South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses

Front matter

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF GODS AND

GODDESSES

The Tanjore Temple.

Chapter 1 : Introductory.

SOUTH-INDIAN IMAGES OF

GODS AND GODDESSES

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

I

Almost every village of any importance in Southern India has its temple, round which centres in a very large measure the corporate civic life of the community which lives in it. The casual visitor is at once attracted by the temple and when he goes there he sees various images in all sorts of incongruous postures and is generally puzzled to know what they mean or what they represent, and how they serve to evoke the religious feelings of the people worshipping them. An attempt will be made in the succeeding pages to describe and classify them in various groups so as to make them more intelligible to the ordinary visitor.

Elaborate rules have been laid down in the ancient Agamas and Silpa-Sāstras as to the place where temples are to be built, the kinds of images to be installed there, the materials with which such images are to be fashioned, and even the dimensions and proportions of various kinds of images, to vary which will result in untold calamity to the maker and the worshipper alike. The curious reader may, for example, refer to Sukranitisāra (Chapter IV, Section IV, verses 130 et seq.).

II

Temples must have existed in this part of the country from time immemorial. But the earliest inscriptional evidence of the existence of temples takes us back only to the age of the Pallava kings, which is supposed to be between the fourth and the ninth centuries of the Christian era. The more ancient temples were probably made of wood and other such perishable material, as we find to this day in parts of Malabar. Perhaps the Pallavas were among the very first in Southern India to build temples of durable material. In fact one of the most famous of these Pallava kings, Mahēndravarman I, who reigned about the beginning of the seventh century A.D., was known by the title Chetthakāri, i.e., the maker of chaityas or temples.

The earliest Pallava monuments so far discovered are those of Mahābalipuram or the Seven Pagodas. They consist of solid rathas cut out of a single rock and of temples scooped out of the living boulder. The form of these rathas and temples served perhaps as models to the later temples in cut stone, such as those of the Shore Temple there, the Kailāsanātha and Vaikuntha-Perumāl temples at Conjeeveram, and other Pallava temples elsewhere.

Ill

The Pallavas were succeeded by the Chōla kings, who are justly entitled to be regarded as the greatest temple-builders of Southern India. About 90 per cent of the temples now found were erected in their time. They are generally dedicated either to Siva or Vishnu, and in their simplest form consist of a cell called the Garbha-griha,—the central shrine, surmounted by a spire or dome, with a hall in front, called Mukha-mandapa and a narrow passage or vestibule connecting the two, called the Ardha-mandapa, which is open on two sides to permit of the priestly worshippers circumambulating the central shrine. In the Mukha-mandapa or just outside it will be placed the image of the deity's chief vehicle, the Nandi-bull in Siva temples and the Garuda-bird in Vishnu temples. This is generally the limit up to which the non-Brahman classes are allowed to come. Round and outside of these are the Mahā-mandapa, the big hall, and other pavilions in which on special occasions processional images of the deity are placed and worshipped. Next after the Mahā-mandapa there will be two raised platforms, one behind the other, on one of which is planted the flagstaff or dhvaja-stambha, made of stone, wood or metal, and on the other is offered what is called the Sribali, when sacrificial cooked food and flowers are offered to the minor divinities or powers who have to be appeased in order to ward off all evil and to prevent disturbance to the ordinary conduct of the daily worship. It is only up to this limit that foreigners are allowed to enter the temples by the orthodox Hindu.

In temples of any importance there will be a separate shrine for the goddess, but generally on a smaller scale than that of the chief deity. There are separate places for the kitchen where the offerings are prepared with scrupulous regard to ceremonial purity; there are storehouses where the articles required for a year's consumption in the temple are stored; and there is generally a fresh water well which is often the best source of drinking water in the village. The whole group of buildings is surrounded by high prākāra walls, whose gateways are surmounted by the characteristic towers (figs. 1 and 2) which lend distinction to a temple city. In some cases there will be outside the temple a big pleasure tank (fig. 3), generally square in size, built round with stone steps on all sides, and with a central mandapa, where once a year the god and goddess are taken in procession for the floating festival.

IV

The outer walls and the lofty flagstaff will easily show to the sight-seer whether the temple is dedicated to a Saiva divinity or to a Vaishnava god. In the former there will be seen images of the Nandi-bull in a recumbent posture, while the latter will show similar images of the Garuda-bird. Temples other than those of Siva and Vishnu are not uncommon and can easily be identified by similar marks of the characteristic vehicle of the god. Vishnu temples may also show the symbols of the conch and the discus and the caste mark (nāmam) of the Vaishnavas painted on the walls.

V

The ritual followed every day in the temples of Siva and Vishnu may be generally described as rājōpachāra, or the paying of royal honours. Thus in rich temples there will be elephants and camels with their appropriate paraphernalia, the royal umbrellas and chauris mounted on gold or silver handles, palanquins and other vehicles, a troupe of dancers and musicians, a host of other temple servants to wash the god, anoint him with sandal or decorate him with flowers and

Fig. 1. –Gopura, Narasimha temple: Mangalagiri

Fig. 2.–Back view of central shiren, Siva temple : Gangaikondasōlapuram.

Fig. 3.–Haridranadi tank; Mannargudi.

so on. Crowns and other rich and costly jewellery, set with gems and pearls (fig. 4), and often presented by Rājas and Chieftains or other rich devotees, are a special pride of the wealthier temples.

The Brāhmana priest is to purify himself by bath and prayers early morning, and then open the doors of the sanctum and gently wake up the god, who is supposed to be sleeping, by chanting appropriate hymns in his praise. Then, after duly worshipping the guardian deities, he washes the feet of the chief deity, bathes the image, clothes it properly, decorates it with the usual jewellery, sandal and flowers, waving incense and lamps of diverse pattern (fig. 5) in front of the god and finally offering him the cooked food or naivēdyam and the final betel leaf and nut. At stated intervals the god comes out in procession and perhaps sees to the comfort of his attendant deities. Usually there is an important annual festival, representing in some cases the marriage of the god or some other special event in the doings of the god registered in local chronicles or Purānas. On such occasions the procession is carried on different vehicles, both common and special, the latter being such as the kalpa-vriksha, the wish-giving celestial tree or the kāmadhēnu, the wish-giving celestial cow, or the mythic animal gandabhērunda. The most important procession will generally be the car festival when the god goes round in the huge car through the main streets where his worshippers live and receives worship and offerings at their very homes.

VI

In the temples dedicated to the village deities the ceremonial is not much different. Brāhmanas however rarely officiate and animal sacrifices are generally offered, especially when the village is threatened with an epidemic or with serious scarcity or famine. Vedic incantations are not uttered in these temples.

With this brief general description of the temple, we can now proceed to study the various images which are found represented in them.

Fig. 4.—Processional images (metal); Madura.

Fig. 5.—Lamp patterns and pūjā-utensils; Uttattut.

Chapter 2 : Brahma.

CHAPTER II.

brahmā.

Brahmā, distinct from Brahman, the all-pervading Eternal Spirit, is the first member of the Hindu Triad. His principal function is creation. Independent shrines dedicated to him are rather rare. Still, figures of this god are commonly found decorating one of the niches in the north wall of the central shrine in a Siva temple. Images of Brahmā may sometimes also be seen on pillars, ceilings or other parts of a temple; but the one point that deserves to be noted is that though often pictured the god is not worshipped as the chief deity in a temple, like the two other members of the Triad, Vishnu and Siva.

According to Mānasāra, one of the standard works on sculpture, Brahmā is represented with four heads. He has, however, only one body and four hands. The image may be standing or seated and made of metal or of stone. The palm of the left lower hand exhibits the posture of conferring boons (varada) while the right lower indicates protection (abhaya). The corresponding upper hands hold the water-pot (kamandalu) and the rosary (akshamālā) or sometimes the sacrificial ladle (srik) and spoon (sruva). The following ornaments are seen in a finished picture of Brahmā: (1) ear-rings or pendants fashioned like the face of a crocodile; (2) the sacred thread yajnasūtra hanging right across the body from above the left shoulder; (3) the scarf (uttarlya) thrown round the neck so as to stretch down to the knees; (4) the udara-bandhana or literally, a girdle going round the belly; (5) necklace and torque; (6) armlets, arm-rings, wristlets, anklets, waist-zone, finger-rings set with gems, etc. His hair is made up in the fashion known as jatā-makuta and he is attended by the two goddesses Sarasvatī (on the right) and Sāvitrī (on the left).

Another representation shows Brahmā riding on a chariot drawn by seven swans (hamsa). His right lower hand rests on the palm of the left lower, the two other hands holding the usual rosary and the water-pot. He is seated on a full blown lotus-flower, with his eyes closed in a meditative posture. The goddess Sāvitrī is seated on his left thigh. There are various other representations of Brahmā drawn purely from the imagination of the sculptor or painter and sometimes also based on Purānic legends. But the main points which distinguish Brahmā from the other gods are the same in all. Hēmādri mentions some forms of Brahmā such as Prajāpati, Visvakarma, Lokapāla and Dharma. It may be noted that the swan vehicle and the goddesses are rarely, if at all, found in the figures of Brahmā generally set up in South-Indian temples.

An old picture of Brahmā from Seven Pagodas (fig. 6) and a later one from Kumbakōnam (fig. 7) illustrate the standing posture described above. In the latter the left lower hand rests freely on the waist of the god and does not show the posture of conferring boons. The sitting attitude of Brahma surmounted by a parasol and chauris—the symbols of supreme power—is beautifully illustrated by a picture from Tiruvādi near Tanjore (fig. 8). Another figure, which is unfortunately mutilated, shows the same position, but includes the standing figure of Sarasvatī on the right side of Brahmā (fig. 9). It is noticeable that in this figure the right upper hand of Brahmā is made to hold a lotus instead of the usual rosary. An image from Chidambaram (fig. 10) shows Brahmā on his swan vehicle folding two of his hands in a worshipping posture and holding the rosary and water-pot in the other two.

Fig. 6.—Brahmā; Seven Pagodas.

Fig. 7.—Brahmā; Kumbakōnam.

Fig. 8.—Brahmā; Tiruvādi.

Fig. 15.—Brahmā and Sarasvati; Kandiyūr.

Fig. 10.—Brahmā on swan vehicle; Chidambaram.

Chapter 3 : Vishnu.

CHAPTER III.

vishnu.

I

Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Triad. His principal function is that of the protector of the universe. He is worshipped in South-Indian temples in various forms and under various names. The general description of Vishnu without reference to any of his particular incarnations is given in the Mānasāra as follows:—He has four arms and two eyes, wears a high crown and a yellow scarf; on his breast is the auspicious mark Srivatsa; he holds the discus and the conch in his upper arms and the club and the sword (or lotus) in the lower and wears the garland (vanamālā) of flowers, reaching down to the knees. In some cases the lower arms exhibit the protecting and the boon-conferring postures (fig. 11). A prominent nose, broad eyes and smiling countenance are other features of Vishnu. The goddesses Srī or Lakshmī (wealth) and Mahī or Prithvī (Earth) are usually represented on his right and left sides respectively. The discus is generally held in the right hand and the conch in the left; but this arrangement is reversed in the case of an image found in the Bellary district (fig. 12). According to the Kāsyapa-Silpa the left lower hand of Vishnu may, without showing the varada or boon-conferring posture, rest on his waist freely (fig. 13) and the goddesses need not always be represented with him. Figures of Vishnu may be seen standing, seated or reclining. They receive different names in their different postures; but the Vaishnava symbols, viz., the discus and conch, the garland vanamālā and the auspicious mark Srivatsa always remain the distinguishing features of Vishnu. Fig. 14

Fig. 11.—Vishnu (Ashtabhuja); Conjeeveram.

Fig. 12.—Vishnu; Bellary.

Fig. 13.—Vishnu; Paramesvaramangalam.

Fig. 14.—Vishnu and his consorts; Ariyambakkam.

from Āriyambākkam in the Chingleput district illustrates the sitting form of Vishnu with the goddesses Sri and Bhū and two kneeling devotees.

II

The more popular forms of Vishnu, worshipped in the temples, generally refer to his numerous avatārs or incarnations. There are ten such avatārs recognized as of primary importance; but of these only five are commonly represented for worship. They are (l) Varāha "the Boar incarnation"; (2) Narasimha "the Man-lion incarnation"; (3) Vāmana "the Dwarf incarnation," developing eventually into Trivikrama; (4) Rāma, the hero of the Rāmāyana; and (5) Krishna, the pastoral god and the chief actor in the great war of the Mahābhārata. The other five incarnations of Vishnu, viz., the Fish, the Tortoise, Parasurāma, Buddha and Kalki though represented largely on walls, pillars and ceilings of temples being either carved or painted, are not generally worshipped as the chief deity in a temple..

Ill

Varāha, also known as Ādivarāha, Dharanīvarāha or Bhūvarāha, is beautifully illustrated by the image in the Varāha-Perumāl cave-temple at Mahābalipuram. Here the boar-faced Vishnu is seen standing with his right foot resting on the hood of the serpent-god Sēsha. On the right thigh is seated the goddess Earth, supported in position by the two lower arms of the god. He wears a high crown and has in his two upper hands the discus (held sideways) and the conch. As these images however have recently been covered with a thin coating of plaster and painted fantastically in variegated colours, it is not possible to say what sculptural peculiarities the original may have exhibited. Fortunately, a panel representing this same Varāha-avatar of Vishnu (fig. 15) with attendant deities, is found in another rock-cut mandapa at that village and is decidedly a true copy of the sculptures

Fig. 15.—Boar incarnation of Vishnu : Seven Pagodas.

found in the shrine of the Varāha-Perumāl cave-temple. The scene depicts the primeval Boar rescuing from the depths of the ocean the goddess Earth, who had been kidnapped thither by the demon Hiranyāksha, an enemy of the gods. Sēsha, on whose wide-spread hoods the earth is generally supposed to rest, is also represented as rising from the ocean along with the Boar-god. He is folding his hands in the attitude of worship. The devas worshipping the god from above, the sages on the right, and Brahmā and Siva on the left indicate the joy felt by the entire universe on this occasion. This representation exactly follows the description given by Hēmādri in his Chaturvarga-Chintamani. The hand with the discus is sometimes also shown as raised in the act of killing Hiranyāksha. The god may be represented as smiling after having killed Hiranyāksha and revived him by divine grace. Figures of the Man-boar in meditation or of a full Boar digging the earth in the midst of many demons, are also sometimes represented. In the pictures of Lingōdbhava (Siva) noted in the sequel, is seen the full Boar form of Vishnu digging the earth.

Temples dedicated to the Boar-incarnation of Vishnu are not many. This incarnation was a particular favourite of the Western Chalukya kings in the early centuries of the Christian era. A fine sculpture of Varāha carrying the goddess Earth is found in the Chalukyan rock-cut temple at Bādāmi (Ind. Ant., Vol. VI, p. 354). In later times, too, the Kākatīyas, the Reddis of Kondavldu and the Hindu sovereigns of Vijayanagara, paid particular reverence to Varāha, adopting the boar as their royal crest. At Srīmushnam in the South Arcot district is a beautiful big temple dedicated to this god and so also is another at Tiruvadandai near Mahābalipuram in the Chingleput district.

IV

Narasimha or Nrisimha, the Man-lion is more popular than Varāha. A large number of families in the south, Brahman and non-Brahman, own him as their tutelary deity. In Tamil, the name is corrupted into Singa (Sanskrit Simha) or Singa-Perumal, and in the other vernaculars into Narasa (a contraction of Narasimha). The story of this incarnation of Vishnu is briefly as follows :-

Hiranyāksha and Hiranyakasipu were two demon brothers,naturally hostile to Vishnu. Hiranyāksha was killed

Fig. 16.—Narasimha bursting forth from the pillar; Ahōbalam.

by Vishnu in his Varāha-avatār. Hiranyakasipu then became the king of the demons and vowed eternal war with Vishnu. His young son, Prahlāda, however, became a devoted adherent of Vishnu and was always praising him as the all-pervading lord of the universe. Exasperated with this, Hiranyakasipu asked the young boy whether his god Vishnu,if he was all-pervasive, could be found in the pillar in front of him; and then hacked at it with his sword. The pillar cleft in twain and out burst from it, to the astonishment of Hiranyakasipu, the angry god in the shape of a Man-lion,(fig. 16), who forthwith tore to pieces the impious demon king.

The angry god is called Ugra (the terrible)-Narasimha (figs. 17 and 18). When, however,his anger subsided at the earnest prayers of Prahlāda he became serene and in this form he is known as Lakshmī-Yōga-Narasimha (fig.19)is another form in which the god is seensquatting in a meditative mood. Simhāchalam in the Vizagapatam district, Ahōbalam in the Kurnool district and Nāmakkal in the Trichinopoly district may be mentioned among the places sacred to Narasimha. The usual Vaishnava symbols, sankha (conch) and chakra (discus), are seen in the two upper hands of the image of Narasimha in all his forms. The monolithic Ugra-Narasimha found in the ruins of Vijayanagara was there established by king Krishnarāya in A.D. 1528. It may be noted that here the god, though called Ugra-Narasimha, is not represented, as may be expected, in the posture of splitting open the bowels of the demon Hiranyakasipu.

Hēmādri states that Narasimha must be represented with muscular shoulders, a stout neck and a slender waist. Half man and half lion, his face must be fiery and so also the mane round it. Standing with his right foot bent forward (ālidha) he splits with his sharp nails the breast of the tyrant Hiranyakasipu, who, as the wise men say, is an embodiment of ignorance. The Pāncharālrāgama thus describes the form of Narasimha suited for meditation :- " (Terrible) like flaming fire, he has a lion-face with a human body, furious fangs, a protruding tongue, an open mouth, a thick mane and muscular chest. He stands in the ālidha posture in an angry mood and splits the breast of the giant, thrown flat upon his thigh, with the sharp nails of both his hands. In his two other hands he holds the symbols' of the club and the discus." The Mayatmata, while giving almost

Fig. 17.—Ugra-Narasimha; Ahōbalam.

Fig. 18.—Ugra-Narasimha (metal); Madras Museum.

Fig. 19.—Yōga-Narasimha; Tirupati Hill.

the same description of him, states that the cruel form of Narasimha is installed on mountain-tops, caves, forests or the enemy's territory when the enemy has to be destroyed ; when installed, however, in villages and towns he has four hands, two of which wear the conch and the discus.

V

Vamana or the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu is worshipped in its ultimate manifestation, under the Sanskrit name Trivikrama or the Tamil Ulagalanda-Perumal. The former means " the god who took three strides " and the latter " the lord who measured the universe (with, three strides)."

The story is that a powerful demon king named Bali, the great-grandson of Hiranyakasipu mentioned above, conquered the three worlds and ruled them, in spite of his birth, in charity and with justice. Indra, the chief of gcds, was thus superseded. Vishnu as the avowed destroyer of the demons (dānavas) and the upholder of the gods had to restore Indra to his legitimate position. Vishnu could not go to war against Bali, as he was a virtuous king. So he went in the guise of a Dwarf Brāhmana, a student of the Vēdas (brahmachārin), and begged of Bali for three feet of land on which he could sit and meditate on Brahman undisturbed. The generous Bali granted the request. But what was his astonishment when he saw the cunning god grow to a height transcending the world, take in at one step the whole earth, covering the sky with the next, and demanding of Bali to show him room for the third. True to his promise, Bali offered his own head, on which the god placed his foot and sent him down to the lower regions. Greatly pleased with the king's nobility and firmness of character, Vishnu is still supposed to be guarding as his servant the palace of Bali in the world below.

There are not many temples dedicated to this god. At Tirukkoyilur in the South Arcot district is a celebrated shrine of Trivikrama. Another one is the Ulagalanda-Perumāl temple at Kānchī. In the Varāha-mandapa at Mahābali-puram, on the panel opposite to the Varāha-avatār described above, is a fine representation of Trivikrama (fig. 20). Here the god has eight hands. The foremost arm on the right side is artistically made to support the lintel, while the remaining three hold the discus, club and the sword. Of the arms on the left side two hold the bow and the shield ;

Fig. 20.—Trivikrama; Seven Pagodas.

the third has the conch and the fourth is pointed towards Brahmā seated on the lotus. This Brahmā has four hands and four faces (?). He reverently touches with one of his hands the toe of the uplifted leg of Trivikrama and with another touches the finger of the god pointed towards him. On the corresponding right side of Trivikrama is found apparently Siva, also on a lotus-seat. The Sun and Moon, with circles of light behind their heads, perhaps to distinguish their respective functions, are seen flying in the air half way down the high face of the god. Two other heavenly beings, one of which is on a level with the head of Trivikrama and has a horse-face, are also flying in the air. The seated figures at the foot of Trivikrama are apparently Bali and his retinue who are struck with amazement at the sudden transformation of the stunted Vamana into the all-pervading Trivikrama. In the Rāmasvāmin temple at Kumbakōnam is a sculptured pillar (fig. 21) on which the story of the Vāmana-avatār is well represented. The lower section shows Bali and his wife granting boons to Brāhmanas. In the upper section is the god Trivikrama under a floral arch. His right foot is placed in the two open palms of the Earth. On his right is the image of the Dwarf. His vehicle Garuda is behind him. On the left side are evidently Bali and his wife standing. This description of Trivikrama exactly coincides with what has been given above, except that the hand supporting the lintel in the Mahābalipuram panel is here shown as offering protection. Tumburu is also seen above on the floral arch, flying in the air.

The exact form of Vāmana, prior to his manifestation as Trivikrama, is, according to Hēmādri, that of a fat young student of the Vēdas with crooked joints, holding a staff in his hand and wearing on his back the skin of a black buck (krishnājina) (fig. 22). Representations of Vāmana figures with water-pot in one hand and an umbrella in the other on demarcation stones of fields granted in charity, were quite common even down to the end of the nineteenth century. This auspicious figure evidently denoted fortune and was appropriately connected with boundary stones and the measurement of land. A festival in honour of Bali is still observed by the people of Mysore on the first day after the Dīpāvali-Amāvāsyā. In Malabar people connect Bali with

Fig. 21.—Trivikrama; Kumbakōnam.

Fig. 22.—Vāmana; Namakkal.

their national harvest festival, the Ōnam, in which they worship a clay figure of this high-minded emperor. It is supposed that the king is permitted by Vishnu to visit every year the fair earth over which he once ruled and to satisfy himself that the people are quite as happy and glad as in his time.

VI

We now come to the avatār of Rāma, Rāmachandra Rāmabhadra, the hero of the beautiful epic Rāmāyana, which in its various aspects has permeated the life of the Indian people and moulded their character to a great extent. Rāma was the eldest son of Dasaratha, the king of Ayōdhyā (Oudh). As such, his images do not, like those of the avatārs so far described, avatārs which were sudden outbursts of divine energy exhibit either the four arms of the gods or the distinguishing Vaishnavite symbols of conch, discus, club and lotus. Human in form, but god in essence, Rāma is always represented as a royal personage of bewitching beauty, well developed in body, having broad eyes, long arms, curly tresses, ornaments and auspicious marks that indicate high birth and noble character. Paintings of Rāma's life are numerous and cover the whole period of his history from his birth to his passing away bodily from this world into the depths of the Sarayū river. In many South-Indian temples may be observed scenes from the Rāmānyana, either painted on the walls or cut into panels, forming continuous belts round the central shrine or the prākāra wall. When represented as the consecrated deity within a temple, Rāma is generally seen to be a standing figure with his queen Sītā on the left and his faithful brother Lakshmana on the right. He and his brother hold bows and arrows. The bow is called kōdanda and so Rāma with the bow is sometimes known as Kōdanda-Rāma.

In the accompanying illustration of metallic images from Ramēsvaram (fig. 23) the positions of Sītā and Lakshmana are interchanged and the arrows and quivers are missing. The two images at either extreme represent their faithful servant Hanuman (see below p. 64). As stated in the Silpasangraha, the figures of Rāma are distinguished as independent and dependent. In the former case he stands alone and has four arms, two of which hold the bow and the arrow and the other two, the conch and the discus. In the latter he has two arms and may be accompanied by his three brothers, his queen

Fig. 23.—Rama and group (metal); Rāmesvaram.

Sītā, the monkey hosts and the Rākshasa chiefs headed by Vibhīshana. Rāma with Sītā on his side is generally contemplated upon as seated in the aerial car Pushpaka in the vīrāsana posture within a golden pavilion and underneath the celestial tree (kalpa-vriksha). In his front stands Hanumān reading, while Rāma is explaining the mystery of philosophy to the crowds of sages who gather round him along with his royal brothers Bharata, Lakshmana and Satrughna.

VII

Krishna is the next avatār of Vishnu which is highly venerated by the Hindus. The Bhāgavata-Purāna which describes i ? carna in detail the early life of Krishna in Brindāvana (Brindāban) has provided more material for iconology than his subsequent career as the moving spirit of the Mahābhārata-war, the author of the " Divine Song " Bhagavad-Gitā or the benevolent chief of Dvārakā (Dwārka, Baroda).

Three stages in the life of Krishna have been marked out to be the most prominent. As a baby, not yet weaned from his mother's breast, he is represented in the arms of Yasōda. This form of Krishna receives the name Santāna-Gōpāla.Also as a baby divine, identified with Supreme Vishnu,he is sometimes pictured as lying on a banyan-leaf (Vatapa-trasāyin) sucking the toe of his leg held by the hand. These pictures of the baby-god are commonly seen in paintings.

Krishna is also represented as a winsome boy, full of fun and frolic and fond of thieving milk and butter from the neighbouring cottages of cowherds living at Brindāvana. It is said that on one occasion Yasōdā punished him by tying him up to a mortar. The child then ran along, dragging the mortar behind him ; but in trying to pass between two tall and stout trees standing close together, the heavy mortar was caught between and felled them down ; when lo ! the trees assumed the shape of the two sons of Kubēra, the god of riches, who being cursed by the sage Nārada to assume the shape of trees had been waiting long to be thus restored by the Lord Krishna to their original form. The first part of this incident is represented in fig. 24.