XVIII. PALANQUINS, STRETCHERS, AMBULANCES, ETC…

XVIII. PALANQUINS, STRETCHERS, AMBULANCES, ETC

In many countries where it is difficult to keep riding or draught horses, or where the want of roads precludes the use of wheeled carriages, those who can afford to ride are borne upon the shoulders of men in conveyances more or less simple or elaborate; and not only do these vary much in different countries, but the mode of shouldering, and even the step of the bearers is as various as the fashion of the vehicle. The peculiar short trot of the palkee bearers differs from the elastic spring of the Zambesians when they carry in single file, and that again from their swinging walk or run when they carry in pairs--each man embracing his comrade, while the pole rests on the right shoulder of one and on the left of the other; while they walk on separate paths, about 3ft. apart, each man leaning inward, at an angle of 15 degrees or 20 degrees towards his comrade, just as the horse and rider lean inward in a circus.

The machila, or masheela, is simply a couch, slung by chains or leather thongs to a pole of female bamboo of the largest possible diameter, so that it may bear easily on the shoulders of the men, and not cut them, as a smaller pole would. Generally an awning of chintz or calico, spread on yards like a boat's awning, with curtains on either side, is attached to the bamboo; but sometimes, when the masheela is intended to be more strictly a private carriage, a sloping roof or pent-house of reeds is slung saddle-wise over the pole, completely screening the occupant from the public eye, while a small window on each side affords sufficient facility of observation from the interior. All the Portuguese on the Zambesi keep masheelas and sets of bearers, who generally have a tolerably easy time of it, their duty being to convey their master or mistress to and from the corn land, the church, or any house in the little town where an evening party is afoot or a morning call to be made.

When it is actually necessary to carry a sick or disabled man, a hammock may be extemporised, by rolling a small stone into each corner of a blanket, and thus forming a knob, or projection which will prevent the slipping of the cords or thongs with which it is made fast to the pole. We saw a young Dutch lad, under the influence of fever, carried by a couple of Zambesian natives in a skin hammock, two corners of which were fastened to a short cross-pole, or yard, at the head, while the other end was gathered up and tied altogether to the main or bearing pole.

The pressure of this pole on one shoulder was partially relieved by a stick held lever-wise over the other, so as to take a portion of its weight, as shown in our illustration; and, in connection with this, we may well remember the carrying stick of hawkers and packmen:--Smooth, round, and just thick enough to be grasped with comfort in the hand; then spreading to nearly 3in. in breadth as it curves gently over the shoulder, and again turning more decidedly upwards, to form a hook for the pack to hang upon. Almost anyone with ordinary ingenuity and a little patience could find out the most convenient form for himself.

Fig. 1, in the following series of sketches, is a hammock, either of canvas, like a seaman's, or of ornamental grass rope, like those of South America, Sierra Leone, or other places, where considerable taste is often shown in weaving in the different lace-like patterns of the borders or in arranging the various colours. The ends are spread by two sticks or stretchers, about 2ft. long; these may either be stitched or woven into the material, or simply kept in place by having the ends of the clews knotted round them. It is slung to a pole of female bamboo, which should be as light and of as large diameter as possible.

Fig. 2 is a cot, a most luxurious arrangement, which may be made up to any degree of simplicity or completeness. The bottom consists of one breadth of stout canvas, fully 6ft. in length, or more if for a very tall man. A piece about 1ft. in depth is then strongly seamed on to each end, and a similar piece along each side; and the upper edges of these should be turned down, and sewn into pipes capable of containing poles or stretchers of about 1-1/2in. in diameter. These pieces should not be stitched together at the edges, which meet when they are turned up, but should have eyelet holes and lacings, so that when not in use, or when laid down as the foundation for a bed, or taken apart to be washed, the canvas may lie like a flat sheet. The eyelet holes for the clews should be so made that each clew may encircle the stretcher in its canvas pipe and tie round it. The ends of the stretchers should have holes bored in them, so that they may be firmly, but not too stiffly, lashed together with small cord; and those at the bottom may either be secured in the same manner, or a regular frame of joiner's work may be made to fit it, and a web of stout sacking or of cords tightly interlaced, as in Fig. 6, may be substituted.

Fig. 3 is the common military stretcher, which may be thus made: Take 6ft. of 30in. wide stout canvas, draw a line with chalk or charcoal 6in. from each side and parallel to it, or fold and crease the canvas along a thread; turn each edge down to one of these marks, and stitch it so as to make a pipe of 6in. in circumference, into which a pole, somewhat smaller or a little less than 2in. in diameter, will slip easily in and out; these poles should be at least 8ft. or a trifle more to leave sufficient ends for the bearers. Then take two boards, 5in. broad, 1in. thick, and a little over 2ft. long; bore or cut in each two holes large enough to let the ends of the poles pass through; and with the nearest parts of their circumference, just 18in. apart, put them together, as shown in Fig. 3; when not in use, lay the boards in, as in Fig. 4, and roll them upon the stretcher; in this figure one of the poles is shown withdrawn from the side pipe. In active service one of these is usually carried by a soldier in the rear of his company; and if a comrade is wounded, four men carry him on the stretcher, while four more carry their muskets, and act, if necessary, as a relief. The wounded man's blanket and great coat serve for his pillow, and those of his comrades, if necessary, are used to cover or support him in any position his injury may require. A plot of ground, as smooth and as much sheltered from shot as possible, is selected. The sufferer is laid down, the poles are withdrawn from the pipes on each side, so that there may be no impediment to medical examination; and when the wound is dressed, the poles are once more inserted, and the man borne to the temporary or permanent hospital.

Fig. 5 shows a little addition we improvised in Damara land. We screwed clamps of wood upon the end pieces, and in them inserted other poles, the lower ends of which were short, and stout enough to serve as legs, and converted the stretcher into a low bedstead, while the upper supported a small awning, and were steadied by stays leading to the ends of the bearing poles. This was constructed for the purpose of bringing home a friend who had been wounded, at a distance; and during our journey towards the spot we used it nightly, and found it a most comfortable bed; it rolled up like the military stretcher, and the clamps of the awning poles increased its bulk very slightly.

Fig. 6 is the "kadel," or bed frame, usually slung in a Cape waggon, with two of the yokes, or more, if necessary, lashed under it as bearers.

Fig. 7 shows how the muskets of a small party may be used to carry a wounded comrade. The belts serve as lashings, and overcoats or blankets as bedding; or if grass, or small branches are available, a quantity may be cut, and a tolerably soft couch made of them. Of course it is quite possible that eight muskets could not be spared; in this case two only might be laid side by side, with three across them--one to support the head and shoulders, one under the hips, and the third under the knees, the belts passing as much as possible under the other portions of the body.

Fig. 8 indicates the use of lances and swords for the same purpose; the sketch is purposely made in the simplest possible form, in order to show more clearly the principle of construction. If more lances or swords are at hand, the possessors of them will see at any moment how to suit the comfort of the wounded man better than any details we could give would teach them.

The form of stretcher indicated in the accompanying engraving is worthy of remembrance: it resembles two short ladders, hinged side by side, and is furnished with stout straps, being often used with more regard to the security of the prisoner than to his comfort.

In some countries a couple of horses or donkeys are harnessed between the ends of two long poles or shafts, on the centre of which the load is supported, as shown in the annexed illustration. This arrangement might, under favourable circumstances, be made available for the carriage of a wounded man, or in a case of great emergency the ends of a blanket might be knotted together; and, two men being laid in the bights, the central part might be laid across the back of a horse, with one man hanging on each side, and secured with the best means available at the moment. Among civilised nations it would, perhaps, be better to leave the wounded to the mercy of a victorious enemy than to risk the extinction of life by such rough means; but in fighting savages no living man ought, under any circumstances, to be left in their power, and a soldier had better die under the rough, though kindly, efforts of his comrades to remove him than become a prisoner--to be kept alive as long as he is capable of enduring torture.

The Kaffirs, and we suppose most other savages, carry off not only their wounded, but also the dead, not from any motives of humanity, but simply to deprive the enemy of a trophy. Among some tribes a quantity of reeds are cut and made into a bundle, with the corpse inside; this is firmly lashed to a long pole, and is easily carried upon men's shoulders. When our late friend, C. J. Anderson, was wounded in his gallant and self-sacrificing attempt to free the Damaras from their Namaqua oppressors, we had to adopt a somewhat more elaborate arrangement. The fact that a limb had been shattered rendered it impossible that he could lie with comfort upon the yielding canvas of the stretcher (Fig. 5 of the group given on page 684); and, therefore, when it was found necessary to remove him, we sent to Objimbengue for planks, and with them made a level and unyielding surface, supported by cross battens, notched at each end, so as to lie securely on the bearing poles. On each side we raised one breadth of about 9in., making them work upon claw hinges of brass wire, so that they could either be turned down or entirely removed at pleasure; on these sides we screwed uprights or stanchions, with notches in their edges, so that crossbars could be laid in them (as may be seen in our full-page illustration), and raised or lowered from notch to notch as needful. One of these crossbars was near the head of the stretcher, so that he could occasionally rest his shoulders, by taking hold of it by partially lifting himself from his bed; and two others were nearer to the foot, for the purpose of slightly supporting and steadying a box, with falling sides, in which, for further security, we encased the shattered leg. When we halted to dress the wound the crossbars were first removed, the sides let down or taken away, the sides of the small box containing the limb also removed; while the awning was left spread, and occasionally blankets were stretched from trees to shield it from the direct action of the sun. When the dressing was completed everything was easily restored to its place, and a few points and lanyards, knotted in their proper places, made all fast again. The same engraving also shows a rude but not an uncomfortable form of litter, extemporised for a wounded Damara, from a forked branch, with the smaller twigs lopped off where they were in the way, or interwoven where they would serve to fill up a gap in the bed; other boughs and cross pieces were added, and a few skins, karosses, or blankets, converted it into a very comfortable couch.

Sometimes a man, though unable to walk, can sit and practically support himself; in this case two men may lay their muskets together, end for end, and hold them across between them for him to sit on, with his arms upon their shoulders; and even if they have no weapons at hand they may make him a very comfortable seat by joining their hands and arms, as shown in the above illustration.

Thus, the two bearers stand side by side, and half facing each other, No. 1 grasps his own right wrist with his left hand; No. 2 does the same; No. 1 then grasps the left wrist of No. 2 with his disengaged right hand, and this brings the right hand of No. 2 into the proper position to catch the left wrist of No. 1. In this easily extemporised chair they can bear a tolerably heavy man without undue strain on the muscles of their own arms; and when they become weary two others can at once take their places, or they may gain a little relief by interchanging the position of their right and left hands, while nothing can be more comfortable to a disabled man than the easy chair thus formed for him. Fig. 4 shows how a short pole can be used to form a seat-rest for carrying.

The mode of carrying used in mountainous countries by a chair strapped on the back of a porter, and still further secured by a band passing round his forehead, as shown at Fig. 5, might occasionally be found useful. The principle of the sedan, or of the electioneering chair, fastened on two fore and aft shoulder-poles, in a manner which any sailor could effect with a few bits of cord, should also be borne in mind, to be used or not, according to the necessity of the case.

{Bandages and medical appliances.}

In our illustration on p. 690, Fig. 1 represents the cross bandages applied to an injured head; and here we may remark, once for all, that in bandaging, as in knotting or lashing, simplicity is the essence of security. Let as many turns of the bandages be used as are absolutely necessary to cover and secure the dressings of the wound; all in addition are not only superfluous, but detrimental.

Fig. 2 (p. 690) shows the support for a dislocated shoulder or broken collar-bone: a roll or pad of calico is placed under the armpit, and secured by a bandage over the opposite shoulder; another bandage is then passed in figures-of-8 fashion round the arm and the body, in order to confine the arm close to the side. The arm of this figure, with the palm of the hand placed against the breast, as at Fig. 3 (p. 690), shows the position in which the limb should be placed in cases of fracture of the bones or other injury; the hand then lying between the prone and supine positions, and the bones and muscles assuming, without constraint, their natural relative position towards each other. This figure also shows the manner of applying a bandage to a taper limb. If the bandage were wound spirally round, one edge would be unduly tight while the other would be slack; therefore, at every turn round the limb a turn more or less decided is taken in the bandage, which thus accommodates itself easily and exactly to the shape of the limb.

In the next figure is shown another form of head bandage (Fig. 4), one part of which forms a loop, while the next, passing through it, is turned upwards at right angles over the head, and this is repeated until the whole, or as much of the scalp as is necessary, is covered. This is a very convenient form when, from any other injury, it is not advisable to pass a cross bandage under the chin.

Fig. 5 is the strapping or bandage for a broken jaw. It is made of sticking plaister, a hole is cut for the chin, and the ends are cut in swallow tails, to allow them to take the shape of the face they are laid on.

Fig. 6 is the bandage for a broken rib. If the body is at rest, the bones will assume their natural place, but the expansion and contraction of the chest in breathing disturbs and disunites them. Sometimes, therefore, the whole chest is tightly bandaged; but as it will answer the purpose just as well if the injured side is prevented from expanding, strips of adhesive plaister may be cut sufficiently long to reach from the sternum to the spine, and so to confine the wounded side and leave the other free.

If the back of the hand should be injured, it may be necessary to place a ball of calico or other soft substance in the palm of the hand, then closing the fingers upon it to bind the fist firmly down, as in Fig. 7.

If it is required to keep the elbow bent, a bandage may be applied, as in Fig. 8; this may be in case of cuts in the bend of the arm or similar injuries.

Figs. 8, 9, and 10 are =T= and cross bandages in case of injuries in the groin.

Fig. 11 is in case of a broken knee-cap. The limb must be supported with the foot as high as possible, so that there be no possibility of the muscles drawing asunder the parts of the patella, which must farther be drawn together by bands of sticking plaister, crossed over, to prevent the broken edges rising out of their place.

Fig. 12 is a many-tailed bandage. It may be made of several slips of calico stitched upon one, crossing them all in the centre; or, if the sore be of such a, nature that, it may be necessary to remove one or two without displacing the others, it is better simply to lay them on a flat sheet of calico or a small pillow made for the purpose, and gently introduced beneath the limb.

In the figure the bands nearest the knee are laid first on the pillow, the others overlap them as they go down, then that which is nearest to the toes is first lapped round the foot, and the others follow in succession to the knee; the last band alone needs fastening, and this is perhaps the neatest and most secure bandage known.

Fig. 13 is a cross, or figure-of-8 bandage, exceedingly useful when applied to the turn of a joint, as in the sketch.

{Splints, &c.}

Fig. 1, in the group of illustrations on p. 692, is in case of injury to the radius close to the wrist joint. It may be necessary to have a crooked splint and bend the hand on it, as shown in the figure. We believe it will more frequently be found advisable to place the palm of the hand to the splint; but this must be left in a great measure to the judgment and daily experience of the operator and his patient.

Fig. 2 is a splint, in case of fracture of the bones of the lower arm. There will also be a short splint on the inner side, and the arm must be supported by a sling.

Fig. 3 is an angled splint for injuries near the joint. It may be carried ready made of gutta percha, or may be extemporised with the best materials at hand.

Figs. 4 and 5 of the annexed illustrations are splints for the inner and outer bend of the arm; the outer may support the arm nearly to the wrist; the inner should be shorter; others should be ready made in gutta percha.

Figs. 6 and 7 are substitutes for them, extemporised from the smooth bark of a young tree, as near the size of the arm as possible. Fig. 8 is a piece of bark so cut as to allow of its being bent to the form of No. 6. Figs. 9 and 10 are inner and outer splints for the leg, usually made of gutta percha, and of course made right and left. Sometimes a fully sufficient hollow is left for the ankle, and sometimes a hole is cut entirely through.

Fig. 11 is a leg with a cradle of bark supporting the thigh, the calf, and the sole of the foot, and with a splint or shield of the same covering the instep and the shin.

Fig. 12 is a leg which has been broken, bandaged and supported in the best position to avoid any derangement of the parts by unequal tension of the muscles. Of course splints would have to be secured above these bandages.

Fig. 13 is a jointed rest, sometimes used in fractures of the thigh, to give ease to the limb when there is not much fear of muscular action disarranging it. The pegs at the sides draw out for convenience of dressing, and serve at other times to keep in position the pads or cushion which are placed under the limb.

Fig. 14 is the full-length splint for a broken thigh. The limb is bandaged, the splint secured at the ankle and hip, and the over-all bandage partially passed on. We have had to wear a splint bound over all with starched bandages from toe to armpit. Sir Samuel Baker mentions one of the Agageers who broke his thigh, and whom he bound up in this manner like a mummy with strips of bark and calico, stiffened with gum, and who, after lying on his back a few weeks, was able to rise and join in the chase as energetically as before.

Fig. 15 shows the extension of the leg without a splint, by folding a long strap of sticking plaister up each side of the calf, making a line fast in the bight, leading it over a sheave or roller, and attaching a weight, say of 6lb. or 8lb., to the other end.

Fig. 16 is a sheet, or long towel, or piece of cloth, with two half hitches made in the middle, and passed over the ankle for the purpose of extending the limb; care must be taken that ends on which the pull is made come out on the inner side, abreast of the hollow of the foot.

These last two expedients are useful in case of fracture in a strong and muscular limb; for, by keeping up a continued strain, they weary out the muscles, and cause them to relax, when the bone may be set with less difficulty. We once assisted Dr. Kirk to set the thumb of a Zambesian negro. We had no appliances at hand, but had to sit behind him, embracing and holding him back, while Dr. Kirk grasped and hauled upon the thumb. The involuntary contraction of his muscles was for a long time more than a match for us; but at length we succeeded in wearying him out, and slipping the thumb into its socket.

Fig. 17 (p. 693) is a foot-rest we made for our friend Anderson. It is simply a piece of board about 27in. or 30in. long, hollow where the calf of the leg comes, and cut completely through where the heel would otherwise rest. A piece of thin board is then cut nearly to the shape of the foot, and is fixed by a pivot joint across this space; a couple of strings leading from holes in the board support it at any angle that is most comfortable for the foot, which is bound to it; and a small bracket beneath the end of the principal board raises it so far that the heel cannot chafe or press upon the mattrass, which, however slight may be the contact, becomes, when endured for hours without a change of position, more painful to a helpless man than one in health, and free from constraint, can readily believe.

Fig. 18 (p. 693) is a box-splint, with sliding bottom and falling sides, which we also made on the same occasion. Its use was to serve as an external case and protection for the wounded limb. When all the dressings were on, the hinges were merely pieces of cord, passed figure-of-8 fashion through the holes, and the lanyards were strong enough to suspend the whole perfectly clear of the bed when it was necessary to change the linen.

Fig. 19 (p. 693) is a light awning frame to support the weight of the bed clothing, which might otherwise press painfully upon the toe. The last three articles were made at Barmen, a remote mission station in South-West Africa, with no more tools than a traveller usually carries with him, and therefore we presume that they are by no means beyond the power of others who may be similarly situated.

The illustration on the opposite page represents the mode of setting a dislocated shoulder. A man takes off his boot, sitting beside the patient, places his foot under the armpit, then taking hold of the wrist he pulls it steadily towards him, until the muscles relax and the bone slips into its place. A pad must then be secured under the armpit and the arm bound firmly to the side.

Sometimes it is necessary to stop the too copious flow of blood from a wound; and for this purpose a tourniquet (Fig. 1), as shown in the annexed illustration, must be extemporised: a handkerchief may be rolled up with a stone in it, or an overhand knot may be turned in the thickest part, or any means adopted to insure pressure on the injured blood-vessel; each end of the handkerchief must be then returned upon itself, so as to form a bight, through both loops so formed a short stick must be passed and twisted tightly, until the compression stops the flow of blood; if an artery is cut, the blood gushes forth in regular pulsations, bright and red; if only veins are injured, the flow, however copious, is steady, and the colour is darker.

Many of the South African Kafir and Bechuana tribes have a very ingenious method of cupping. They take the end of an ox-horn, about the size of a small wine-glass (Fig. 2), and perforate the smaller end with a small hole communicating with the internal cavity; they scarify the part to be operated on with a group of perhaps half a dozen cuts, half an inch long and a quarter of an inch deep, made with an assegai or rough-edged iron knife; the large end of the horn is then placed over the wounds, the operator sucks with all his might, and as soon as he has produced a partial vacuum dexterously plugs the little hole with a bit of wax, and allows the horn to remain until the blood drawn from the wounds so far fills the cavity that there ceases to be a vacuum, and the horn drops off. The clot of blood, about as large as a florin and half an inch thick, is then cleared out and thrown aside, a fresh operation is then performed, and others in succession, till the whole surface of the limb, generally the inside of the thigh or arm, is covered with groups of little scars, and blood enough has been extracted.

TAILOR'S WORK.

Although it is in every respect better and more economical for a traveller to take full supplies from home so as to be able to devote all his time to the real objects of his journey, yet it is quite possible that these may fail, and that he may have to trust to his own ingenuity to replace them. A cotton or woollen shirt, worn over all, and belted round the waist, is in cold weather a very simple, and not inconvenient or unsightly, addition to the clothing. We have taken a navy serge frock, and folding in and stitching a slight gore down the back, and turning up the skirts inside towards the waist, and stitching them there, have made a very neat and comfortable hip jacket for walking or riding, without cutting it in any part, except down the front, where a couple of buttons, in addition to those already attached, were quite sufficient to confine it. A cotton shirt may be treated in this manner for a lighter blouse or jacket; and for those who wish something more stylish in appearance we give a diagram, which we think will sufficiently explain itself. [Illustration] {Trousers, to make.} We have, in cases of need, cut out a pair of trousers, and stitched them while sitting on the waggon box during the morning journey, so as to have them ready to put on at the next station; and we have done this without intermitting our usual observations for course and distance and notes of the route. These may be made in two pieces, one for each leg--2-1/2yds. or 3yds., according to stature, being enough for a pair. The duck, or other material, is folded along the centre through its whole length, and it may then be folded in half, but should not be cut until the measurements are taken; if the stuff is scant, the diagonal line of each part at the waist may cross into the other half, and thus it may be found sufficient. The duck, of which trousers are usually made, is 27in. in width, and in general this is found to be enough, with little or nothing to spare; if stuff is plentiful and time of any importance, the trousers may be made in two pieces, each of which forms one leg and half the body; there is no difference except in the front, the buttons being sewn on the right side, while the corresponding holes are on the left. Presuming the length from above the hip to the heel to be 40in., 2-1/4yds., or 81in., with care in supplementing one part by the pieces cut out of the other, will just serve; but we will suppose that we have 2-1/2yds., or 90in., and are not compelled to such an exercise of ingenuity. Each half will now be 45in. long, of which mark or crease off 1in. at the end, l l, for the hem at the bottom; from this line, k k, measure 40in. along the edge, 41in. along the centre, and 42in. along the other edge; draw a diagonal line through these points, and draw another 2in. beyond and parallel to it; this will be sufficient to turn down for the waistband, and will occupy the remainder of the 45in. of stuff. In duck or canvas, where both sides are alike, some inches might be saved by cutting it diagonally across the centre; but in drill moleskin, or anything that has a right and wrong side, this will not be the case, so that it had better be left out of the question. The inner seam of the leg will be 30in., measured from k k to the points a and h, where the duck will remain of its full breadth; take the girth of the waist at the point l, and, finding it 32in., divide it by four, and mark off 8in. on each side the central line; then take that of the hips along the line b b, and, finding it 36in., divide it by four, as before, but instead of marking off 9in. on each the centre, mark 8in. before and 10in. behind it; then on the edge intended for the front draw a curved line from a to the point b, and continue it in a straight line upward; then draw the outlines of the piece that is to be folded into the parts c, d, and e, each of which is to be 1-7/8in. wide, and cut round the outline, which is strongly marked in the diagram, folding and creasing sharply, but not cutting the material along the dotted lines. Cut the back of the trousers from the point h with a slight curve, touching the end of the measured lines b and j. We should then commence by turning down the parts c, d, and e, working button-holes in them as in the diagram, and stitching them firmly, but very neatly, in their places, and remembering that we are working on the left half of the garment. We should then take the right half, fold in the parts c, d, and e, as before, and stitch them, omitting the button-holes. We should then take the two parts, and laying them together at a, stitch them as far as b; then laying together the point h, stitch up the back seam, next bringing a and h together, stitch down each leg, turn down the waistband, and stitch it, making button-holes as at f, in the diagram, and fixing buttons to match, turning up and seaming the bottoms of the legs. Making eyelet-holes for a lacing at the back of the waistband braces we usually make no provision for; but if the wearer desires, buttons may be affixed for them in their proper place.

{Jacket, to cut out.}

We give also the outlines of a plain and useful jacket, which may be made in six pieces, of which three only are drawn: Fig. 1, half the back; Fig. 2, half the front; Fig. 3, one sleeve; the others of course are exact duplicates of them. Our drawing is made on a scale of 1-12in. to 1in. Fig. 1 is half the back, the first measurement for which is taken from the collar, so far down the centre as just to clear the saddle--say, for instance, 24in.; the next is the girth of the chest--say one quarter; say 8-1/2in. is allowed for the half back, and a little more, or 9-1/2in. for the half front. The rectangular figures, 1 and 2, should be first drawn to these measurements, and this will much facilitate all future operations. In like manner, if the circumference of the neck for collar be 12in., the proportions will be for the half back 2-1/2in. and for the half front 3-1/2in. From the collar down to the line across the shoulders will be about 6in., and from the collar to the line of chest measurement 9in. The first of these lines drawn on the parallelogram will give the point from which to draw the diagonal line for the shoulder seam, and the second the bottom of the oval that is to be cut out for the armhole; the edges are hollowed about 1/2in. for the waist. The diagram, we hope, will be sufficiently clear to indicate the few remaining measurements.

From the front of the collar on Fig. 2 down to the line of the shoulders will be about 5in., and from the collar end of the shoulder seam to the same line will be fully 7in.; the oval for the armhole will be 6in. deep and 4-1/2in. across, of which 1in. is to be cut into the half back and 3-1/2in. into the half front. About 4in. beyond the front line of the diagram may be allowed on each half of the front for overlapping, and on this the buttons will be placed according to taste.

The dotted lines of Fig. 3 represent the sleeve, the measure for which will be from centre of back to armhole; 7-1/2in. from armhole to elbow; when the arm is raised and bent inwards, 10-1/2in. from elbow to wrist; 10-1/2in. the circumference of the arm--loosely taken, will probably be 10in.; and the wrist 9in.; but more may be allowed, according to the wearer's fancy. A straight line, 21in. in length, must now be drawn, and at 4-1/2in. from the top it must be crossed by another of 10in., 8-1/4in. of which must project in front, and 1-3/4in. behind; on these lines the curve which marks the insertion of the sleeve must be drawn, beginning from the longer end of the cross line, and sweeping round by the top; down again to the shorter, then continuing downward for the convex seam till it crosses the first line, about 8in. from the bottom, and farther on the base line, about 2-1/2in. in front of it; 9in. more forward must be allowed for the width at the wrist, and a straight line drawn from this point to the longer arm of the cross will give the inner seam.

In stitching the parts together, we should commence with the shoulder seam, from the armhole upward; then with the side seam, from the arm downward; then, folding the sleeve piece, we should stitch the inner seam from the wrist upwards; and, placing the termination of this seam on the fore part of the armhole, 1-1/2in. or 2in. below the shoulder line, stitch the sleeve in; then, commencing at the collar, would make the back seam, and, this done, would trim off all inequalities of the edges; then turn down, and hem them, and finish, more or less, according to taste or convenience.

We have had but little experience in jacket-making, as it is a garment we seldom use in African travel; but to our ability to cut one, in at least endurable style, for the chief Moshotlani, on the Zambesi, we are indebted for some of our best views of the falls. At 9 o'clock each morning we would say to him, "We have fixed enough for your men to sew all day, now we want the canoe, and the man to go down with us to the waterfall."

DISTINCTIVE BOX MARKINGS.

When a traveller has to employ (as is most generally the case in wild countries) servants who cannot read, it is as well to mark his boxes with some rudely-drawn pictorial sign, which should, if possible, have some relation to the contents; though this is not a matter of absolute necessity, so long as the owner himself knows what is in each and what distinguishing mark is placed upon it. We give a few specimens, which will sufficiently illustrate our meaning; and any number may be devised if necessary, such objects being chosen as are most likely to be familiar to the servants employed: thus, on maritime or fishing stations, different vessels, cutters, luggers, schooners, brigs, barques, or ships, or parts of vessels, as guns, anchors, capstans, windlasses, various knots, as the reef-knot, bowline, &c., remarkable and at the same time familiar forms of fish, or implements used in catching them, as hooks, large and small hand-leads, harpoons, grains, nets, &c., would be appropriate; while in hunting or pastoral countries various animals--the ox, the horse, the sheep or goat, the elephant, the camel, the giraffe, the lion, and many others--would naturally be chosen. One box might bear the figure of a man, another of a woman; the tool chest might have a saw or an axe; a powder horn would indicate the box containing gunpowder; while others, holding round or conical bullets, cartridges, or small shot, might be marked with their peculiar sign; clothing might be indicated by a jacket and trousers.

The late eminent and amiable Dr. Holden, who perished in the attempt to explore South-Western Africa, was accustomed to mark all his boxes in this manner. He had left a waggon in the care of the chief Lesh[=u] la t[=e]b[=e], at Lake Ngami, and when this was received by the agent of the surviving relatives it was found that all the boxes had been broken open, and plundered of everything of value to the natives; but one, after being broken, had been sent out of the town to a lonely hut near some adjacent village. We insisted that it should be returned, no matter in what condition or however terrible might be the contents; and at length the mysterious box, which for more than two years had been a terror to the country, was placed before us. It had been broken, like the rest; but the plunderers, on lifting the lid, and finding themselves confronted by a veritable human skull, grinning horribly a ghastly smile, had shut it hurriedly down, and sent the dreaded box away. They were not a little astonished at our temerity when they saw us quietly lift up the emblem of mortality; nor were we less gratified to find beneath, securely guarded by the grisly sentinel, five bottles of the best French brandy, which the unfortunate doctor had taken this ingenious method of preserving. We ought also to mention that his medicine chest was marked with the figure of a snake, signifying poison; and it would be well if all chests, bottles, or cases containing either poison or medicines, which might be hurtful if wrongly used, were marked with a death's head, a snake, or crossed bones, or some other unmistakable warning.

DEMEANOUR TOWARDS COMPANIONS OR NATIVES AND WHITE SERVANTS, HINTS ON TRAVEL, ETC.

Everything during a journey beyond the limits of civilisation depends upon the good feeling and harmony among the party, and nothing short of unavoidable necessity should be suffered to interfere with this; there are, of course, cases in which human nature can stand no farther provocation, but it should be remembered that forbearance is seldom repented of, while hasty resentment, even if expressed only in words, may lay the foundation of ill-feeling, which becomes all the more bitter because the parties cannot separate from each other. At the same time, even forbearance should be exercised in a kindly spirit, for even an outspoken quarrel is better than the habit of "nursing the wrath to keep it warm;" the first may admit of explanation, or the parties to it, if reconciliation does not follow, may agree to dismiss the subject and work together till the close of the journey; and, if both be honourable, each will disdain to do less than his duty, or to throw an unfair share of labour or privation upon the other. But in the second case no such explanation is possible; the person who feels himself the subject of displeasure has no chance of learning what is the nature of his offence, and goes on unconsciously, perhaps repeating it, till, like an overcharged thunder-cloud, the storm bursts, and the restoration of peace which, in the first instance, would have been easy, becomes impossible.

Many a tale could we tell of comrades in travel who have freely risked their lives over and over again for each other, and counted it not even a thing for which they expected thanks, who have remained fast friends until the close of their journey, and in most instances, we are glad to say, this friendly feeling has remained undisturbed.

In one case related to us, one of the travellers had been called a coward by his comrade because he failed to fire at a lion at the expected moment. His reply was, "We will not quarrel over it now; but we separate at the first opportunity, and meantime I may find a chance to prove that I have not deserved your reproach." One day he who had been thus stigmatised remained at home; and, when his comrade returned, said to him--"I thought I should be able to show that your words were undeserved: a lion has attacked the camp." "Where is he?" asked the other. "Lift up the covering, and you will see him here," was the reply. There was but one wound--it was in the forehead--and from so short a distance had the death shot been discharged that the flash of the gun had singed the hair around the orifice it made. The accuser apologised for his hasty words; but the breach was never healed, and the separation took place soon after.

The choice of servants must be very much guided by the habits and disposition of the traveller himself; but if he can, as ought to be the case, dispense with many of the luxuries of civilised life, then we should consider it best for him to engage people accustomed to the duties they are required to perform from among the servants of the colonists or white residents, who know and can answer for their character and ability.

Many travellers who start for the Cape Colony like to have a white man as an overseer, and he generally acts also as cook and personal servant. Such men as these are to be found in most of the frontier towns, and one who is really competent to the work in hand is invaluable; but care must be exercised in the selection, for however inexperienced the traveller may be he had better command his own attendants than submit to the intervention of a man who is unfit to manage them. In the first case, they will at least look upon him as the "master," who hires, who pays, and feeds them, and for whom they feel bound to work; in the latter, they have no hesitation in saying to an incompetent overseer, "You are not our master, but only a servant like ourselves, and we care nothing for you." More especially is this the case if they find him ignorant of the management of oxen, an inefficient hunter, or too much dependent upon guides for indications of his way in the bush. Nor is this to be wondered at; the discipline of a ship may be carried on, though the captain be incompetent, if his first lieutenant be a thorough seaman; but if that officer is not up to his duty, even a first-rate captain can hardly atone for the deficiency.

If a man who, in his youth, has been a soldier or a sailor, enters the service of a traveller, he possesses many advantages over ordinary servants. The soldier ought to have learned something of the value of discipline and order, and to be able to combine respect for himself with obedience to his employers; while the sailor must have learned, during his probation, a thousand shifts and expedients; and, above all, have acquired a habit of self-reliance in difficulty and danger that cannot be too highly valued. Efficient men, however, must be sought out and well paid; it is of little use to expect them to flock to the intending traveller and ask employment; they are not of the class who generally hang about large towns, but are more likely to be found on the very borders of civilisation. Moreover, they are not too plentiful; they would be more likely to ask, as was the case in Australia, have you a good character from your last servant? and inquiry should be made in time among other travellers as to the character and reliability of such persons as they have reason to think fit for the charge.

Within a colony, in case of a dispute with a servant, an appeal to the magistrate is possible; though if, as is sometimes the case, the nearest justice should live from thirty to fifty miles away--not always convenient--the master perhaps inquires of his native herdsman respecting the fate of a missing ox or two or three sheep; and, the replies not being satisfactory, hints his suspicion that they have been killed and eaten; the herdsman indignantly denies it, shortens his knobkeerie in his right hand, and gathers his kaross, or blanket, over his left arm, as a Spaniard does his cloak. If the master be of quick temper, he closes with and disarms him, or perhaps gets knocked down. If otherwise, he takes the more prudent alternative of riding to the magistrate. If he does the first, the native, whose time is of no value to him, starts off at once to the magistrate, and obtains a summons against his master for assault. If he chooses the latter, his herdsman probably takes advantage of his absence to add as many more cattle as he can to the missing list, and before he can be legally summoned is far away from the power of the law, seeking refuge among remote tribes.

Under these circumstances, it is not to be wondered at that occasionally the colonists took the law into their own hands; and of their manner of proceeding the following incident, related to us by a friend, may serve as a fair example. A native servant having transgressed in this manner, the people of the farm were assembled, and he was put upon his trial; the evidence was against him, and he was asked, "Will you be taken before the magistrate? Will you receive forty lashes at the waggon wheel, or will you be shot?" "They generally," said our informant, "choose to take the flogging offhand." "But how," said we, "if some cunning fellow should choose to be shot?" "Oh," said he, "that is not very likely; but a man once did so, and he was allowed to run a hundred yards, when a bullet was fired past him, but sufficiently near to let him hear the singing of it."

It was not very far from the locality where this event happened that a flock-master began to find a steadily-increasing mortality among his sheep, the very healthiest of which, without any apparent cause, sickened, and in a short time died. Now, when merino or other wool-bearing rams are imported at a cost of 120_l._ each, it behoves a man to look well after the good condition of their progeny, but no symptom of disease marked the approaching deaths; the shepherds asked for the carcases, and, finding these, he proposed to serve them out as rations, but they refused, and insisted that sheep should be killed for them as usual. "Very good," said he, "dig a pit and throw in the carcases, and I will kill for you." Next morning he found the pit had been opened and its contents abstracted. When sheep were again brought in dead he threw quicklime into the pit with them; the mortality began to diminish, and a post-mortem examination resulted in the discovery that a very fine mimosa thorn, specimens of which may be had of all sizes, from that of a sewing-needle to 5in. or 6in. in length, had been thrust under the shoulder, and left to work its way to the heart of the animal.

Unless, in case of gross and insolent disobedience, which it is necessary to chastise with a strong hand upon the spot, some form of trial and examination of evidence for and against the culprit ought always to precede the punishment; and this course, so far as we have seen, is generally adopted by English travellers, a love of fair play being, we are fain to hope, in spite of occasional excesses, inherent among us.

One of the most marked instances we have known of this occurred not far from Objimbengue. A train of waggons was passing up country from the Bay; wine and spirits were flowing freely; and, as is usually the case where long-enforced abstinence is succeeded by opportunities of unlimited indulgence, some of the party were not quite as judges ought to be before dinner. Jealousy--that fruitful source of quarrels--produced one during the night, and an Englishman broke a Hottentot's head--that is to say, inflicted a scalp wound half an inch wide and as deep as the thickness of the skin would permit. The inflictor of the blow (we never found out who was the actual aggressor) was confined in the room that had been assigned to us, and, with the exception of a few wild tricks inspired by the waning influence of the liquor, such, for instance, as drawing a sword-bayonet and giving point at a friend who entered, behaved with remarkable propriety, till a "raad" could be duly formed among the rest. Of evidence very little was required; there was the "tottie" with his wounded head; the defendant pleaded provocation and the influence of drink, and expressed his willingness to pay a fair compensation. Eight pounds sterling was proposed and consented to, and a bill drawn out and signed upon the spot. Rather exorbitant damages we thought for a wound which disabled the lad but for a day; but we were fresh in the country then, and thought the old hands knew best how to manage their own affairs. Extravagant and wild as was the scene, it was nevertheless a proof that wherever a number of Englishmen, or their colonial descendants, can be gathered together, a spirit of fair play will actuate the majority.

With native servants, very much must depend upon the custom of the country in which they are hired. Among some of the superior tribes, if men are well chosen, they may be left to perform their own duty in their own way; an occasional expression of approval from the master, and half an hour's chat with them now and then, to show that, though he trusts them, he is not careless of his own interests nor unmindful of theirs, being nearly all that is required; while the power of withholding a good character or making a deduction from their pay at the end of the journey is enough to restrain any irregularity they might be tempted to. Sometimes they may be hired from the chiefs, who then transfers to the master, for the time being, his authority over them, and looks to him for the safe return of his men at the end of the stipulated time. In this case the traveller becomes pro tempore their chief, and may exercise his power in summary punishment of a culprit, or may reserve his right to appeal to the actual chief on his return. In other cases, as with Lascars or other natives of India, a gang may be hired with their own Serang, or Tindal, to whom all orders respecting them should be given, and from whom they will submit to any amount of punishment, though they would resent it as an insult, only to be atoned with blood, if inflicted by a white man. The Kroomen of the coast near Sierra Leone, who are usually employed on board our men-of-war, are generally engaged in this manner. We had twelve on the Zambesi expedition, under a very fine head man, called Tom Jumbo.

When our little steamer, the Ma Robert (which, if not the best constructed, was certainly the best abused little vessel afloat) was put together on the Zambesi, Mr. Rae, the engineer, took some trouble to train Tom Coffee (a Krooman) to act as stoker and general assistant. Tom had, however, a will of his own; and, proving refractory, was brought before Dr. Livingstone, who, from motives of humanity, instead of ordering him corporal punishment, put him off duty and stopped his pay. The Kroomen gathered in serious consultation over the sentence, and at length deputed Jumbo to appeal against it: "The Kroomen," said he, "do not understand being put off duty; they come to work, and they must work. I will see to that, and they will expect their pay when this voyage is done. If they are insolent or lazy, or deserve punishment, tell me of it, and I will flog them; they 'savey' that, but they do not 'savey' stoppage of their pay." Mr. Rae also felt the sentence press rather heavily upon him. None of the other men were fit, without fresh instruction, to take Tom's place; and as the duties of chief engineer, with those of stoker and assistant, were rather too onerous for one individual, he was fain to join in the request that Coffee should be set to work again.

In some places it is almost impossible to avoid the employment of slave labour in some form or other; for even though the master do not, as of course no Englishman with proper feeling will, retain a man in compulsory bondage, or sell him for profit when his term of servitude is expired, it is in some countries impossible to hire a free labourer; and to give a man his liberty immediately after he has been purchased from his chief, or master, would only deprive the hirer or purchaser of all benefit during the expected period of service. This is particularly the case in some of the countries bordering upon the upper branches of the Nile. A well-known traveller in that region was once taxed with slave trading; he indignantly denied the charge. He had bought men of their chief, as everyone who required servants was obliged to do; but he challenged proof that he had ever detained one in bondage or sold him again when his service was completed.

An English military officer, in the same dilemma, bought men; he was a kind master, he found them good servants, and when he required them no longer he made them presents and set them free. A sudden cloud darkened every brow. Had they not served him well? What fault had they committed that he should now discard them, and turn them adrift, without providing them another master?

We once met in Dielli, the capital of the Portuguese settlement in the island of Timor, an English captain who, moved by compassion at the miserable condition of some prisoners in the hands of Malay pirates, yielded to their entreaties, and purchased some of them; and on arrival at the first British port he went ashore to consult the magistrate as to the proper manner of giving them their liberty. "You cannot give them their liberty," said he, "they are free already; and, though you have acted from motives of humanity, you had better let them go as quietly as possible, for not only is your purchase of no effect, but you have brought yourself into some danger by making it."

In South Africa the English travellers, or traders, very properly refuse to have anything to do with the purchase of slaves, though men and boys will come to them desiring to be bought. A friend of ours had an offer of this kind made while we were together; but though it would have been very advantageous to have a couple of lads who, in a short time, would have been well qualified to act as interpreters, he declined the offer.

On a previous occasion, however, when a boy had begged hard that he would buy him he refused, but told the lad to go and make the best bargain he could for his own liberty; the price was handed over to him, he ransomed himself, and joyfully returned to enter the service of his new master.

Frequently a white man picks up some miserable, neglected child, lets it sit by his fire, and huddle among his servants, getting a share of their food; and if he be, as he ought, a kind-hearted fellow, an occasional pat upon the woolly head and a tit bit from himself. When its condition is improved, he perhaps sets it to some trifling work; but no sooner is it supposed to have become useful than down come the parents or brothers, or some impostors who represent themselves as such, and threaten to take the child away unless they are properly paid for allowing him to keep it.

In Damara land especially such cases were common; and we became quite accustomed to hear the native servant girls telling each other, as a matter of very little importance, that such a one had "thrown her child into the fire that morning." Not that the statement was to be taken literally; but rather that the mother had just abandoned it, and the poor creature had crawled towards the fire for warmth, and so scorched itself.

There were also some natives who had a great facility for establishing a relationship with these unfortunates; and two or three had gained quite a reputation for their skill in discovering some genealogical affinity with anyone that had become the pet of a European supposed to be able to afford to pay for the luxury of keeping it.

In the Portuguese settlements on the Lower Zambesi a modified form of slavery exists, totally distinct from, and unconnected with, the slave trade, and rendered much more endurable by the fact that the slaves, or, more properly, serfs or bondsmen, are subjects of the Crown, and may not be removed from the colony, an ordinance, however, respecting which something may be said on both sides; for, if it prevents subjects being sold as slaves into foreign bondage, it is sometimes assigned as a reason for not legally marrying a native woman; that if a man were to do so, he could not take her from the country, and, not being allowed to leave her, would thus pass upon himself a sentence of confinement there for life.

With regard to the question of servitude under the Crown, the position of a slave seems to be that he cannot change his master, and his master cannot discharge or sell him, except under certain restrictions.

During the Livingstone expedition we were frequently served by slaves lent or hired to us by their masters. One of these, Katura, lent us by Major Sicard, the commandant, who always addressed him as Vossa Merc[=e]e, or Mister, acted as our house steward, and had under him Jos[=e], the cuisinier, who became highly indignant if any of us razeed his many-syllabled title into "cook." Katura had a position to maintain, and he understood it; he was not only a steward, but a plucky little fellow, and the first dead man we sketched there (whose corpse will be seen in the picture of Mazaro Mutu, in Dr. Livingstone's second book) was one of his shooting. Although a slave he had rights of his own, and was well aware of them. Sometimes he would bring us a few eggs, and when we offered to pay for them proudly remarked that the "ova katura" were not for sale, but he had no objection to accept a present; neither would he agree to put a price on any service we asked him to do for us; we made him a present of navy serge--enough to make a "frock" of. Next morning he told us that his master wanted it, and asked us how much calico he should demand in return. We told him three yards for one of the serge; the major demurred to this, and Katura refused him the serge, and after a month or six weeks made the bargain on his own terms, and asked us for a foot rule that he might measure the calico he had received. "A queer sort of slavery this!" said a Yankee friend, to whom we afterwards related the circumstance.

The following valuable hints on travel were communicated by Captain Stuart, the Australian explorer, to Mr. A. Gregory, on his taking command of the expedition before referred to in this work, and in which we took part. In order to render the directions as concise as possible, we have, in repeating them, avoided the repetition of the leader's name, &c. In other respects we give the directions, words of advice, and hints, in Captain Stuart's own words. In communicating them, he says:--

"Mr. Augustus Gregory, not being a military man, and not, perhaps, having acquired the habits of caution peculiar to that service, I venture to put together a few hints for his consideration, which I would fain hope may be of use to him, and for offering which my past experience in the field of discovery, and my anxious desire to promote the success of the undertaking in which he is embarked, must be my apology.

"I would recommend the leader to come to a strict understanding with his men before he engages them to conform to the terms of the agreement I have drawn up, and which is a copy of that which I made the men sign who accompanied me on my central expedition. It is the only means, when at a distance from home, to keep the men in order and subjection. I found it most efficacious on one occasion; when, one of the men having misconducted himself, I struck his name off the pay list, reduced his supply of provisions, and only reinstated him at the earnest solicitation of his comrades and on their guarantee that he should not offend again.

"The commanding officer should have his camp always compact. His sheep in the centre of it, and the drays flanking the sheepfold with the tents at the angles. I would caution him never to be without a guard. Let him give his men to understand that he will never dispense with the guard. I never did but on one occasion, which might well have been excused, and on that one occasion I was robbed. Mr. Gregory may rest assured that his safety at all times, whether in the presence of natives or not, depends on this necessary vigilance.

"I have been peculiarly fortunate in my intercourse with the natives. I believe the reason of this is that I have always put myself in their position, and deemed the alarm and vehemence they have exhibited at the approach of men and beasts they had never seen before as only natural. Instead of approaching nearer, I have given them time to recover from their amazement before I have separated myself from my men, and walked singly and unarmed towards them, and sat quietly down on the ground, until they had lowered their spears and appeared pacified. One of the natives is sure to advance and sit down as I had done, and so, by gradual approaches, we at length sat down side by side. But it is long before the native raises his eyes to look at you. I have always respected their customs in this respect, and am happy to say that I never failed. Treat the natives kindly, and they will so treat you. On no account did I allow my men to have any intercourse either with the men or women. This I interdicted under the severest penalties. The leader should not remain too long in one spot. He will understand that familiarity subdues fear.

"I would recommend him to have a respectable and responsible storekeeper, who should have a tent with the overseer of stock. The provision should be weighed out weekly to the men, and stock taken once a month, and a return of what has been issued and what remains given by the storekeeper to him. Such regularity inspires confidence.

"If the commander should follow a river into the desert, he will most probably find it assume a chain of ponds, and ultimately disappear in a vast plain. I would beg of him in such case not to move on his party until he has ascertained that there is water in front of him. He can have no idea how soon he can place himself in jeopardy.

"I know not that I can give Mr. Gregory any further friendly hint. Doubtless he is experienced in all the arrangements of an expedition, and he may be assured he has my best prayers for his success.

"The following general rules for the treatment of Indians, given by Dr. Brown, may also be useful in reference to other tribes, though a traveller's behaviour to a barbarous or savage people must, to a great extent, depend on circumstances--his position in the tribe and the customs of the nation, which ought never to be wantonly outraged. These rules were partially drawn up for me at an early date of my residence among the North-West American Indians by a gentleman whom to mention would be to name, perhaps, the most celebrated of all the eeries of the fur trade. I afterwards added and amended them by my own experience.

1. Never pass an Indian village in the night if you suspect any mischief. They will be sure to find you out, and then, like all bullies, seeing that you are afraid of them, will act upon that knowledge.

2. If you suspect mischief, camp outside at a distance, and pass in daylight; you can then see better what you are about.

3. If you come to a village where you think there is likely to be an attack made on you, go into the chief's lodge, and, if possible, into one where there are a number of women and children. If their sense of hospitality does not prevent them from molesting you, they know that when white men are attacked bullets fly about, and some may strike the women and children. It is an axiom that no man likes to put his head down a gun-barrel.

4. Trust to an Indian's honour, and you are tolerably safe--you and your goods; but not to his honesty, for he will steal the ears off your head, unless you are very skilful in making a cache. If in a neighbourhood where there are Indians, you had far better leave your goods in their charge until you come back; you will generally find them safe; but if they find your cache--their honesty being doubted, and having no honourable scruples--they will be sure to clean it out.

5. Never appear to be afraid of them.

6. Never give them one cent less or one cent more than you bargained for--as a right. If you do, they will think it only yielding to them, and then imagine you have cheated them at first. You may give a small present if you like. It is a custom the Hudson's Bay Company have introduced of giving after a trade has been completed a small "potlatch," or gift, of their free accord, according to the value of the goods traded. Those Indians who have traded with the Hudson's Bay Company expect it.

7. In making presents, take into consideration their wants; only make presents where you may expect a return; they do that with you; and goodness of heart is only thrown away. Never calculate on this last weakness.

8. In making presents for conciliatory purposes, always make them to the head people; never mind the smaller tribes' men. Be sure, however, that it is the chief you are making presents to, and not some forward and impudent fellow, who is usually the first to accost you at the outskirts of a village. The chief generally retires on his dignity, and wants to be sought out. Secure the head man's regard, and you need not mind the favour of the smaller ones; but even if you had abundance of goods to distribute, you would be sure to create red blood and heart burnings by one man's present being better than another, or supposed to be, &c.

9. I have generally adopted the practice, when I had not much to give, of giving it to the children. If you win the children, you win the mother, and of course the father. A little present goes a long way with the children. If you give it to the mother, you often excite the father's jealousy, and frustrate your purpose. Always remember, in addition, that a savage values a man's generosity, &c., according to the size of his presents, and act accordingly.

10. Never allow the natives to eat with you as your equal. As a rule, play the great man with them.

11. If a savage is travelling with you, give him food whenever he wants it. Food given when he wishes it is of ten times more value than when he gets it when he does not need it, or is not hungry. Consult his wishes in this respect.

12. Never attempt to gain anything by force; always by persuasion, argument, and presents.

13. Notwithstanding all you will be told about the value of a medical knowledge in travelling among savages, I have generally found it of very little benefit, and frequently, when put in practice, of real detriment. An Indian will never come to you unless when at death's door and he has lost confidence in his own sorcerers. You may give him some medicine, and perhaps in nine cases out of ten the patient dies, as he would have done anyhow. Their professional jealousy is raised, and you are accused by the "medicine men" of killing the person; and the worst of the matter is, it is often believed by the credulous people. If the man recovers, it is rarely that you get the credit of it. It is the medicine men who have done it. With surgery it is somewhat different. If the operation is one not involving any very serious consequences if unsuccessful, by all means perform it. They then see the working of your superior knowledge before their eyes.

14. Be just and firm, patient and equanimous with them. Display no anger or violent and passionate gestures, and never be very prone to notice insults.

15. Never say you will do a thing and not do it. Never threaten to do anything unless you intend to do it.

16. No people notice the weakness and moral shortcomings of a man quicker than savages; therefore beware, especially in re foeminâ.

17. Try by all means to learn the customs and social etiquette of the people; for nothing raises you more in their estimation than this knowledge, or enables you to see when you are slighted.

18. If you are attacked, and at the last extremity have to fire, take to the bush. An Indian does not like to venture in. He knows there is a man there and a gun, and that somebody may be shot, and that somebody may be himself.

19. If you have a watch at night, never stand near the fire; for then you are only giving the man a chance to fire at you.

20. Always, and above everything, remember that the hearts of all mankind are the same, and that all the difference between one and another is merely the overlay caused by etiquette, custom, and education; at heart they are the same.

"There are many arts which might be mentioned as useful in treating with Indians; but, as these depend upon a knowledge of the particular tribal customs, these general rules must suffice."

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Chapter XIX

ON SKETCHING AND PAINTING UNDER THE ORDINARY DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVEL.

For artists making a tour of the Lake Districts, the Highlands of Scotland, or the mountain districts of Wales, every possible convenience is supplied by the colourmen of London. The explorer-artist must, however, have recourse to many shifts and expedients.

The talented author of "A Painter's Camp in the Islands" actually fitted out a little studio on wheels, the front of which was a large sheet of clear plate glass, so that, whatever might be the weather, he would be able to paint upon the spot, and with all the truthful reality that working in the presence of nature only can impart. Every effect of storm or sunshine on the hills, catching the passing rain cloud while the shower was still falling, with its misty fragments torn off by the gale, illuminated by the beauteous rainbow, or lighted up by rays of sunshine piercing through the gloom; and when such luxurious appliances can be obtained, and are used, moreover, to so good a purpose, far be it from us to say a word against them. In fact, we would advise every one who determines, as he ought, to make his sketches as perfect and truthful a realisation as possible of the country they illustrate, to provide every convenience he can afford or carry for the successful prosecution of his work; regarding them, however, simply as means towards that end, and casting them aside unhesitatingly when, from the labour of transportation, they become hindrances instead of helps to him.

We will suppose, first, that the intending traveller wishes to take sketches in pencil or in water colours, as occasion may serve, of the objects of interest that he meets with, he should be provided, as we have said, with folding sketch-books of folio and quarto sizes, with drawing paper, white and tinted, cut to their respective sizes. He will be able to form a tolerable estimate of the number of sketches he is likely to make in a day, and had better not encumber his folio with more than a good allowance of paper for the work he expects to do. Suppose he reckons six or eight sketches, and, allowing margin enough, takes a dozen sheets--three white, and two each of the pearl, the warm and cool grey, and the drab paper, putting away at the close of the day his finished sketches in a case specially provided for them, and replenishing his folio from that in which he keeps his store.

The preservation of his folio and its contents from injury by rain, by the dash of sea water, or by other causes, is of the first importance, and for this purpose he should have a haversack of good stout canvas--i.e., sail cloth--for each; this may be slung by a leather strap and buckles, but we prefer that the shoulder strap should be of double canvas 2-1/2in. wide, and that the end, which comes forward over the right shoulder, when the sketch book is carried on the left side should pass through a loop at the corner of the haversack, and doubling back upon itself be provided with points or other means of fastening it at the required length. If buckles, hooks and eyes, or other such expedients are used, let them be not of iron or steel, but of plated or well-tinned material, so that no rust or oxide of metal shall gather on and rot the canvas.

Let the part which would then hang next the body of the wearer be of double canvas so stitched with two vertical seams that it may form three pockets, one large enough for the box of water colours in front, one in the rear for the japanned or plated water bottle, and the central sub-divided, so as to carry a few spare pencils, a memorandum book, to which, if the traveller cares about mapping his route, may be added, a 6in. scale, protractor, and dividers; in which case he will do well to add a sheet or two of the squared mapping paper to the contents of his folio, and two or three sheets of foolscap, with a leaf of semi-carbonic paper and a H H H pencil for his journal. A third thickness of canvas will at once form the pocket for the folio and the front of the haversack; and we would advise that the double strip, already spoken of as forming the sling, should be sufficiently long to form also the sides and bottom of the haversack.

The octavo, 11in. by 7-1/2in. folio, will be found very convenient and handy on boat expeditions, horse or foot journeys, hunting trips, or when the artist has to carry everything himself, and must diminish weight and incumbrance as much as possible. In the Australian exploring trips we were not able to carry any other, and this hangs easily from the quarter of the saddle on the near side. In Kafirland, we slung the sketch-book itself (covered with skin to keep off the occasional rain) by short straps and buckles to our waist belt; and one long strap, passing over the shoulder to the belt in front, remained always fast, so that if a sudden movement, either of our own troops or of the enemy, necessitated it, we could at once throw the sketch-book over our shoulder, and advance or retreat as requisite.

We would advise, however, that the imperial, 15in. by 11in., folio should be carried if possible, as it gives so much more space for detail in landscape or other subjects than can be gained upon the smaller scale. With the large book the twenty-four tube colour box can be carried, with the smaller a twelve tube must be taken; and in either case weight may be economised on short trips by carrying only the lid that forms the palette with the little divisions that should always be found along its edge charged with patches of colour; in this case a slip of tin or copper must be fitted as a temporary cover to the box left at home.

We do not advise the solid sketch-block for hard service; first, because it exposes to risk an unnecessarily large quantity of paper, and next, because, with rough usage, the sheets may become loose, and cease to be a block. The folio with japanned tin frame, for confining the sheet actually in use, is the best. It should be made of strong, light, saddlers' leather, rather than of the flimsy materials; which serve well enough for lady students a mile or two from home. The millboard surfaces may be varnished with boiled linseed oil, and allowed to dry thoroughly. Do not have them covered with paper pasted on, but with the plain surface of the milled board. We found it very convenient to mark a scale of inches along the sides of our frame, and have a movable slip of thin brass fastened upon it by simply bending the ends round, so as to enable us to draw a truly horizontal line at any height, and this would be especially useful in mapping, or the horizon in sea-views.

If a sketching-stool can be carried, it will be found a great convenience, as, when the artist has to sit upon the ground, to say nothing of possible unpleasantness from storms or dampness, the eye is lowered so much that often the grass in the foreground will hide the greater part of the landscape. The triangular stool, which folds up into a stick but little larger than a policeman's truncheon, is the most convenient form. One of the legs may be longer, with a couple of cross-bars, on which to rest the sketch-book; or such a convenience may be made with a couple of thumb-screws to slip on when required.

In sketching a landscape it is of great importance to decide, first, what you intend to make the principal object, and how much in the way of accessory you can include beside it. About sixty degrees, or the sixth-part of a circle, is all that can be seen horizontally, without moving the head, and about forty vertically, and this may be roughly estimated by holding up the hands like blinkers on each side of the face, and observing where they shut off the view. Photographers have a little frame made specially for this purpose, and the artist may, by opening the frame of his folio, and holding it nearly at arm's length, see how much of the landscape it includes. It must also be remembered that no one looking at a landscape can see the spot he stands on; and, therefore, if it is desired that this spot shall be the foreground, he must retire, say ten or fifteen yards, so as to bring it within the limit of his vision. In practice, however--when, for instance, he is looking over the edge of a cliff--this might deprive him of the sight of some of the most beautiful portions of the view, and it might be better to remain on the edge, leaving a sufficient blank at the bottom of the paper, and then retiring to sketch the foreground, choosing such a position as should make its characteristic features enhance the beauty of the view. It conduces very greatly to correctness if the bearings of distant hills are taken by compass and noted in pencil on the upper margin of the sketch, while nearer features are similarly noted at the bottom--if the estimated distance in miles is added, this enhances greatly the value of the sketch, as it becomes then a geographical record, in addition to its merit as a work of art. Holding up the paper steadily at nearly arm's length, and making on its upper edge the apparent horizontal distances, and on its side the heights, assists the drawing very much; and the pencil may be held up and the distances gauged on it by the thumb-nail, and measured on the paper. Two knots on the ends of a bit of string, one held on the pencil, and the other between the teeth, will ensure the measurements being all taken at the same distance from the eye, which is of great importance. The angle formed by the side of a mountain may be estimated by making the pencil coincide with it, and then bringing it down on the paper. The perspective of receding lines may be found in the same manner; but care must be taken to hold the pencil in the plane of the picture, and not let it point away from the observer; the limits being thus ascertained, the forms may be slightly indicated, and then, after a steady and searching gaze at the object, firmly, but not heavily, drawn. When once the paper is indented by the pressure of the pencil, the line can never be entirely erased; and the surface, once injured, can never be restored. No line should be made at random; be the touches few or many, each should definitely represent some form. The merest outline accurately sketched upon the spot is preferable to any amount of indefinite filling up, which the artist had better leave to his own imagination, assisted by memory and a faithful sketch, when he finishes his picture.

In a pencil sketch, little notes, indicating the nature of the soil, the foliage, the colour or condition of the water or the clouds, may be neatly written in, in such a manner that, unless on close inspection, they blend into the forms of the objects, and rather assist the drawing than detract from its appearance: for instance, the word rocks may run alongside the shadow of a fissure, and their kind or colour--red, grey, basalt, or sandstone, &c.--grass, sandy plain, water, dark clouds, cumuli or light cirri, accidental or cast shadows, or gleams of light, are all worthy of notice; while the direction of a river may be indicated by a small arrow-head. It may also be enough if several objects of a kind are together, as a crowd of men, a herd of animals, or a flotilla of small vessels, to draw one or more carefully and simply indicate the position of the rest. If there is time, a few touches of colour on the principal parts--say the grey of distant hills and the stronger tints of the nearer ones in flat washes. If a sketch is to be finished in colour on the spot, the outlines should be made as before, with the greatest care; but no time should be wasted in attempting to shade or finish with the pencil. If the paper is of a light pearl or a warm grey tint, so that Chinese white will tell upon it, it will be less dazzling to the eye when reflecting the rays of a vertical sun; but it must be remembered that all tinted grounds impart their own character to the work, and, if strict fidelity is sought, nothing but pure white paper, with a sufficient grain or texture to take the colour well, and to give that slight broken uncertainty of touch which is of so much advantage in foliage or rough surfaces, and yet sufficiently fine to admit of the most delicate manipulation where it is required. The right side of the paper is that on which the maker's name, pressed into its texture, is properly seen; and, if the sheet is cut, each piece that does not include some portion of this should be marked with an "R" on the right side, to prevent mistake. The pencil sketch being completed, wet the paper all over with your largest brush filled with pure water--this somewhat softens, while it fixes the pencil lines, and disposes the paper to receive colour more readily. Take up with the half-dried brush any drops of water that may hang under the edge of your sketching frame, which should, of course, be perfectly clean. Determine now what parts of your picture are to be white, or of pure and unmixed blue, and then, with the large brush, pass a very faint tint of pale orange over all the rest.

The three primitive colours, red, blue, and yellow, in their greatest obtainable purity, should now be placed on the pallette, which ought to be clean, and if possible unencumbered by other colours. Suppose you have Indian yellow, carmine, and cobalt. With a little diluted cobalt wash in the clear blue spaces in the sky, carrying a tint downward on any part of the ground in which grey is to predominate, so as to impart depth of colour as speedily as possible, and reduce the distracting effect of the white paper as seen in opposition to the parts you are painting; if the lights on the clouds are to be pure white, form a grey with a little cobalt and carmine and paint their shadow sides, then with a clean half dry brush soften the harshness of the edges, and reduce them to the form you wish, bearing in mind that the more correctly and evenly you can lay the edge of the original wash, and the less it wants re-touching the better for your picture. If the sky is to be cloudless, turn the picture bottom up, take a very faint wash of cobalt and carmine and lay it along the horizon, letting the lower edge hang full and wet, so as to give you time to work on it before it dries, and yet not so full as to run down in a drip, and so produce unequal lines across the sky; then take up a little pure cobalt and wash in another line of colour a little deeper than the first, the wet edge of which will run imperceptibly into your second line, and thus in succession keep working in lines of deeper blue, until by an imperceptive gradation you reach the zenith. If sunset or sunrise is to be represented, keep a pure white space for the sun, round this lay a wash of Indian yellow, round this another of carmine, and beyond this another of cobalt with a little carmine in it, keeping the picture still reversed, so that in graduating the tints the most brilliant colours may run into those that are less so--as the yellow into the red and the red into the blue, rather than that the colder colours should run into the warm, and thus impair their purity. The sun may then be tinted as required, remembering always that the source of light must be brighter than the atmosphere through which it shines--though, if the sun be setting in a bank of cloud or haze, great effect may be gained by painting it of a deep and lurid red; while its clear and nearly white light shines on the light clouds in the zenith above the influence of the haze.

Calm water will reflect the colour of the sky according to the angle at which it is viewed; if you look down on it, it will reflect the dark blue of the zenith, but at the same time, if it be transparent, it will also transmit the broken colours of the ground beneath, and thus many beautiful effects are produced--the yellow sand of the tropics imparting a brilliant green to the shallow sea, while rocks or sea-weed will give rich tones of brown. If the spectator is low down, the water will reflect the colour of the horizon, and its own local colour will be lost or much diminished; the reflection of objects on its banks will also appear more perfectly in proportion to its stillness; but never fall into the error of making the reflection an inverted facsimile of the real object--it is in reality an image as seen from the level of the water at a point midway between the spectator and the object. Get a good photograph showing a reflection, or lay a looking-glass horizontally and place an object on it, and you will see at once what we mean.

The distant hills may either melt into the soft tints of the sky, partaking of roseate light and faint sky shadow, or may rise cold and dark against a clear horizon, or may be shown in full light against a heavy storm cloud; in any case, the tone of colour proper to their respective distances must be preserved, and in this respect there can be no better rule than to copy those that nature herself presents. Objects in the middle distance will be more strongly coloured; and if any particular object be selected as the subject of the landscape, the attention should be directed to this, and the remainder made subservient to it, by having somewhat less finish bestowed upon them. Fix the eye steadily upon the chosen object, and observe how all detail becomes indistinct towards the limits of the vision, and then in like manner, having worked up the detail around the centre of interest, let the colours become a little fainter, and the work less definite toward the corners of your sketch. In foliage, take the lightest tint, say Indian yellow and French blue, or Prussian blue toward the foreground where intense green is required, and lay in the masses, keeping the forms large and broad, and blending a little more blue with the parts that are to represent the farthest side of the tree; then, when this is dry, take a darker tint and somewhat more minutely represent the forms of those portions that take the middle tint or local colour; and lastly, take a third for the deeper shadow, strengthening this with touches of rich warm brown or cool grey as you wish the masses to advance or to retire. Even pure crimson may be used with advantage as a shadow to cool clear green in the foreground; in like manner the proper shadow for a yellow sandhill on a beach is not a deeper yellow, but a cool purplish grey, composed of the complementary colours blue and red.

To give some idea of the work that may be done with three well-chosen colours, we append the following list, which might be much enlarged:--

{ Yellow and red produce orange. Primaries { Yellow and blue, green. { Red and blue, purple.

{ Orange and green, citrine. Secondaries { Orange and purple, russet. { Purple and green, olive.

When the eye is fatigued by looking at one of the brilliant primary colours it seems to relieve itself by seeing the secondary colour which is complementary to it: thus if we have looked at red--say at a red light--for some time, and turn the eye away we shall see a green one of the same size and form, being seen in fact by that portion of the eye only that has been fatigued by the strong impression of the red. If we have looked at a yellow light we shall behold a purple image, because this is composed of the other two colours; blue and red is complementary to yellow. Blue, being a cool colour, does not so much fatigue the eye; hence, though by the foregoing rule we ought to see its image in bright orange, in practice we rarely do so. From these facts we learn that, whenever one of the primary colours is used in a picture, the complementary colour formed of the other two ought to be placed not very far from it, so as agreeably to relieve the eye. In most cases the landscape actually being copied will afford sufficient facility for this; sometimes it will not; but these instances are exceptional, and probably will occur in the snow wastes of the north, on the solitude of the ocean, or in the sandy deserts of the tropics, where drear monotony or wild and terrific grandeur constitute the charm of the picture, and fidelity rather than pleasing composition must be the artist's aim.

We subjoin also a few combinations of colour which will be found useful in landscape painting:

Aerial tints for skies, clouds, and distance: for very delicate preparatory wash, cadmium yellow and rose madder; strong ditto, Indian yellow and carmine; neutral ditto, yellow ochre and brown madder; still darker and less aerial, light red, Venetian red, or Indian red. Cobalt for delicate blue skies; French ultramarine for stronger. Cobalt and rose madder for delicate cloud tints. For golden sunsets: aureolin, gamboge, lemon yellow, cadmium yellow, Indian yellow, yellow ochre--to be used according to the brilliancy or depth of colour required, and to be contrasted by cool greys composed of cobalt and rose madder, or French ultramarine. Crimson sunsets: rose madder, carmine, crimson lake, Indian red, purple madder, contrasted with cool grey; and sometimes greenish tones formed by adding a little yellow to the blue and red.

In dark storm clouds, French blue or indigo, with light red, Venetian red, or Indian red, or purple madder. Indigo and Prussian blue require great caution in their use. With any of the beforementioned yellows, they form rich greens for sea tints or foliage; with raw sienna or burnt sienna, they give very deep greens for stormy seas or heavy forest trees. Light red and Prussian blue give a greenish grey. Light red with cobalt or ultramarine give greys somewhat less aerial for middle distance, mountains, &c. Indian red, with the same blues, gives a more opaque grey. Sepia and French blue make a cool grey; raw and burnt sienna are good colours for autumnal foliage, stems of trees where grey is not required, rocks, Dutch galliots, and many other foreground objects; brown madder and vandyke brown afford great depth for foreground shadows. For native complexions, raw sienna with a little of the burnt will give the colour of a Hottentot. A Kafir requires burnt sienna in the half tints, vandyke brown in the shadows, and a cool grey like the reflection of the sky in the lights--this is best produced by a little Chinese white and cobalt laid on thin over the brown. There may be a little blue put into the black of the hair to contrast the better with the brown skin. For a Negro, crimson lake and blue-black; the lights made with Chinese white and blue as before.

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Chapter XX

THE ESTIMATION OF DISTANCES AND HINTS ON FIELD OBSERVING.

ON MEASURING THE DISTANCE TRAVELLED BY WHEELED CARRIAGES.

When no instrument for this purpose is obtainable, the best plan we know of is that adopted by the late Dr. Burchell, the eminent South African traveller, and after him by Captain Cornwallis Harris, the explorer and naturalist, in the more distant parts of the same country; and this is, to measure the large wheel carefully, to mark one of its spokes, and count its revolutions during any given time, say a minute, and then convert the result into miles or parts of a mile per hour. Thus, if a wheel be 5yds. in circumference, and it makes six revolutions in a minute, the distance in that time will be 30yds., or 1800yds., i.e., 40yds. more than a mile per hour; twelve revolutions will of course be 80yds. over two miles; and, during former journeys, when our wheel was making eighteen revolutions, we used to reckon the waggon was going, allowing for occasional unavoidable stoppages, two and a half miles per hour. With a watch having a second hand it is easy to note any fraction of time, but with one not so provided less than a minute cannot easily be estimated. After a little practice we became so accustomed to this that we seldom used a watch; but when sitting on the waggon-box would just look over the side, and estimate the rate at which the wheel was going, just as a sailor would in like manner make a very fair estimate of the speed of his ship.

It will generally be found that an African ox-waggon, not overloaded, and on tolerably fair ground, travels about two and a half miles an hour; and we have also found that with pack horses in Australia, if the same rate is assumed, the resulting measurement of the day's work will be very nearly correct.

We tried once to make a trocheameter, but at the time had never either seen one or read a description of it, and therefore the principle cost us some thinking out. It was perfectly evident that, for motive power, an axle so weighted that it could not revolve in a revolving box would produce the same effect upon the works as an axle made to revolve, by weights or otherwise, in a fixed box would have on those of a clock. We therefore made a box of such a form as to fit between spokes of the hinder wheels of a waggon, and in it fitted an axle with a heavy plummet, so fixed to it as to prevent its turning when the box revolved; on this axle was one tooth fitting into the cogs of a sixty-toothed wheel, which therefore moved one tooth for every revolution, or once round for every sixty; the axle of this had also one tooth acting on another of sixty teeth, so the two were capable of registering sixty times sixty, or three thousand six hundred revolutions, which, supposing the wheel to be only 5yds. in circumference, would measure ten miles and a quarter, the number of revolutions being indicated by a hand fixed upon the axle of each wheel, each moving on its own dial-plate, like those of a patent log. We found that the machine answered quite well enough to convince us that we were right in principle, and to make us regret that we had not the tools and appliances at hand to fit it so perfectly as to insure smoothness and uniformity of action.

To all, however, who have the means, we would say do not fail to buy a trocheameter: it is a small, compact instrument, fitted in a copper case, capable of being strapped on any convenient part of the wheel; and one of fair quality need not cost above 2_l._ 10_s._ or 3_l._ The instrument is composed of two revolving toothed wheels, the upper wheel having 101 and the lower 100 teeth, suspended from and turned by an endless screw; there are two indices, that on the upper wheel pointing out every single revolution, and that on the lower every hundred. The whole circuit of the instrument is 10,100 revolutions, and the following is an example of its power:

"One complete circuit of 10,100 revolutions, with a carriage-wheel of 12ft. circumference, would indicate 23 miles, minus 80yds. Thus, 55 revolutions give 220yds., or 1 furlong; 110 give 440yds., or a quarter of a mile; 440 give 1760yds., or 1 mile; 7040 give 16 miles; 10,100 equal to 23 miles, minus 80yds.

"To set the instrument unscrew the milled nut from off the steel endless screw, and move the wheels round until both the indices coincide; screw the nut firmly in its place, shut up the instrument, and strap it securely to the off-wheel in the centre of the nave."

In Africa we cannot literally follow out these instructions, for the nave is not brass capped, as with carriage-wheels at home, but the end of the axle comes through, and the wheel is secured to it by a washer and a linch pin; therefore, we strap the trocheameter between the spokes as near to the nave as possible, and in our journey to the Zambesi Fall we secured a pint pannikin permanently between the spokes as a protection to the trocheameter, which just fitted nicely into it during this journey. We measured a distance of between 2000 and 3000 miles, and do not remember that this instrument failed, except once from being choked with fine dry sand, and once again from equally fine sand and water.

We subjoin a table, by which it will be seen that our waggon-wheel was 5yds. 2-1/2in. in circumference; this fraction gave some little trouble in the preliminary computation, and it looked very absurd to calculate the stages to half an inch, but if we had thrown it out a considerable error would have accumulated, and when the table was once formed the trouble was at an end.

TROCHEAMETER TABLE.

First Wheel.

--------+------ -+--------+--------+--------- No. | Fur. | Yds. | Ft. | In. --------+--------+--------+--------+--------- | | | | 1 | - | 5 | 0 | 2-1/2 2 | - | 10 | 0 | 5 3 | - | 15 | 0 | 7-1/2 4 | - | 20 | 0 | 10 5 | - | 25 | 1 | 0-1/2 6 | - | 30 | 1 | 3 7 | - | 35 | 1 | 5-1/2 8 | - | 40 | 1 | 8 9 | - | 45 | 1 | 10-1/2 10 | - | 50 | 2 | 1 11 | - | 55 | 2 | 3-1/2 12 | - | 60 | 2 | 6 13 | - | 65 | 2 | 8-1/2 14 | - | 70 | 2 | 11 15 | - | 76 | 0 | 1-1/2 16 | - | 81 | 0 | 4 17 | - | 86 | 0 | 6-1/2 18 | - | 91 | 0 | 9 19 | - | 96 | 0 | 11-1/2 20 | - | 101 | 1 | 2 21 | - | 106 | 1 | 4-1/2 22 | - | 111 | 1 | 7 23 | - | 116 | 1 | 9-1/2 24 | - | 121 | 2 | 0 25 | - | 126 | 2 | 2-1/2 26 | - | 131 | 2 | 5 27 | - | 136 | 2 | 7-1/2 28 | - | 141 | 2 | 10 29 | - | 147 | 0 | 0-1/2 30 | - | 152 | 0 | 3 31 | - | 157 | 0 | 5-1/2 32 | - | 162 | 0 | 8 33 | - | 167 | 0 | 10-1/2 34 | - | 172 | 1 | 1 35 | - | 177 | 1 | 3-1/2 36 | - | 182 | 1 | 6 37 | - | 187 | 1 | 8-1/2 38 | - | 192 | 1 | 11 39 | - | 197 | 2 | 1-1/2 40 | - | 202 | 2 | 4 41 | - | 207 | 2 | 6-1/2 42 | - | 212 | 2 | 9 43 | - | 217 | 2 | 11-1/2 44 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 2 45 | 1 | 8 | 0 | 4-1/2 46 | 1 | 13 | 0 | 7 47 | 1 | 18 | 0 | 9-1/2 48 | 1 | 23 | 1 | 0 49 | 1 | 28 | 1 | 2-1/2 50 | 1 | 33 | 1 | 5 51 | 1 | 38 | 1 | 7-1/2 52 | 1 | 43 | 1 | 10 53 | 1 | 48 | 2 | 0-1/2 54 | 1 | 53 | 2 | 3 55 | 1 | 58 | 2 | 5-1/2 56 | 1 | 63 | 2 | 8 57 | 1 | 68 | 2 | 10-1/2 58 | 1 | 74 | 0 | 1 59 | 1 | 79 | 0 | 3-1/2 60 | 1 | 84 | 0 | 6 61 | 1 | 89 | 0 | 8-1/2 62 | 1 | 94 | 0 | 11 63 | 1 | 99 | 1 | 1-1/2 64 | 1 | 104 | 1 | 4 65 | 1 | 109 | 1 | 6-1/2 66 | 1 | 114 | 1 | 9 67 | 1 | 119 | 1 | 11-1/2 68 | 1 | 124 | 2 | 2 69 | 1 | 129 | 2 | 4-1/2 70 | 1 | 134 | 2 | 7 71 | 1 | 139 | 2 | 9-1/2 72 | 1 | 145 | 0 | 0 73 | 1 | 150 | 0 | 2-1/2 74 | 1 | 155 | 0 | 5 75 | 1 | 160 | 0 | 7-1/2 76 | 1 | 165 | 0 | 10 77 | 1 | 170 | 1 | 0-1/2 78 | 1 | 175 | 1 | 3 79 | 1 | 180 | 1 | 5-1/2 80 | 1 | 185 | 1 | 8 81 | 1 | 190 | 1 | 10-1/2 82 | 1 | 195 | 2 | 1 83 | 1 | 200 | 2 | 3-1/2 84 | 1 | 205 | 2 | 6 85 | 1 | 210 | 2 | 8-1/2 86 | 1 | 215 | 2 | 11 87 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1-1/2 88 | 2 | 6 | 0 | 4 89 | 2 | 11 | 0 | 6-1/2 90 | 2 | 16 | 0 | 9 91 | 2 | 21 | 0 | 11-1/2 92 | 2 | 26 | 1 | 2 93 | 2 | 31 | 1 | 4-1/2 94 | 2 | 36 | 1 | 7 95 | 2 | 41 | 1 | 9-1/2 96 | 2 | 46 | 2 | 0 97 | 2 | 51 | 2 | 2-1/2 98 | 2 | 56 | 2 | 5 99 | 2 | 61 | 2 | 7-1/2 100 | 2 | 66 | 2 | 10 101 | 2 | 72 | 0 | 0-1/2 --------+--------+--------+--------+---------

Second Wheel.

-----+--------+------+------+-----+------- No. | Miles. | Fur. | Yds. | Ft. | In. -----+--------+------+------+-----+------- 1 | -- | 2 | 72 | 0 | 0-1/2 2 | -- | 4 | 144 | 0 | 1 3 | -- | 6 | 216 | 0 | 1-1/2 4 | 1 | 1 | 68 | 0 | 2 5 | 1 | 3 | 14 | 0 | 2-1/2 6 | 1 | 5 | 212 | 0 | 3 7 | 2 | 0 | 64 | 0 | 3-1/2 8 | 2 | 2 | 136 | 0 | 4 9 | 2 | 4 | 208 | 0 | 4-1/2 10 | 2 | 7 | 60 | 0 | 5 20 | 5 | 6 | 120 | 0 | 10 30 | 8 | 5 | 180 | 1 | 3 40 | 11 | 5 | 20 | 1 | 8 50 | 14 | 4 | 80 | 2 | 1 60 | 17 | 3 | 140 | 2 | 6 70 | 20 | 2 | 200 | 2 | 11 80 | 23 | 2 | 41 | 0 | 4 90 | 26 | 1 | 101 | 0 | 9 100 | 29 | 0 | 161 | 1 | 2 -----+--------+------+------+-----+-------

We give also an example of the work:--

December 27, 1861.--From Christmas Tree, south-west angle of Lake Ngami, two miles from Bolebeng--trocheameter at zero.

First halt south of the Lake:--

Trocheameter 6 37

m. fur. yds. ft. in. 6 1 5 212 0 3 37 0 0 187 1 8-1/2 --------------------------- 1 6 179 1 11-1/2

28th.--North of the Vlei Moslenyan:--

Trocheameter 22 91 6 37 ------ 16 54

m. fur. yds. ft. in. 10 2 7 60 0 5 6 1 5 212 0 3 54 0 1 53 2 3 ----------------------- 4 6 105 2 11 -----------------------

29th.--The Big Tree, or Baobab at Mamakahooie:--

Borrow 101 Trocheameter 50 73 22 91 ------ 27 83

m. fur. yds. ft. in. 20 5 6 120 0 10 7 2 0 64 0 3-1/2 83 0 1 200 2 3-1/2 ----------------------- 8 0 165 0 5 -----------------------

29th, p.m.--A hollow, with water:--

Borrow 101 Trocheameter 76 53 50 73 ------ 25 81

m. fur. yds. ft. in. 20 5 6 120 0 10 5 1 3 14 0 2-1/2 81 0 1 190 1 10-1/2 ----------------------- 7 3 104 2 11 -----------------------

30th.--A small Vlei:--

Borrow 101 Trocheameter 93 44 76 53 ------ 16 92

m. fur. yds. ft. in. 10 2 7 60 0 5 6 1 5 212 0 2 92 0 2 26 1 10-1/2 ------------------------ 4 7 78 1 10 ------------------------

31st.--Outspan in the Bush.

Trocheameter 12 89 Add 100 ------ 112 89 93 44 ------ 19 45

m. fur. yds. ft. in. 10 2 7 60 0 5 9 2 4 208 0 4-1/2 45 0 1 8 0 4-1/2 ------------------------ 5 5 56 1 2 ------------------------

As a means of measuring a base line for triangulation of a country the trocheameter is invaluable. Suppose the course is north, and that a mountain bears 90°, or east; let the waggon travel till the mountain bears 45° more southerly, or 135°, i.e., south-east; then stop the waggon, read the trocheameter, and the length of road travelled will be equal to the distance of the mountain from the starting place. Even if the course does not form a right angle with the bearing, the same method may be followed, involving only a little more calculation, or the trouble of laying down the angle upon paper. In places where a waggon cannot travel, it would be well to have a large wheel, on the principle of the old perambulator, and fix the trocheameter upon it; only let it be loaded, so as to bear the semblance of usefulness in the eyes of natives, or even of illiterate white men, or they will infallibly carry it over the bad places, as Captain Sturt's men did, to save themselves trouble. The trocheameter may be fitted to any piece of machinery, as the screw or paddles of a steamer, the sails of a windmill, a waterwheel, or anything capable of turning round.

TO ASCERTAIN THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

The rule for ascertaining this by the bearing of the rising or setting sun is given in all epitomes of navigation, and need not be repeated here; but this is only practicable in a level country, where the sun can be seen within at most a few minutes of the proper times, and cannot be carried out among mountains or thick forests. In such case we were in the habit of setting up two sticks (A A), stretching a thread (B) across them, and from the middle of this letting fall a plumb line (C); then, taking a flat board, with a sheet of paper (D) stretched on it and projecting a little over the edge, make a hole in the projecting part to let the plumb line hang through, taking care not to vitiate its correctness; then select an object (E), the small upright stem of a tree, or set up a stick at a good distance, 100yds. or 200yds., or more, as nearly compass north of the plumb line as possible--if it is not exactly so, note its deviation on either side with the utmost correctness, and draw on the paper the line F D, which, if prolonged, would reach the tree at E. Then, between ten and eleven in the forenoon, set out the artificial horizon, and take an altitude of the sun; call "stop" sharply at the moment of observation, and let an assistant, with a straight-edged rule and pencil, draw the line of shadow cast by the plumb line at that moment; read off, and let your assistant record your observed altitude beside the line he has drawn; rest a minute or two at least; then take another observation, and so on, till three or five, or any odd number of lines have been drawn, forming a pencil of rays from the plumb line. Leave the sextant clamped at the last observation, and in the afternoon, before the sun comes down at that altitude, be ready with the horizon, and call "stop" at the moment, or even just before, the sun comes into contact, your assistant being ready, as before, to draw the shadow of the plumb line. You will now find that the short interval of rest taken between the morning observation will give you time to set your sextant to the next altitude, and to wait quietly till the sun comes down to it; do the same with the rest; and, when all are drawn, take the mean of each pencil of lines, and between them draw an exact central line, radiating like the rest from the plumb line; it will be evident that this must represent the shadow when the sun's centre was exactly on the meridian, and therefore it must be due north and south. Measure the angle between this and the magnetic north line already drawn, and the result in degrees and minutes will be the variation of your compass; or, take the bearing of the line by compass, and the result in points or in degrees will be the variation, which call east or west, as the compass north is to the east or west of the true meridian. Take the bearing again of the tree or mark set up in the morning to ascertain that your paper has not been shifted during the observations. If your magnetic line has not been drawn exactly north and south it is not of great importance; but remember that the exact error must be ascertained and allowed for by addition or subtraction in calculating the angle between it and the true north. An unknown error, however small, renders an observation useless; but a known error, however great, involves only the trouble of correction.

TO OBTAIN LEVELS OR LOW ALTITUDES.

In mapping a country, it is desirable to give as nearly as possible the comparative heights of the hills; or it may be necessary to take the altitude of a low star, or the height of a tree or other object. For this purpose take a wide-mouthed jar or glass bottle, such as is used for the collection of specimens; round the neck of it splice or tie a cord or thong of leather to carry it by; then tie or fix by sealing-wax, gum, or resin, two hairs or threads crossing each other at right angles; and then, standing over the jar with the face towards the object to be measured, take a pocket, or full-sized sextant, and bring the top of the object to the spot where the threads cross each other, taking care to keep the eye so perpendicularly above their junction that the crossed lines and their reflected image may appear in one; then read off the observed angle--for instance 110° 42´ 30´´. Apply the index error, which suppose to be 30´´ subtracted, and subtract 90° from the corrected altitude, the remainder will be the true altitude; thus:

° ´ ´´ Observed [delta] 110 42 30 Index error 0 0 30 ----------- 110 42 0 90 0 0 ----------- Altitude required 20 42 0 -----------

It will conduce very greatly to steadiness if a rest is used; the stand of a theodolite, with the instrument removed, or of a photographic camera, or three forked sticks set up so that the sight could be directed downwards through a central aperture, would answer the purpose. If the sextant is set to 90°, allowing for index error, and the horizon is swept round with it, the eye being kept steadily perpendicular to the cross lines, it will at once show what objects are above or below the level of the observer's eye. A looking-glass may be used in the same manner, but it must be very carefully tested in every direction with a spirit level and even then it is but an inefficient substitute for the mercury, which levels itself, and which cannot possibly give a false result, because nothing but agitation can destroy the perfect level of its surface, and unless it is at rest it cannot reflect an unbroken image, and no observation can be made.

A looking-glass may also be suspended vertically, its surface being tested by two plumb lines, one on each side its centre. A horizontal line may be stretched at a foot or two from its front; then, if the observer, retiring a few paces, raises or lowers himself till the line and its reflection appear in one--his eye and the line must be in the same horizontal plane--and he may observe the altitude of the sun, or other celestial body, when in the zenith or too high to be observed in the mercurial artificial horizon; this plan, however, is only an approximation to correctness, and should only be used when the mercurial horizon is not available.

THE PLANE TABLE, AND ITS USE.

In making a plane table, discard all the complicated arrangements of sights, protractors, fixed compasses, spirit levels, and levelling screws, each of which has an individual error, which must be found and allowed for before correctness can be attained; while the approximation to perfection gained by their most careful use is almost certain to be vitiated by the contraction of the paper when removed from the table on which it has been stretched.

Take any flat board--Fig. 1 (an artist's drawing-board) is as good as any--and stretch on it a sheet of drawing or stout cartridge paper: the best levelling apparatus is a wooden hemisphere (Fig. 2), screwed temporarily on to its back, and working in a circular aperture (Fig. 3) in the top of such a stand as is used for the photographic camera or theodolite; there is no necessity that the surface should be truly horizontal; indeed, it is much better that it should be capable of alterations of position, so that objects above or below its horizon may be sighted and mapped at pleasure. Set up a needle (a) in the centre of the drawing-paper, and lay against it a straight-edged ruler (b) with two other needles (c c), set perfectly upright in each end as near as possible to the fiducial edge, as sights; then, choosing some principal object--say a well-marked conical peak, the bluff edge of a precipice, or a deep and narrow cleft in distant mountains--and keeping your ruler pressed against the central needle, bring the others, which serve as sights, in careful alignment with the object, and draw a pencil line along the fiducial edge right across the paper; then, with your prismatic compass (resting on the table for greater steadiness, if there is no iron in it to affect the magnet), take very carefully the bearing of the object, and note it in degrees from north, or zero, say 40°, on the line you have drawn; then lightly sketch the object on the line, estimating its distance from the centre, according to the scale on which you are working, say one or more inches to a mile. Direct the sights to any number of well-marked and recognisable objects, draw lines, and sketch them lightly at their estimated distances. Then have a mark set up as far off as possible, say a mile, or any carefully-measured distance, direct the sights, and draw a line towards it; mark its distance accurately on the paper, and insert the pivot needle there; remove the table to the marked spot, and, with your prismatic compass, set the first line again to 40°; then bring your sights to bear upon the object, draw another line along your straight edge, and the point at which this cuts the first will be the true position of your object; correct your first sketch still lightly, but do not efface anything; sight all the other objects, and sketch them where the second set of lines cut the first. Then choose another station, forming, if possible, an equilateral triangle with the other two; mark its position on the map, remove the proof needle there, carry the table to the spot, set the first line again to 40°, and sight the same objects a third time all round, and the third set of lines crossing the other two will give their true distances from the centre with sufficient accuracy for all ordinary purposes.

A ball and socket joint for adjusting the table to the necessary alterations of level may be made by nailing on beneath it a hemisphere of wood (Fig. 2), working in a circular hole (Fig. 3) in the top of the stand.

EXTEMPORISED SIGHT VANE FOR LEVELLING STAFF.

Fig. 5. Suppose your staff 1-1/2in. thick: take a piece of tin about 7in. wide, and of any convenient length, say nearly square; line it off as in Fig. 4, so that there shall be three divisions parallel to each other, as wide as the staff is thick, and on one side of them leave another division, about 3/4in. wide, and on the other mark and cut out two projections 3/4in. square, and a semicircular eyepiece, somewhat larger, with a quadrant-like aperture, as in the illustration; bend the tin at the divisional lines, so as to clasp the staff loosely, with the sight vane projecting from it; let a cord be attached to the top of the tin, and pass through a hole in the top of the staff to draw it up by, and attach another cord to the bottom to draw it down again if required. Upon the edge of the narrowest divisions draw the subdivisions of the measures already marked upon your staff, letting them commence from the level of the bottom of the aperture in the sight vane, and read downwards; then, directing the telescope of your levelling instrument towards the staff, let an assistant lower or raise the sight vane according to your signals, and then read off the number of subdivisions on the vernier until you come down to a line, marking a division on the staff; read off this, and add the fractional parts, and the excess or deficiency over or below the height of the eye will be the difference of level in feet, inches, or whatever measurement may be used.

Movable stands for instruments must be light for the sake of portability, but steadiness cannot be obtained without weight; and for this purpose a bucket of water, a bamboo filled with water or sand, a bag of stones or sand, a large stone, or lashing to a tent peg driven into the ground, may be employed, as in our illustration.

MAKESHIFT CLINOMETER.

Captain Lendy recommends a simple form of clinometer, which is constructed as follows: The clinometer consists of a quadrant of pasteboard or of brass, having a plummet, A H, suspended at its centre, and graduated, as in the diagram, on both sides. When we require an angle of elevation, we look along the edge, A C, till B is in sight, when the plummet indicates the angle. For an angle of depression reverse the instrument. This instrument is an excellent substitute for the ordinary form of sextant in case of accident or breakage.

The same officer describes an ingenious substitute for an ordinary water level, which can always be replaced by a little ruler, A B, suspended by strings, C A, C B, having a little weight under it to prevent the wind from shaking it. When held by the string the line A B will give a horizontal direction. To make use of it for levelling along A B, start from A, hold the ruler up to the eye, and, aiming along its edge, notice to what point (B) of the ground the visual ray corresponds. Repair there, we shall have ascended a distance--the height of the eye above the ground. Start afresh from B, and in this manner the number of stations made between A and B, multiplied by the height of the eye above ground, will give the difference of level required.

The same author gives the following useful hints on the estimation of distance: "Pacing is generally resorted to while filling in the details of a survey. The trotting of a horse might also be made available. Distances can also be measured by time when we have previously ascertained over how many yards we walk or ride in a given time. This is not a rare occurrence in the field. When distances are measured by pacing or riding a correction is necessary, owing to the lengthening caused by acclivities and the turnings of roads. On slightly uneven ground we subtract 1-7th of the distance paced, and 1-5th when the inductions are more important."

When the atmosphere is even sound travels at the rate of 1118ft. per second; therefore a musket fired may serve to measure a distance. A watch gives the number of seconds elapsed between the instant the light is seen and that when the report is heard; that number, multiplied by 1118ft., gives very approximately the distance. If no watch is to be had the time is obtained by counting the pulsations of an artery. A sound pulse averages from 75 to 80 in a minute. Distances may even be guessed by observing that in clear weather the windows of a house can be counted at 4000yds. Horses and men appear as dots at 2200yds. A horse is clearly seen at 1200yds. The movements of men are perceived at 800yds.; and the head is distinctly visible at 400yds.

For the measurement of time, as we have said before, a thoroughly well-made English lever watch is preferable to a chronometer, as it will withstand the rough jolts and vibrations caused by being carried on horseback, or in a waggon, far better. Sun-dials, properly so called, are rarely of much use to the traveller; still the pocket compass may be made to do duty as an indicator of time. There is a small and very portable little instrument to be obtained of most opticians, in the formation of which a silk cord is so attached to the border of the compass case that on adjusting the compass, so that the needle shall point to a black stud inserted for the purpose, a shadow is cast by the silk on the figure indicating the hour of the day. A small equation table is attached to the inside of the cover.

When no watch is at hand seconds can be indicated closely enough for practical purposes by suspending a small bag of shot or bullets from the end of a piece of fine fishing line or copper wire. Attach the upper end to a cross bar, laid in the crutches of two forked sticks, let the bag hang, and regulate the length of the string until you find that it describes the proper arc in swinging; your own pulse, the number of which has been already given, or that of a horse, which may be roughly set down as thirty-six beats per minute, will be a sufficient guide. If great accuracy is sought, recourse may be had to repeated astronomical observations.

An excellent makeshift hour-glass can be made from two empty soda-water bottles, and a little fine dry sand. A wooden plug of 3in. long should be so cut as to fit the necks of the bottles tightly. Through the centre of the plug, from end to end, burn with a red-hot wire a fine even hole, then with your pocket-knife make a funnel-shaped or flared-out mouth to each hole, cutting away until the extreme edge of the plug is reached. See that your sand is free from small stones or lumps, pour it into one of the bottles, insert the plug half-way, and test the quantity by letting it run out at the hole. When you have the proper charge to run for fifteen or thirty minutes, place the bottles mouth to mouth in such a way that one-half the plug shall be in the neck of each bottle. A bit of raw hide sewn round the union of the bottle mouths makes all secure. The joined bottles can then be mounted in a wooden frame for use. Two bits of flat square board, with holes in the centre for the bottoms of the bottles to come partly through, pinned at the corners by four bars of wood, is as good a form of frame as any.

The Malays make use of a very convenient and simple form of time indicator or water clock, which is made as follows:--A large-sized cocoa-nut shell is obtained; this is first scraped perfectly smooth, and then at the bottom a very minute hole is bored. The nutshell is then set floating in a pail of sea water. As the shell fills it gradually settles deeper and deeper, and at last sinks to the bottom with a gurgle and a thud. The rapidity of filling, and consequent duration of time, is regulated by increasing or diminishing the size of the orifice. Thus a man may be set to keep a two-shell watch or a four-shell watch, and so on. The instant the shell sinks to the bottom of the pail it attracts attention by the disturbance made. It is then immediately taken up, the water is poured out, and it is set afloat again. Excellent time can be kept by this primitive arrangement.

For ascertaining the altitude of high lands, ranges of hills or mountains, a thoroughly good "compensated" aneroid barometer should be taken. This will not only be valuable for measurements, but will be of considerable service in the observation of weather signs. We have one now in use made expressly for us by Mr. Cary, of 181, Strand. It is protected by a smooth wooden cover or case, enveloped in tightly-stretched leather. A sling is fitted to it by a swivel loop, which admits of its being carried over the shoulder or in the jacket pocket. The Table of Altitudes, given on the next page, will prove a useful guide when conducting observations with it.

TABLE OF ALTITUDES.

+----------+--------++----------+--------++----------+--------+ |Aneroid or| Height ||Aneroid or| Height ||Aneroid or| Height | |Corrected |in Feet.||Corrected |in Feet.||Corrected |in Feet.| |Barometer.| ||Barometer.| ||Barometer.| | +----------+--------++----------+--------++----------+--------+ | in. | ft. || in. | ft. || in. | ft. | | 31·00 | 0 || 26·76 | 4000 || 23·11 | 8000 | | 30·94 | 50 || 26·72 | 4050 || 23·07 | 8050 | | 30·88 | 100 || 26·67 | 4100 || 23·03 | 8100 | | 30·83 | 150 || 26·62 | 4150 || 22·98 | 8150 | | 30·77 | 200 || 26·57 | 4200 || 22·94 | 8200 | | 30·71 | 250 || 26·52 | 4250 || 22·90 | 8250 | | 30·66 | 300 || 26·47 | 4300 || 22·86 | 8300 | | 30·60 | 350 || 26·42 | 4350 || 22·82 | 8350 | | 30·54 | 400 || 26·37 | 4400 || 22·77 | 8400 | | 30·49 | 450 || 26·33 | 4450 || 22·73 | 8450 | | 30·43 | 500 || 26·28 | 4500 || 22·69 | 8500 | | 30·38 | 550 || 26·23 | 4550 || 22·65 | 8550 | | 30·32 | 600 || 26·18 | 4600 || 22·61 | 8600 | | 30·26 | 650 || 26·13 | 4650 || 22·57 | 8650 | | 30·21 | 700 || 26·09 | 4700 || 22·52 | 8700 | | 30·15 | 750 || 26·04 | 4750 || 22·48 | 8750 | | 30·10 | 800 || 25·99 | 4800 || 22·44 | 8800 | | 30·04 | 850 || 25·94 | 4850 || 22·40 | 8850 | | 29·99 | 900 || 25·89 | 4900 || 22·36 | 8900 | | 29·93 | 950 || 25·85 | 4950 || 22·32 | 8950 | | 29·88 | 1000 || 25·80 | 5000 || 22·28 | 9000 | | 29·82 | 1050 || 25·75 | 5050 || 22·24 | 9050 | | 29·77 | 1100 || 25·71 | 5100 || 22·20 | 9100 | | 29·71 | 1150 || 25·66 | 5150 || 22·16 | 9150 | | 29·66 | 1200 || 25·61 | 5200 || 22·11 | 9200 | | 29·61 | 1250 || 25·56 | 5250 || 22·07 | 9250 | | 29·55 | 1300 || 25·52 | 5300 || 22·03 | 9300 | | 29·50 | 1350 || 25·47 | 5350 || 21·99 | 9350 | | 29·44 | 1400 || 25·42 | 5400 || 21·95 | 9400 | | 29·39 | 1450 || 25·38 | 5450 || 21·91 | 9450 | | 29·34 | 1500 || 25·33 | 5500 || 21·87 | 9500 | | 29·28 | 1550 || 25·28 | 5550 || 21·83 | 9550 | | 29·23 | 1600 || 25·24 | 5600 || 21·79 | 9600 | | 29·17 | 1650 || 25·19 | 5650 || 21·75 | 9650 | | 29·12 | 1700 || 25·15 | 5700 || 21·71 | 9700 | | 29·07 | 1750 || 25·10 | 5750 || 21·67 | 9750 | | 29·01 | 1800 || 25·05 | 5800 || 21·63 | 9800 | | 28·96 | 1850 || 25·01 | 5850 || 21·59 | 9850 | | 28·91 | 1900 || 24·96 | 5900 || 21·55 | 9900 | | 28·86 | 1950 || 24·92 | 5950 || 21·51 | 9950 | | 28·80 | 2000 || 24·87 | 6000 || 21·47 | 10000 | | 28·75 | 2050 || 24·82 | 6050 || 21·44 | 10050 | | 28·70 | 2100 || 24·78 | 6100 || 21·40 | 10100 | | 28·64 | 2150 || 24·73 | 6150 || 21·36 | 10150 | | 28·59 | 2200 || 24·69 | 6200 || 21·32 | 10200 | | 28·54 | 2250 || 24·64 | 6250 || 21·28 | 10250 | | 28·49 | 2300 || 24·60 | 6300 || 21·24 | 10300 | | 28·43 | 2350 || 24·55 | 6350 || 21·20 | 10350 | | 28·38 | 2400 || 24·51 | 6400 || 21·16 | 10400 | | 28·33 | 2450 || 24·46 | 6450 || 21·12 | 10450 | | 28·28 | 2500 || 24·42 | 6500 || 21·08 | 10500 | | 28·23 | 2550 || 24·37 | 6550 || 21·05 | 10550 | | 28·18 | 2600 || 24·33 | 6600 || 21·01 | 10600 | | 28·12 | 2650 || 24·28 | 6650 || 20·97 | 10650 | | 28·07 | 2700 || 24·24 | 6700 || 20·93 | 10700 | | 28·02 | 2750 || 24·20 | 6750 || 20·89 | 10750 | | 27·97 | 2800 || 24·15 | 6800 || 20·85 | 10800 | | 27·92 | 2850 || 24·11 | 6850 || 20·82 | 10850 | | 27·87 | 2900 || 24·06 | 6900 || 20·78 | 10900 | | 27·82 | 2950 || 24·02 | 6950 || 20·74 | 10950 | | 27·76 | 3000 || 23·97 | 7000 || 20·70 | 11000 | | 27·71 | 3050 || 23·93 | 7050 || 20·66 | 11050 | | 27·66 | 3100 || 23·89 | 7100 || 20·63 | 11100 | | 27·61 | 3150 || 23·84 | 7150 || 20·59 | 11150 | | 27·56 | 3200 || 23·80 | 7200 || 20·55 | 11200 | | 27·51 | 3250 || 23·76 | 7250 || 20·51 | 11250 | | 27·46 | 3300 || 23·71 | 7300 || 20·47 | 11300 | | 27·41 | 3350 || 23·67 | 7350 || 20·44 | 11350 | | 27·36 | 3400 || 23·62 | 7400 || 20·40 | 11400 | | 27·31 | 3450 || 23·58 | 7450 || 20·36 | 11450 | | 27·26 | 3500 || 23·54 | 7500 || 20·32 | 11500 | | 27·21 | 3550 || 23·50 | 7550 || 20·29 | 11550 | | 27·16 | 3600 || 23·45 | 7600 || 20·25 | 11600 | | 27·11 | 3650 || 23·41 | 7650 || 20·21 | 11650 | | 27·06 | 3700 || 23·37 | 7700 || 20·18 | 11700 | | 27·01 | 3750 || 23·32 | 7750 || 20·14 | 11750 | | 26·96 | 3800 || 23·28 | 7800 || 20·10 | 11800 | | 26·91 | 3850 || 23·24 | 7850 || 20·07 | 11850 | | 26·86 | 3900 || 23·20 | 7900 || 20·03 | 11900 | | 26·81 | 3950 || 23·15 | 7950 || 19·99 | 11950 | | 26·76 | 4000 || 23·11 | 8000 || 19·95 | 12000 | +----------+--------++----------+--------++----------+--------+

This Table is intended more particularly for the graduation of aneroids with a circle of measures in feet concentric with the ordinary circle of barometric height measured in inches. The circle of feet is to be read off, at the upper and lower stations, by the index; and the rule for measuring the height will be: Subtract the reading at the lower station from the reading at the upper station; the difference is the height in feet.

EXAMPLE.

In. Ft. Barometer at Upper Station, 23·50 7550 " Lower " 24·20 6750 ---- Actual height 800

There is no correction for temperature required with aneroids which are "compensated."

In using the instrument here described in the measurement of altitudes, the movable needle point which is turned by the mill-edged rim is set opposite the index hand. This is to be done at the foot of the mountain or hill. Then the difference between the index hand and the movable needle point will be the number of feet ascended (vide Table appended, and "Example"). Suppose the index hand stand when at the foot of the hill at 30in. 10/100, and when you again look at the instrument you find the index hand has gone back, or has fallen to 29in. 12/100, then you would have ascended 900ft.

At page 26 of this work we referred to the hypsometrical or boiling-point apparatus used in taking altitudes. Since the remark there made was penned we have endeavoured, and we hope successfully, to so guard the improved form of aneroid barometer, referred to at p. 741, from the chance of accident, that it can be safely carried by the explorer of even the most rugged and inhospitable regions.

ON THE USE OF THE SEXTANT AND ARTIFICIAL HORIZON.

We do not propose in this work to trespass on the province of books on nautical astronomy. We take it for granted that every traveller using a sextant will also provide himself with an Epitome--Norie's, Rapers, or Kerigan's (of course the latest possible edition of either), and with the "Nautical Almanac," which may be had for three years in advance, by persons contemplating a long journey.

The most important instrument is the sextant itself, and in the selection of this the greatest care should be used. Ebony or other wood may do for the frames of such as are to be used at sea in temperate climates, but for tropical use, even for sea service, we recommend a brass or gun-metal frame, and for observing on land no other should be used.

The quadrant, which is quite equal to the observation of altitude at sea, will take an angle of 90°, but should read up to 10° or 20° more; but the sextant, or sixth of a circle, is made to take in an angle of twice 60°, or 120°, and should also read 10° or 20° higher. When we were at the Zambesi mouth, in 1858, Dr. Livingstone's sextant reached only 127°, while our own would read to 137° or 140°, which, when the altitude of the sun was increasing daily, gave us the advantage of observing a week or ten days longer than he could. We left the instrument in the care of the Portuguese Commandant of Tette, but have no hope of ever seeing it again, the town having been burnt and the inhabitants massacred by Landeens, Banzai, or other ferocious savages.

The sextant we generally use--and which we have tested by many years' constant use--is brass framed, reads to 126° 56´, is of 8 inches radius, and has its arc and vernier on which the figures are engraved of gold, which has a soft lustre, exceedingly agreeable to the eye under a tropical sun, and is equally pleasant to read by lamp light; a screen of ground glass is placed before it to soften the light still more, and prevent annoying glitter and reflection; the degrees are divided into sixths of ten minutes each, and the minutes likewise into ten seconds; the microscope travels on a fixed frame, and a small milled-headed screw brings it to the figures to be read. A small lamp fixed on the axis of the index arm, with a reflector to shed the light upon the arc and vernier, is sometimes made use of.

For nearly all angular measurements that an explorer is likely to require, a really good sextant will be found sufficient, but some, for the sake of still greater power and accuracy, provide themselves with a repeating circle; but although this possesses many advantages, we doubt whether the expense of such an instrument will not place it beyond the reach of the generality of travellers, while the extra care required will constitute too great a claim upon the time of any who cannot devote themselves entirely to astronomical observations, but must, perhaps, give the greater part of their time to other avocations. The double sextant invented by Captain George, R.N., of the astronomical department of the Royal Geographical Society, described at page 27 of this work, will be found a portable and most convenient instrument for the use of explorers.

The theodolite has also many advantages, especially in taking a round of angles; but from what we have seen of it in practice we should be inclined to think that an explorer, with his sextant and compass, is more independent, and can do more than he could possibly effect with the theodolite.

The artificial horizon is, as its name imports, intended to obviate the difficulties caused by the fact that the real, or sea horizon, may be at times invisible, obscured by fog or clouds, or that the observer may be absent from it, and often far inland, where the unevenness of the earth's surface prevents anything like a reliable real horizon being found. Of the artificial horizons used at sea we have not much to say, the unsteadiness of the vessel forbidding the use of any instrument that can be disturbed by motion. The best we have seen is Captain Becher's pendulum horizon, a little frame swinging near the object-glass of the sextant, and carrying a couple of horizontal wires, so arranged that when they appear in one to the eye of the observer they ought to be on a level with the horizon and parallel with it; a small lamp is so fitted to the sextant as to render these wires visible at night if the altitude of the moon or a star is required; but we do not think the latitude deduced from such an observation can be more than approximately true.

It is on shore, and most of all in the far interior of the great continents of the world, that the artificial horizon is most needed, and that it renders the truest service to the explorer; and therefore it is of the greatest importance that the instrument should be at once simple in construction, easy of management, not easily put out of order, and, above all, perfectly reliable in the result obtained from it. The first requisite is a perfectly flat and horizontal reflecting surface, in which, when the observer looks down upon it, the image of the sun or star may be distinctly seen. Now, it is easy to find flatness: a disc of silvered glass, or polished metal, or even a bit of crown glass, painted black on the under side, or a common round shaving-glass would do if this only were required; but this flat surface must also be perfectly horizontal, and to attain this various arrangements of tangent screws and spirit levels have been invented, all of which require great care in levelling, and have the defect that the slightest accidental touch while they are in use may alter the level, and so vitiate the observation. By common consent, therefore, observers almost universally trust to fluid mirrors, which must be perfectly level if they are sufficiently quiescent to reflect a perfect image. Water, darkened with any colouring matter--ink; water with a little treacle, to render it less liable to be agitated by the wind, or thin tar will do; but all these have disadvantages which render them only fit to be looked upon as substitutes when mercury cannot be obtained; in fact, long ago we were told by the late Captain Washington, Hydrographer to the Admiralty, to use nothing but mercury.

The horizon trough, as it is called, is simply a block of wood of oblong form, about 6in. long, 4in. wide, and 1in. thick; this is hollowed to the depth of about 3/8in. or 1/2in., leaving a sufficient rim to retain the mercury which is poured into it. Sometimes a hole is pierced in the rim, and is continued in the solid wood under the hollow, so that the mercury, being poured into a small funnel fitted in the rim, runs underneath and rises like a fountain in the centre of the trough. The various arrangements of this kind and others more complicated are called fountain horizons, but they are not really necessary, their principal object being to insure the perfect purity of the mercurial surface by forcing it to flow downward first through the funnel, and so to leave the scum behind; but this object may be just as well attained by inverting the bottle, so that all the impurities may float upon the surface, and allowing the pure mercury to run through the perforated stopper into the trough. The bottle is generally of iron, and has the perforated stopper already mentioned, which, when the mercury has to be returned to it, serves also as a funnel. Wooden bottles are also made, but no traveller ought to depend upon them, as in hot climates they shrink and split; and we have found in Namaqualand all our mercury adrift in a tinned box, forming an amalgam which did not at all improve it. We have therefore, for many years, kept it in a common stoneware ink bottle, with a bit of washleather tied over the cork, and have found this to answer admirably; in pouring out the mercury, having removed the cork, we stop the mouth of the bottle with the forefinger, completely invert it, and then, slightly moving the finger, leave an opening sufficient for a stream of pure mercury to flow into the horizon. Our trough is round, and about 4in. across, which is quite large enough. In perfectly calm weather we prefer to observe on the plain surface of the uncovered mercury; but if wind comes on, as it often does in Africa and Australia about noon, we cover it with a roof of the usual form, i.e., two small panes of glass fixed in a frame so as to form an angle of 45° each with the horizon, or 90° with each other, and, standing like a roof over the mercury, allow the rays from the heavenly body to pass down to it, and be reflected to the eye of the observer. Various methods of rendering this roof as portable as possible have been tried; our own is figured in the first chapter of this work.

Captain George's new artificial horizon, however, bids fair to supersede all the old forms of arrangement, as its portability, strength, and simplicity of adjustment stand unrivalled. Captain George's horizon may be made sufficiently large to equal the surface of the one now used; but the portable or pocket form here alluded to is of the following dimensions:--

Self-replenishing, 6in. long, 2-1/2in. broad, 3/4in. thick, weighs 1-1/4lb., cubic measure 11-1/4in.

The wooden one of olden date, 9-1/2in. long, 5-1/2in. broad, 5-1/2in. thick, weighs 5-1/3lb., cubic measure 287-1/3in.

Improved folding roof, &c., all iron, 8in. long, 4-1/2in. broad, 2-1/2in. thick, weighs 6-3/4lb., cubic measure 90in.

The improvements herein specified are not only its reduced size and weight, but its mechanical arrangements, form, and moderate price.

It consists of two circular disc-like reservoirs, about 2-1/2in. in diameter, and 3/4in. in depth, made of iron, at the same casting: one contains the mercury, and the other is the trough, fitted with glass cover for observing.

The discs are connected at their circumference by a narrow neck, and in it is drilled a hole, through which the mercury passes from one reservoir to the other; and this communication is opened or shut off by a stop-cock, on the cone principle, such as is used for water or gas, so that the mercury can be passed from one disc to the other without removing the glass cover, or the risk of losing any mercury.

The mercurial disc, A, is fitted with a cylinder-stopper, D, acting on a spiral spring, by which air can be admitted or allowed to escape.

The trough disc, B, is fitted with two glasses, G and E, which are ground mathematically parallel: one of the glasses is fitted to a frame, and screws on the disc, and is used while passing the mercury in or out of the trough; after which operation it is removed and replaced by the other glass, the edge of which next the stop-cock should be supported by the blade of a pocket-knife and then lowered on the mercury at the opposite side, and by a gentle pressure, force out the intervening air, leaving the glass to float on the surface of the mercury. Without this care, some of the mercury might be pressed over the edge of the disc.

The glass then presents a clear reflecting surface, which is not only protected from the effects of the wind, &c., but also maintains so great a steadiness as to mark a decided improvement over the old triangular glass roof which is placed over the mercury, instead of, as in this case, being on it.

It may be used afloat under favourable circumstances (the observer and artificial horizon being placed on a pendulum table). Another great advantage to this improved artificial horizon is the facility with which altitudes can be observed at 2° elevation, and consequently its adaptation for the measurement of very low stars, as well as the peaks of mountain ranges.

To return the mercury to its reservoir, remove the glass G that floats on the mercury, by lifting it up with the point of a knife, and then screw on the other glass cover, E. It is now only necessary to hold the instrument vertically, the trough end being uppermost (Fig. 4), turn the stop-cock, and press gently downward on the cylindrical stopper, and the mercury will rapidly return to its reservoir.

The following diagrams (half the actual size of the instrument), show the various parts of the instrument, and the method of filling and emptying the reservoir.

Fig. 1 is the instrument complete. A, the mercurial reservoir; B, the observing trough; C, the stop-cock; D, the cylindrical stop.

Fig. 2 is the instrument with the parts of the observing trough removed, which are shown above it. E, rim with glass shade; F, rim without glass shade; G, the glass that floats on the surface of the mercury.

Fig. 3. Position of the instrument while filling the observing trough.

Fig. 4. Position of the instrument while returning the mercury into its reservoir.

In moderate weather the glass G will be quite sufficient protection against the wind, but in gusty weather screw on the rim F, but it must not touch the glass G.

The glass E will protect it from any weather, taking care to level the ground on which the horizon stands.

In filling the observing trough, be careful that the glass cover, E, is screwed on tight; by pressing on the cylindrical stop D (Fig. 1) the mercury flows quickly: the trough half filled, as shown in Fig. 3, is sufficient for ordinary observations; but for very low altitudes the trough must be three-quarters filled or more as found necessary to raise glass G (Fig. 1).

Before returning the mercury into the reservoir, unscrew the short tube near the stop-cock, tapping it smartly at the same time, to shake down the globules of mercury that may remain in the tube; there is a small hole in the screw, which must be brought in sight, then turn the stop-cock, and the mercury will run rapidly into the reservoir. When about to use a sextant and artificial horizon of the common form of construction, our first care is to select a tolerably level, and, if there be wind, a sheltered spot of ground, with a clear view to the north or south, or, if the stars admit of a north and south observation, to see that the view is clear both ways. On this we place our artificial horizon, sometimes on our sextant case, sometimes on a stand (wash leather), but seldom, if we can avoid it, on the bare ground, because then the mercury, if spilled, would be difficult to gather up. The horizon roof we keep near to cover the mercury, in case wind should arise, but we never use it unless in case of necessity; then, sitting either north or south of the horizon, according to the position of the celestial object, we look with the naked eye for its reflected image in the mercury, and so seat ourselves that we can conveniently keep it steadily in view. We set the sextant nearly to zero, and look up without the telescope to the sun or star, and then, gradually moving the index forward, we bring its image down to meet the reflection in the quicksilver; then, screwing on the inverting telescope, which is the simplest and best for observation, we move the index by hand, till the contact is nearly perfect; then fasten the index by the clamping screw, and with the tangent screw complete the contact; and so long as the object is rising, by gradually turning the tangent screw we keep the images together; when they separate more slowly, and at length remain in contact for nearly half a minute, we know that the meridian altitude has been observed; we wait another minute to see them separate in the opposite direction as the body begins to descend, and then read off the observed altitude. Our illustration will sufficiently explain that the sextant is held in the left hand and the tangent screw worked with the thumb and forefinger of the right. Fig. 2 is the method recommended by Captain George: the arc is steadied by the forefinger, and the tangent screw turned by the middle finger and the thumb; a police or bull's-eye lantern is good to read off by, and the light, of whatever nature, should be placed behind the observer, so that it may not interfere with his work, and yet may be ready for him to use when he wishes to read his altitude.

PROJECTION OF ROUTES.

The following directions for the projections of routes by Captain George, R.N., are so thoroughly plain and practical that it will be well for the travelling observer to have recourse to them:--For out-door or field work the easiest method is by the plane projection, the data thus obtained being transferred to a Mercator's projection at the first halt or stopping station. In the plane projection one equal length is assigned to all the degrees of latitude and longitude. It was first adopted on the erroneous supposition that the earth's surface is a plane; it is still the best for the traveller to use in his early attempts to project his journey while the objects are still in sight. This projection is available as far as 20° on either side of the Equator; beyond the parallel of 20° and as far as 60° Mercator's projection is preferable. Between 60° and the pole the distortion of both the plane and Mercator's projection is so apparent, that a polar or circular projection must be adopted. Sheets of paper, ruled into squares by strong lines, and subdivided by finer ones, afford great assistance in map work. For out-door work the scale of 1in. to one mile is amply large enough to register every particular of one day's journey on a sheet of 12in. square. The in-door, or table plan, may be reduced ten miles to the inch, and plans for transmission home maybe again reduced to 1in. to 1° when larger plans cannot be sent. The chief point aimed at in the following directions is to draw more attention than has hitherto been given to the true bearing of objects, for the following reasons: First. Any object whose true bearing is east or west must be in the same latitude as the place of the observer. Secondly. Any object whose true bearing is north or south must be in the same longitude as the place of the observer.

While travelling in a northerly or southerly direction, from a station whose latitude is known, and carefully noting the distance and direction travelled, it is only necessary to watch when objects come to the true east or west, and their latitude is obtained. When travelling in an easterly or westerly direction from a fixed station, noting distance and direction, it is only necessary to watch when objects come to the true north or south, and their difference of longitude can be obtained by using Table B, from the station left. Thus, suppose a traveller passes from A, whose latitude is known, towards some distant hill (B), his route making an angle of 25° with the meridian. He sets his sextant to 65° (65° + 25° = 90°), or to 115° (180° - 65°); then as the objects 1, 2, 3, and 4 successively come into contact with B or A, as the case may be, he ascertains with precision the moment when they are truly east or west of him, and so, knowing the distance he has travelled from A, he can readily calculate or project their latitude.

When the traveller, as will frequently be the case, has to deviate from the line of route, his position can be determined by compass, or true bearing of any object, and an angle of a second object; or he may have recourse to transit observations; that is to say, wherever two fixed objects come in line, an angle to a third object will determine the position with great accuracy.

Observe that in travelling along X Y Z the hills A B C can be mapped for at X, or thereabouts; the bearing of B from C can be determined at Y; that of A from B; and at Z that of A from C, and so on, for any number of hills. And it is very important to recollect that it is not necessary to catch these lines of sight precisely, for by taking bearings twice, and the intermediate course approximately, there are sufficient data for protracting out upon paper the required bearing.

Thus, as soon as the peak of a distant hill is about to be occulted by the shoulder of a nearer one, a bearing should be taken, and again another as soon as it has reappeared on the other side, and the intermediate course noted.

The advantage of this method of filling up a field sketch will become more apparent as experience is gained. A third and accurate method of fixing the position is in general use among marine surveyors, but has hitherto been but little resorted to by land travellers, viz., by the angles subtended between three known objects. The instrument called the station-pointer is generally used for this purpose, but the position may also be found with a pair of compasses and a protractor, or more simply as follows by means of a protractor and a sheet of tracing paper. Draw a line through the centre of the paper, place the protractor on it, near to the bottom of the sheet, lay off the right hand angle to the right, and the left hand angle to the left of the centre line; rule pencil lines, radiating from the point over which the centre of the protractor had been placed, to the points that had been laid off, then place the paper on the plan or map, and move it about until the three lines coincide with the objects taken, prick through the points that lay beneath the centre of the protractor, and the observer's position is transferred to the plan. When possible the centre object should be the nearest.

TO CONSTRUCT A MAP ON MERCATOR'S PROJECTION.

On a sheet of cartridge paper, 38in. by 20in., it is proposed to construct a map on Mercator's projection, on a scale of ten miles to an inch equatorial, i.e. 6in. to a degree of longitude.

Lat. 31° to 33° N. Long. 34° to 36° E.

Draw a base line, find its centre, and erect a perpendicular to the top of the paper; the extremes of longitude 34° and 36°, added together and divided by 2°, give 35°, the central meridian, and which is represented by the perpendicular. On each side of it lay off 6in., and erect perpendiculars for the meridians 34° and 36°; divide the base line into ten mile divisions, and the part from 35° 50´ to 36° into miles for the latitude scale. From Table A take the following quantities:--

° ° ° ´ ° ° Lat. 31 to 32 = 1 10·4 = the distance between parallels 31 and 32 Lat. 32 to 33 = 1 11·1 " " 32 and 33 ------- 2 21·5 " " 31 to 33

Having thus obtained the distance between the required parallels, divide the map into squares of ten miles each way, and the map is ready for the projection of the route.

A.--TABLE TO CONSTRUCT MAPS ON MERCATOR'S PROJECTION.

--+------+------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+------- | 0° | 1° | 2° | 3° | 4° | 5° | 6° | 7° | 8° | 9° --+------+------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+------- |° ´ |° ´ |° ´ |° ´ |° ´ | ° ´ | ° ´ | ° ´ | ° ´ | ° ´ 0| |1 00 |1 00·1|1 00·1|1 00·1| 1 00·2 | 1 00·3| 1 00·4| 1 00·5| 1 00·6 10|1 00·9|1 01 |1 01·2|1 01·5|1 00·7| 1 02 | 1 02·2| 1 02·6| 1 02·9| 1 03·3 20|1 03·6|1 04·1|1 04·5|1 04·9|1 05·5| 1 05·9 | 1 06·5| 1 07 | 1 07·7| 1 08·2 30|1 09 |1 09·6|1 10·4|1 11·1|1 12 | 1 12·8 | 1 13·7| 1 14·6| 1 15·7| 1 16·7 40|1 17·6|1 19 |1 20·1|1 21·4|1 22·7| 1 24·2 | 1 25·6| 1 27·1| 1 28·8| 1 30·6 50|1 32·4|1 34·3|1 36·4|1 38·6|1 40·8| 1 43·4 | 1 45·9| 1 49 | 1 51·4| 1 54·8 60|1 58·3|2 01·8|2 05·8|2 09·9|2 14·5| 2 19·14| 2 24·7| 2 30·5| 2 36·8| 2 43·8 70|2 51·3|2 59·8|3 09·1|3 19·6|3 31·3| 3 44·6 | 3 59·8| 4 17·1| 4 37·4| 5 01·1 80|5 29·5|6 03 |6 46·4|7 40·3|8 51·1|10 27·7 |12 47·9|16 29·6|23 14·3|39 42·2 --+------+------+------+------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Use of the table.--Find the required parallel; the tens at the side, and the units at the top. At their intersection will be found in degrees and minutes the distance of the required parallel from the next less degree, to be measured from the scale of longitude on the map in progress.

Given the parallel of 30°, required that of 31°. 30 at the side and 1 at the top intersects at 1° 09·6´, the required distance of the two parallels.

Given the parallel of 31°, required that of 33°:

° ° ´ 32 = 1 10·4 33 = 1 11·1 ------ 2 21·5 the distance between the 31° and 33° parallels.

B.--GIVEN THE DEPARTURE TO FIND DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE.

--+------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- | 0° | 1° | 2° | 3° | 4° | 5° | 6° | 7° | 8° | 9° --+------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 0| |1·0001|1·0006|1·0013|1·0026| 1·0038| 1·0055| 1·0075| 1·0098| 1·0125 10|1·0154|1·0187|1·0224|1·0261|1·0306| 1·0353| 1·0403| 1·0457| 1·0514| 1·0578 20|1·0642|1·0711|1·0785|1·0864|1·0946| 1·1034| 1·1126| 1·1224| 1·1326| 1·1434 30|1·1547|1·1666|1·1792|1·1924|1·2062| 1·2208| 1·2361| 1·2521| 1·2690| 1·2868 40|1·3054|1·3250|1·3456|1·3673|1·3902| 1·4142| 1·4395| 1·4663| 1·4945| 1·5242 50|1·5557|1·5890|1·6242|1·6616|1·7013| 1·7435| 1·7883| 1·8361| 1·8871| 1·9416 60|2·0000|2·0626|2·1301|2·2027|2·2812| 2·3662| 2·4586| 2·5593| 2·6695| 2·7904 70|2·9238|3·0716|3·2361|3·4204|3·6280| 3·8637| 4·1337| 4·4454| 4·8097| 5·2406 80|5·7587|6·3925|7·1856|8·2057|9·5664|11·475 |14·334 |19·108 |28·653 |57·307 --+------+------+------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Use of the table.--Find the required parallel, the tens at the side and the units at the top, at their intersection will be found a quantity, which, multiplied by the departure, gives the difference of longitude.

The departure from the meridian on the parallel of 34° was 25 miles, required the difference of longitude:

25´ × 1·20 = 30·00´ the difference of longitude.

In the parallel of 60° the departure was 30 miles:

30´ × 2 = 60 miles, or 1 degree.

In the parallel of 35° N. the route was N. 40° W. 37 miles distance.

By traverse table, 40° course, dist. 37° = dep. 23·8´ × 1·22 = 29·03 miles difference of longitude.

The following example will serve to show how the traveller's record of progress may be conveniently kept. It was framed by S. W. Norie expressly for the use of navigators; but explorers and travellers will find it a simple and useful form for recording the day's work:

------------------+-----------+-------------------------+------------- Corrected | | Difference of Latitude. | Departure. Courses. | Distance. +------------+------------+------+------ | | N. | S. | E. | W. ------------------+-----------+------------+------------+------+------ N.E. | 36 | 25·5 | | 25·5 | N. by W. | 14 | 13·7 | | | 2·7 N.E. by E. 1/2 E. | 58 | 27·3 | | 51·2 | N. by E. | 42 | 41·2 | | 8·2 | E.N.E. | 29 | 11·1 | | 26·8 | | +------------+ +------+------ | Difference| 118·8 | |111·7 | 2·7 | of Lat. | | | 2·7 | | | | | -- | | | | Dep. |109·0 | ------------------+-----------+------------+------------+------+------

The difference of latitude 118·8 and departure 109·0 give the course N. 42° 32´ E., and distance 161·2.

° ´ ° ´ Latitude left 52 36 N. Merc. prjctns. 3724 Longitude left 21 45 W. Diff. lat. 1 59 N. Diff. lon. 184 or 3 4 E. -- -- ----- Latitude in 54 35 N. Merc. prjctns. 3925 Longitude in 18 41 W. ------ ---- Sum of lats. 2)107 11 Merc. diff. lat. 201

Mid lat. 53 35

TO MEASURE THE NUMBER OF CUBIC FEET OF WATER CONVEYED BY A RIVER IN EACH SECOND.

In traversing regions watered by rivers and running streams, it not unfrequently becomes important to ascertain the speed at which they flow in their downward course towards the sea, and the following directions given by Captain George, R.N., are so perfectly clear and practical that both time and trouble will be saved by the traveller who follows them out in conducting his investigations. The data required are--the area of the river, section, and the average velocity of the whole current. All that a traveller is likely to obtain without special equipment is the area of the river, section, and the average velocity of the "surface" of the current which differs from that of its entire body, owing to fractional retardation at the bottom.

To make the necessary measurements, choose a piece where the river runs steadily in a straight and deep channel and where a boat can be had. Prepare half a dozen floats of dry bushes, with paper flags, and be assured they will act. Post an assistant on the river bank at a measured distance (of about 100 yards), down stream, in face of a well-marked object; row across stream, in a straight line, keeping two objects on a line in order to maintain your course. Sound at regular intervals from shore to shore, fixing your position on each occasion by a sextant angle between your starting place and your assistant's station, and throw the floats overboard, signalling to your assistant when you do so, that he may note the interval that elapses before they severally arrive opposite him. Take an angle from the opposite shore to give the breadth of the river. To make the calculation approximately, protract the section of the river on a paper, ruled to scale in square feet, and count the number of squares in the area of the section. Multiply this by the number of feet between you and the assistant, and divide by the number of seconds that the floats occupied on an average in reaching him.

Important rivers should always be measured above and below their confluence, for it settles the question of their relative sizes, and throws great light on the rainfall over their respective basins. The sectional area at the time of the highest water, as shown by marks on the banks and the slope of the bed, ought also to be ascertained.

ON OBTAINING GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION FROM NATIVES OR FRONTIER COLONISTS.

Many highly-accomplished travellers fail to obtain much reliable information beyond the actual limit of their own observation, because they do not sufficiently allow for the great difference in the manner of expressing a geographical idea between an educated European observer and an untutored savage; and yet it would not be too much to say that the latter has often enough a thoroughly practical idea of the district he actually knows.

The man who wants information must not talk latitude and longitude to a native or to an uneducated European, nor must he expect them to shape their answers to the form in which he expects to receive them; for if he does he may be told that "rivers run from the sea to the mountains," and other absurdities, which are related as proofs of native stupidity, when they are in reality no more than discrepancies between the form of question and that of the answer. At the same time he must estimate the mental calibre of his informant, and avoid wearying him too much; for sometimes the native mind, over burdened with a succession of ideas, becomes confused, and not unfrequently suspicious, and in this last case actual falsehoods will be told, in order to gain time to find out the intention of the questioner, before the truth is revealed.

In all dealings with natives the European must remember that they have no idea of the value we place upon time; there is no use in saying, "Let us come to the point at once." It is far better, indeed it is absolutely necessary, to delay judiciously, as there is always an implied contest between visitors; and the man who is in a hurry to speak loses dignity. Do not disturb your informant's train of thought, but try to accommodate your own to it. Let him tell as minutely and tediously as he pleases how he has travelled; how long he walked with the rising sun on his right or left; how much he turned either way; where he halted for rest or refreshment; whether he crossed rivers on foot or in canoes; induce him, if possible, to trace a map upon the ground, in doing which he will most probably begin by making the direction of all his lines coincide with the actual bearing of the country; for natives, though they may be brought to comprehend a map when its north point coincides with the real north, cannot believe that it is also right when it is placed in any other position. We have frequently tested Hottentots with regard to the direction of places a thousand miles distant, and have found them point as correctly as we could take the bearing with a pocket compass.

Sometimes it will be found that the same individual will give a river a dozen different names; and this is often because, in speaking of the different parts of it, he gives to each the name of the chief who has his village there, and who "drinks water" at the place which is called after him; therefore, endeavour to ascertain whether the river has a real name, and do not apply to it the first and, perhaps, the most inappropriate name that is given.

Europeans who have settled in the colonies, and have become traders or hunters, frequently push very far into the interior, and such men have generally very clear ideas of direction and locality, but are often very modest and diffident when asked to furnish information to be laid down on paper. In 1849, while staying at the Vaal River, we persuaded our friend Macabe, with some difficulty, to give us the length in "hours" and the direction of the various stages of his journey on the river Limpopo. These, with the rivers, mountains, villages, and other features of the country, we laid down, on a scale of one inch to a mile, on several sheets of cartridge paper, and tested the correctness of our work by laying it on the floor, with its north coinciding with the real north, and requesting our Dutch visitors to stand as if they were about commencing the same journey, and indicate how much they turned to the right or left as they proceeded.

The following facts relating to time should be impressed on the memory of every traveller:--The earth is divided in its circumference into 360°; the day is divided into twenty-four hours. It therefore follows that 15° of longitude will represent one hour of time; consequently, as you travel towards the east, when you have journeyed over 15°, you will have gained one hour on the sun, which will rise just one hour earlier than it did at the starting point.

If natives accompany you on a journey, ask them to point in the direction of places at different times, and particularly to tell you when you are exactly abreast of them, as well as before, and after you have passed, and thus, by a kind of rough triangulation, you will gain their approximate position.

If cattle stray to great distances, ask the men who go after them the reason of their having taken any particular direction, and you will probably gain some information respecting the form of valleys or mountains, and perhaps of watering places.

In North Australia we were led by the tracks of horses, which had been lost about a fortnight, to a considerable stream.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us

Chapter XXI

HINTS TO EXPLORERS ON COLLECTING AND PRESERVING OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY.

By the courtesy of Mr. H. W. Bates, F.R.C.S. and Asst. Sec. R.G.S., we are enabled to furnish our readers with the following valuable and practical information regarding the gathering together and preserving such objects of natural history as he may be fortunate enough to discover:--

Travellers (says Mr. Bates) who intend devoting themselves especially to natural history will generally possess all the requisite information beforehand. It is to those whose objects or duties are of another nature, or who, whilst on a purely geographical land expedition, wish to know the readiest means of collecting, preserving, and safely transmitting specimens they collect, that the following hints are addressed.

{Outfit.}

Double barrel guns with spare nipples, and a few common guns to lend to native hunters, especially if going to the interior of tropical America. Fine powder in canisters, and fine shot (Nos. 8 and 11), must be taken from England; coarse powder and shot can be had in any part; a good supply of the best caps. Arsenical soap, a few pounds in tin cases; brushes of different sizes; two or three scalpels; scissors (including a pair of short bladed ones); forceps of different sizes for inserting cotton into the necks of birds' skins; needles and thread. A few small traps with which to capture small (mostly nocturnal) animals; strong landing net for water mollusks, &c.; two stout insect sweeping nets; cylindrical tin box, with shoulder strap, for collecting plants; a few dozen of small and strong broad-mouthed bottles, and a couple of corked pocket boxes; insect pins, a few ounces each of Nos. 5, 14, and 11; stone jars, for reptiles and fishes in spirit, to fit four in a box, with wooden partitions. If animals in spirit are to be collected largely, a supply of sheet tin, or zinc, with a pair of soldering irons, and a supply of soft solder, must be taken instead of stone jars: cylindrical cases can be then made of any size required. By means of the soldering apparatus also empty powder canisters or other tin vessels can be easily converted into receptacles for specimens; a ream or two of botanical drying paper, with boards of same size as the sheet, and leather straps; a few gross of chip pill boxes in nests; a dozen corked store boxes (about 14in. by 11in. and 2-1/2in. deep) fitted perpendicularly in a tin chest; a few yards of indiarubber waterproof sheeting, as temporary covering to collections in wet weather, or in crossing rivers; a set of carpenter's tools.

An outfit may be much lightened by having all the provisions and other consumable articles packed in square tin cases, and in boxes and jars of such forms as may render them available for containing specimens. If the traveller is going to the humid regions of the Indian Archipelago, South-Eastern Asia, or tropical America, where excessive moisture, mildew, and ants are great enemies to the naturalist, he should add to his outfit two drying cages, for everything that is not put at once into spirits is liable to be destroyed before it is dry enough to be stowed away in boxes. They may be made of light wood, so arranged as to take to pieces and put together again readily; one for birds should be about 2ft. 6in. long by 1ft. 6in. high, and 1ft. broad; the other for insects and other small specimens may be about one-third less. They should have folding doors in front, having panels of perforated zinc, and the backs wholly of the latter material; the sides fitted with racks to hold six or eight plain shelves, which in the smaller cage should be covered with cork or any soft wood that may be obtained in tropical countries. A strong fixed ring, fastened in the top of the cage, with a cord having a hook attached to the end, by which to hang it in an airy place; it will keep the contained specimens out of harm's way until they are quite dry, when they may be stowed away in close fitting boxes. If this plan be not adopted, it will be almost impossible to preserve specimens in these countries.

The countries which are now the least known with regard to their natural history are New Guinea and the large islands to the east of it, Northern Australia, the island of Borneo, Tibet, and other parts of Central Asia, Equatorial Africa, and the eastern side of the Andes, from the east of Bogota to the south of Bolivia.

{Collecting.}

In most of the better-known countries botany has been better investigated than zoology; and in most countries there still remains much to be done in ascertaining the exact station and the range both vertical and horizontal of known species. This leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on, namely, that some means should be adopted by the traveller to record the exact locality of the specimens he collects. In the larger-dried animals this may be done by written tickets attached to the specimens; in pinned insects a letter or number may be fixed on the pins of all specimens taken at one place and time, the mark to refer to a note book. The initial letter, or first two or three letters of the locality, is perhaps the readiest plan; and when all the specimens taken at one place can be put into a separate box, one memorandum upon the box itself will be sufficient. Reptiles and fishes can have small parchment tickets attached to them before placing them in spirits. A traveller may be puzzled in the midst of the profusion of animal and vegetable forms which he sees around him, to know what to secure and what to leave. Books can be of very little service to him on a journey, and he had better at once abandon all ideas of encumbering himself with them. A few days' study at the principal museums before he starts on his voyage may teach him a great deal, and the cultivation of a habit of close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will teach him a great deal more. As a general rule, all species which he may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred to those common near the civilised parts. He should strive to obtain as much variety as possible, and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of specimens of one or a few species. But as some of the rarest and most interesting species have great resemblance to others which may be more common, he should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side by side. In most tropical countries the species found in open and semi-cultivated places are much less interesting than those inhabiting the interior of the forests; and it generally happens that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives are species well known in European museums.

In botany, a traveller, if obliged to restrict his collecting, might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their economical uses, always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree or shrub whose root, bark, leaves, wood, &c., are used by the natives, and preserving a few specimens of them. But, if he is the first to ascend any high mountain, he should make as general a collection of the flowering plants as possible at the higher elevations. The same may be said of insects found on mountains, where they occur in very great diversity; on the shady and cold sides rather than on the sunny slopes; under stones and about the roots of herbage, especially near springs; on shrubs and low trees, and so forth; for upon a knowledge of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend many curious questions in the geographical distribution of forms over the earth.

In reptiles, the smaller Batrachia (frogs, salamanders, &c.) should not be neglected, especially the extremely numerous family of tree frogs. Lizards may be caught generally with the insect-sweeping net; the arboreal species, seen out of reach, may be brought down with a charge of dust shot. Snakes should be taken without injuring the head, which is the most important part of the body. A cleft stick may be used in securing them by the neck, and on reaching camp they may be dropped into the jars of spirits. As large a collection as possible should be made of the smaller fishes of inland lakes and unexplored rivers. Dr. Günther, of the British Museum, has authorised me to say that a traveller cannot fail to make a large number of interesting discoveries if he collects a few specimens of the species he meets with in the lakes and rivers of the interior of any country. It can scarcely be expected that specimens of the larger animals can be brought away by a geographical expedition, although some species are still desiderata in the large museums of Europe. Additional specimens of all genera, of which there are numerous closely-allied species (e.g., rhinoceros, antelopes, equus, &c.), would be very welcome for the better discrimination of the species. If only portions can be obtained, skulls are to be preferred. In humid tropical regions, entire skins cannot be dried in time to prevent decay, and it is necessary to place them, rolled up in a small compass, in spirits. The smaller mammals, of which there remain many to reward the explorer in almost all extra-European countries, may be skinned, dried, and packed in boxes in the same manner as birds. The smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game bag, folded in paper, the wounds, mouth, and anus being first plugged with cotton. Powdered calcined gypsum will here be found very useful in absorbing blood from feathers, on account of the facility with which it can be afterwards cleared from the specimens. All plants, when gathered, are placed in the tin box which the traveller carries with him. Land and fresh water shells may be carried home in a bag. All hard-bodied insects, such as beetles, ants, and so forth should be placed, in collecting, in small bottles, each bottle having a piece of slightly-moistened rag placed within it, to prevent the insects from crowding and injuring each other. The hint previously given, with regard to numbers of specimens, must be repeated here. Take as great a variety of species as possible, the sweeping-net should be freely used (except in very wet weather) in sweeping and beating the herbage and lower trees. In collecting ants, it is necessary to open nests and secure the winged individuals of each species, which must be afterwards kept together with the wingless ones to secure the identification of the species. Bees and wasps may be caught in the net and then placed, by means of small forceps, in the collecting bottle, and afterwards killed in the same way as beetles and other hard-bodied insects. All soft-bodied insects should be killed on capture (by a slight pressure of the chest underneath the wings by thumb and finger), and then pinned in the pocket collecting box. If the traveller has leisure and inclination for the pursuit, he may readily make a large and varied collection of these, and will do good service to science if he notes carefully the exact localities of his captures, altitude above the sea, nature of country, the sexes of the species, if detected, and information on habits. The delicate species should be handled very carefully and put away into the drying cage immediately on return from an excursion. Spiders may be collected in bottles, and afterwards killed and pinned in the same way as other insects. Crustacea (shrimps, crawfish, &c.) in rivers and pools may be collected with the landing net, and afterwards well dried and pinned like hard-bodied insects, except when they are large in size, when their bodies must be opened, and emptied of their contents.

{Preserving and packing.}

Previous to skinning a small mammal or bird make a note of the colour of its eyes and soft parts, and, if time admits, of the dimensions of its trunk and limbs. It facilitates skinning of birds to break, before commencing, the first bone of the wings a short distance above the joint, which causes the members to lie open when the specimen is laid on its back on the skinning board. The animal should be laid with its tail towards the right hand of the operator, and the incision made from the breast bone nearly to the anus. A blunt wooden style is useful in commencing the operation of separating the skin from the flesh. When the leg is reached, cut through the knee joint, and then clear the flesh from the shank as far as can be done, afterwards washing the bone slightly with arsenical soap, winding a thin slip of cotton round it, and returning it to the skin. Repeat the process with the other leg, and then sever with the broad-bladed scissors the spine above the root of the tail. By carefully cutting into the flesh from above the spine is finally severed without injuring the skin of the back, and it is then easy to continue the skinning up to the wings, when the bones are cut through at the place where they had previously been broken, and the body finished as far as the commencement of the skull. A small piece of the skull is now cut away, together with the neck and body, and the brains and eyes are scooped out, the inside washed with soap, and clean cotton filled in, the eyes especially being made plump. In large headed parrots, woodpeckers, and some other birds, the head cannot thus be cleansed; an incision has therefore to be made either on one side or on the back of the neck, through which the back of the skull can be thrust a little way and then cleansed, the incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches. The bones then remaining in each wing must be cleansed, but so as not to loosen the quill feathers. It is much better to take out the flesh by making an incision on the outside of the skin along the flesh on the inner side of the wing. The inside of the skin must now be washed with the soap, and a neck of cotton (not too thick) inserted by means of long narrow forceps, taking care to fix the end well inside the skull, and withdrawing the empty forceps without stretching the skin of the neck and thus distorting the shape of the bird. Skins need not be filled up with cotton or any other material, but laid with the feathers smoothed down on the boards of the drying cage until they are ready to be packed in boxes. In very humid climates like that of Tropical America, oxide of arsenic in powder is preferable to arsenical soap, on account of the skins drying quicker, but it cannot be recommended to the general traveller, owing to the danger attending its use.

In mammals the tail offers some difficulty to a beginner. To skin it, the root (after severing it from the spine) should be secured by a piece of strong twine, which should then be attached to a nail or beam. With two pieces of flat wood (one placed on each side of the naked root) held firmly by the hand and pulled downwards, the skin is made rapidly to give way generally to the tip. The tails of some animals, however, can be skinned only by incisions made down the middle from the outside. The larger mammal skins may be inverted, and, after washing with soap, dried in the sun; and, as before remarked, it is often necessary to roll them up and preserve in spirits. The skins of small mammals and birds, after they are quite dry, may be packed in boxes, which must be previously well washed inside with arsenical soap, lined with paper, and again covered with a coating of the soap, and well dried in the sun. This is the very best means of securing the specimens from the attacks of noxious insects, which so often, to the great disgust of the traveller, destroy what he has taken so much pains to secure. Where wood is scarce, as in the interior of Africa, boxes may be made of the skins of antelopes, or other large animals, by stretching them when newly stripped from the animal over a square framework of sticks, and sewing up the edges after being dried in the sun; they make excellent packing-cases. With regard to reptiles and fishes, I cannot do better than quote the following remarks sent to me by Mr. Osbert Salvin, who collected these animals most successfully in Guatemala:--"Almost any spirit will answer for this purpose, its fitness consisting in the amount of alcohol contained in it. In all cases it is best to procure the strongest, being less bulky, and the water can always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount. When the spirit sold retail by natives is not sufficiently strong, by visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings (the strongest) of the still, which will be stronger than he requires undiluted. The spirit used should be reduced to about proof, and the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer. If this is not at hand, a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle. When the spirit has been used, this test is of no value. When animals or fish are first immersed, it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker. Large specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily. The rapidity with which this absorption takes place should be carefully watched, and in warm climates the liquid tested at least every twelve hours, and fresh spirit added to restore it to its original strength. In colder climates it is not requisite to watch so closely, but practice will show what attention is necessary. It will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about proportionate to the rate of decomposition. Spirit should not be used too strong, as its effect is to contract the outer surface, and thus closing the pores prevent the alcohol from penetrating through to the inner parts of the specimen. The principal point, then, is to watch that the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in. It will be found that after two or three days the spirit retains its strength; when this is the case, the specimen will be perfectly preserved. Spirit should not be thrown away, no matter how often used, so long as the traveller has a reserve sufficient to bring it back to its requisite strength. In selecting specimens for immersion, regard must be had to the means at the traveller's disposal. Fish up to 9in. long may be placed in spirit with simply a slit cut to allow the spirit to enter to the entrails. With larger specimens it is better to pass a long knife outside the ribs, so as to separate the muscles on each side of the vertebra. It is also as well to remove as much food from the entrails as possible, taking care to leave all these in. The larger specimens can be skinned, leaving, however, the intestines in, and simply removing the flesh; very large specimens preserved in this way absorb very little spirit. All half-digested food should be removed from snakes and animals. In spite of these precautions specimens will often appear to be decomposing, but by more constant attention to re-strengthening the spirit they will in most cases be preserved. A case (copper is best) with a top that can be unscrewed and refixed easily, should always be carried as a receptacle; the opening should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted. This is to hold freshly caught specimens. When they have become preserved they can all be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes; zinc is best, as it does not corrode so easily. The traveller will find it very convenient to take lessons in soldering, and so make his own boxes. (For directions for soldering, see p. 210 of this work.) If he takes them ready made they had best be arranged so as to fit one into another before they are filled. When moving about, all specimens should be wrapped in calico, linen, or other rags, to prevent their rubbing one against the other. This should also be done to the specimens in the copper case when a move is necessary, as well as to those finally packed for transportation to Europe. These last should have all their interstices between the specimens filled in with cotton wool or rags. If a leak should occur in a case, specimens thus packed will still be maintained moist, and will keep some time without much injury. Proof spirit should be used when the specimens are finally packed, but it is not necessary that it should be fresh. Land and fresh-water shells, on reaching camp, should be placed in a basin of cold water to entice the animals out, and then, after draining off, killed by pouring boiling water over them. They may be cleansed of flesh by means of a strong pin or penknife. The operculum or mouthpiece of all shells which possess it should be preserved and placed inside the empty shell. Each shell when dry should be wrapped in a piece of paper and the collection packed in a box well padded with cotton or other dry and elastic material.

"The insects collected on an excursion should be attended to immediately on arrival in camp. When leisure and space are limited all the hard-bodied ones may be put in bottles of spirit, and each bottle when nearly full should be filled up to the cork with a piece of rag, to prevent injury from shaking. Many species, however, become stained by spirit, and it is far better in dry countries, such as Africa, Australia, and Central Asia, to preserve all the hard bodied ones in a dry state in pill boxes. They are killed whilst in the collecting bottles by plunging for a few minutes the bottom half of the bottles in hot water. An hour afterwards the contents are shaken out over blotting paper and put into pill boxes, the bottoms of the boxes being padded with cotton, over which is placed a circular piece of blotting paper. The open pill boxes should then be placed in the drying cage for a day or two, and then filled up with more cotton, the layer of insects being first covered with a circular piece of paper.[C] The soft bodied specimens which are brought home pinned, should be stuck in the drying cage until they are dry, and then pinned very close together in the store boxes. The store boxes both bottom and sides should each have inside a coating of arsenical soap before they are corked, and as they become filled one by one should be washed outside with the soap and pasted all over with paper. Camphor and other preservatives are of little or no use in tropical climates. In some countries where the traveller may wish to make a collection of the butterfly fauna, the best way is to preserve all the specimens in little paper envelopes. He should be careful not to press the insects too flat, simply killing them by pressure underneath the breast, folding their wings carefully backwards and slipping them each into its envelope. In very humid tropical countries, such as the river valleys of tropical America and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, the plan of stowing away even hard-bodied insects in pill boxes does not answer on account of the mould with which they soon become covered. There are, then, only two methods that can be adopted; one, preserving them at once in spirits, the other, pinning all those over a quarter of an inch long (running the pin through the right wing case, so as to come out beneath between the second and third pair of legs), and gumming those of smaller size on small sheets of card, cut of uniform size, so as to fit perpendicularly in racked boxes like those used to contain microscopical slides but larger. The cards may be a few inches square, and each may hold several scores of specimens very lightly gummed down a short distance apart. After the cards are filled they should be well dried, and the box containing them washed outside with arsenical soap, and pasted over with paper. All the pinned specimens should be placed to dry for a few days in the drying cage, and afterwards pinned very close together in the cork store boxes.

[C] The only preservative needed is a diluted wash of arsenical soap inside the pill boxes, which, as in all other cases when soap is used, must be well dried afterwards before the boxes are filled.

"Plants are dried by pressure, by means of the boards and straps, between sheets of botanical drying paper, the paper requiring to be changed three or four times. When dry the specimens may be placed between sheets of old newspapers, together with notes the traveller may have made upon them, each placed upon the object to which it refers. Bundles of papers containing plants are not of difficult carriage, but they require to be guarded against wet, especially in fording rivers and in rainy weather, and should be wrapped in skins or India rubber sheeting until they can be safely packed in wooden boxes and despatched to Europe.

"Seeds may be collected when quite ripe, and preserved in small packets of botanical paper with numbers written on them, referring to preserved specimens of the flowers.

"Dry fruits and capsules should be collected when in countries not previously explored by botanists, if the traveller has means of identifying the species to which they belong.

"The collection of fossils and minerals, except in the case of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals, is not to be recommended to the traveller if he is not a geologist. Fossils from an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same time investigated. In the cases, however, of recent alluvial strata on the supposed beds of ancient lakes, or deposits in caves, or raised sea beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals, the traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity offers. If the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil remains, the traveller will of course provide himself with a proper geological outfit and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving Europe."

Whilst engaged in collecting the beautifully formed and delicate shells found adhering to the minute asperities formed by the process of disintegration on the roofs of the crypts formed by the ancient Tauro-Scythian tribes, we proceeded as follows: After the discovery of an almost crystalline specimen we prepared a soft bed for its reception by arranging in nest form a very soft silk handkerchief in our well worn forage cap, the gold band of which served as a sort of hoop of support. Thus arranged, the nest was held exactly under the fossil shell, which was in most cases freed from its attachments by a single sharp and well directed blow from our pick head on the heel of a sharp well-tempered steel chisel (old files make the best). As the specimens were one by one taken from the cap-nest they were arranged carefully layer after layer in old preserved meat tins, bran being liberally sprinkled in over each distinct layer of shells. On the tin being nearly filled, more bran was added until the packing was firm and complete, the round tin cover was then forced in until about a quarter of an inch from the upper rim of the tin. A few cuts here and there in the tin with a pair of cutting nippers admitted of the turning in of a number of clip pieces by bending the cut tin in elbow form over the cover. These tins when duly numbered and noted were packed in a sixty-gallon barrel with fine soft hay made from steppe grass. The collections thus packed reached England in a perfect state of preservation.

In situations where old preserved meat tins cannot be obtained, large joints of bamboo, or the thin earthen pots used by natives, might be made available for depositing very fragile specimens in. Fine sawdust will answer nearly as well as bran for packing powder; rotten wood from an old decaying log may be rubbed between the hands into fine dust, and made use of for the same purpose. "All collections made in tropical countries should be sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they soon become deteriorated or spoilt, unless great care is bestowed on them. Dry skins of animals and birds may be packed in wooden cases, simply with sheets of paper to separate the skins. Shells and skulls should be provided with abundance of elastic padding, such as cotton. The boxes containing insects and crustacea should be placed in the middle of large boxes, surrounded by an ample bed of hay, or other light, dry, elastic material; if this last point be not carefully attended to, it will be doubtful whether such collections will sustain a voyage without much injury. Travellers have excellent opportunities of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature, and these hints would be very deficient were not a few words said upon this subject. To know what to observe in the economy of animals is in itself an accomplishment, which it would be unreasonable to expect the general traveller to possess, and without this he may bring home only insignificant details, contributing but little to our stock of knowledge. One general rule, however, may be kept always present to the mind, and this is that anything concerning animals which bears upon the relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth obtaining and recording. Thus, it is important to note the various enemies which each species has to contend with, not only at one epoch in its life, but at every stage from birth to death, and at different seasons and in different localities; the way in which the existence of enemies limits the range of a species should be also noticed. The inorganic influences which inimically affect species, especially intermittently (such as the occurrence of disastrous seasons), and which are likely to operate in limiting their ranges, are also important subjects of inquiry. The migrations of animals, and especially any parts where the irruption of species into districts previously uninhabited by them, are well worth recording. The food of each species should be noticed; and if any change of customary food is observed, owing to the failure of the supply, it should be carefully recorded. The use in nature of any peculiar physical conformation of animals, the object of ornamentation, and so forth, should be also investigated wherever opportunity occurs. Any facts relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties or the converse--that is, the antipathy to intermingling of allied varieties--would be extremely interesting. In short, the traveller should bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more important than mere anecdotes about animals. To observe the actions of the larger animals a telescope or opera-glass will be necessary, and the traveller should bear in mind, if a microscope is needed in his journey, that, by reversing the tubes of the telescope, in which all the small glasses are contained, a compound microscope of considerable power is produced."

{Skins, and their treatment.}

The hunter of the fur-clad denizens of the forest and the field, who, for the love of sport and the obtainment of trophies of the chase, penetrates to little-known regions; and the hardy and keen trapper--who, with pack, traps, kit, and rifle, steers his own course to the most remote and untrodden solitudes--each require a somewhat different mode by which to fit their spoils when gathered for transport to either the cities of Europe or the trading port of the professional peltry dealers. It would be a hopeless task to attempt giving all the processes had recourse to by both classes of hunters, as many of them are kept scrupulously secret by their discoverers. Indians, too, profess to know more of skin-dressing than they care to divulge. We will, therefore, content ourselves by communicating to the reader such modes of skin-dressing as we have either practised ourselves, picked up from experienced and travelled comrades, or gleaned from the reports and experiences of practical explorers and slayers of large and small game in wild countries.

The character of the climate in which the hunter may be pursuing his vocation will determine the necessity for the immediate removal of the skins of the animals killed from the carcases, or the postponement of the operation until camp is reached and every assistance at hand. In dealing with the larger carnivora of tropical climates, too much expedition cannot be used in the performance of skinning operations. On no account, when by any possibility it can be avoided, should a dead and unskinned animal be exposed to the action of either wet or the sun's rays. Immediately on being found to be perfectly dead the animal should be conveyed to a cool shady situation, and the hide at once removed. The purpose for which the skin is ultimately intended will influence the method to be observed in removing it from the body. If to be preserved for stuffing, much greater care is required than is usually bestowed on hides merely intended for camp use, or sale to purchasers of roughly dried skins.

Great alertness and firmness are also required on the part of the European hunter who is engaged in tiger shooting in India to prevent the native hunters and camp followers from burning off the whiskers of the slain beast, and stealing the claws. The whisker singeing ceremony arises from superstition, and the greatest anxiety exists to possess tiger claws in order that they may be made use of as amulets. Keep, therefore, a very close watch on your tiger skins. When about to commence skinning a tiger, lion, leopard, or other of the large Felidæ, choose a level spot of ground, lay the animal on the flat of its back, with all four legs in the air. Prepare four stout sharp pointed stakes and drive them into the ground at about six feet from the animal, placing a stake opposite each leg in a parallelogram. Now, with some pieces of spare rope, grass cord, raw hide thongs, or twisted creepers, fasten each paw to the head of a stake, and stretch the legs well out. With your skinning knife--which should be short in the blade, half round-pointed, and very long handled--commence your cut between the two centre lower teeth and carry it directly backwards along the centre of the belly to the vent, taking great care not to penetrate the abdominal cavity. A line down each leg from the paw joint to the centre line should now be cut; the hind legs should be first skinned by peeling off the hide completely round beneath the paw joints, which should be divided and the stumps thus formed fastened to the stake ropes; the skin can now be stripped and turned down over the thighs; a cut along the under side of the tail will enable the operator to skin that cleanly out, when it can be cut off at the root; the two fore legs may now be treated in the same manner as the hind, making the bare stumps fast and skinning down to the shoulder joints, and up the front of the neck and throat. The animal may now be turned on its belly and each leg stump hauled tightly out to the bottom of each stake; the skin is now turned up over the back, and stripped up as far as the attachment of the ears; great care must now be exercised in separating their roots from the head without cutting the skin; divide carefully round the eyes, lips, and corners of the mouth, and the skin will be free.

There are two ways of stretching out skins for the purpose of first freeing them from every particle of fat and adhering matter. One is to lay them on the ground fur side downward, and then secure them by driving a number of sharp wooden pegs round the margins; the other is to cut one or two straight tough poles, lash their ends together, and make a hoop large enough to take in the skin, and allow of sufficient space to admit of its being tightly stretched out by being attached to the interior of the hoop by a rough system of lacing, as shown in the annexed illustration. [Illustration] A skin well secured in this way becomes as tense as a tambourine. The hoop can be set on its edge or inclined to facilitate the operation of fat trimming, which must be most strictly carried out, without cutting through the skin. A pair of strong broad pointed forceps much facilitate the operation. The point and edge of the skinning knife should be constantly touched up and renewed on a butcher's steel or bit of Norway stone. On no account allow your native followers to attempt the treatment of your stretched skins, as they will most certainly ruin them by the caustic nature of the ingredients they employ. Many mixtures of substances suitable for skin preservation are recommended, and we possess a considerable number of them. The following, communicated to the Field by a correspondent signing himself "I. F.," is a thoroughly good one, and easy of preparation in any part of India. After trimming off all fatty matter, &c., apply the following mixture: powdered alum, one part; powdered turmeric (the huldee of the natives), four parts; powdered kadukai nuts, eight parts; to be well mixed, and diluted with water until just fluid. The kadukai nuts are the fruit of a tree (Terminalia chebula) common all over India. Its vernacular names are, in Hindostanee "hurra;" in Tamil, "kadukai marum;" in Teloogoo, "karkai." The dried nuts are commonly sold in the native bazaars. When no preparation for skin dressing is at hand, firewood ashes may with advantage be sprinkled over the skins. The American trappers make use of no preparation whatever, but merely expose the perfectly cleaned and trimmed skin to the action of the air. Traps, when set for animals, should be visited frequently, in order that the game taken may be perfectly fresh; tainted skins lose their hair, and become valueless for fur purposes. The smaller fur-bearing animals taken by the professional fur hunters of America, such as the fisher fox, raccoon, &c., are not skinned by being opened from end to end, but are treated in the following manner: incisions are made close to the hind paws; these are carried down to the borders of the vent; this is circled or cut round, and the tail opened and skinned out. An orifice will now exist large enough to admit of the skin being stripped from the animal, by turning it inside out, as the operation of skinning proceeds. Three modes are adopted for stretching skins so prepared: one is by what is called a board stretcher; this consists of three pieces of light tough wood, of the shape shown in the centre figure of the annexed illustration. [Illustration] The two flat side pieces are first placed in the pouch or pocket, formed by reversing the surfaces of the skin; the centre stick is then passed down between the two sides, which are nicely rounded off at the edges and point by scraping with glass or a sharp knife. When properly fitted to the stretcher like a glove on a wooden cleaning hand, a tack or two or a few cuts in the edges of the board will serve to hold the skin fast until dry enough to pack away. A strong flexible rod may be made use of as a skin stretcher, as shown in the annexed cut. [Illustration] The skins should be turned inside out before the bent twig is inserted; its own spring keeps the skin distended until dry, when it is removed and the skin packed; or a long lancet-shaped board, with a hole in it, may be used for stretching the skins of marmots, musk rats, &c. One of these is represented in the illustration representing stretching boards, and has a hole in it to be used for suspending the skins whilst drying. Stretching boards must be made of sizes proportioned to the skins they are intended for. Never dry skins either by the fire or in the sun.

A variety of methods are had recourse to for preparing the skins of animals useful to the traveller and explorer, by whom they can be employed either in a raw state, simply dried, or as leather. Raw hide, as it is called, is one of the most valuable and useful materials at the command of the traveller or hunter. It is to him a substitute for metal, rope, and twine, and with it breakages of the most extensive and apparently hopeless character can be effectually repaired. Lashings of raw hide for immediate use can be cut from the skin of an animal just killed. This, when tightly and evenly adjusted over a fractured object, contracts as it dries, and binds all firmly together. The hair may be removed from hides by soaking them in lime-water or placing them in the earth for a few days. Many of the African tribes prepare hides for use as garments, &c., by first pegging them out on the ground, trimming them clean, allowing them to dry slowly, and then braying their surfaces with a soft sand brick. Skins thus prepared wear well, so long as no water is allowed to reach them.

Skins may be "tawed," as it is called, by placing them to steep in a strong solution of alum and common salt. Hides collected in large numbers for transmission to the home market are usually salted or pickled. Settlers and colonists may find this mode of preserving skins of value, so we give Mr. Danna's account of the process, which will be found thoroughly practical, and can be relied on. Speaking of the treatment of hides brought to the sea side for shipment, he says: "The first thing is to put the hides to soak. This is done by carrying them down at low tide, and making them fast in small piles by ropes, and letting the tide come up and cover them. Every day we put twenty-five in soak for each man, which, with us, makes 150. There they lie forty-eight hours, when they are taken out and rolled up in wheelbarrows, and thrown into vats. These vats contain brine, made very strong, being sea-water with great quantities of salt thrown in. This pickles the hides, and in this they lie forty-eight hours; the use of the sea-water into which they are first put being merely to soften and clean them. From these vats they are taken to lie on a platform twenty-four hours, and are then spread upon the ground and carefully stretched and staked out, so that they may dry smooth. After they were staked, and while yet wet and soft, we used to go upon them with our knives and carefully cut off all the bad parts, the pieces of meat and fat which would otherwise corrupt and affect the whole if stowed away in a vessel for months, the large flippers, the ears, and all other parts that prevent close stowage. This was the most difficult part of our duty, as it required much skill to take off everything necessary, and not to cut nor injure the hides. It was also a long process, as six of us had to clean 150, most of which required a great deal to be done to them, as the Spaniards are very careless in skinning their cattle; then, too, as we cleaned them while they were staked out, we were obliged to kneel down upon them, which always gives beginners the back ache. The first day I was so slow and awkward that I only cleaned eight; at the end of a few days I doubled my number, and in a fortnight or three weeks could keep up with the others, and clean my proportion--twenty-five." Skins of animals may be fitted for transport from the hunting grounds to a camp or depôt situated at a distance of several days' journey, by pegging them tightly out; and then, when thoroughly freed from adhering fat, giving them a thorough sprinkling with wood ashes. Small quantities of leather may be made by sinking large native jars in the earth, partly filling them with tan, which is yielded by an almost endless number of trees and shrubs. Water, when added, extracts the tanning principle, and allows of its soaking freely into the pores of the skin under treatment. It is a good plan to make use of several jars arranged in a row; these should all contain strong bark or tan water, and as the skin becomes partly tanned in jar No. 1 it should, after being well squeezed and pressed, be passed to No. 2, and so on through the set.

Thus writes Sir Samuel Baker on the subject of skin dressing: "My antelope skins are just completed, and are thoroughly tanned, each skin required a double handful of the 'garra' or fruit of the Acacia arabica. The process is simple. The skin being thoroughly wetted, the garra is pounded into a paste; this is rubbed into the hide with a rough piece of sandstone until it becomes perfectly clean and free from impurities; it is then wrapped up with a quantity of the paste, and is deposited in a trough, and kept in the shade twenty-four hours--it should undergo a similar rubbing daily, and be kept in the trough to soak in the garra for four or five days. After this process it should be well rubbed with fat, if required to keep soft and pliable when wetted. If soaked with milk after tanning, the leather will become waterproof. The large tanned ox hides used by the Arabs as coverlets are perfectly waterproof, and are simply prepared with milk. These are made in Abyssinia, and can be purchased from ten piastres to a dollar each. The Arabs thoroughly appreciate the value of leather, as they are entirely dependant upon such material for coverlets, water sacks, travelling bags, &c. The sac de voyage is a simple skin of either goat or sheep, drawn off the animal as a stocking is drawn from the leg. This is very neatly ornamented and arranged with loops which close the mouth, which is secured by a padlock. Very large sacks, capable of containing three hundred pounds of corn, are made in the same manner by drawing entire the skins of the larger antelopes; that of the tetel is considered the most valuable for this purpose. The hide of the wild ass is the finest of all leather, and is so close in the grain, that, before tanning, when dry and hardened in the sun, it resembles horn in transparency. I have made excellent mocassins with this skin, which are admirable if kept wetted." Most of the water sacks we used in Central India were prepared by withdrawing all the body of the animal--antelope or goat--piecemeal through the orifice left by cutting off the head. The legs were then removed to the hoof joint, and the tubes so formed so fitted with thongs, that they could be tied fast or left open at the will of the owner; burying the skin in the earth for a day or two caused the hair to become loose enough to rub off in water. A charge of pounded pomegranate rind mixed with water was then introduced to the interior of the skin sack, and well shaken about several times during the day. This process was continued until the substance of the skin became converted into leather, and was perfectly free from the slightest tendency to taint. The neck orifice was then either sewn up with a thong, or left with a string round it, to be closed or left open as might be most convenient. Skins thus prepared we have found useful for an almost endless number of purposes.

The following directions for the manufacture of gazelle skin girbas, or water sacks, as practised by the Arabs, given by Sir Samuel Baker, will not fail to prove of interest and value to the reader: "The flaying process for this purpose is a delicate operation, as the knife must be so dexterously used that no false cut should injure the hide. The animal is hung up by the hind legs, an incision is then made along the inside of both thighs to the tail, and with some trouble the skin is drawn off the body towards the head, precisely as a stocking might be drawn from the leg; by this operation the skin forms a seamless bag, open at both ends. To form a girba, the skin must be buried in the earth for about twenty-four hours; it is then washed in water, and the hair is easily detached. Thus rendered clean, it is tanned by soaking for several days in a mixture of the bark of the mimosa and water, from this it is daily withdrawn and stretched out with pegs, upon the ground; it is then well scrubbed with a rough stone, and fresh mimosa bark, well bruised, with water is rubbed in by friction. About four days are sufficient to tan the skin of a gazelle, which is much valued for its toughness and durability. The aperture at the hind quarters is sewn together, and the opening of the neck is closed when required by tying. A good water-skin should be porous, to allow the water to exude sufficiently to moisten the exterior; thus the action of the air upon the exposed surface causes evaporation and imparts to the water within the skin a delicious coolness. The Arabs usually prepare their tanned skins with an empyreumatical oil, made from a variety of substances, the best of which is that from the sesame grain. This has a powerful smell and renders the water so disagreeable that few Europeans could drink it. This oil is black and much resembles tar in appearance, it has the effect of preserving the leather and of rendering it perfectly water tight. In desert travelling, each person should have his own private water skin slung upon his dromedary; for this purpose none is so good as a small sized gazelle skin that will contain about two gallons."

Snake skins can be converted into very useful and highly ornamental leather by tanning them. The Indians of North-west America add greatly to the value and durability of their prepared skins by subjecting them to the smoking process. This is conducted by forming a miniature skin tent over a narrow deep hole dug in the earth; this, when filled with damp slow burning fuel, gives forth, when lighted, dense volumes of smoke, which, acting on the inner or flesh sides of the spread skins, imparts to them considerable power to resist damp and other deteriorating influences. Hides that are under the operation of dressing should never be allowed to become dry, as it is very difficult to restore perfect flexibility to them by the aid of water. Wet cow dung is the best material we know for preserving the moisture of the skins on which it is spread. Milk curds are made use of for the same purpose by the Tartar tribes. We have also seen ground oil seeds, converted into a paste with milk, used by some Indian hill tribes.

{Parchment and catgut.}

Parchment is a material which will be found useful for many purposes, such as labelling the species collected, &c.; almost any moderate-sized skin can be converted into this substance. The first step is to remove the hair from its follicles. This may be done by burying the skin in moist earth for two or three days; it should, when found seasoned, be spread, hair side out, on a barrel or round log, and well scraped, until quite clean. Four long tough peeled rods or wands should now be passed through a train of small slits, like button-holes, in the edges of the skin, all four borders of the trimmed skin being furnished with its spreading wand. The ends of the wands are now to be cut off flush with the border of the skin. A pole hoop like that figured at page 776 should now be prepared, and the stretched skin laced to its centre by cords or thongs passed inside the wand until it is as tight as a tambourine. Every particle of adhering membrane should be carefully cut away, and the skin rubbed down to the required substance with a flat-surfaced sandstone; pumice-stone, when it can be obtained, is excellent for the purpose. When the parchment has undergone preparation, and is removed from the pole hoop, it may be fitted for writing on by first thoroughly rubbing its surface with a perfectly smooth water-worn pebble, and then touching its surface lightly over with ox-gall. Catgut can be made from the intestines of almost any animal as follows: After carefully removing all impurities from the surfaces of the gut, place it in a pot of water for twenty-four hours; the outer sheath, or covering membrane, will more freely come away. Now double back a few inches of the end border of your gut tube, just as you would turn down the top border of a stocking, catching the bag thus formed between the finger and thumb; dip water up with it until the double fold is nearly full. The weight of this fluid will instantly cause the gut to become inverted, and bring its inner surface to the outside. This can now be easily freed from any adhering matter; and if the gut is intended for twisting, set up two stiff stout stakes in the earth, a little wider apart than the length of the gut under treatment. Cut a saw cut in the head of each stake. Now firmly lash each end of your gut to the notched ends of two narrow flat pieces of wood, fashioned like stout knife blades, and thin enough to enter the saw cuts in the stake heads. By alternately twisting these and fixing them in the saw cuts, to prevent their running back, the gut may be evenly and neatly twisted after the manner of a single strand cord. The twisted material thus formed becomes, when dry and after it has been rubbed smooth with a woollen rag and a little grease, excellent catgut, fit for drill bows, bowstrings, lathe bands, thread for sewing strong leather work, &c. Bladders should always be saved. They only require inflation with air and drying to preserve them. [Illustration] Holes in hides, water-bags, or bladders, may be repaired by gathering up the lips of the orifice, pushing a sharp splinter or thorn through both lips, and then tying a string tightly behind the cross piece thus formed. The holes in large skins can be repaired by placing pebbles or stones, just too large to pass through, inside them. A few turns with a strip of raw hide behind the stone makes all secure and perfectly water-tight. A spherical bullet may be made use of in this manner to repair a thorn prick in a water-bag. A reference to the above illustration will serve to show how these repairs are effected. The horns of cattle can be made use of for a number of useful purposes. Soaking in boiling water softens them sufficiently to enable the ingenious operator to fashion them into almost any shape. Bones should never be heedlessly cast away; sawn up they make excellent rings for dog harness or the head-lines of fishing-nets; stilets for splicing cord, meshes for netting, &c. Tendons of animals make excellent glue, and can be easily split up into sewing thread. The swimming bladders of fish, when dried, form excellent isinglas. Sole, shark, and dogfish skins, dried and mounted on handles, make very efficient rasps and files for woodwork. Eel-skins make most durable harness ties, and, twisted or plaited together, form very serviceable whips. Hides or skins can be cut into long strips for trail rope or lasso making by cutting them spirally with a sharp knife, just as a cobbler cuts out a leather boot-lace from a circular scrap of shoe leather. Hides and objects composed of either prepared hide or leather should be frequently treated with clean, well-softened grease, in order that they may retain their flexibility and toughness of texture. Hides used in covering the frames of "bull boats," as they are called by the traders and trappers of the north-west, who often use them, require to be frequently beached, dried in the sun, and then greased, to render them sufficiently durable to encounter the deteriorating influences brought to bear on them during a long river or lake voyage.

{Fat, to treat.}

In cutting up and trimming the carcases of large animals, considerable quantities of fat will be accumulated, provided that care is taken to prevent native fellows from appropriating it. Fat is useful for an immense number of purposes. Its value as fuel has already been explained in that portion of our work devoted to a consideration of lamps. The bones of nearly all large animals may be made to yield a considerable quantity of fatty matter by crushing them to fragments between two heavy stones; boiling the mass thus obtained in any suitable vessel, and then skinning off the eyes of grease as they appear on the surface with a large shell fastened to the end of a stick, or an ox horn fashioned into a scoop. When fat is to be stored up for use it should be first melted, and, after all fragments of membrane, &c., have been separated by a rough system of straining, poured into hide bags to cool. All blubber-bearing cetaceans yield large quantities of oil, which is to be obtained by a process known amongst whalers as "trying out." Convenient sized pieces of the blubber are thrown into large cauldrons, which are mainly heated by the waste chip or used-up material left as a residue when the oil runs forth. The livers of sharks and other large fish also yield oil freely by treatment in the kettle. Besides being useful for wheel lubricating, leather-dressing, candle-making, and a variety of other useful purposes, fat can, by proper treatment, be made available as the principal ingredient in the manufacture of soap. {Soap, to prepare.} Some care and management, however, are required to manufacture a really good and useful article. Sir Samuel Baker thus writes of his experiences in the matter: "Soap-boiling is not so easy as may be imagined. It requires not only much attention, but the quality is dependent upon the proper mixture of the alkalies. Sixty parts of potash and forty of lime are, I believe, the proportions for common soap. I had neither lime nor potash, but I shortly procured both. The Hegleck tree (Balanites egyptiaca) was extremely rich in potash; therefore I burned a large quantity, and made a strong ley with the ashes. This I concentrated by boiling. There was no limestone; but the river produced a plentiful supply of large oyster-shells, that, if burned, would yield excellent lime; accordingly, I constructed a kiln with the assistance of the white ants. The country was infested by these creatures, which erected their dwellings in all directions. There were cones from six to ten feet high, formed of clay, so thoroughly cemented by a glutinous preparation of the insects that it was harder than sun-baked brick. I selected an egg-shaped hill, and cut off the top exactly as we take off the slice from an egg. My Tookrooris then worked hard, and with a hoe and their lances they hollowed it out to the base, in spite of the attacks of the ants, which punished the legs of the intruders considerably. I made a draught hole from the outside base at right angles with the bottom of the hollow cone. My kiln was perfect. I loaded it with wood, upon which I piled about six bushels of oyster-shells, which I then covered with fuel, and kept it burning for twenty-four hours. This produced excellent lime, and I commenced my soap-boiling. We possessed an immense copper pot, of Egyptian manufacture, in addition to a large and deep copper basin, called a 'teshti.' These would contain about ten gallons. The ley having been boiled down to great strength, I added a quantity of lime and the necessary fat. It required ten hours' boiling, combined with careful management of the fire, as it would frequently ascend like foam, and overflow the edge of the utensils; however, at length having been constantly stirred, it turned to soap; before it became cold I formed it into cakes and balls with my hands, and the result of this manufacture was a weight of about forty pounds of most excellent soap of a very sporting description. We thus washed with rhinoceros soap; our lamp was trimmed with the oil of lions; our butter for cooking purposes was the fat of hippopotami, while our pomade was made from the marrow of buffaloes and antelopes, scented with the blossoms of mimosas. We were entirely independent, as our whole party had subsisted upon the produce of the rod and rifle."

{Sleeping-bags.}

If the traveller contemplates the prosecution of explorations in cold and inhospitable regions, it will be well for him to preserve a number of sheep or goats' skins, with the hair or wool on, which should be prepared for conversion into coverlets, sleeping-bags, mats, overcoats, &c. A variety of forms of sleeping-bags are in use in various parts of the world; some, as in the case of those used by the frontier guard between France and Spain, are so constructed as to be doubled up, strapped together, and converted into a sort of knapsack. The down of waterfowl, especially that of the eider duck, when stitched between any suitable fabric and quilted, forms a most powerful non-conductor of heat. A very useful and cheap form of sleeping-bag can be made by pasting a number of old newspapers together, giving them a coat of boiled linseed oil, and then stitching them between two sheets of any tough durable fabric. The person about to be measured for a sleeping bag should have the extreme breadth of the shoulders, width across hips, and height taken, adding eighteen inches to the head of the bag to form a flap. Cut out your two main bag pieces, or top and bottom, to the shape of two large sleeve boards such as tailors use, now cut out two long narrow slips, about twenty inches wide, and long enough to go the whole length of both sides and round the tapered rounded bottom of the bag, and up to the end-borders of the mouth, these strips are sewn in exactly as the leather is attached to the upper and lower boards of a pair of common bellows. Sleeping-bags should be made very strong, in order that they may be used to carry a variety of odd articles in.

{Ruck sacks.}

Whilst on the subject of bags, it will be well to mention a most convenient description of sack used by the Tyrolese chamois hunters for carrying food, dead game, ammunition, &c. It is best made of light tanned canvas or flax cloth. A square bag of the required size is made from either of these materials, the mouth of the bag is made to draw in the usual way and tie, but to the loop of the neck string are attached two leather shoulder straps, to the ends of which wooden toggles and stout line loops have been sewn. Each lower corner of the bag should have a wooden or cork ball the size of a billiard ball, securely stitched into it. When the bag is placed on the back with its burden in it, the shoulder straps are passed over the shoulders, under the arms, and down to the ball-furnished corners, over which the slip-knots and loops of the toggle strings are now secured. The above illustration will serve to explain the nature of the arrangement, anything can be conveniently carried in this contrivance, from a single partridge to a full grown chamois or roebuck. A sack of this kind carefully fitted and made, is very superior to an ordinary knapsack.

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