Sir Samuel Bentham

PAPER ON THE FIRST INTRODUCTION OF STEAM ENGINES INTO NAVAL ARSENALS AND MACHINERY SET IN MOTION THEREBY.

MARY SOPHIA BENTHAM, Widow of SIR SAMUEL BENTHAM.

MACHINERY, set in motion by inanimate force, being now so very extensively used in the royal dockyards, a history of its first introduction to them may not be without interest. This important service originated with, and was effected by, Brigadier General Sir Samuel Bentham, K.S.G.: part of an official letter of his, in 1813, to the Secretary of the Admiralty, will best relate the first introduction of the steam engine to a naval arsenal. It was as follows:–

Fully established (he was not fully established) as the use of steam engines is seen to be at present in his Majesty's naval arsenals, and great as are the advantages which are now seen to be the result, the value of the service rendered in effecting this improvement is not likely at this time to be duly appreciated unless the state of things previously to, and during the introduction of this improvement be taken into account, and borne in mind.

When, in the year 1791, I made a tour, visiting the principal manufactories, I found, it is true, steam engines extensively employed for giving motion to pumps for raising water from mines, to machinery for working cotton, and to mills for rolling, and for some other works in metal; but in regard to the working in wood, steam engines had not been applied to this purpose, as no machinery or engines, other than turning lathes had, so far as I learnt, as yet been introduced for the working of this material, excepting that some circular and reciprocating saws, and boring tools had been applied to the purpose of block-making, by the contractors who supplied blocks to the navy -- even saw-mills for slitting timber, though in very extensive use abroad, were not to be found in this country. An attempt, indeed, had been made to introduce a saw-mill in the neighbourhood of London, but the destruction of it by the machination of sawyers seemed to have prevented any further attempts at innovations of this nature.

For my part, I had, whilst in Russia, made some progress in contriving such machinery for shaping wood as should insure accuracy, and save manual labour; which contrivance, soon after my return to this country, I had occasion to carry to a much greater extent, with a view to the affording beneficial employment to some thousands of untaught hands in a public establishment; with this view, I analysed the several operations requisite for working in various materials, more particularly in wood; and finding the artificial, but common classification of works according to the trades or handicrafts for which they are used, was productive of a variety of inconveniences, and even mischiefs, I classed the several operations that have place in the working materials of every description, according to the nature of the operations themselves: and in regard to wood particularly, I contrived machines or engines for performing most of those operations, whereby the need of skill and dexterity in the workman was done away. These machines or engines, being capable of being brought into action by the simple process of turning an axis, were consequently capable of being worked by a steam engine, or any other inanimate force. In regard to the application of this machinery for working in wood, besides the general operations of planing, rebating, morticing., sawing in curved, winding, and transverse directions, I had completed, in the way of example, an apparatus for preparing all the parts of a highly finished window-sash ; another for every part of the more complicated article, an ornamented carriage wheel; so as that no dexterity or skill remaining necessary in the cutting out, shaping or smoothing the several parts completely, the whole of those operations were capable of being performed as well by a steam engine, as by manual labour; and nothing remained for finishing the work of the joiner or the wheelwright, but the putting the several component parts together. In the year 1794, it having become generally known that I had at my brother's residence in Queen Square Place these and other machines in a working state, several members of his Majesty's then administration having been pleased to express a wish to see them, honoured me with repeated visits ; and were, in consequence, so well satisfied of the national advantages that would be derived from the use of the system of machinery then shown to them, that it became a subject of public notice in the House of Commons, where the late Lord Viscount Melville, in particular, bestowed great encomiums on it. Having thus brought a system of machinery to a state of considerable perfection, and many parts of it being applicable to the execution of works which at the time were performed by hand in the several dockyards, I accordingly communicated upon the subject with the naval part of his Majesty's administration, who were so fully convinced of the justness of the representations I made to them, of the advantages that could not fail to result from the introduction into his Majesty's naval arsenals of such engines, as well as from the use of steam engines as a primum mobile, that the authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty was given me early in the year 1795 to visit his Majesty's dockyards, for the express purpose (amongst others) of suggesting in what cases, in my opinion, my system of machinery might with advantage be introduced. The authority which was given to me, and the prospects that naturally flowed from it, led to the relinquishing my intentions both of returning to Russia, and of deriving profit from the machinery in private undertakings. From thenceforward I devoted myself entirely to his Majesty's service, and directed my attention exclusively to the mode of accomplishing the several objects I had presented to their lordships' notice.

To the introduction of steam engines, however, notwithstanding the determination of the, Board of Admiralty, a variety of objections were started, such as apprehensions of the derangement of established practice; doubts of the efficacy or economy of machinery as applied to naval purposes; dread of danger of fire from the use of steam engines, and of risings of the artificers at the introduction of machinery to diminish the need of their skill as well as of their labour: of these objections, and a variety of others equally groundless that were at the same time started, subsequent experience has proved the futility. They did not, however, fail at that time to make the sort of impression they were designed to produce; and their lordships, although anxious to carry this and other similar improvements into effect, were unwilling to hazard the immediate introduction of a steam engine into a royal dockyard. The project, however, was not abandoned; it was, on the contrary, arranged that, as a preliminary step, I should order a steam engine to be erected at Redbridge, for the purpose of working some of the machines I had invented, and put up at that Place, for performing various operations requisite in building some vessels for his Majesty's service, spoken of under the head of services relative to the improvement of ships of war. But this plan was not carried into effect, as the engine was not completed in time for this use. Shortly afterwards, however, on the occasion of a set of new pumps, with additional powers, being requisite for pumping the docks in Portsmouth dockyard, I availed myself of this favourable opportunity, and proposed the giving motion to these pumps by a steam engine; a purpose for employing that engine in regard to which danger from fire was least apprehended, and by which the interest of the artificers was not implicated. The power of this engine not being constantly required for working the above mentioned pumps, presented also an occasion of which I did not fail to avail myself, for proposing the introduction of machinery for other uses, to be worked by this same engine, and which was accordingly, at my suggestion, established. The same engine that had been prepared for Redbridge, was erected in Portsmouth dockyard.

By degrees the advantages of this primum mobile, in pumping up water, were seen and acknowledged; by degrees other and larger steam engines have been introduced, and their use has been by my means extended gradually to other purposes, as prejudices could be removed, till now at length I have the satisfaction of seeing the objection to the use of steam engines and machinery in his Majesty's naval arsenals entirely done away.

Having effected this valuable improvement without any derangement of the business of the dockyards ; without having occasioned any single instance of opposition on the part of the artificers, &c.

By the authority given for the erection of the machinery above alluded to, saws of various descriptions were provided for that dockyard ; amongst them were some of the identical saws which had formed part of the machinery above mentioned as having, been at work at his brother's residence : these identical saws were still up to 1813, at least, in constant use in the wood-mills in Portsmouth Dockyard, for such purposes as slitting and edging deals, for cutting wood in lengths for block-shells, for taking of the angles of those lengths preparatory to their being shaped, &C., &C. By degrees, not only the economy of sawing by machinery was fully established by experience, but likewise the superiority of the work itself; in consequence, additional saws of the same description were introduced, so that in 1812, they were cutting in Portsmouth Dockyard at the rate of 9 and 10,000 feet of work per week, including four and five inch plank.

In connection with these works, Sir Samuel at the same time, 1797, devised and proposed an efficient apparatus for raising and distributing a supply of fresh water, and for the better securing the dockyard from the ravages of fire. This proposal having also been approved of, the details of execution were decided on, and by degrees carried into effect.

This apparatus, as exemplified at Portsmouth, consists of an elevated reservoir, into which water from a well (of Sir Samuel's proposal) is raised during meal hours, and in the evening, by either of the two steam engines, in daily use in the wood-mills subsequently established. From this reservoir the water is distributed throughout the dockyard, by a system of pipes passing by all the principal buildings, and by the sides of the docks and to the jettees; upon these pipes, means are provided at intervals of from 50 to 200 feet, for speedily affixing fire hose, jet and branch pipes. This system of pipes is so arranged as that water flows through them to any given point, by two different courses, so that, though there should happen any temporary interruption, the supply of water at any point would be effected by the other course. In addition to this supply, always ready to be instantaneously applied to the extinguishing fire in any part of the dockyard, and with a force sufficient to throw the water into the first floors of buildings, the steam engines also raise either fresh water from the well, or an immense supply of sea water, forcing this water, fresh or salt, in of fire, into and over all the principal storehouses and buildings, as well as over the ships themselves lying within, or contiguous to, the limits of the dockyard : apparatus to the same effect was afterwards introduced into most of the other dockyards.

Delay in the masonry works going on in Portsmouth Dockyard, consequent on the slow process, hitherto general, of mixing mortar by hand, still worse the frequent imperfection of the mechanical mixture of its component parts, led Sir Samuel, in the year 1796, to invent a mill for this purpose; he proposed it to the Admiralty, January, 1797. This first mortar-mill was, it is true, worked by horses, as there was not yet any steam engine in any dockyard.

This invention was soon adopted by the Ordnance Board, and in use to a great extent in the Ordnance as well as in the naval department; and has been very generally adopted, it is almost needless to say, by private architects and engineers.

The inefficiency of the then existing means of dredging, and the enormous expense attendant on the operation, induced Sir Samuel, towards the end of the last century, to consider whether an apparatus to be worked by a steam engine, might not be devised for this purpose; and in consequence he invented the steam-dredging machine.

This steam-dredging machine he officially proposed in his letter to the Admiralty, 18th April, 1800; and it was shortly afterwards ordered for execution according to that proposal.

The enlarged views which he took from the first of the uses to which this machine would be applicable, as stated in that letter, have proved to have been fully borne out in practice. He stated that by its means,

I am of opinion that at a very moderate expense, not only all shoals formed by a gradual accumulation of soil may be cleared away to the great benefit of rivers and harbours in general, but likewise that deep water may be brought to the wharf walls of the dockyards, and other naval establishments.

A farther use to which a well constructed apparatus of this kind might be made applicable, is that of diminishing very materially the expense of forming new ground on flats now covered by the tide, as in the instance of the great addition that is now making to the gun-wharf here (Portsmouth). By such an apparatus the shingle, or other soil dug out from the harbour, might be deposited so as to raise the new ground above the height of high water-mark, without the assistance of manual labour for any other purpose than that of transporting the vessels loaded with the soil to and fro.

In his letter to the Admiralty, 28th June, 1803, informing their lordships that "the floating engine for digging under water had been found fully to answer its Intended purpose," he added, "that it had become evident that by means of such engines, besides such services as those above mentioned, basins and other excavations for the reception of ships may be dug out at an expense which the advantages to be expected from such works may justify.." In this same letter he proposed a second dredging machine, which was ordered accordingly.

In the Reports of the House of Commons, vol. xiv. p. 634, Report (1801) from Select Committee upon further measures for the Improvement of the Port of London, it appears that General Bentham, Inspector General of Naval Works, had in answer to a request from the committee, given it, amongst other matters, as his opinion, that, "the eligibility of all plans for the improvement of the navigation of it," (the Thames,) "as well as for the making new embankments, seems to depend greatly on the cost and expedition with which the operations can be carried on of digging under water, and of depositing advantageously the soil taken up," &c., &c. ; that in consequence, "I have been induced to contrive an apparatus for digging under water by means of a steam engine;" that such an apparatus was then preparing by order of the Admiralty, and that he supposed when it should have been completed, and its efficacy ascertained, that others would be ordered for the improvement of the navigation of the Thames and Medway in as far as his Majesty's dockyards were concerned. He calculated that his apparatus then constructing would raise 1000 tons of soil a day; sent an estimate of the cost of the apparatus, and of barges for carrying away soil; adapted, some for delivering it through the bottom, others above water : and at the same time furnished drawings of his apparatus.

In this, as in most others of Sir Samuel's inventions, he had to combat opposition, Mr. Tucker, (the Earl of St. Vincent's secretary and friend,) in July, 1801, wrote to ask, " How does your floating steam engine answer, or promise? as I have its battle to fight now and then."

It appears that, contrary to what is usual in regard to machinery, this first dredging machine answered its intended purpose as well at least as any since constructed ; since in one case recorded, it was raising soil at 1d. only per ton, although out of 3£. 18s, the total of one day's expenses, no less than 1£ 10s. of that amount was set down for wear and tear, and for interest on capital expended; and when raising shingle from a depth of twenty-seven feet, it worked at less than 2d. per ton.

September, 1801, Sir Samuel invented, proposed, and shortly afterwards effected the introduction of moveable steam engines. The first of them, for use at Portsmouth, was upon wheels; its boiler, for convenience and lightness, of wood in the form of a cask. This engine, applicable to the working, of cranes, pumps, &c., afforded the benefit of this advantageous primum mobile to a variety of temporary purposes, such as would not afford compensation for the expense of a fixed steam engine.

Acting upon the general idea he had been led to form, that the prejudice entertained against the use of machinery was most likely to be removed by a gradual introduction of small machinery, rather than by any sudden innovation in the more important works of the dock-yards, he at first attempted only to introduce in addition to saws such as are used in other countries, some sawing apparatus, and other engines, and small machines of his own invention for working in wood; as for instance. for rebating, cutting dove-tails and tenons, boring and cutting mortices, and for forming mouldings. The Lords of the Admiralty, on their visitation to the dockyards, 1802, saw some of these machines in use, but no one had as yet the requisite means or motives to make the most advantageous use of them; the wood working business was divided under different masters, in a great number of distinct shops, which would have required a separate set of machines, a separate steam engine, in each shop. Early in that year, however, when the quantity of machinery provided came to be considerable, a man who had been trained by him to the use of his machinery before he was engaged in the service, was sent to Plymouth to introduce some of it there, and was afterwards employed in managing the machinery then bringing into use at Portsmouth for working wood; this was Mr. Burr, who had, with the approbation of Earl Spencer, been retained in the Inspector-General's Office from the first of its institution, to be ready to be employed in the introduction of Sir Samuel's machinery in the dockyards. Under Mr. Burr's immediate direction, some dockyard labourers were trained to the use of those machines, and were encouraged by some small extra allowances to exert themselves in this employment.

At Plymouth, the employment of inanimate force was delayed, as it was expected that the Plymouth Dock Water Company would have fulfilled their engagement to supply water that would have sufficed to give motion to a considerable amount of machinery; that introduced there this year was worked by man, and was confined to a few articles, such as circular saws, a foot saw-bench, a reciprocating slitting saw-bench, and a tenanting saw-bench.

Simultaneously with the above mentioned business, Sir Samuel was investigating that of the manufacture of the various articles of metal used in his Majesty's navy. His official letters on the subject commenced as early as 1797, but it was not till April, 1800, that he proposed the erection of an apparatus for manufacturing copper sheathing, bolts, &c. This proposal was confined to a manufactory of very limited extent, its object in the first instance having been intended only as an experimental arrangement; but in the course of his proceedings it appeared that the savings on manufacturing metals on government account would be so great, and that the articles furnished might be expected to prove so superior, that it was deemed expedient, in con sequence of his representations, to erect a new separate establishment with its steam engine and machinery in Portsmouth Dockyard for the manufacture of copper sheathing, bolts, and other articles, of copper, sundry articles of iron, and of other metals, pure or mixed.

In the year 1802, it happened, whilst he was engaged in a duty specially enjoined him by the Earl of St. Vincent to have the preference, (that of Dockyard Regulations,) that a foreigner, at that time wholly unknown to Sir Samuel, presented himself, without word of recommendation or introduction, with drawings of machinery for block-making, but which at that time embraced only some of the operations requisite in forming the shells of blocks. "The drawings," Sir Samuel has said officially, "exhibited great ingenuity and mechanical skill; and finding his ideas on mechanical subjects just and extensive;" that "his time was unengaged, he saw reason to believe that this gentleman, Mr. Brunel," (now Sir Isambard,) "might be made very useful to the public in forwarding the introduction of machinery of the nature of that he offered." "I therefore advised him to address himself to the Admiralty, proposing the introduction of his machinery for the manufacture of blocks in Portsmouth Dockyard." Mr. Brunel accordingly composed such a letter, which having been sent by him to Sir Samuel for revision, on the 20th February, 1802, was submitted to the Admiralty: that Board referred Mr. Brunel's proposal to Sir Samuel for his opinion, who, thereupon, recommended the adoption of the proposal officially, as he had already done privately; mentioning that the making of blocks was one of the purposes to which it was known Sir Samuel had intended to apply the force of the steam engine there. Farther, he advised that Mr. Brunel should be directed to concert with the mechanist in his office, so that this apparatus should be made to combine with. the other machinery already provided for working in wood.

Their lordships having determined in conformity to this report, that Mr. Brunel's machinery should be introduced in the manner suggested, he employed himself in the perfecting his machinery; and, in concert with the mechanist, in contriving details as to putting it up, in arranging machines for various operations in block-making, for which neither Mr. Brunel's, nor such of Sir Samuel's as was already prepared, were suitable. Whilst so employed, an application of Mr. Brunel's soliciting remuneration was referred by the Admiralty to the Inspector-General for his opinion. Sir Samuel recommended the employment of this gentleman at a guinea a day whilst actually occupied respecting his machinery, but that his remuneration should depend on the degree of benefit that might be derived from it to the service; accordingly, that when completed, Mr. Brunel's remuneration should be not less than one year's savings made by his means to the public.

The Admiralty having acceded to this unusual recommendation, Mr. Brunel's interest was thus intimately combined with that of the public: his time was almost exclusively given up to this business; he entered into Sir Samuel's views in regard to general management, of a nature without which no manufacture on public account could to any certainty be advantageous. Sir Samuel on his part, considering that public opinion in favour of machinery was most likely to be obtained by a display of well arranged machines for one particular purpose, and that those for block-making, admitted of a very pleasing assemblage, he determined that other operations in working in wood should for the time give way to that for manufacturing blocks.

It is needless to expatiate on the success that attended this determination: the public have been lavish in commendation of the block-making machinery, so much so, that the multitude who have visited the wood-mills have ascribed to Mr. Brunel the machinery of every kind that had been introduced into Portsmouth Yard.

Another very important manufacture was at the same time under consideration by Sir Samuel, namely, that of cordage, sail-cloth, and of such filamentous substances generally as were required in the, naval service. The Earl of St. Vincent, when in Torbay, towards the end of 1800, spoke to him of dangers to which the fleet had been exposed in consequence of the frequent bad quality of cordage and sail-cloth, and expressed his wish that Sir Samuel should turn his attention to the improvement of these important articles of naval equipment. His lordship shortly afterwards, when at the head of the naval administration, repeated his wishes on the subject; so that as soon as other business which his lordship had desired should have the preference would admit, Sir Samuel entered into investigations as to the manufacture of the stores in question, and in January, 1803, set out on a tour amongst the great manufactories then existing in the north, more particularly to witness the actual practice in respect to the manufacture of iron and other metals, and to examine the establishments for the fabrication of cordage and of sail-cloth ; the result of this investigation was his forming a plan for the manufacture of cordage and sail-cloth in Woolwich dockyard, adopting for cordage the complete system of machinery for this purpose devised by Mr. Grimshaw, and in use at his manufactory near Sunderland. Cordage was here made in a short building without the need of a long rope-house, and altogether this was spoken of by Sir Samuel as being "already one of the most complete and best contrived systems of machinery I had seen employed for any manufacturing, purpose and the adaptation of which to, his Majesty's service, together with some farther improvements, had been pursued and completed under my superintendence as exhibited in my drawings and descriptions," which, including the outline of a manufactory of sail-cloth, he submitted to the Admiralty, January, 1801. He proposed that this manufactory should be established in Woolwich Dockyard, partly in obedience to their lordships' commands, September, 1802; and farther, because the raw material, hemp, was usually brought to the Thames as part lading of vessels with other stores destined for that river. This proposal was forthwith honoured with the approbation of the Lords of the Admiralty, was farther . sanctioned by his Majesty in Council, ordered for immediate execution, and preparations for it actually commenced.

Notwithstanding this high authority, a stop was put to this establishment for manufacturing filamentous substances. The prevention of it appeared to have been "the effect of implied objections, concealed influence, unfair experiments, and partial statements," the whole of which Sir Samuel was preparing to bring to notice, when he was suddenly sent by government on a mission to Russia.

Attacks of a similar nature had indeed been already made in regard to the wood-mills, and to the metal-mills, and were frequently repeated for many years. In regard to blocks, it was represented, even after the greater part of the machinery or block-making had been erected and at work, that "no saving could result from it; " that "it never would be found competent, to the supply of the navy;" and that, "the assurances that had been given of the competency of that machinery," had been "considered as the sanguine but groundless expectations of a visionary projector." This machinery has, however, been found competent, not only to the supply of the whole of that department in time of war, but also to that of the Ordnance, and would be sufficient to satisfy the demand were the expenditure for both these departments doubled. So in the course of nine years, separate attacks presented officially were made on Sir Samuel's judgement, relating to the expediency of the metal-mills; he was personally charged with having made fallacious promises, but these attacks were open, and some of them, no doubt, proceeding from most honourable motives. The public service, no less than Sir Samuel, has been greatly indebted for the official reference of these allegations to him, since thereby the beneficial results of the introduction of machinery into naval arsenals have been incontestably ascertained ; and although the answering these objections necessarily occupied much of his time, to the prevention of his employing it on other plans, yet, as the consequent investigations ascertained the benefits resulting from this measure, the public have derived convincing evidence, in lieu of vague ideas and assertions, and positive proof of the money savings, and of the superiority of articles manufactured by machinery in the naval arsenals.

It must be evident to persons conversant in private manufactories, that none on government account could beneficially be carried on, otherwise than on the same principles on which individuals manage their own concerns ; and as the regulations necessary for the establishments in question, and the training of people to work the machinery, had been left to him, he proceeded, keeping those principles in view, to commence arrangements preparatory to a fixed establishment of operatives for the working of metals, as well as for work in the wood-mills ; he also took measures for the introduction of that branch of mechanical skill possessed by the description of persons then called millwrights, now engineers ; so that in February, 1805, he recommended the institution of the three distinct establishments, the wood-mills, the metal-mills, and of millwrights in Portsmouth dockyard : he proposed that a master should be appointed for each establishment, specified the number of operatives likely to be required, and gave an estimate of the rates of pay proper for each of the several classes of them.

In respect to the establishment of millwrights, Sir Samuel had, from the first of his intercourse with the Admiralty, represented privately to Earl Spencer and others, the lamentable deficiency in the dockyards of engineering skill, and of the scientific principles of mechanics. When engaged at his lordship's desire, in the year 1798, in drawing up the sketch of a Report to the Lords of his, Majesty's Council, for better conducting the civil business of the navy, by Article 19 of that sketch, he proposed an additional officer for each dockyard, "who should be a man conversant in the principles of mechanics, as well as in the business of a millwright, so as to be capable of assisting the surveyors on all mechanical subjects." This sketch having been printed and referred by the Admiralty to the comptroller of the navy for his observations, he gave it as his opinion that no such officer was necessary ; and in regard to the articles in that sketch relative to naval seminaries, proposed in that sketch to be instituted in four dockyards, for giving appropriate education for the several branches of duty in the naval establishments, the comptroller objected also to them. Sir Samuel's official answer, 1800, to the comptroller's objections was, that independently of the practical knowledge that may be necessary for the management of any article of machinery which might be applied to facilitate the preparatory processes carried on in a dockyard, no well grounded judgement can be formed respecting the need there "may be for improvement in the shape, - in the mode of putting together, or in the fastening of any of the component parts of that very complicated machine, a ship, without a perfect knowledge of the principles of mechanics;" and farther, "As the study of mechanics, as a science, does not necessarily constitute any part of the education of any of the persons who are concerned in the business of a dockyard, it seems highly expedient that some officer chosen particularly on account of, his knowledge of the principles of mechanics, as well as on account of his readiness in applying them to practice, should be established in each dockyard, were it only for the general purpose of affording advice to the superior operative officer, in every case where a demand for improvement may show itself." This reply proved convincing to their lordships; but as a variety of circumstances irrelevant to the subject of this paper delayed the carrying this proposal into effect, he, with their lordships' knowledge and private approbation, ventured to introduce millwrights and young working hands necessary in the three establishments.