow-Chow, 482

Chowder, 270, 482

Christmas dinners, 640

---- plum pudding, 423

Chub, 274

----, baked, 274

----, broiled, 274

----, roast, 274

Churning butter, 157

Churns, 158

Chutney, 132

Cider, 194

---- brandy, 182

----, champagne, 171

---- cup, 194

Cigar smoking, 606

Cigarette smoking, 607

Cinder tennis courts, 881

Cinderella dance refreshments, 647

Cinnamon brandy, 184

---- buns, 212

---- cordial, 184

----, currant, and caraway cake, 212

---- flavour, 479

---- sauce, 463

Circuit closer for electric bell, 103

Circulation system for hot water, 80

Cistern filters, 33

---- in roof, 43

---- pipes, trapping, 44

---- waste pipes, 19

Cisterns for water, 18

---- ---- w.c.’s, 44

----, rain-water, 15, 16

----, water contaminated in, 39

Citrate of iron and quinine, 778

---- ---- magnesia, 778

Citron cordial, 184

---- pudding, 401

Citronelle cordial, 184

Citrons, preserved, 141

Clairet cordial, 184

Clam fritters, 482

Claret cup, 194

---- jelly, 401

Clarges Street pudding, 401

Clarifying stock, 246

Clarke’s nightlights, 83

Clary wine, 195

Clay as fuel, 82

Cleaning, 521

---- alabaster, 536

---- bed ticks, 549

---- bone, 533

---- books, 541

---- bottles, 170, 531

---- brass, 536, 537

---- bronze, 537

---- carpets, 524

---- casks, 169

---- chamois leather, 534

---- chintzes, 549

---- chip goods, 522

---- coins, 538

---- coloured dresses, 549

---- copper, 537

---- copper electros, 538

---- copper vessels, 538

---- crape scarfs, 549

---- decanters, 532

---- feathers, 522

---- fenders, 523

---- firearms, 523

---- flannels, 549

---- floorcloth, 524

---- floors, 527

---- frames, 545

---- furniture, 528

---- furs, 528

---- gas chandeliers, 538

---- gilt mountings, 538

---- glass articles, 529

---- glass globes, 530

---- glass slides, 531

---- gloves, 532

---- gold, 538

---- hands, 533

---- iron, 538

---- ivory, 533

---- lace, 551

---- leather goods, 534

---- linen, 547

---- linoleum, 524

---- marble, 535

---- metal goods, 536

---- milk vessels, 154, 156, 158

---- mirrors, 529

---- morocco leather, 534

---- oilcloth, 524

---- paint, 540

---- paint brushes, 541

---- paper, 541

---- parchment, 542

---- photographic plates, 530

---- pictures, 542

---- plate, 539

---- plated goods, 539

---- plaster, 535

---- prints, 543

---- range flues, 224

---- rugs, 528

---- saddles, 534

---- saucepans, 237

---- scale pans, 537

---- sheepskins, 529

---- sickroom, 755

---- silk goods, 552

---- silver goods, 539

---- silver lace, 540

---- skins, 528

---- sponge, 545

---- steel, 538

---- stone, 535

---- straw goods, 522

---- stuffed specimens, 547

---- teapot, 547

---- textile goods, 547

---- tobacco pipes, 555

---- vellum, 542

Cleaning violin, 555

---- violin bow, 556

---- wall-papers, 556

---- watches, 556

---- windows, 529

---- zinc vessels, 540

Clear butter, 463

---- soup, 251

---- ---- with custard, 252

---- ---- ---- poached eggs, 252

---- ---- ---- quenelles, 252

---- stock, 245

Clifton pudding, 401

Clinical thermometer, 764

Clockwork motors, 954

Close-fire ranges, 222

Close-fire stoves, 71

Closets, disinfecting, 821

----, situation, 7

Clothes, buying, 714

----, choosing, 714

---- for foreign schools, 717

---- of infectious patient, 815

---- stores, 100

Clothing, disinfecting, 818

----, intermediate, 710

---- of children, 746

----, requirements of, 709

Clotted cream, 403

Cloudy beer, brightening, 179

Clove brandy, 184

---- cordial, 184

---- pink ratafia, 184

Clown and Fairies, 682

Clustering gas lights, 86

Coach house, 913

Coalfish, 573

Coals, buying, 581

---- for kitcheners, 226

Cocido, 510

Cock-a-leekie soup, 253

Cockle stove, 71

Cockle soup, 253

Cockles, 271, 580

Cocoa as a drink, 605

---- jelly, 770

---- ratafia, 184

----, testing, 521

Coconut cakes, 514

---- candy, 438

---- ice, 442

---- matting, 97

---- pudding, 401, 497

---- soup, 253, 497

Cod, 275, 503

---- au gratin, 275

----, baked, 275

---- balls, 486

----, boiled, 275

---- brandade, 276

----, buying, 565, 566, 567, 570, 576, 578, 580, 582

----, carving, 620

----, fried, 275

---- liver oil, taking, 777

----, mashed salt, 276

---- rock, 276

---- roe, 276

---- sauté, 277

---- sound, 277

---- steaks, 277

----, stewed, 277

----, twice laid, 277

---- with cream, 277

Coffee, 480

---- as a drink, 605

---- cakes, 401

---- cream, 402

---- flavour, 479

---- ice cream, 443

---- ---- pudding, 402

Coffee jelly, 402, 770

---- making, 481

---- pots, 481

---- pudding, 402

---- ratafia, 184

---- roasting, 480

---- testing, 521

Cognac bitters, 181

Coil pipes for heating, 81

Coils for bells, 106

Coin sleights, 665

Coins, cleaning, 538

Coke, 581

---- for kitcheners, 226

Colbert soup, 267

Colchester bread, 212

Cold, applying to the head, 762

---- baths, 828

---- climates, windows for, 60

---- drinks and indigestion, 603

---- feet, 798

---- meat sauce, 463

---- slaugh, 374

---- water for freshening air of rooms, 56

---- weather diet, 595

---- wine caudle, 773

Colds, 799

Collar ironer, 858

Collared beef, 125

---- eels, 279

College pudding, 402

Collops of tinned meat, 307

Colonial outfits, 722

Coloured walls, 99

Colouring cheese, 159

---- gravy, 469

Coltsfoot wine, 195

Combing the hair, 810

Combustion, 61

Common complaints, 794

Concrete floors, 7

---- tennis courts, 882

Condé soup, 256

Condensed milk, 596

Condy’s fluid for removing taint from meat, 113

Confectionery, 437

Conger-eel soup, 253

Conger eels, 278

---- ----, broiled, 278

----, buying, 565, 566, 573

Conservative pudding, 402

Conservatory, aspect for, 3

Constantine’s convoluted stove, 74

---- “treasure” range, 229

Constipation, 803

Construction of dwellings, 4

Consumption, 805

Conti soup, 257

Convoluted stoves, 74

Convulsions, 788

Cookery, processes of, 240

Cookies, 486

Cooking by gas, 235

---- ---- oil, 237

---- ---- steam, 233

---- ranges, see Kitchen ranges.

---- smells, 243

Cooling air of room, 59

---- milk, 113

---- milk-pans, 154, 155, 156, 158

---- wine, 191

Copper, cleaning, 537

---- electros, cleaning, 538

---- stewpans, 238

---- vessels, cleaning, 538

----, washing, 848

Corach, 463

Cordials, 181

Coriander cordial, 184

---- flavour, 479

Corking, 170

Corks, preserving, 171

---- selecting, 170

Corn beer, 195

---- bread loaf, 486

---- flour, buying, 578

---- meal muffins, 486

---- salad, 570

Corned beef, 125

Cornices, 99

Cornish pasties, 402

Corns, 806

Corpse, disinfecting, 820

Correspondence, 649

Corrosive sublimate poisoning, 793

Cottage beer, 195

---- pie, 402

---- pudding, 402

Cottager’s dance, 652

Cottenham cheese, 164

Coughs, 799

Counter-hemmed patch, 890

Country captain, 348, 497

Court plaster, 762

Cow-heel, 310

Cow-house, 916

Cowls for ventilating, 59

Cows, 915

----, breeds, 915

----, choosing, 915

----, keeping, 915

----, tethering, 917

Cowslip syrup, 195

---- wine, 195

Crab-apple cheese, 403

---- jam, 141

---- jelly, 141

Crab-apples, preserved, 141

Crab backs, 514

Crab, 277, 580

----, browned, 277

----, buying, 565, 570

----, devilled, 278

----, dressed, 277

Cracknel biscuits, 212

Cramp, 830

Cranberries, preserved, 142

Cranberry jelly, 403

---- tart, 403

Crape scarfs, cleaning, 549

Crayfish, 278, 573, 576

---- soup, 253

Cream as food, 600

---- cake, apple, 389

---- caudle, 774

---- cheese, 160

----, clotted, 403

----, Devonshire, 155

---- jars, 156

---- mead, 196

---- ratafia, 184

----, ripening, 157

---- sauce, 463

----, scalded, 403

----, Swiss, 156

----, syrup, 176

---- toast, 486

---- waffles 487

----, whipped, 403

---- yields, 156

Cream-of-tartar, 778

Creams, 769

Crécy soup, 248

Crême de Brie cheese, 166

---- ---- macarons cordial, 185

---- ---- Naphe cordial, 185

---- des Barbades cordial, 185

---- d’orange cordial, 185

Creosote poisoning, 793

Cresses, 565

Cretonnes, 98

Cricket grounds, 874

Crickets, destroying, 558

Croccante, 503

Crockery, noiseless, 756

Cromartie burner, 91

Croquettes of fish, 270

Crossing darn, 899

Croûte au pot, 254

Cruisie lamp, 83

Crullers, 486

Crumpets, 212

Crust soup, 254

Crystal Palace pudding, 404

Cucumber salad, 384

---- sauce, 482

Cucumbers, 565, 568, 573

----, pickled, 133

----, preserved, 142

Cuff ironer, 858

Cupboards, 99

----, bedroom, 98

Curaçao, 185

---- cordial, 185

---- jelly, 404

Curd cheese cake, 213

Curing foods, 123

Curlew, 566, 568

Curling tongs, 809

Currant jelly, 404

---- ratafia, 185

---- syrup, 176

---- wine, 196

Currants, 572, 574, 582

----, bottling, 138

----, keeping, 117

Currie powders, 463

Curried eggs, 452

---- fowl, 348

---- rabbits, 364

---- sardines, 296

---- veal, 339

Curries, 498

Curry, fish, 270

----, Persian, 502

Curtains, 98

----, bedroom, 101

----, nursery, 746

----, sickroom, 756

Cussy soup, 260

Custard apples, 568

---- sauce, 465

---- soup, 254

Custards, 404

Cutlets, fish, 270

Cut-outs for electric light, 95

Cuts, 788

Cyanide of potassium poisoning, 792

Cycling, 886

Cygnet, 347

D Traps, 45, 46

Dab, 278

Dace, 278, 580

----, boiled, 278

----, stewed, 278

Dachpappe roof, 6

Dairy, 154

----, aspect for, 3

----, building, 154

----, butter, 156

----, ---- room, 156

----, ---- yield, 156

----, ceiling, 155

----, cheese, 159

----, churning, 157

----, churns, 158

----, cooling, 154, 158

----, cream jars, 156

----, cream yield, 156

----, directions for, 158

---- door, 155

---- farming as an industry, 158

---- floor, 154

----, literature, 167

----, milk pans, 154, 155, 156, 158

----, position, 154, 158

----, proportions, 154

----, quality of milk, 156

----, shelves, 154

----, skimming milk, 156

----, temperature, 154

---- utensils, washing, 154, 156, 158

----, ventilation, 154

---- walls, 154

---- windows, 155

Dal-puri, 498

Dame Trot dress, 731

Damp cellar, curing, 9

---- course, 5

Dampers of kitchen ranges, 224

Dampness in dwellings, 4

Dam-pukht, 498

---- of duck, 498

Damson cheese, 404

---- wine, 196

Damsons, 579

----, bottled, 142

Dance refreshments, 647

Dances, old-fashioned, 652

Dancing floors, 651

Dandelion tea, 196

Dandelions, 375

Dandriff, 707, 809

Danish jelly, 405

Darned patch, 891

Darning, 895

Dash wheel, 854

Date pudding, 405

Daventry cheese, 164

Davey’s safety motor, 946

Davis’s gas cooker, 236

Dawes’s window fastener, 108

Daylight, 82

---- reflectors, 83

Dead, disinfecting, 820

Deadly nightshade poisoning, 792

Decanters, cleaning, 532

December gardening, 935

---- markets, 581

Decorating, 95

---- bedrooms, 101

---- ceilings, 99

---- kitchen walls, 96

---- walls, 99

---- windows, 100

Decorticated meal, 594

Decoudun ironer, 856

Deep-well pump, 22

Defects in cheese, 163

---- ---- sanitation, detecting, 40

Defries safety lamp, 84

Derby cake, 213

Derbyshire cheese, 165

Desks, 862

Dessert, eating, 635

Destroying vermin, 556

Detecting defects in sanitation, 40

---- fire, 109

Devil sauce, 465

Devilled crab, 278

---- fowl, 349

---- kidneys, 321

---- mackerel, 286

---- oysters, 289

---- salmon, 295

---- sardines, 296

---- turkey, 367

Devonshire cream, 155

---- junket, 155

Dhall curry, 499

Dhurries, 98

Diagonal darn, 896

Diarrhœa, 806

Dicke milch, 490

Diet bread, 213

Dietetics, 583

Digestibility of foods, 589

Digestive foods, 774

Dilapidations, law of, 957

Dimity curtains, 98

Dingy pudding, 490

Dining room, 583

---- ----, aspect for, 3

---- ---- furniture, 98

---- ---- literature, 647

Dinner, laying, 613

---- wines, 641

Dinners, bills of fare, 635

----, Christmas, 640

----, etiquette of, 633

----, Lenten, 639

----, vegetarian, 639

Diphtheria, 814

Diplomatic pudding, 405

Dipstone trap, 52

Dip traps, 38

Dircksian phantasmagoria, 676

Direct-action closets 47, 48

Disagreeable odours, removing from hands, 533

Discharge of waste pipes, 44

---- pipes, 38

Disconnecting chambers, 51

---- ---- for drains, 42

---- gullies, 18

---- traps, 51

Disinfecting ashpits, 50

---- cellars after floods, 55

Disinfection, 817

Dislocations, 808

Distress for rent, 956

Dog bites, 781

Dogs and burglars, 108

Dolma Hindi, 511

Dolmas, 512

Domestic motors, 936

---- remedies, 717

---- safety lamps, 84

---- system of electric light, 93

Dominoes, 690

Doopiazeh curry, 500

Door, dairy, 155

Dorée cordial, 185

Dorset, double, cheese, 164

Dotterel, 580

Double Dorset cheese, 164

---- filter cistern, 34

---- Gloucester cheese, 165

---- square darn, 896

---- windows, 60, 83

Doubtful Visitor, 683

Dough, curing sour, 208

Dover’s powder, 778

Down draughts from chimneys, 43

Dow’s range, 230

Draining walls, 5

Drains, 51

---- admitting sewer gas, 39

----, bad joints in, 40

----, brick, 51

----, cast-iron, 54

----, course of, 52

----, dipstone trap for, 52

----, disconnecting, 42

----, dry laid, 52

----, faults in, 54

----, flap trap in, 54

----, foul air from, 52

----, house, 35

----, inspection by vestry, 54

----, ---- chambers in, 54

----, joints in, 52

----, main, 51

----, manholes in, 52

----, pipe, 52

----, rats in, 51, 53

----, removing grease from, 50

----, slope for, 38

----, stoneware, 52

----, stopped, 38, 50

----, testing, 40, 52

----, ventilation of, 38

Draught, sluggish, 80

----, want of, in ranges, 225

Draughts, avoiding, 55

----, excluding, 56

Drawing room, 648

---- ----, aspect for, 3

---- ---- chairs, 97

---- ---- etiquette, 648

---- ---- tables, 97

Draw-off pipes, 44

Draw sheet, 759

Dresdener torte, 490

Dress, 709

----, fancy, 728

---- for the moors, 722

---- ---- walking tour, 722

---- ---- yacht, 722

----, lawn tennis, 722

----, taste in, 714

----, travelling, 721

Dressed cauliflower, 373

---- crab, 277

---- sardines, 296

---- whiting, 306

Dresses, coloured, cleaning, 549

Dressing fish, 268

Dressing-gowns, 708

---- -jackets, 708

---- -room, 706

Dried cherries, 140

---- haddock, 280

---- turtle soup, 267

Drinking in hot weather, 603

---- liqueurs, 635

---- -water, 519

---- - ---- cisterns, 45

---- - ---- taps, 45

---- - ----, test for, 24

---- wine, 635

Drinks, 602

----, aerated, 171

---- for invalids, 774

---- summer, 205

Dripping paste, 421

----, turned, 112

Driving, 911

Drop biscuits, 213

Dropped stitch, 900

Drops, 213

Drowning, 788

Drum principle in warming, 76

Drunkard’s Dream, 682

Dry laid drains, 52

---- ratafia, 185

Drying bottles, 170

----flooded houses, 54

---- -room, 856

Duck, carving, 629

----, dam-pukht, 498

----, roast, 347

----, stewed, 347

Ducks, 347, 566, 569, 571, 573, 578, 580

----, keeping, 925

Duckweed and non-potable water, 604

Duel, 680

Dunlop cheese, 165

Duplex safety lamps, 84

Dutch cheese, 166

---- dishes, 487

Dutch dress, 728, 735

---- sauce, 466

Dwellings, airing, 7

----, aspect, 2

----, back-to-back, 7

----, bathroom, 49

----, bells, 102

----, calls, 102

----, chemically heating, 82

----, construction, 3

----, dampness in, 4

----, decoration, 95

----, drains, 52

----, excluding snakes from, 8

----, floors, 7, 96

----, foundation, 4

----, furniture, 95

----, general arrangements, 7

----, heating by steam, 81, 82

----, heating by water at high pressure, 81

----, housemaid’s sink, 45

----, in earthquake countries, 10

----, lighting, 82

----, prospect, 2

----, pumps, 20

----, reducing echoes, 8

----, roof, 5

----, sanitation, 35

----, sinks, 50

----, site, 1

----, situation of closet, 7

----, soil, 1

----, supplementary literature, 111

----, thieves, 108

----, trees around, 2

----, ventilation, 55

----, warming, 60

----, water cisterns, 18, 43

----, water closets, 45

----, water pipes, 19, 44

----, waterproofing walls, 8

----, water purification, 24

----, water supply, 12

Dysentery, 806

Dyspepsia, 812

Eagle Bottom Grate, 223

Ear complaints, 808

Earth closets, 48

Earthenware cooking vessels, 239

---- cream jars condemned, 156

Earthquake countries, building in, 10

Earwigs, destroying, 558

Eating cheese, 634

---- dessert, 635

---- entrées, 633

---- fish, 633

---- fruit, 635

---- game, 633

---- ices, 635

---- poultry, 633

---- salad, 635

---- savouries, 634

---- soup, 633

---- vegetables, 634

Echoes, reducing, 8

Eclat grate, 70

Economising kitchen heat, 76

Eczema, 823

Eels, 278, 568, 571, 573, 578, 580

----, broiled, 278

----, collared, 279

----, fricassée, 279

----, fried, 279

----, galantine, 279

----, matelote, 279

----, patties, 487

----, pie, 279

----, roast, 279

----, stewed, 279

Egg balls, 267

----, boiling, 241

---- bread, 452

---- dishes, 450

---- dumplings, 490

---- flip, 196

---- lemonade, 774

---- nogg, 454

---- pie, 482

---- purée, 457

---- rolls, 457

---- salad, 384

---- sauce, 466

---- snow, 458

---- ---- pudding, 405

Egg-plant fruit, 375

Eggs à la bonne femme, 450

---- à la maître d’hôtel, 450

---- à la Tartuffe, 450

---- and artichokes, 450

---- ---- caviar, 450

---- ---- mushrooms, 451

---- ---- olives, 451

---- ---- sorrel, 451

---- ---- tomatoes, 451

---- as food, 600

---- au gratin, 451

----, baked, 452

----, buttered, 452

----, choosing, 572

----, curried, 452

----, devilled, 453

---- en matelote, 453

----, forced, 453

----, formation of, 920

----, fried, 453

---- in cases, 454

----, keeping, 113, 118

----, laying, 921

----, omelets, 454

----, packing, 924

----, poached, 457

----, savoury, 458

----, scalloped, 458

----, Scotch, 458

----, scrambled, 458

----, setting, 921

----, stewed, 459

----, stuffed, 459

---- sur plat, 459

----, Swiss, 459

----, testing, 922

Egyptian pudding, 405

Eingemacht melonen, 120

Elder chutney, 133

---- ketchup, 134

Elderberry wine, 197

Elder-flower wine, 197

Electric bell, circuit closer, 103

---- ---- making, 106

---- ---- wire, 102

---- bells, 102

---- coil, 765

---- lighting, 93

---- ----, accumulators, 94

---- ----, arrangement, 93

---- ----, bichromate pile, 93

---- ----, cut-outs, 95

---- ----, globes, 95

---- ----, lamps, 94

---- ----, switches, 95

---- motors, 953

Electro-magnet for bell, 106

Elixir vitæ cordial, 185

Ellis’s cabinet Turkish bath, 832

Elva, 512

Emerald green poisoning, 793

Emergencies, 780

Empress rice, 429

Enamelled saucepans, 238

Endive, 565, 570, 572, 582

---- salad, 384

Enemas, 764

Enemata, 764

English butter inferior, 157

---- rarebit, 449

Entrées, eating, 633

Epicurean sauce, 467

Epsom salts, 778

Eruptions, febrile, 813

Erysipelas, 813

Escaping from fire, 109

Essence bitters, 181

---- of bark, 778

---- ---- camphor, 778

---- ---- cedrat, 178

---- ---- ginger, 778

---- ---- lemons, 178

---- ---- orange, 178

---- ---- peppermint, 778

---- ---- raspberry, 179

---- ---- strawberry, 179

Essences for aerated waters, 178

Essential oil of almonds poisoning, 792

Etena zarvatte, 512

Ether poisoning, 792

Etiquette of dining, 633

---- ---- drawing room, 648

---- ---- luncheons, 641

---- ---- teas, 642

Etna cement, 233

Eton pudding, 405

Eureka gas cooker, 235

---- oil stove, 79

Evening milk, 156

Evils of brick drains, 52

Excluding draughts, 56

Excreta, disinfecting, 817

Excuses, making, 651

Executions by axe or guillotine, 683

Exercise, aim of, 870

---- and feeding, 602

----, regulation of, 871

Exercising infants, 748

Expectorants for coughs, 802

Explosions of lamps, 84

Extinguishing fire, 109

Extract Bishop cordial, 185

---- punch cordial, 186

Eye complaints, 808

Face paints, 654

Fainting, 790

Fairy butter, 467

Falkland pudding, 405

Fancy breads, 210

---- dresses, 728

Farls, 215

Farmyard, 907

----, books, 929

Fat, keeping, 112

---- rascals, 405

Fattening, 602

Faubonne soup, 267

Faults in drains, 54

Feather beds, 701

Feathers, 98

---- cleaning, 522

February gardening, 931

---- markets, 565

Feeding, 583

----, artificial, 598

---- bottles, 751

---- children, 750

---- patients, 768

Feeding the weak, 597

Feet, cold, 798

Felt roof, 6

Fenders, cleaning, 523

Fennel sauce, 467

Fermentation of fruit syrups, preventing, 175

Fermenting wine, 190

Ferments in cheese, 161

Fevers, 813

Fig pudding, 405

Figs, 574

----, keeping, 118

----, preserved, 142

Filbert biscuits, 213

Filter, pail, 26

Filtering cisterns, 33

---- tank for rain-water, 16

---- ventilators, 57

---- water, 16, 23

Filters, animal charcoal, 21, 27

----, carbo-calcis, 29

----, care of, 24

----, charcoal, 27

----, construction of, 26

----, gravel and sand, 26

----, iron, 30

----, magnetic carbide, 29

----, manganese-charcoal, 29

----, neglect of, 24

----, objects of, 25

----, porous pottery, 32

----, silicated carbon, 28

----, spongy iron, 24, 30

----, wood charcoal, 23, 27

Filtration, objects of, 25

Fine drawing, 895

---- herbs sauce, 467

Finger glasses, 635

Finings for beer, 180

Fire accidents, 111

----, causes of, 108

----, checking, 109

----, detection, 109

----, escaping from, 109

----, extinguishing, 109

---- for ventilation, 55

---- in sick room, 755

---- insurance, 962

---- lighting, 64

----, saving life at, 110

---- scenes, 659

Firearms, cleaning, 523

Fire-bricks, 232

Fireproof cement, 232

Fireproofing garments, 111

Fish, 268

----, as food, 599

----, baking, 268

----, boiling, 268

----, broiling, 268

----, boudin, 269

----, bouillabaisse, 269

----, buying, 565, 566, 567, 569, 570 571, 573, 575, 578, 580, 582

---- cakes, 269

----, carving, 620

----, chowder, 270

---- croquettes, 270

---- curry, 270

---- cutlets, 270

----, dressing, 263

----, eating, 633

----, fried, 505

----, frying, 268

---- jelly, 270

----, keeping, 113

---- moolie, 270, 499

---- omelet, 270

---- patties, 271

----, pickled, 503

---- pilau, 500

---- pudding, 271

----, pulled, 271

---- quenelles, 271

---- roe sauce, 482

---- salad, 271, 384

---- sauce, 467

----, smoking, 124

---- stewed with egg and lemon sauce, 505

----, stewing, 269

---- stock, 246

---- toast, 271

Fisherwoman of Zuider Zee dress, 723

Fits, 790

Fixtures, law of, 957

Flag floors, 7

Flamande sauce, 484

Flannel patch, 892

---- strengthening patch, 892

Flannels, cleaning, 549

Flap-trap in drains, 54

Flat flame gas burners, 87

Flats, pipes from, 49

Flavours, 478

Fleas, destroying, 558

Flemish costume, 742

---- soup, 254

Fletcher’s gas cooker, 236

Flickering gas, 85

Flies, destroying, 558

Floating bodies, experiments with, 673

Flock-paper, 97

Floods, precautions after, 54

----, wells contaminated by, 55

Floor, bedroom, 101, 699

---- coverings, 96

----, dairy, 154

----, nursery, 746

Floorcloth, 97

----, cleaning, 524

----, washing, 97

Floors, 96

----, cleaning, 527

----, concrete, 7

----, dancing, 651

----, flag, 7

---- of dwellings, 7

----, stained, 96

----, stopping chinks in, 56

---- tile, 7

----, varnished wood, 7

----, varnishing, 96

----, wood, 7

Flounder, 279

----, water souchet, 280

Flounders, buying, 565, 566, 569, 570, 571, 573

----, carving, 621

Flour, buying, 566

----, composition, 593

---- for bread, 208

---- gruel, 769

----, keeping, 114

Flower garden, 930

Flowers in bedroom, 700

Flues, 79

----, cleaning, 224

Flummery, 405, 427, 490

Flushing w.c.’s, 48

Fly, 514

Fly-paper poisoning, 793

Foam sauce, 472

Folding serviettes, 617

Fomentations, 763

Food, flesh-forming, 587

----, function, 586

----, heat-producing, 587

----, quality needed, 583

----, quantity needed, 583

Foods, animal, 591

----, curing, 123

----, digestibility, 589

----, grain, 592

----, infants’, 751

----, keeping fresh, 112

----, nutritive values, 588

----, sickroom, 768

----, smoking, 123

----, testing, 519

----, vegetable, 591

Fool’s parsley poisoning, 792

Football, 875

Fop dress, 735

Forced eggs, 453

Forcemeat, 468

---- balls, 259

---- for turkey, 368

Force-pump, 22

Foreign cheeses, 165

---- dishes, 481

---- nursemaids, 754

---- outfits, 722

---- school clothes, 717

---- schools, 868

Fou-fou soup, 514

Foul air from drains, 52

Foundation of dwellings, 4

Four-fruit ratafia, 186

Fowl, 347

----, boiled, 347

----, boning, 349, 350

----, braised drumsticks, 347

----, carving, 628

----, chaudfroid, 347

----, cold, 348

----, country captain, 348

----, curried, 348

---- cutlets, 348

----, devilled, 349

----, fillets, 349

----, fricassée, 349

----, galantine, 350

----, grilled legs, 351

----, old hen, 351

----, panada, 352

---- pilau, 501

----, poos-pass, 352

----, roast, 352

---- salad, 352

---- soufflé, 353

----, stewed, 353

----, stuffed, 511

----, timballe, 353

----, vol au vent, 353

Fowls, breeds, 919

----, buying, 565, 566, 569, 570, 571, 573, 578, 580, 581

----, chickens, 923

----, fatting, 923

----, formation of egg, 920

----, house, 919

----, incubators, 922

----, laying, 921

----, packing eggs, 924

----, setting eggs, 921

----, sitting, 922

----, testing eggs, 922

Foxglove poisoning, 792

Frames, cleaning, 545

France, cheese-making in, 163

Franchise, 962

Freezing-machines, 440

---- -powders, 440

French bean salad, 384

---- beans, 375, 569, 573, 574

---- ----, keeping, 114, 118

---- cognac bitters, 181

---- Farmer’s wife dress, 745

---- lady of Henry I. dress, 742

---- pie, 406

---- plums, 582

---- rolls, 213

---- soup, 254

Fresh air, 55

---- ----, warming, 77

Freshening air of rooms, 56

Friar’s balsam, 778

Fricadel, 490

Friesland dress, 735

Frieze, 99

Frijoles, 406

Frizzled beef, 311

Frostbite, 791

Frost in pipes, 846

Frothed milk soup, 491

---- wine soup, 491

Frozen meat, cooking, 306

---- water pipes, 846

Fruit, bottling, 138

----, buying, 565, 566, 568, 569, 570, 572, 573, 576, 579, 582

---- compote, 406

---- creams, 406

----, eating, 635

---- for jam, 572

---- ---- wine, 190

---- in jelly, 406

----, keeping, 114, 115

---- macédoine, 406

---- pilau, 501

---- pudding, 407

---- store, 115

---- syrups, preventing fermentation, 175

---- tart, 407

---- trifle, 407

Fruits, 591

Frying, 242

---- basket, 239, 243

---- batter, 407

---- fish, 268

---- pans, 239

Fuel, chalk, 82

----, cheap, 82

----, clay, 82

---- economisers, 63

----, economising, 82

---- for kitcheners, 226

---- ---- smoke-curing, 125

----, hints on, 82

Function of food, 586

Fur, cleaning, 528

----, joining, 893

Furnace, hot-air, 75

Furniture, 95

----, bedroom, 98, 101

----, boudoir, 98

----, chairs, 97

----, choosing, 97

----, cleaning, 528

----, dining-room, 98

----, disinfecting, 819

----, healthy, 97

----, landings, 98

----, morning room, 98

----, nursery, 101, 746

----, ottoman, 98

----, plush velvet, 93

---- polish poisoning, 793

----, second-hand, 97

----, sickroom, 755

----, sideboards, 98

----, sofas, 98

----, tables, 97

----, Utrecht velvet, 98

Galoni, 503

Galton grate, 67

---- ---- back, 65

Galvanic coil, 765

Galvanised iron cisterns, 19, 44

---- ---- water pipes, 19

Game aspic, 344

---- boudin, 345

----, buying, 565, 566, 568, 569, 571, 573, 574, 575, 578, 580, 581

----, carving, 630

---- chaudfroid, 345

----, cooking, 344

---- croquettes, 345

---- croustades, 345

----, eating, 633

----, hanging, 344

----, keeping, 113

---- kromeskies, 345

---- pie, 346

---- salad, 384

---- sauce, 345

---- soup, 254

---- vol au vent, 346

Games, indoor, 686

----, outdoor, 872

Garden, 930

----, books, 935

Gardeners’ calendar, 930

Garibaldi cream, 408

Garters, 711

Gas as a ventilator, 87, 90

---- burners, argand, 87

---- ----, bad, 85, 87

---- ----, capacity of, 86, 87

---- ----, flat flame, 87

---- ----, kinds of, 85, 87

---- ----, number needed, 85, 87

---- burning, ventilator essential, 85

----, ceilings blackened by, 85

---- chandeliers, cleaning, 533

---- cooking, 235

---- engines, 947

---- fires, burners, 78

---- fittings, 85

---- flames, Howorth’s blade for, 89

---- ----, Spencer corona for, 90

---- ---- flickering, 85

----, flow of, 85

----, globe light, 90

---- globes, 86

---- governors, 88

----, heating by, 77

---- hot-air stove, 78

----, illuminating power of, 85

----, incandescent, 90, 91

----, law of, 958

---- leaks, finding, 92

---- lighting, 85

---- ---- methods, 90

---- lights, clustering, 86

---- making apparatus, 93

---- oven, 208

---- pendants, 86

---- pipes, 85

---- ----, siphon in, 85

---- ----, testing, 92

---- ----, water in, 85

----, regenerative, 90

----, regulating, 88

---- ---- burners, 89

----, sun burner, 90

----, turning out, 85

---- wall brackets, 86

----, warming by, 77

Gascony butter, 468

Gaspacho, 511

Geese, buying, 565, 566, 568, 569, 571, 573, 575, 578, 580, 581

----, keeping, 926

----, smoked, 130

Gem cooking range, 229

Génoise pastry, 408

Gentlemen of Henry VI. dress, 742

German darn, 898

---- dishes, 489

---- stoves, 74

---- yeast, 208

Germs in water, 23

Geyser, 78

Gherkin sauce, 468

Gherkins, pickled, 133

Ghezon, 513

Ghost of China, 684

Ghosts, 676

Giblet soup, 254

Gill stoves, 73

Gilt mirrors, 93

---- mountings, cleaning, 538

Gin sling, 198

Ginger ale, 171

---- beer, 171, 197

---- ---- knot, 170

---- brandy, 186, 198

---- cake, 213

---- champagne, 172

---- cordial, 186

---- cream, 408

---- flavour, 479

---- ice cream, 443

----, preserved, 142

---- pudding, 408

---- syrup, 176

---- wine, 198

Gingerade, 171

Gingerbread pudding, 408

----, Queen’s, 217

----, spice, 219

----, thick, 219

Gipsy’s Promise, 680

Glass articles, cleaning, 529

---- globes, cleaning, 530

---- ---- for gas, 86

---- lined water pipes, 20

---- louvres for ventilating, 56

----, removing grease from, 531

----, ---- paint from, 531

---- slides, cleaning, 531

Glaze, turkey, 367

Glazed stoneware sinks, 45

---- tiles in passage, 96

Glazes, 468

Glazing pressed beef, 313

Globe light, 90

Globes, electric, 95

---- for gas, 86

Gloucester cheese, 165

Gloves, 713

----, cleaning, 532

Glow-wine cordial, 185

Glycerine, 778

Gnats, 559

Gniocchi of semolina, 503

---- soup, 255

Godfrey’s cordial poisoning, 793

Godwit, 566

Gold, cleaning, 538

---- cordial, 186

Golden plover, buying, 565, 566, 568

Goose, 353

----, carving, 630

---- liver patty, 353

---- pie, 354

----, roast, 353

Gooseberries, 572, 574

----, bottled, 142

----, bottling, 138

----, keeping, 119

Gooseberry cheese, 408

---- chutney, 133

---- cordial, 189

---- cream, 409

---- flavour, 479

---- fool, 409

---- jam, 137, 143

---- jelly, 143

---- pancakes, 409

---- pudding, 409

---- tart, 409

---- wine, 199

Gorgonzola cheese, 166

Goslings, 568, 569, 570, 571

Goulard’s extract, 778

Governor’s sauce, 468

Grafting, 900

Grain foods, 592

Grape flavour, 479

---- jam, 142

---- jelly, 143

---- leaves, pickled, 133

---- syrup, 176

Grapes, 565, 568, 569, 574, 579, 582

---- keeping, 116, 119

----, pickled, 133

Grass matting, 97

Grasse nuts, 506

Grates, open, 61, 65

----, principles, 61

----, rules for, 62

----, underfed, 71

----, varieties, 61

Gratings for rain-water pipes, 18

Gravel filters, 26

Gravies, 460

Gravy, 468

----, colouring, 469

---- for turkey, 368

---- soup, 255

---- stock, 246

Grayling, 280

----, stewed, 280

Grease in drains, removing, 50

----, removing from glass, 531

---- stains from carpet, 526

---- ----, removing, 553

---- traps, 39, 51

Greek dress, 742, 745

Green butter, 469

---- corn soup, 255

---- gooseberry chutney, 133

---- pea salad, 385

---- ---- soup, 255

---- peas, keeping, 119

Greenall’s steam washer, 848

Greengage soufflé, 409

---- tart, 409

---- wine, 199

Greengages, 574

Greenhouse, stove for, 72, 73

Greenroom Riot, 681

Greens, 485

Gregory’s powder, 778

Grenoble ratafia, 186

Grey mullet, 286

---- ----, boiled, 286

---- ----, broiled, 287

---- ---- in jelly, 287

---- ----, stewed, 287

---- powder, 778

Grill sauce, 469

Grilled kidneys, 322

---- legs of fowl, 351

---- mackerel, 286

---- salmon, 295

---- sardines, 297

---- trout, 302

---- turkey leg, 368

---- wild fowl, 371

Grilling, 241

---- stoves, 233

Grills, 233

Grimston regenerative gas burner, 91

Groat gruel, 410

---- pudding, 410, 491

Groceries, buying, 574, 577

Grooms, 909

Groundnut cakes, 515

Ground rice pudding, 410

Ground water, 2

Grouse, 354

----, American, 565

----, braised, 355

----, broiled, 355

----, buying, 565, 566, 574, 580

----, carving, 632

----, larded, 355

----, roast, 355

----, salmis, 354

---- soup, 255, 354

Gruels, 410, 769, 772

Grütze, 491

Gruyère cheese, 166

Guava jelly, 143

Gudgeon, 280

Guinea fowls, 566, 568, 569, 570, 573

---- ----, carving, 630

---- pigs, 356

Gulasch, 491

Gum arabic water, 775

Gumbo filet, 482

Gullies, trapped, for sinks, 50

Gurnet, 280, 569, 570

----, baked, 280

----, carving, 621

---- with caper sauce, 280

Gurney stove, 73

Gurney’s gas ventilator, 87

Gutters for rain-water, 17, 42

Gymnastics, 867

Haag’s Motor, 940

Haddock, 280

----, boiled, 280

----, broiled, 280

----, buying, 565, 566, 567, 573, 578, 580

----, carving, 621

----, dried, 280

---- in jelly, 280

Hæmorrhage, 78

Hager’s test for water, 25

Haggis, 319

Hair, care of, 707

---- complaints, 809

---- dyes, 810

---- washes, 810

Hake, 280

----, buying, 565, 573

----, roast, 280

----, stewed, 280

Half-hogshead of ale, 179

Halibut, 280

----, buying, 565, 569

Hall curtains, 98

Ham, beef, 125

----, boiled, 334

----, boned, 334

----, buying, 575

---- cake, 334

----, carving, 627

----, mutton, 128

---- omelet, 334

----, salted, 127

---- sandwiches, 334

---- steaks, 483

---- toast, 335

----, Westphalia loaves, 335

Hamburgh beef, 127

---- bitters, 181

Hand seen writing, 680

Hand-shaking, 648

Hands, cleaning, 533

----, washing, 706

Hanging poultry and game, 344

Hansen’s rennet extract, 160

Hard sauce, 472

---- water, 519

Harding’s ventilator, 57

Hare, 356, 565, 566, 568, 578, 581

----, carving, 631

----, fillets, 356

----, jugged, 356

----, roast, 357

----, salmis, 358

----, shape, 358

---- soup, 255

Hargreave’s gas regulator, 89

Haricot bean omelets, 455

---- beans, 375

---- mutton, 320

---- soup, 256

Harvest bugs, 559

Harvey sauce, 469

Hashed beef, 311

---- calf’s head, 339

---- mutton, 320

---- turbot, 304

---- veal, 340

---- venison, 370

Hasty pudding, 410

Haunch of venison, roast, 369

Haunted hut, 682

---- man, 678

Head, applying cold to, 762

Headaches, 811

Head-gear, 713

Healthy furniture, 97

Heat, causes of, 61

----, conserving in rooms, 60

----, economising kitchen, 76

---- lost by windows, 60

Heating, see Warming

Hemlock poisoning, 792

Hen, old, 351

Henbane poisoning, 792

Heran’s gas regulator burner, 89

Herb soup, 256

Herring, 580

----, carving, 621

---- salad, 487

----, soup, 256

Herrings, 281

----, buying, 565, 566, 569, 570, 573, 576

----, fried, 281

----, rolled, 281

----, salted, 127

----, smoking, 124

Hickory nut flavour, 479

High ground for dwellings, 1

---- pressure water heating, 81

---- teas, 645

Hinks’s safety lamp, 84

Hints on fuel, 82

Hip jam, 144

---- marmalade, 144

Hips in sugar, 144

---- in vinegar, 144

----, pickled, 144

----, preserved, 144

Hiring horses, 912

Hochepot soup, 260

Hockey, 876

Holed soil pipes, 38

Hollands’ underfed grate, 71

Home washing, 848

Hominy, 410, 594

Honey, keeping, 119

Honigküchen, 491

Hop beer, 199

---- cordial, 186

Hopkinson’s window fastener, 108

Horehound beer, 199

Horse, 907

----, buying, 907

----, choosing, 907

----, cleaning, 910

----, driving, 911

----, hiring, 912

----, keeping, 908

----, stables, 910

Horsehair mattress, 701

Horse-power, 944

Horseradish sauce, 469

Hot-air baths, 831

---- - ---- engine, 951

---- - ---- furnace, 75

---- - ---- pipes, 76

---- baths, 830

---- cross buns, 213

---- milk, 773

---- plate ranges, 222

---- slaugh, 374

---- water circulation, 80

---- ---- cisterns, 832

---- ---- heating, 80

---- ---- in dyspepsia, 812

---- ---- pipes, 832

---- ---- ----, joining, 81

---- ---- system, 832

---- weather diet, 595

---- wine caudle, 774

Hotchpotch, 256

Houghton’s trap, 51

House, determination of tenancy, 957

---- drains, 35

---- gutters, 17

----, insanitary, law of, 955

---- letting and renting, 955

----, possession, 956

----, rent, 956

---- repairs, law, 956

Housekeeping, 563

Household law, 955

Housemaid’s sink, 45

Housewife’s room, 518

Howorth’s blade for gas flames, 89

Huile de Venus cordial, 186

Hulett’s gas regulator, 89

Hullvah, 499

Hung beef, 311

Hungarian beef, 128

Hunter’s soup, 256

Hydraulic engines, 939

---- rams, 939

Hydrochloric acid poisoning, 793

Hydro-extractor, 854

---- - ---- for skimming milk, 156

Hypnotics, 704

Ice, cake, 442

----, choosing, 440

---- houses, 114

----, keeping, 114, 440

---- puddings, 387, 411

---- soufflé, 411

Ices, 440

----, colouring, 441

----, eating, 635

----, flavouring, 441

----, freezing, 440

----, moulding, 441

----, serving, 644

----, syrup, 441

Ill-drained house, 36

Illness of infants, 753

---- ---- servants, 960

Illuminating power of gas, 85

Illusions and tricks, 664

Imitation koumiss, 776

Imperceptible darn, 897

Imperial pop, 199

---- soup, 256

---- syrup, 177

Impure air, testing, 55

Incandescent asbestos stoves, 77

---- gas, 90, 91

Incubators, 922

Indian dhurries, 98

---- dishes, 495

---- matting, 97

---- outfit, 724

---- toffee, 499

Indigestion, 812

---- and cold drinks, 603

---- caused by tea, 605

Indoor games, 686

Infants, airing, 748

----, carrying, 749

---- clothing, 746

---- diet, 596

---- disorders, 753

----, exercising, 748

----, feeding, 750

---- feeding-bottles, 751

---- foods, 751

----, moral training, 753

---- rooms, 746

---- sleep, 749

---- teething, 752

----, washing, 748

----, weaning, 750

Infection, how conveyed, 814

Infectious diseases, 813

Ingle nook grate, 68

Injections, 764

Injured persons, carrying, 787

Ink stains, removing, 554

Insanitary house, law of, 955

Insect bites, 780

---- powder, 557

Insects, destroying, 556

---- eating corks, preventing, 171

Inspection chambers in drains, 54

---- of drains by vestry, 54

Insurance, 962

Intermediate clothing, 710

Invalids’ bed-making, 758

---- pulley, 760

Invitations, answering, 650

Iodine poisoning, 793

Ipecacuanha powder, 778

---- wine, 778

Irish moss water, 776

---- stew, 307, 321

Iron cisterns, 19

----, cleaning, 538

---- filters, 30

---- flue ranges, 221

---- saucepans, 237

---- water pipes, 19

Ironing, 548

---- machine, 856

---- stove, 859

Irritant poisons, 793

Isolating infectious cases, 815

Italian bread, 214

---- dishes, 503

---- dress, 728, 742

---- soup, 257

Itching, 824

Ivory, cleaning, 533

Jacob’s ladder, 900

Jeffrey’s grate, 65

Jalapine, 778

Jal-frizi, 499

Jam pudding, 411

---- roll, 412

---- sauce, 469

---- tartlets, 412

Jamaica jelly, 411

Jams, 137

----, apple, 139

----, blackberry, 137, 139

----, black currant, 137

----, carrot, 140

----, cherry, 137, 141

----, crab-apple, 141

----, gooseberry, 137, 143

----, grape, 143

----, hip, 144

----, keeping, 137

----, mulberry, 146

----, peach, 148

----, pineapple, 148

----, plum, 149

----, pumpkin, 150

----, raspberry, 137

----, red currant, 137

----, rhubarb, 151

----, quince, 150

----, strawberry, 137, 152

Jane Seymour coil, 735

January gardening, 930

---- markets, 563

Jellies, 137, 769

----, apple, 139

----, blackberry, 140

----, black currant, 140

----, crab-apple, 141

----, gooseberry, 143

----, grape, 143

----, guava, 143

----, medlar, 145

----, mulberry, 146

----, orange, 146

----, pear, 148

----, pineapple, 148

----, prune, 149

----, quince, 150

----, raspberry, 151

----, red currant, 151

----, rhubarb, 151

----, rowan, 152

----, strawberry, 152

Jelly baskets, 412

----, fish, 270

---- pie, 412

Jennings and Hinde’s iron filters, 32

Jennings’s closets, 48

Jersey wonders, 412

Jerusalem artichoke salad, 383

---- ---- soup, 261

---- artichokes, 376, 565

Jewish dishes, 504

---- dress, 731

John Dory, 281, 573, 576, 578

---- ----, carving, 621

---- ----, stuffed, 281

---- ---- with caper sauce, 281

Johnny cake, 486

Joining, 892

---- cast-iron drains, 54

---- hot-water pipes, 81

Joints as food, 599

Joints, bad, in drains, 40

---- in drains, 40, 52

---- in soil pipes, 49

Jubilee dance, 653

Judge dress, 735

Juditha, 505

Jugged hare, 356

Julienne soup, 257

July gardening, 93

---- markets, 572

Jumbles, 388, 412

June gardening, 933

---- markets, 570

Juniper ratafia, 186

Junket, 155

Juries, 961

Kabaps, 512

Kabrac dolmassi, 512

Kamptulicon, 97

Kedgeree, 429, 500

Keeping apples, 114, 115, 116

---- apricots, 121

---- artichokes, 117

---- asparagus, 117

---- boiled potatoes, 113

---- bread, 113

---- butter, 113

---- cabbage, 114

---- cheese, 113

---- cherries, 117

---- currants, 117, 119

---- eggs, 113, 118

---- fat, 112

---- figs, 118

---- filberts, 118

---- fish, 113

---- flour, 114

---- foods fresh, 112

---- French beans, 114, 118

---- fruit, 114, 115

---- game, 113

---- gooseberries, 119

---- grapes, 116, 119

---- green peas, 119

---- honey, 119

---- ice, 114, 440

---- jams, 137

---- lemon juice, 120

---- lemons, 114, 120

---- macaroni, 114

---- meal, 114

---- meat, 112

---- melons, 120

---- milk, 113

---- mushrooms, 120

---- nectarines, 121

---- onions, 115

---- oranges, 114

---- peaches, 121

---- pears, 114, 115, 116

---- peas, 119

---- pineapples, 121

---- plums, 121

---- poultry, 113

---- roots, 113, 122

---- rowan berries, 122

---- sago, 114

---- semolina, 114

---- soup, 113

---- ---- bones, 112

---- spinach, 113

---- suet, 112

---- syrups, 175

---- tomatoes, 122

---- truffles, 122

---- vegetable marrows, 114, 122

---- vegetables, 113

---- walnuts, 123

Keg filter, 34

Kensington grate, 70

Ketchup, 134

----, time for making, 573

Khabob Hoossainee, 500

Khabobs, 500

Kid gloves, cleaning, 532

Kidderminster carpets, 97

Kidney, beef, 311

---- soup, 257

---- toast, 322

Kidneys, 321

---- à la maître d’hôtel, 321

----, devilled, 321

----, fried, 321

----, grilled, 322

----, stewed, 322

King Henry’s shoestrings, 413

Kinnear’s gas regulator burner, 89

Kippered salmon, 129

Kippers, 128

Kirschwasser cordial, 186

Kitchen, aspect for, 3

----, basting, 241

---- boilers, 832

----, boiling, 241

----, braising, 242

----, cooking in ovens, 224

---- fire economiser, 64

---- fittings, 221

----, frying, 242

----, ---- -basket, 239

----, ---- -pans, 239

----, grilling, 241

---- heat, economising, 76

----, literature, 517

---- odours, 243

----, oven-roasting, 224

----, pans, 237

----, pots, 237

---- ranges, 221

---- ----, Arnott’s ventilator for, 226

---- ----, baking ovens, 222

---- ----, blowers, 222

---- ----, brick-flue, 221

---- ----, Brown and Green’s, 228

---- ----, cleaning flues, 224

---- ----, close-fire, 222

---- ----, dampers, 224

---- ----, Dow’s, 230

---- ----, Eagle, 227

---- ----, Eagle grill, 233

---- ----, Eureka, 235

---- ----, fire-bricks, 232

---- ----, fireproof cement, 232

---- ----, Fletcher’s, 236

---- ----, fuels for, 226

---- ----, gas, 235

---- ----, gem, 229

---- ----, grilling, 233

---- ----, hot-plate, 222

---- ----, iron-flue, 221

---- ----, Leamington, 222, 228

---- ----, management, 225

---- ----, Metropolitan, 236

---- ----, Mistress, 231

---- ----, Nonpareil, 236

---- ----, oil, 237

---- ----, open-fire, 222

---- ----, oven ventilators, 224

---- ----, Rippingille’s, 237

---- ----, setting, 221

---- ----, Sine qua non, 230

---- ----, steam, 233

---- ----, steam boiler, 234

---- ----, Thorncliffe, 228

---- ----, Treasure, 229

---- ----, want of draught in, 225

---- ----, water-pans, 224

---- ----, Wilson, 229

---- ----, Yorkshire, 231

----, roasting, 240

----, saucepans, 237

---- sink, 50

---- soups, 244

----, stewing, 242

---- walls, 96

---- waste, 49

----, water-bath, 242

Kitcheners, 222

Kneading bread, 209

Knee-breeches, 711

Knödeln, 491

Knotting corks down, 170

Köche, 491

Koch’s gelatine-peptone test water, 25

Koumiss, imitation, 776

Kourabiedes, 512

Krapfen, 489

Kräplen, 492

Krausen-beer, 179

Kufté, 512

Kümmel cordial, 186

Laburnum poisoning, 792

Lace, cleaning, 551

---- patch, 897

Laced joining, 894

Lacrosse, 877

Ladies’ leggings, 713

Lady Doran Strathspey dance, 653

---- of Henry VI. dress, 735

---- ---- James I. dress, 742

---- ---- Tangiers dress, 735

Lamb, 567, 569, 570, 573

----, carving, 625

---- cutlets, 319

---- pie, 322

----, roast quarter, 326

----, saddle, 326

Lambs’ tails, 322

Lamperns, 281

----, stewed, 281

Lamprey, 282

----, baked, 282

Lamps, Carcel, 83

----, cruisie, 83

----, duplex safety, 84

----, electric, 94

----, explosions of, 84

----, mineral oil, 84

----, moderator, 83

----, oil, 83

---- ----, pressure, 83

---- ----, suction, 83

----, petroleum, 84

----, safety, for houses, 84

----, Silber, 83

---- spirit, 83

Landings, 98

Landrail, carving, 631

Larded grouse, 355

---- pike, 292

Larder, 112

----, aspect for, 3

----, shelves, 96

Lark pie, 359

Larks, 358, 565, 566, 581

----, baked, 360

----, broiled, 358

----, croustade, 358

---- in cases, 358

----, potted, 359

----, roast, 359

----, stewed, 359

----, stuffed, 360

----, vol au vent, 360

Laudanum, 779

Laundry, 848

Laurel water poisoning, 792

Laver, 376

Law, domestic, 955

---- of breakages, 961

---- ---- character, 960

---- ---- determination of tenancy, 957

---- ---- dilapidations, 957

---- ---- distress, 956

---- ---- fixtures, 957

---- ---- franchise, 962

---- ---- gas, 958

---- ---- insanitary house, 955

---- ---- insurance, 962

---- ---- juries, 961

---- ---- nuisance, 962

---- ---- parochial matters, 960

---- ---- possession, 956

---- ---- rates and taxes, 957

---- ---- rent, 956

---- ---- renting and letting house, 955

---- ---- repairs, 956

---- ---- servants, 959

---- ---- the house, 955

---- ---- wages, 959

---- ---- water, 958

Lawn, 930

---- bowls, 879

---- party refreshments, 647

---- skittles, 879

---- sleeve (drink), 199

---- tennis courts, 879

---- ---- dress, 722

Laying eggs, 921

---- table, 607

Lead dissolved by rain-water, 17

---- -encased block-tin pipes, 20

---- poisoning, 793

Leaded joints for iron pipes, 54

Leaden cisterns, 19, 44

---- pipes eaten by rats, 53

---- sinks, 45

---- soil pipes, 38

---- suction pipes, 21

---- water pipes, 19

Leaks of gas, finding, 92

Leamington range, 222, 228

Leather, cleaning, 534

Lebkuchen, 492

Leche crema, 413

Leclanché battery, 102

Leeches, 763

Leek soup, 257

Leeks, 565, 582

---- with oil, 513

Leg of mutton, 323

---- ---- ----, boiled, 323

---- ---- ----, braised, 323

---- ---- ----, roast, 323

Legendary Saint’s Martyrdom, 683

Leggings, 713

Leicester cheese, 165

Lemon and parsley sauce, 488

---- beer, 200

---- biscuits, 214

---- cheese cake, 214

---- cordial, 186

---- cream, 413

---- dumplings, 413

----, essence, 178

---- flavour, 479

---- juice, 775

---- ----, keeping, 120

---- marmalade, 144

---- peel, candied, 144

----, prickled, 134

---- pudding, 413

---- sauce for fish, 483

---- shrub (drink), 200

---- soufflé, 413

---- sponge, 413

---- syrup, 177

---- toast, 413

---- water ice, 443

---- whey, 200

Lemonade, 172, 199

----, still, 205

----, tonic, 173

Lemons, 574

----, keeping, 114, 120

Lenten dinners, 639

Lentil pudding, 414

---- soup, 257

Lentils, 376

Leoni’s gas cooker, 236

Letter-writing, 649

Letting a house, 955

Lettuce, 565, 570, 572

---- salad, 385

---- soup, 258

Levantine dishes, 505

Leveret, 573

Library, 903

----, aspect for, 3

Liebig’s beef tea, 258

Life, saving, at fires, 110

Lift and force pump, 22

Lift pump, 20

Light in sickroom, 756

Lighting, 82

----, albo-carbon lamp, 92

----, candles, 83

----, candlestick, 83

----, curing steam on windows, 83

----, daylight, 82

----, ---- reflectors, 83

----, electric, 93

----, finding gas leaks, 92

---- fires, 64

----, gas, 85

----, ---- regulators, 88

----, globe light, 90

----, incandescent gas burners, 91

----, luminous paints, 83

----, matches, 93

----, nightlights, 83

----, oil lamps, 83

----, phosphorus, 93

----, regenerative gas burners, 91

----, silver torch, 83

----, sun burner, 90

----, testing gas pipes, 92

----, window area, 82

Lightning stroke, 791

Lime in eyes, 808

Lime-juice cordial, 186

Lime-water, 779

Limes, preserved, 145

Linen, cleaning, 547

Ling, 282, 565, 573, 580

Linoleum, 97

Linseed poultice, 761

---- tea, 200, 775

Liqueurs, 181

----, drinking, 635

Liquodilla cordial, 186

Liquorice powder, 779

Little Grannie’s dress, 731

Liver sauce, 470

---- soup, 258

Lobster, 282

---- à la St. Malo, 282

---- à l’enfant prodigue, 282

---- au gratin, 282

----, boiled, 283

----, broiled, 283

----, buttered, 283

----, buying, 565, 567, 570, 571, 580

---- cream, 283

---- croquettes, 283

---- croustades, 283

---- curry, 284

---- cutlets, 284

---- kromeskies, 284

---- omelet, 284

----, roast, 283

---- salad, 284, 385

---- sandwiches, 284

---- sauce, 470

---- soufflé, 284

---- soup, 258

----, stewed, 285

Loin of mutton, 323

---- ---- ----, braised, 323

---- ---- ----, carving, 625

---- ---- ----, stewed, 323

---- ---- veal, 337

Lokma, 512

London argand burner, 91

Lord Mayor’s cake, 214

Loss of voice, 803

Lovage cordial, 186

Lovelock’s mincing machine, 599

Loving cup, 200

Low ground for dwellings, 1

Luminous paints, 83

Lunch cake, 214

Luncheons, 641

----, laying, 610

Macalpine washer, 851

Macaroni au gratin, 414

----, boiled, 414

---- cheese, 414

----, keeping, 114

---- omelet, 455

---- pie, 414

---- pudding, 414

---- soufflé, 414

---- soup, 258

---- timbale, 415

---- with tomato sauce, 415

Macaroons, 214

Macedonian dress, 742

Mackerel, 285, 485, 566, 568, 569, 570, 573

----, baked, 285

----, boiled, 285

----, broiled, 285

----, carving, 621

----, devilled, 286

---- fillets, 286

---- fricassée, 286

----, grilled, 286

---- roes, 286

----, salted, 128

----, smoking, 124

Made ground, 2

Madeira cake, 214

Magnetic carbide filter, 29

Maidservant of Henry VI. dress, 742

Maignen’s filters, 29

Main drains, 51

Maître d’hôtel butter, 470

Maize meal, 594

Making beds, 702

---- electric bell, 106

Making up, 654

Malagatani soup, 500

Malay chicken, 500

Malliorca d’Espagne cordial, 186

Malt liquors as drinks, 606

----, weevil in, 180

Malvern pudding, 145

Manchester grate, 66

---- pudding, 416

Mandarin delight cordial, 186

Manganese-charcoal filter, 29

Mango chutney, 132

Mangold-wurzel beer, 200

Manholes in drains, 52

Maple syrup, 177

Maraschino jelly, 416

---- liqueur, 187

Marble, cleaning, 535

March gardening, 931

---- markets, 567

Margot pudding, 416

Marien cakes, 492

Marigold wine, 200

Marketing, 563

Marlborough pudding, 416

---- tart, 416

Marmalade, apple, 139

----, hip, 144

----, lemon, 144

----, orange, 146

---- pudding, 416

----, quince, 150

----, rhubarb and orange, 152

---- sauce, 470

Marolles cheese, 166

Marsh-Greenall gas stove, 78

Marzipan, 439, 492

Mashed potatoes, 378

---- salt cod, 276

Match poison, 793

Matches, 93

----, paint defaced by, 93

----, substitute for, 93

Matso cakes, 505

---- diet bread, 505

Matting, 97

---- seams, 894

Mawbery, 515

May drink, 200

---- gardening, 932

---- markets, 569

Mead, 196, 200

Meadow saffron poisoning, 792

Meal, keeping, 114

Measles, 813

Measures for medicines, 777

Meat, 306

----, buying, 563, 565, 567, 569, 570, 572, 575, 578, 580, 581

----, carving, 622

----, frozen, cooking, 306

----, keeping, 112

---- salad, 385

----, tinned, cooking, 307

----, turned, 112

Mecklenburg dress, 739

Medical coil, making, 765

Medicines, administering, 776

----, classes of, 777

----, domestic, 777

----, doses, 777

----, keeping safely, 776

----, measures, 777

----, nursery, 753

----, removing taste of, 777

----, times for taking, 777

Medlar jelly, 145

Medlars, 565

Mellin’s extract, 752

Melon flavour, 479

Melons, 569, 574, 576, 577, 582

----, keeping, 120

----, preserved, 146

Melted butter, 470

Mental training, 865

Mercury poisoning, 793

Meringues, 417, 446

Metal gas burners, 85, 87

---- goods, cleaning, 536

Metallic roofing, 7

Metamorphoses, 682

Metropolitan gas kitchener, 236

Mezereum poisoning, 793

Micro-organisms in water, 23

Mikado moth papers, 561

Mildew stains, removing, 554

Milk as food, 600

----, condensed, 596

---- coolers, 156

----, cooling, 113

---- for bread, 208

---- for cheese, 159

----, hot, 773

----, keeping, 113

---- lemonade, 201

---- of sulphur, 779

---- pans, 154, 155, 156

---- ----, cooling, 154, 155, 156, 581

---- ----, warming, 155

---- punch, 201

---- ---- syrup, 177

----, quality, 156

----, skimming, 156

---- soup, 258

----, sour, 113

----, temperature for churning, 158

----, ---- ---- setting, 158

----, testing, 520

----, thickened, 483

---- toast, 483, 773

---- vessels, cleaning, 154, 156, 158

Mill, 692

Milliner Bewitched, 680

Milne’s gas regulator burner, 89

Mince pies, 417

Minced meats as food, 599

---- mutton, 324

---- veal, 340

Mineral oil lamps, 84

---- ---- safety lamps, 84

Minestra, 503

Minestrone soup, 257

Mint sauce, 470

Mirrors, 98

----, cleaning, 529

Miser and Money-lender, 679

Miss Lunsdam’s Fancy dance, 653

Mistress range, 231

Mixed pickles, 135

Mocha pudding, 418

Mock brawn, 312

---- pea soup, 258

---- turtle soup, 259

Moderator lamp, 83

Molasses beer, 201

Molucca balm cordial, 187

Monastery wine soup, 492

Monday marketing, 568

Monkshood, 792

Moolie, 270, 499

Moonlight scenery, 657

Moore’s ventilator, 56

Moorish dress, 735

Moral training of children, 753

Morcillas, 511

Morgiana dance in Iceland, 653

Morning milk, 156

---- room furniture, 98

Morocco leather, cleaning, 534

Morphia bimeconate, 779

Moselle cup, 201

Mosquitoes, 559

Mothering cakes, 219

Moths, 559

Motors, domestic, 936

Mottled darn, 896

Mould in cheese, 161

Mourning, 719

Mousseline pudding, 418

Muffins, 214

Mulberries, 579

Mulberry jam, 146

---- jelly, 146

---- syrup, 177

Mulled ale, 202

Mullein for coughs, 801

Mullet, boiled, 286

----, broiled, 287

----, buying, 565, 566, 573, 576, 578, 582

----, carving, 621

----, grey, 286

----, red, 287

Mulligatawny soup, 259

Muriate of ammonia, 779

Musgrave’s stove, 72

Mushroom ketchup, 134

---- poisoning, 793

Mushrooms, 376, 569, 573, 576

---- and eggs, 451

----, keeping, 120

----, pickled, 135

Mussel soup, 259

Mussels, 288

----, buying, 565, 573, 580

----, stewed, 288

Mustard, 470

---- paper, 762

---- poultice, 762

Mutton, 317

----, baked, 317

----, breast, 317

---- broth, 259, 318

----, buying, 563, 565, 567, 575

----, carving, 624

---- casseroles, 318

----, cavalier’s broil, 331

---- chops, 318

---- croquettes, 318

---- cutlets, 318

---- ----, à la maître d’hôtel, 319

---- ----, savoury, 319

---- ----, stewed, 318

---- ---- with apples and gravy, 319

----, haggis, 319

---- hams, 128

----, haricot, 320

----, hashed, 320

----, Irish stew, 321

----, kidneys, 321

---- kromeskies, 322

----, leg, 323

----, loin, 323

----, minced, 324

----, neck, 324

---- pasty, 325

---- patties, 325

---- pudding, 326

----, roast saddle, 326

---- rissoles, 326

---- sausages, 326

---- scollops, 327

----, scrag, 325

----, shoulder, 330

----, squab pie, 331

Nalym, 508

Napkins, folding, 617

Naples biscuits, 214

Narcotic poisons, 792

Nasturtiums, pickled, 135

National Kitchener, 227

Neapolitan dress, 735

Neats’ tongues, smoked, 130

Neck of mutton, 324

---- ---- ---- à la Duchesse, 324

---- ---- ----, boiled, 324

---- ---- ----, braised, 324

---- ---- ----, roast, 325

---- ---- ----, rolled, 325

Nectar, 173, 202

---- cordial, 187

---- syrup, 177

Nectarines, 569, 573, 574

----, keeping, 121

Negus, 206

Nelson’s rifle-back grate, 65

Nesselrode pudding, 418

Nestlé’s milk food, 752

Nettle beer, 202

---- wine, 202

Nettlerash, 823

Nettles, 377

Neufchatel cheese, 166

Neun-loth pudding, 493

Newcastle pudding, 418

New-milk cheese, 160

New Zealand outfit, 727

Night-caps, 809

Nightlights, 83

Nightmare, 683

Night nursery walls, 102

Nightshade poisoning, 792

Night-work diet, 596

Nitrate of silver, 779

---- ---- ---- poisoning, 793

Nitre, 779

Nitric acid, 779

---- ---- poisoning, 793

---- ---- stains on hands, 533

Nivernaise soup, 248

Noiseless crockery, 756

Nonpareil bitters, 181

---- gas cooker, 236

Norfolk chine, 128

---- dumplings, 419

Normandy, butter-making in, 158

---- dress, 731

North American outfit, 727

---- Holland dress, 735

---- Wilts cheese, 165

Northerly rooms, warming

Norton tube wells, 14

Norway dress, 739

Nouilles soup, 260

November gardening, 935

---- markets, 580

Noyeau, 187

---- ratafia, 187

Nuckodee choofta, 502

Nudels, 493

Nuisance, law of, 962

Nurse, precautions for, in infectious cases, 816

Nursemaids, 754

Nursery, 746

----, aspect for, 3

----, furnishing, 101

---- medicines, 753

---- walls, 101

---- windows, 101

Nurse’s dress, 756

---- duties, 756

Nursing infectious cases, 814

---- mothers, 750

Nut cordial, 189

Nutmeg flavour, 479

Nutritive values of foods, 588

Oatmeal, 594

---- cakes, 214

---- drink, 202

---- pie, 419

---- pudding, 419

October gardening, 935

---- markets, 578

Odours of kitchen, 243

----, removing from hands, 53

Oilcloth, 97

---- from carpet, 524

Oil cooking, 237

---- lamps, 83

---- ----, mineral, 84

---- stoves, 79

Okra, 483

---- soup, 260

Old-fashioned dances, 652

Old hen, 351

Olive sauce, 471

Olives, 377

---- and eggs, 451

Omelet, fish, 270

---- soufflé, 456

Omelets, 454

----, plain, 455

----, ---- sweet, 455

----, savoury, 456

----, sweet, 456

Omnibus pudding, 419

Onion gruel, 769

---- posset, 769

---- salad, 385

---- sauce, 471

---- soup, 260

Onions, 377, 579, 582

----, keeping, 115

----, pickled, 135

Open-fire ranges, 222

---- grates, 61, 65

---- stove, 62

Opium poisoning, 793

Opodeldoc, 779

Optical delusions, 674

Orange bitters, 181

---- brandy, 187

---- champagne, 173

---- chips, 146, 419

---- compote, 419

---- cordial, 187

---- cream, 419

---- elixir, 187

---- essence, 178

---- flavour, 479

---- flower cakes, 506

---- ---- puffs, 506

---- ---- ratafia, 187

---- fool, 419

---- fritters, 419

---- gin, 188

---- jelly, 146, 419

---- marmalade, 146

---- mould, 420

---- pudding, 420

---- puffs, 420

---- salad, 420

---- sauce, 471

---- sponge, 420

---- syrups, 177

---- tart, 420

---- tartlets, 420

---- whey, 774

---- wine, 202

Orangeade, sulphuric, 205

Oranges, 565, 566, 568, 569, 570, 574, 582

---- keeping, 114

----, preserved, 147

Orchard Street pudding, 420

Organisms which ripen cheese, 161

Organised matter in water, 23

Orgeat cordial, 188

---- syrup, 177

Orris flavour, 479

Ortolans, 360, 566, 571, 573, 581

----, fried, 360

---- in cases, 360

----, roast, 360

----, stewed, 361

Oswego pudding, 420

Otranto Picture, 680

Ottoman, 98

---- boxes, 100

Oucha, 508

Outdoor games, 872

Outfits, Australian, 722

---- for abroad, 722

----, Indian, 724

----, New Zealand, 727

----, North America, 727

----, West Indian, 727

Outlet for rain-water pipes, 18

Ouzum yaprac dolmassi, 512

Oven, gas, 208

---- pyrometer, 207

---- -roasting, 224

----, steam, 208

---- ventilators, 224

Ovens, 207

----, cooking in, 224

---- in ranges, 222

----, roasting in, 240

----, water-pans for, 224

Overflow pipes of cisterns, 44

Oxalic acid poisoning, 793

Ox brains, 312

---- cheek, 312

---- head, 312

---- tail soup, 260

---- tails, 313

Oxford Grace cup, 202

---- mull, 202

---- punch, 202

Oyster cream, 288

---- croustades, 288

---- cutlets, 288

---- fricassée, 289

---- fritters, 289, 769

---- kromeskies, 289

---- olives, 289

---- patties, 289

---- pie, 290

---- rissolettes, 290

---- salad, 386

---- sauce, 471

---- sausages, 290

---- soufflé, 290

---- soup, 260

---- toast, 291

Oysters, 288, 488

----, angels on horseback, 288

----, broiled, 288

----, buying, 565, 566, 569, 570, 576, 580

---- devilled, 289

---- fried, 289

---- raw, 288

---- roasted, 290

----, salting, 128

---- scalloped, 290

---- skewered, 290

---- steamed, 291

---- stewed, 291

Pachîsî, 693

Packing eggs, 924

---- room (laundry), 859

Page of Charles II. dress, 735

---- ---- Henry IV. dress, 735

Pail filter, 26

Paint brushes, cleaning, 541

----, cleaning, 540

---- defaced by matches, 93

----, luminous, 83

---- poisoning, 793

----, removing from glass, 531

---- stains removing, 555

Painted walls, 99

Painting ceilings, 99

Palestine soup, 261

Pan closets, 45

Pan dowdy, 483

Panada, chicken, 352

Pancakes, 420

----, samp, 432

----, snow, 432

Pans, kitchen, 237

Pantomime, 684

Pantry, 207

----, biscuits, 210

----, bread, 207

----, cakes, 210

----, fancy breads, 210

----, ovens, 207

----, shelves, 96

Paper, cleaning, 541

---- hangings, 99, 101

---- -stuffed pillows, 760

Paradise pudding, 421

Parchment cleaning, 542

Paregoric, 779

Parfait amour cordial, 188

Parkin, 215

Parkinson’s gas regulator, 88

---- ---- ---- burner, 89

Parlourmaid’s duties, 607

Parmesan cheese, 166

---- ---- soup, 261

Parochial matters, law of, 960

Parsley and butter, 471

---- ---- lemon sauce, 488

----, fried, 471

---- sauce, 471

Parsnip pudding, 493

---- wine, 203

Parsnips, 377, 565, 563, 582

Parson’s grate, 69

Parting cup, 203

Partridge, carving, 632

---- pie, 361

---- pudding, 362

----, roast, 362

---- salad, 362

Partridges, 361, 565, 566, 575, 580, 581

---- aux choux, 361

----, boiled, 361

----, braised, 361

----, broiled, 361

Passage walls, 96

Passover pudding, 505

Paste, dripping, 421

---- for patties, 421

----, puff, 421

Pastry, 387

---- for invalids, 772

Pasty, mutton, 325

Patching, 890, 901

Patient, disinfecting, 819

----, feeding, 768

----, temperature, 764

----, visitors, 758

Patties, fish, 271

Patty paste, 421

Paysanne soup, 267

Pea salad, 385

---- soup, 261

---- ----, mock, 258

Peach brandy, 188

---- cheese, 421

---- compote, 422

---- cordial, 189

---- cream, 422

---- flavour, 479

---- jam, 148

---- toast, 422

Peaches, 569, 573, 574, 576, 579

----, brandied, 147

----, keeping, 121

Pear flavour, 479

---- jelly, 148

---- soup, 261

---- syrup, 177

Pears, 565, 568, 569, 574, 576, 579, 582

----, keeping, 114, 115, 116

----, preserved, 148

----, stewed, 422

Peas, 377, 568, 569, 570, 572, 573

----, green, keeping, 119

Peebles’s gas regulator, 89

---- ---- ---- burner, 89

Pepper flavour, 479

---- pot, 472, 515

---- punch, 173, 515

----, testing, 521

Peppermint brandy, 188

---- cordial, 188

---- liqueur, 188

---- test for drains, 41

Pepper’s ghost, 676

Perambulators, 749

Perch, 291, 580

Perforated panes for ventilation, 56

Peripatetic pudding, 422

Persian curry, 502

Person, disinfecting, 819

Peruvian bitters, 181

Petroleum engines, 950

---- lamps, 84

---- safety lamps, 84

Phantasmagoria, 676

Pheasant, 362, 565, 566, 578, 580, 581

----, carving, 632

----, roast, 362

---- with truffles, 362

Phosphorus for safety light, 93

---- poisoning, 793

Photographic plates, cleaning, 530

Physic, taking, 776

Physical comfort in schools, 867

---- experiments, 671

---- training, 867

Piccalilli, 135

Pickled bloaters, 487

---- fish, 503

---- pork, 128

---- salmon, 129

---- sprats, 131

Pickles, mixed, 135

----, season for making, 573

----, testing, 521

Pickling, 132

---- cabbage, 132

---- chutney, 132

---- cucumbers, 133

---- gherkins, 133

---- grape leaves, 133

---- grapes, 133

---- hips, 144

---- lemon, 134

---- limes, 145

---- mushrooms, 135

---- nasturtiums, 135

---- onions, 135

---- samphire, 135

---- tomato, 136

---- vinegar, 136

---- walnuts, 137

Picture frames, cleaning, 545

Pictures, cleaning, 542

Piedmont tartlets, 422

Pigeon and beefsteak pie, 363

----, carving, 630

Pigeons, 570, 581

----, keeping, 927

Pigs, 917

----, breed, 917

----, breeding, 918

----, fatting, 918

----, feeding, 919

---- feet, 335

---- liver, 335

---- styes, 917

----, sucking-, 337

Pike, 291, 580

---- baked with sour cream, 291

----, boiled, 291

----, broiled, 292

----, carbonade, 292

----, fried, 292

---- larded, 292

----, roast, 292

---- sauce, 292

---- soup, 488

----, soused, 292

----, stewed, 292

----, stewed, with butter sauce, 488

Pikelets, 422

Pilau, 500, 513

----, fish, 500

----, fowl, 501

----, fruit, 501

Pilchards, 291, 576

Pilemaignes, 508

Pilgrim and Saint, 684

Pillows, 98, 702

Pills, taking, 777

Pimples, 822

Pinaree, 516

Pine drink, 516

Pineapple cream, 423

---- flavour, 479

---- fritters, 423

---- ice cream, 443

---- jam, 148

---- jelly, 148, 423

---- preserve, 148

---- syrup, 177

---- toast, 423

Pineapples, 569, 574, 576, 582

----, keeping, 121

Pinnated grouse, 565

Pipe drains, 52

---- ----, faults of, 53

---- ----, joining, 53

---- ----, kinds of, 53

---- smoking, 606

Pipes, coil, for heating, 81

----, discharge, 38

---- for conveying water, 19

---- ---- rain-water, 17

----, frozen, 847

----, gas, 85

---- ----, testing, 92

----, hot-water, joining, 81

----, soil, 38

----, ventilation of, 38

Piquante sauce, 473

Pishpash, 502

Pistachio nuts, 582

Pitch of roof, 5

Plaice, 291, 565, 566, 569, 570, 573, 580

Plain darn, 895

Plaster, cleaning, 535

Plate glass against burglars, 108

Plate powders, 539

Plated goods, cleaning, 539

Playground, 870

Plays, arranging, 662

----, fitting the parts, 662

----, list of, 659

----, rehearsing, 663

----, selecting, 659

Playthings, 749

Plinsen, 493

Ploaré dress, 742

Plover, 363, 565, 566, 568, 580, 581

----, carving, 631

----, fillets, 363

---- on toast, 363

----, roast, 363

Plover’s eggs, 570, 581

Plum brandy, 188

---- cake, 215

---- flavour, 479

---- jam, 149

---- pudding, 423

---- ---- sauce, 472

---- purée, 424

---- sauce, 462

---- soup, 261

---- tart, 424

Plums, 576, 579

----, bottled, 148

----, bottling, 138

---- in brandy, 149

---- ---- syrup, 149

---- ---- vinegar, 149

----, keeping, 121

----, preserved, 149

Plush velvet furniture, 98

Poached eggs, 457

Poison dogwood, 793

---- ivy, 793

Poisonous bites, 781

Poisons, 791

Poivrade sauce, 473

Poker, 694

Polish bézique, 686

---- dishes, 506

---- dress, 731

---- sauce, 472

---- soup, 261

Pomeranian soup, 262

Pont l’évêque cheese, 166

Poor knights, 424

---- man’s soup, 262

Poos-pass, 352

Popcorn candy, 439

Poppy poisoning, 793

Porcelain cooking vessels, 239

Pork and beans, 483

---- ---- kidney pudding, 335

----, buying, 565, 567, 575, 578, 580

----, carving, 627

---- chops, 336

---- croquettes, 336

----, pickled, 128

---- pie, 336

----, roast, 336

---- sausages, 336

Porker’s head, salting, 129

Porous pottery filters, 32

Porridge, 215, 594

Port du Salut cheese, 167

Port wine jelly, 770

Porter jelly, 424, 770

Pot au feu, 262

---- ---- ----, beef, 313

---- pourri, 652

Potage, 242

Potash poisoning, 793

Potassium bichromate stains on hands, 533

---- oxalate poisoning, 793

Potato balls, 378

---- cakes, 378

---- cheese, 446

---- chops, 769

---- omelets, 455

---- pie, 424

---- pudding, 425

---- rissoles, 378

---- salad, 386

---- soup, 262

Potatoes, 565, 568, 570, 572, 573, 576, 578

---- à la Russe, 378

---- au gratin, 378

----, calecannon, 378

---- for bread, 208

----, fried, 378

----, keeping boiled, 113

----, mashed, 378

----, stewed, 378

---- with cream, 377

Pots, kitchen, 237

Potted beef, 125, 313

---- bloaters, 126

---- char, 126

---- cheese, 446

---- larks, 359

---- shrimps, 130

---- sprats, 131

---- trout, 132

Pottery filters, 32

Potting butter, 159

Pouf berek, 513

Poultices, 761

Poultry, buying, 565, 566, 568, 569, 571, 573, 575, 578, 580, 581

----, carving, 628

----, cooking, 344

----, eating, 633

----, hanging, 344

----, keeping, 113

---- lice, 561

---- soup, 250, 263

Pound cake, 216

Powders, taking, 777

Prassas, 513

Prawns, 292, 573

----, aspic, 292

Precautions after floods, 54

Prepared chalk, 779

Preserving barberries, 139

---- beetroot, 139

---- crab-apples, 141

---- cranberries, 142

---- cherries, 141

---- citrons, 141

---- cucumbers, 142

---- figs, 142

---- ginger, 142

---- hips, 144

---- jams and jellies, 137

---- limes, 145

---- melons, 146

---- oranges, 147

---- pears, 148

---- plums, 149

---- quinces, 150

---- strawberries, 152

---- walnuts, 153

President’s pudding, 425

Pressed beef, 313

Primrose pudding, 425

---- vinegar, 136

---- wine, 203

Prince’s pudding, 425

Printing of school-books, 863

Prints, cleaning, 543

Processes of cookery, 240

Prospect for dwelling, 2

Provençal ratafia, 188

Prune cake, 425

---- flavour, 479

---- jelly, 149

---- mould, 425

---- preserve, 150

---- sauce, 472

Prunes, stewed, 425

Prussian cake, 216

Prussic acid poisoning, 792

Ptarmigan, 581

----, carving, 633

Pudding sauce, 473

Puddings, 387

---- for invalids, 773

Puff paste, 421, 503

Pulled fish, 271

Pumpkin, 378

---- jam, 150

---- pie, 483

---- soup, 263

Pumps, 20

----, deep-well, 22

----, dimensions for, 21

----, fixing suction pipe, 21

----, lift and force, 22

----, simple lift, 20

----, suction pipe, 20

----, working capacity, 20

----, working figures, 23

Punch, 203

---- jelly, 426

----, pepper, 173

---- without liquor, 775

Punishments, 868

Purification of water, 16, 23

Purifying air, 57

Purimacos cement, 233

Purity of drinking-water, test for, 24

Purses, 503

Putting electric bell together, 107

---- out candle, 83

---- ---- gas, 85

---- ---- lamp, 84

---- up butter, 158

Pyrogallol poisoning, 793

Pyrometer, bakers’, 207

Quadrille mazurka dance, 653

Quails, 363, 571, 573, 581

---- in cases, 363

----, roast, 363

Quality of food needed, 583

Quantity of food needed, 583

Quay pudding, 397

Queen Adelaide’s pudding, 426

---- Mab’s pudding, 426

Queen’s biscuits, 217

---- cake, 217

---- drops, 217

---- gingerbread, 217

Quenelle soup, 263

Quenelles, fish, 271

Quiet in sickroom, 756

Quin sauce, 473

Quince and apple tart, 389

---- cakes, 426

---- cordial, 189

---- jam, 150

---- jelly, 150

---- marmalade, 150

---- ratafia, 188

Quinces, brandied, 150

----, preserved, 150

Quinine, taking, 777

Quinsy, 802

Quoits, 882

Quoormah, 502

Rabbit, carving, 630

---- pie, 365

---- with onion sauce, 365

Rabbits, 363, 565, 566, 571, 573, 578, 581

----, baked, 364

----, boiled, 364

----, curried, 364

----, cutlets, 364

----, fricassée, 364

----, stewed, 365

Racking off wine, 190

Racquet court, 883

Radishes, 582

Rahat lukum, 440

Railroad liqueur, 188

Railway pudding, 426

Rain machine, 656

Rainfall, 13

Rain-water, 13

----, catching, 15

---- cisterns, 15, 16

----, disposal of, 42

---- dissolves lead, 17

---- gutters, 42

---- pipes, 17

---- ----, outlet, 18

---- ----, smell from, 42

----, precautions in storing, 17

---- separator, 16

Raised pie in china mould, 426

---- waffles, 487

Raisin flavour, 480

---- pudding, 427

---- wine, 203

Raisins, 565, 582

Ramakins, 447

Rancid butter, 159

Ranges, cooking, 221

Rarebits, 449

Raspberries, 572, 574

----, bottling, 138

Raspberry and currant tartlets, 427

---- brandy, 188

---- cordial, 189

---- custard, 427

---- essence, 179

---- flavour, 480

---- jam, 137

---- jelly, 151

---- sauce, 473

---- syrup, 177

---- vinegar, 137

Rates and taxes, 957

Rat poison, antidotes, 793

Rats, 561

---- eating through leaden pipes, 53

---- in drains, 51, 53

---- not stopped by siphon traps, 53

Ravigote sauce, 473

Ravioli, 427

Raw oysters, 288

Red cabbage, 379

---- colouring for soda-water syrups, 176

---- currant cordial, 189

---- ---- jam, 137

---- ---- jelly, 151

---- herrings, 127

---- mullet, 287

---- ----, baked, 287

---- ----, broiled, 287

---- ----, stewed, 287

---- ----, stuffed, 287

---- ratafia, 189

Reed birds, 571

Reflectors, 83

Refooting, 901

Refreshments, miscellaneous, 646

Refuse foundations, 2

Regenerative gas burners, 90

Regulation of exercise, 871

Removing ring from finger, 706

---- stoppers, 562

Rennet extract, 160

---- for cheese-making, 159

Renovating, 521

Rent of house, 956

Renting a house, 955

Rep darn, 897

Repairs to house, law of, 956

Reprise perdue darn, 897

Restorative jelly, 770

---- soup, 773

Restoring sour beer, 180

Returned Mariner, 679

Reverberations in rooms, reducing, 8

Rhenish cup, 203

Rheumatism, 821

Rhubarb, 566, 572, 779

---- and orange marmalade, 152

----, bottled, 151

----, bottling, 138

---- cream, 427

---- flummery, 427

---- fool, 427

---- fritters, 428

---- jam, 151

---- jelly, 151, 428

---- mould, 428

---- pudding, 428

----, stewed, 428

---- wine, 204

---- with figs, 428

Rib darn, 900

Rice and carrot soup, 264

---- ---- pea soup, 264

---- ---- sorrel soup, 264

---- ---- tomato soup, 264

----, boiled, 428, 502

----, buying, 577

---- cream, 771

---- croquettes, 428

----, empress, 429

---- fritters, 429

---- gruel, 769

----, kedgeree, 429

---- mange, 429

---- meringue, 429

----, moulded, with mushrooms, 429

---- omelets, 456

---- pie, 430

---- pound cake, 217

---- pudding, 388, 430

----, savoury, 430

---- shape, 430

---- soufflé, 430

---- soup, 263

---- sweet dish, 430

---- waffles, 486

---- water, 775

Richelieu pudding, 430

Richmond maids of honour, 431

Ricotta, 504

Ring, removing from finger, 706

Ringworm, 824

Rinsing machine, 854

Ripening cheese, 161

---- cream, 157

Rippingille’s oil cooker, 237

Risotto, 431, 504

Roach, 293

----, broiled, 293

----, stewed, 293

Roasting, 240

---- -ovens, 240

Robert sauce, 473

Roberts’s rain-water separator, 16

---- terra-cotta stoves, 73

Robinson’s groats, 752

Rolled herrings, 281

---- neck of mutton, 325

---- veal, 342

Rolls, French, 213

Roman pudding, 431

---- punch, 189

Roof, dachpappe, 6

----, dwelling, 5

----, felt, 6

---- gutters, 17, 42

----, metallic, 7

----, pitch of, 5

----, shingles, 6

----, slate, 6

----, thatch, 5

----, tiles, 7

---- ventilators, 59

----, Willesden paper, 6

Rook pie, 365

Rooms, conserving heat in, 60

----, cooling, 59

----, disinfecting, 820

---- for children, 746

----, scenting, 652

----, situations for, 3

----, warming northerly, 77

Roots, keeping, 113, 122

Roquefort cheese, 167

Rose cordial, 189

---- flavour, 480

---- syrup, 178

Rotary washing machine, 852

Rout biscuits, 217

---- cake, 217

Rowan berries, keeping, 122

---- jelly, 152

---- syrup, 178

Royale soup, 252

Rugs, cleaning, 528

Rules for grates, 62

Rum butter, 473

---- omelets, 456

---- shrub, 189

Rumford-Teale grate, 69

Run patch, 891

Rush cream cheese, 160

Rusks, 217

----, sweet, 219

Russian dishes, 507

---- dress, 731

---- jelly, 431

---- salad, 386

Rustless iron water-pipes, 20

Saccharine aerated drinks, 171

Saddle of lamb, 326

---- ---- mutton, 326

Saddles, cleaning, 534

Sætersdal dress, 739

Safe tray for w.c.’s, 46

Safety lamps, domestic, 84

---- light (phosphorus), 93

---- valves for electric light, 95

Saffron buns, 218

Sage cheese, 160

Sago, buying, 578

---- gruel, 410

----, keeping, 114

---- milk, 774

---- pudding, 431

---- soup, 264

---- wine soup, 493

Sail skating, 883

St. Honoré pudding, 431

St. John’s bread flavour, 480

Salad dressings, 379, 382

----, eating, 635

----, fish, 271

Salads, 382

Sally lunns, 218

Salmagundy, 516

Salmon, 293

---- à la Montpelier, 293

---- au bleu, 293

---- ---- gratin, 293

----, boiled, 293

----, broiled, 293

---- boudin, 294

----, buying, 565, 566, 568, 569, 570, 571, 573, 576

---- cakes, 294

----, carving, 621

---- chaudfroid, 294

---- croquettes, 294

---- cutlets, 295

----, devilled, 295

----, grilled, 295

----, kippered, 129

---- kromeskies, 295

---- mayonnaise, 295

----, pickled, 129

---- pie, 295

---- salad, 296

----, salting, 129

----, scalloped, 296

---- trout, 568, 570, 573

Salsenaugen, 494

Salsify, 582

----, boiled, 379

----, fried, 379

----, scolloped, 379

Salt, 594

---- beef, 314

---- cod, mashed, 276

---- fish, 296

---- of lemon poisoning, 793

---- ---- sorrel poisoning, 793

Salted sprats, 131

---- tongues, 131

Salting bacon, 125

---- bath chaps, 125

---- beef, 125

---- hams, 127

---- herrings, 127

---- oysters, 128

---- porker’s head, 129

---- salmon, 129

---- sardines, 129

Saltpetre, 779

Salts for heating, 82

Sal volatile, 779

Samp, 410

---- pancakes, 432

---- pudding, 432

Samphire, pickled, 135

Sand filters, 26

---- torte, 494

Sanitary Engineering Co.’s ventilator, 58

Sanitation, detecting faults in, 40

---- of dwellings, 35

Santonine, 779

Sardine eggs, 297

---- salad, 297, 387

---- sandwiches, 297

---- sauce, 488

---- toast, 297

Sardines, 296, 576

---- à la maître d’hôtel, 297

----, curried, 296

----, devilled, 296

----, dressed, 296

----, grilled, 297

----, salting, 129

Sarsaparilla beer, 204

---- mead, 189

---- syrup, 178

Sasatijs, 487

Sassafras flavour, 480

Saucepans, 237

----, cleaning, 238

----, enamelled, 238

----, tin, 238

Sauces, 460

---- for game, 345

---- ---- pike, 292

----, truffle, 380

----, white, 379

Sauerbraten, 494

Sausage rolls, 308

Sausages as food, 599

----, making, 129

----, mutton, 326

----, pork, 336

Saving life at fires, 110

Savory and Moore’s food, 752

Savouries, eating, 634

Savoury cutlets, 319

---- eggs, 458

---- omelets, 456

---- rice, 430

---- ---- omelets, 456

Savoy biscuits, 218

---- cabbage soup, 264

---- cake, 218

Savoyard soup, 264

Savoys, 565, 582

Sawyer’s filters, 27

Saxon dress, 728

Scalded cream, 403

Scalds, 785

Scale pans, cleaning, 537

Scalloped beef, 314

---- oysters, 290

---- salmon, 296

Scallops, 297

----, baked, 297

----, fried, 298

----, stewed, 298

Scenting rooms, 652

Schabzieger cheese, 167

Schmarn batter, 494

Schmarollen, 494

School benches, 862

---- books, 863

---- cake, 214

---- clothes, 717

---- desks, 862

---- hours, 865

---- punishments, 868

---- work, 865

Schoolroom, 862

----, literature, 869

Schools, foreign, 868

Scones, 218

----, soda, 219

Scorzonera, 379

----, fried, 379

---- with cheese, 379

Scotch broth, 265

---- eggs, 458

---- kale, 565, 582

---- rarebit, 449

Scottish dishes, 509

Scrag of mutton à la russe, 325

Scrambled eggs, 458

Scrap soup, 264

Scullery walls, 96

Sea bathing, 829

---- bream, 565, 578

Seakale, 379, 566, 569, 582

Seamless patch, 892

Sea-sickness, 822

Seaside lodgings, 746

Seasons, 563

Second-hand furniture, 97

Seconds flour, 209

Seed cake, 218

Selecting a play, 659

Self-filling boilers, 845

Semolina cream, 771

----, keeping, 114

---- soup, 265

Separators for rain-water, 16

September gardening, 934

---- markets, 575

Servants’ bedrooms, 700

----, illness of, 960

----, laws of, 959

---- sitting-room, 96

Servian dress, 731, 735

Service pipes, 20

Serviettes, folding, 617

Setting eggs, 921

Sévigné soup, 250

Sewage microbes in water, 24

Sewer gas entering by the drains, 39

---- ---- reaching cisterns, 44

Sewn and felled patch, 890

---- patch, 891

Shad, 298, 568

Shaking hands, 648

Shallot omelet, 456

Sham champagne, 204

Sharp sauce, 473

Shaving, 708

Shchi, 508

Sheep’s brains, 327

---- heads, 327

---- ----, carving, 627

---- ----, singeing, 328

---- ---- soup, 265

---- heart, 328

---- liver, 328

---- ---- à la Française, 329

---- ---- pudding, 329

---- pluck, 329

---- tongue, 329

---- trotters, 329

Sheepskins, cleaning, 529

Sheets, 702

Shellfish, carving, 622

Shelves, dairy, 154

---- for storing fruit, 116

---- in pantries, 96

Sherbet syrup, 178

Sherry cobbler, 204

---- ---- syrup, 178

Shikaree pie, 346

Shingle roof, 6

Shoes, 711

Shortbread, 218

Shortcake, strawberry, 434

Shoulder of mutton, 330, 485

---- ---- ----, boned, 330

Shrewsbury cake, 218

Shrimp sauce, 474

---- soup, 265

Shrimps, buying, 565, 573

----, potted, 130

----, preserved, 130

Shrub cordial, 189

Shutters, 108

---- of nursery, 746

Siberian pilemaignes, 508

---- whist, 696

Sickbed, 758

Sick headache, 811

Sickroom, 755

---- accessories, 761

----, aspect for, 3

----, books, 826

---- foods, 768

---- thermometer, 764

---- visitors, 758

Sideboards, 98

Sight, defective, 809

Silber lamp, 83

Silicated carbon filters, 28

Silk goods, cleaning, 552

Silver goods, cleaning, 539

---- lace, cleaning, 540

---- nitrate stains on hand, 533

---- torch, 83

Simnel cake, 219

Sine qua non range, 230

Singeing sheep’s head, 328

---- the hair, 809

Singing hinny, 432

Single Gloucester cheese, 165

---- web darn, 899

Sink traps, 45

---- waste pipes, 45

Sinks, 45, 50

----, bell traps in, 50

----, connecting to drains, 39

---- trapped gullies for, 50

Siphon in gas pipes, 85

---- traps, 46

---- ---- useless against rats, 53

Sir Watkin Wynn’s pudding, 432

Site for dwelling, 1

Sitting fowls, 922

Sitting-rooms, aspect for, 3

---- ----, servants’, 96

Situations for rooms, 3

Skate, 298, 565, 578, 580, 582

Skating, 885

Skewered oysters, 290

Skimming milk, 156

Skin complaints, 822

Skink soup, 509

Skins, cleaning, 528

Slap-dashing walls, 9

Slate cisterns, 19

---- roof, 6

Slates bedded in cement, 7

Sleep, 703

----, controlling, 703

---- for children, 749

----, length of, 703

Sleeplessness, 703

Sleight of hand tricks, 664

Sligowitz liqueur, 188

Slip and dip, 516

Slip-stitched patch, 890

Sloe gin, 189

Sloke, 376

Slops in sickroom, 755

Slow combustion grate, 66

---- ---- stoves, 72

Slugs, 561

Smallpox, 813

Smell of burning kitchen waste, to avoid, 49

---- conveyed by bell-wire pipes, 49

---- from cooking, 243

---- from rain-water pipes, 42

Smelts, 298, 565, 566, 568, 570, 578, 580, 582

----, fried, 298

Smith’s gas regulator, 89

Smoke, breathing in, 110

---- test for drains, 41

Smoked geese, 130

---- neats’ tongues, 130

Smoker’s drink, 204

Smoking and health, 666

---- apparatus, 123

---- chimney (for bacon), 124

---- fish, 124

---- foods, 123

----, fuel for, 125

---- herrings, 124

---- mackerel, 124

---- -room, aspect for, 3

---- sprats, 124

Smoky chimney, 80

Snails, 561

Snake bites, 781

Snakes, 562

----, excluding from dwellings, 8

Snipe, 365, 565, 566, 568, 580, 581

----, bisque, 365

----, carving, 631

----, fried, 366

---- on toast, 366

---- pie, 366

----, roast, 366

Snoring, 705

Snowballs, 432

Snow cake, 432

---- mould, 432

---- pancakes, 432

Snowdon pudding, 432

Soap dissolver, 851

Socks, 711

Soda acetate stove, 82

---- poisoning, 793

---- scones, 219

---- water syrups, red colouring for, 176

Sofas, 98

Soft soap to remove grease from drains, 50

---- water, 519

Soil for dwelling, 1

---- pipes, 38, 48

---- ----, joints in, 49

---- ----, ventilation of, 38, 49

Sole à la maître d’hôtel, 298

---- ---- Normande, 298

----, aspic, 298

---- au gratin, 299

---- au vin blanc, 299

----, broiled, 299

----, carving, 622

----, consommé, 299

---- en matelote, 299

----, fillets, 299

----, fricassée, 299

----, fried, 300

---- in brown sauce, 300

---- in cases, 300

---- in jelly, 298

---- roulettes, 300

---- salad, 300

---- savalada, 300

----, stewed, 301

----, water souchet, 301

---- with ravigote sauce, 301

Soles, 298, 565, 566, 568, 570, 573, 578, 580, 582

Soothing syrup poisoning, 793

Sore throat, 802

Sorrel, 380, 568, 569, 572, 582

---- and eggs, 451

---- drink, 516

---- sauce, 489

---- soup, 265

Soubise sauce, 474

Soufflé, 433

Soup-herbs flavour, 480

Soups, 244

----, apple, 247

----, apple and currant, 247

----, artichoke, 247

----, asparagus, 247

----, barley, 247

----, barszcz, 261

----, batter-cream, 247

----, bean, 256

----, beef-tea, 258

----, beer, 247

----, birds’-nests, 247

----, bonne femme, 248, 267

----, bone, 247

----, bones, keeping, 112

----, brunoise, 248, 267

----, cabbage, 264

---- calf’s head, 248

----, carrot, 248

----, cauliflower, 249

----, celery, 249

----, cheap, 249

----, cheese, 261

----, cherry, 250

----, chestnut, 250

----, chicken, 250

----, chiffonade, 267

----, clarifying stock, 246

----, clear, 251

----, clear stock, 245

----, clear, with custard, 252

----, clear, with poached eggs, 252

----, clear, with quenelles, 252

----, cock-a-leekie, 253

----, cockle, 253

----, coconut, 253

----, colbert, 267

----, common stock, 244

----, Condé, 256

----, conger-eel, 253

----, conti, 257

----, crayfish, 253

----, Crécy, 248

----, croûte au pot, 254

----, cussy, 260

----, custard, 254

----, dried turtle, 267

----, eating, 633

----, faubonne, 267

----, fish stock, 246

----, Flemish, 254

----, French, 254

----, fried, 254

----, game, 254

----, giblet, 254

----, gniocchi, 255

----, gravy, 255

----, ---- stock, 246

----, green corn, 255

----, ---- pea, 255

----, grouse, 255, 354

----, hare, 255

----, haricot, 256

----, herb, 256

----, herring, 256

----, hochepot, 260

----, hotchpotch, 256

----, hunter’s, 256

----, imperial, 256

----, Italian, 257

----, Jerusalem artichoke, 261

----, julienne, 257

----, keeping, 113

----, kidney, 257

----, leek, 257

----, lentil, 257

----, lettuce, 258

----, Liebig’s beef tea, 258

----, liver, 258

----, lobster, 258

----, macaroni, 258

----, milk, 258

----, minestrone, 257

----, mock pea, 258

----, ---- turtle, 259

----, mulligatawny, 259

----, mussel, 259

----, mutton broth, 259

----, nivernaise, 248

----, Nouilles, 260

----, okra, 260

----, onion, 260

----, oxtail, 260

----, oyster, 260

----, Palestine, 261

----, Parmesan cheese, 261

----, paysanne, 267

----, pea, 261

----, ----, mock, 258

----, pear, 261

----, plum, 261

----, Polish, 261

----, Pomeranian, 262

----, poor man’s, 262

----, potato, 262

----, pot au feu, 262

----, poultry, 250, 263

----, pumpkin, 263

----, quenelle, 263

----, rice, 263

----, ---- and carrot, 264

----, ---- ---- pea, 264

----, ---- ---- sorrel, 264

----, ---- ---- tomato, 264

---- royale, 252

----, sago, 264

----, Savoyard, 264

----, Savoy cabbage, 264

----, Scotch broth, 265

----, scrap, 264

----, semolina, 265

----, Sévigné, 250

----, sheep’s head, 265

----, shrimp, 265

----, sorrel, 265

----, spinach, 265

----, spring, 265

----, strawberry, 266

----, sweetbread, 266

----, tapioca, 266

----, tea-kettle broth, 266

----, tomato, 266

----, turnip, 266

----, turtle, 266

----, ----, mock, 259

----, veal stock, 246

----, vegetable, 267

----, ---- -marrow, 267

----, ---- stock, 246

----, vermicelli, 267

----, Victoria, 267

----, white, 267

----, ---- stock, 246

Sour beer, restoring, 180

---- dough, curing, 208

---- milk, 113

Sous, 516

Soused bream, 273

---- carp, 274

---- pike, 292

---- sprats, 302

---- trout, 302

Sowens, 509

Spacha, 516

Spanish bitters, 181

---- dance, 653

---- dishes, 509

---- dress, 745

Spatzen, 494

Spectre Dog, 682

---- Workman, 681

Spectre’s Kiss, 684

Spencer corona, 90

Spencer’s magnetic carbide filter, 29

Spice gingerbread, 219

---- nuts, 219

Spiced bacon, 125

---- beef, 126, 314

Spinach, 380, 565, 569, 570, 579, 582

---- greening, 474

----, keeping, 113

----, mashed, 380

---- omelet, 456

---- soup, 265

Spirit lamps, 83

---- of minderus, 779

---- of nitre, 779

---- of salt poisoning, 793

Spirit-rapping séance, 681

Spirits as food, 602

Sponge cake, 219

---- ---- pudding, 433

Sponge, cleaning, 545

Sponge pudding, 433

Spongy iron as a filter, 24, 30

Sprains, 793

Sprat pie, 301

---- toast, 302

Sprats, 301, 580

----, baked, 301

----, fried, 301

----, patties, 301

----, pickled, 131

----, potted, 131

----, rissoles, 302

----, salted, 131

----, smoking, 124

----, soused, 302

Spring bed, 702

Spring soup, 265

Springs, 13, 14

----, seasonal variation, 14

Sprouts, 565

Spruce beer, 204

Spurge laurel poisoning, 793

Squab pie, 331

Square eights dance, 653

Stables, 910

Stack-pipes, 42

Stage illusions, 656

Stained floors, 96

Stains, removing, 553

Staircase curtains, 98

Stanford’s pipe drains, 53

Starching, 548

Stays, 710

Steam baths, 831

---- boiler, 234

---- cooking, 233

---- heating, 81, 82

---- laundries, 849

---- oven, 208

---- power, 940

---- washing, 848

---- on windows, curing, 83

Steamed oysters, 291

Steatite gas burners, 85, 87

Steel, cleaning, 538

Steinlach dress, 731

Stewing, 242

---- fish, 269

Stewpans, copper, 238

Stews as food, 599

Sticklerspersgrod, 494

Still lemonade, 205

Stilton cheese, 165

Stings, 780

Stock, 244

----, clarifying, 246

----, clear, 245

----, fish, 246

----, gravy, 246

----, veal, 246

----, vegetable, 246

----, white, 246

Stockings, 711

Stölle, 495

Stomach bitters, 181

---- pump, 791

Stone cisterns, 19

----, cleaning, 535

Stoneware drains, 52

Stopped drains, 38, 50

Stoppers, removing, 562

Stopping chinks in floors, 56

---- ---- in windows, 56

Storing ice, 114

Stott’s gas regulator, 88

Stouffate, 509

Stoughton bitters, 181

Stoves, American, 70

----, close-fire, 71

----, convoluted, 74

----, German, 74

----, gill, 73

----, hot-air, 75

----, oil, 79

----, open, 62

----, slow combustion, 72

----, underfed, 71

Sracchino cheese, 166

Strange Christmas-box, 679

Straw goods, cleaning, 522

---- palliasse, 701

Strawberries, 568, 569, 570, 572, 574

----, bottling, 138

----, preserved, 152

Strawberry chartreuse, 433

---- cordial, 189

---- cream, 433

---- essence, 179

---- flavour, 480

---- ice cream, 443

---- jam, 137, 152

---- jelly, 152

---- short-cake, 434

---- soup, 266

---- syrup, 178

---- tartlets, 434

Strengthening darn, 897

Stretchers, 787

Strode’s gas regulator, 89

Strudels, 495

Strychnine poisoning, 793

Stuffed artichokes, 372

---- cabbage, 374

---- John Dory, 281

---- red mullet, 287

---- specimens, cleaning, 547

Stuffing, chestnut, 367

----, truffle and chestnut, 366

Stuffings, 460

Sturgeon, 582

Styes in eyes, 809

Styles and titles, 648

Suburek, 513

Sucking pig, 337

---- ----, carving, 627

Suction lamps, 83

---- pipe of pumps, 20

Suet keeping, 112

---- pudding, 343, 434

Suffocation, 790

Sugar, buying, 577

---- of lead poisoning, 793

Sugg’s gas regulating burner, 89

Sulphate of copper, 779

---- ---- potash, 779

---- ---- quinine, 779

---- ---- zinc, 779

Sulphuric acid poisoning, 793

---- ether, 779

---- orangeade, 205

Sultanas, 582

Summer beer, 179

---- drinks, 205

---- milk, 156

Sun burner, 90

Sunlight, 82

Sunstroke, 794

Suppers, 646

Swan, 581

Sweating, excessive, 824

Swedish dance, 653

Sweeping carpet, 525

Sweet dishes, 387

---- omelets, 456

---- potatoes, 568

---- rice omelets, 456

---- rusks, 219

---- sauce, 474

Sweetbread, 343, 569

---- soup, 266

----, stewed, 344

Sweetmeat nuts, 219

Swill-tubs condemned, 49

Swimming, 886

---- dresses, 718

Swiss cream, 156

---- darn, 898

---- eggs, 459

---- omelets, 457

---- pastry, 434

---- pudding, 434

---- roll, 435

Switches for electric light, 95

Swizzle, 516

Syllabubs, 205

Syrian curtains, 98

Syrup for ices, 441

---- of senna, 779

Syrups, candying, 175

---- for aerated drinks, 173

----, fruit, preventing fermentation of, 175

----, preparing, 174

----, preserving, 175

----, soda-water, red colouring for, 176

Tables, drawing-room, 97

Tainted dripping, 112

---- meat, 112

Tamarind fish, 302, 503

Tanks, rain-water, 15, 16

Tansy pudding, 435

Tapestry carpets, 97

Tapioca and apples, 389

----, buying, 578

---- cream, 435

---- pudding, 435

---- snow, 435

---- soufflé, 435

---- soup, 266

Taps for drinking-water, 45

Tar, removing from hands, 533

---- stains, removing, 555

Tarragon vinegar, 137

Tartar emetic poisoning, 793

Tartare sauce, 474

Tauf, 513

Tauk dolmas, 513

Taxes, 957

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