Natural History: Mammalia

Front matter

NATURAL HISTORY.

By P. H. GOSSE.

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE AND EDUCATION, APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

Placentalia

SUB-CLASS I. PLACENTALIA.

Quadrumana

ORDER I. QUADRUMANA.

(Four-handed animals.)

Although in the outward appearance of the animals which constitute this Order, as well as in their anatomical structure, there is a considerable resemblance to Man, it is not nearly so great as is commonly supposed; and a minute examination shows us that even these highest forms of the brute creation are separated by a vast interval from him to whom was originally delegated the dominion over them all.

The whole conformation of Man displays that an erect position is proper to him, and that he can never maintain any other. The skull, nearly globose, rests on the spinal column, almost in an even balance; while the face, containing the chief organs of sense, occupies its frontal portion. The spine itself, enlarging to the lower extremity, is there connected with the pelvis, the form, strength, position, and broad expanse of which adapt it to support the superincumbent weight of the trunk; and this weight is now, by a beautiful mechanism, transmitted to the posterior extremities, which in the form of nearly perpendicular pillars, pursue the same general line of direction as the trunk. The articulations of the bones of the leg, both at its upper and lower extremities, are so constituted as to compel a

vertical mode of progression; which is indicated also by the form and direction of the foot, by the mode in which the weight of the body is thrown upon the arch of the instep, by the projection of the heel for the attachment of the great muscles of the calf which raise the body in walking, by the breadth and flatness of the sole, and by the great toe, not having any power of opposing the others as a thumb, and therefore confining the use of the foot to that of an instrument of progression. The lateral breadth of the chest, throwing the shoulders wide apart, the mode in which the head of the shoulder is jointed to the blade, the structure of the elbow, fore-arm, and hand, the position of the heart and other viscera, the influx of blood to the head, not mitigated as in the brutes by subdivision of the arteries, as well as the form, comparative development, and arrangement of the muscles of various parts of his body, prove that Man is necessitated by his whole structure to assume that erect and commanding attitude, which is so becoming to him as a moral and intellectual being.

But in these important particulars, and in many others, the detail of which would be unsuitable to the present work, the brutes differ in anatomical structure and consequent habit from Man, though in various degrees; nor does the present Order offer any exception to this diversity, though some of its highest members approach nearer than others to his form and structure in some few of these particulars.

The Quadrumana are formed for an attitude neither erect nor horizontal, but diagonal in various degrees. They rest in a crouching posture,

SKELETONS OF MAN AND ORANG.

the thighs commonly drawn up to the body, so that by a sudden extension of the knee-joint, the animals spring with great vigour and rapidity. Their progression is not by walking on the ground, though, as we shall see, some of them can effect this awkwardly, but by climbing and bounding among the branches of trees, in the dense forests where they delight to dwell. It is to fit them for these arboreal habits, that their whole structure is modified. The development of the facial portion of the skull throws the centre of gravity considerably forward of the point of its junction with the spinal column, and this requires that the spinous processes of the bones of the neck should be enlarged, for the attachment of the muscles of the back of the head. The lower vertebræ of the spine are not gradually enlarged, as in Man, and therefore possess not the power of perpendicular support which a pyramidal form supplies, while the more narrowed form and weaker structure of the pelvis, the short and powerless thigh-bones, set at an obtuse angle with the line of the trunk, the leg-bones which can be brought into the same line as the thighs only by muscular effort, while their sustaining power is weakened by their capability of rotatory motion, the weakness (arising from the mobility) of the ankle, and the lack of the pedal arch, all manifest that the natural posture of even the most man-like of the Apes is considerably removed from the perpendicular. At the same time these peculiarities of structure are most beautifully adapted to the diagonal attitude, and climbing habits which we have alluded to as proper to the animals of this Order.

But it is in the character of the extremities that the grand peculiarity of these animals resides, and by this they are separated from man by an interval wide indeed. They are quadrumanous, i. e. four-handed. Each of the four extremities is furnished with four long fingers, and a short thumb projecting at an angle from the line of the fingers, and opposible to them. But poorly fitted for progression on the ground, these long grasping hands are most effective instruments for seizing the branches of trees, and thus enabling the animals to proceed by a rapid and secure course through the mazes of the forests, and to reside among their umbrageous retreats as entirely as the perching birds. Many of our readers may have often observed a Monkey use his hind-hand to take hold of any presented object; for as we have already said, the bones of the posterior limbs have the same freedom of movement that marks those of the anterior pair, and thus the extremities of the former are endowed with the versatile powers confined in man to the hands. Yet even in the Orangs and Gibbons, there is a vast inferiority in their hands to those of Man. The thumb, small, feeble, and set far back, is but imperfectly antagonistic to the fingers; these again, greatly lengthened, and adapted thus for hooking round an object, have scarcely any power of separate motion among themselves; and the palm, instead of being hollow, is narrow, flat, and tapering from the wrist. "Compared with the hands of Man," observes Mr. Martin, "those of the Simiæ are rude and imperfect instruments: constructed as tree-climbing organs, they are incapable of the manipulations which the human hand executes with the utmost facility; notwithstanding they adequately serve the wants of these animals, and harmonize with their general economy. It is therefore in accordance with their arboreal habits, that the hinder graspers of the Simiæ are as hand-like as the anterior, perhaps more so; for in these latter organs, the thumb is far more developed; never, indeed, becoming rudimentary, even in those instances in which it is the most reduced in the anterior graspers."

The principal food of these animals is fruit; of which abundance is ripe at all seasons in the tropical forests: they also occasionally prey upon the young and eggs of birds, upon lizards, and insects.

The order Quadrumana consists of three Families, Simiadæ, Cebidæ, and Lemuridæ. The first of these is scattered over the tropical regions of Africa and Asia, including the great Indian islands; the second belongs to South America; while the third is nearly confined to the great island of Madagascar, where it alone represents the Order.

Simiadæ

Family I. Simiadæ.

(Monkeys of the Old World.)

The distinctive characters of the Simiadæ are as follows:—Teeth, as in Man; viz. Incisors 4/4; canines 1—1/1—1; false molars 2—2/2—2; true molars 3—3/3—3:32. Nostrils separated by a very narrow division. Mammæ two, pectoral. The majority possess also cheek-pouches, and callosities on the posterior part of the body, but to this there are exceptions in the highest animals of the series. Some have a membranous sac on the throat, connected with the wind-pipe, and capable of being inflated; it gives the power of uttering terrific cries. In the more man-like of the genera, the tail is altogether wanting, but in several others this member is of considerable length: the former are commonly known as Apes, the latter as Monkeys; while another natural division, under the name of Baboons, the most brutal of the family, possess a tail varying in length, but usually short, and in some reduced to a mere tubercle. In no case, in the Family before us, has the tail any prehensile or grasping power.

This, the most man-like genus of the Simiadæ, is distinguished by having the ears large and spreading; throat-sacs small; fore-hands reaching to the knee; callosities small; thumbs of hind hands always furnished with nails, thirteen pairs of ribs; no cheek-pouches; and no tail.

The only species yet known is the Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger, Geoff.), which inhabits Western Africa, from the River Gambia to the limits of Benguela, a tract including about twelve degrees of latitude on each side of the equator. Its height, when full-grown, seems to be at least five feet; some of the older writers say six or seven, which, from what we know of the Sumatran Orang, seems not improbable; the skin of a specimen in the Museum of the Zoological Society measures about four feet. It is clothed with long black hair, harsh and coarse, but somewhat glossy; thinly scattered on the breast and belly, as well as on the limbs: that on the fore-arm points upwards. The hair of the head is divided in the middle, falling down on each side, and forming large whiskers on the cheeks. The eyes are lively, deep-set, and hazel-coloured. The face, ears, and

CHIMPANZEE.

hands are naked, of a dark brown colour, except the muzzle and palms, which are pale copper-coloured. The lips, which are large, wrinkled, and very moveable, are furnished with a thin white beard.

Many travellers in Western Africa have noticed these highly interesting animals, ascribing to them faculties and habits which might well startle our credulity, did not modern observations on youthful specimens, which have been brought to England, render them highly probable. One of the earliest, and at the same time most sober of these accounts, is that of Andrew Battel, an Englishman, who was taken prisoner by the Portuguese in 1589, and sent by them to Angola, where he spent many years. In his narrative, published in "Purchas's Pilgrims," he says, "There are two kinds of monsters common to the woods of Angola: the largest of them is called Pongo, in their language, and the other Enjocko. The Pongo is, in all his proportions, like a man (except the legs, which have no calves); but he is of gigantic height. The face, hands, and ears of these animals are without hair; their bodies are covered, but not very thickly, with hair of a dunnish colour. When they walk on the ground, it is upright, with the hands on the nape of the neck. They sleep on trees, and make a covering over their heads to shelter them from the rain. They eat no flesh, but feed on nuts and other fruits; nor have they any understanding beyond instinct. When the people of the country travel through the woods, they make fires in the night, and in the morning; when they are gone, the Pongos will come and sit round it till it goes out, for they do not possess sagacity enough to lay on more wood. They go in bodies, and kill many negroes, who travel in the woods. When elephants happen to come and feed where they are, they will fall on them, and so beat them with their clubbed fists and sticks, that they are forced to run away roaring. The grown Pongos are never taken alive, owing to their strength, which is so great that ten men cannot hold one of them. The young hang upon their mother's belly with their hands clasped about her. Many of them are taken by shooting the mothers with poisoned arrows." The same writer asserts that, on the death of one of these animals, the survivors cover the body with leaves and branches of trees. Purchas adds, in a note, that Battel had informed him, in private conversation, that he had known a young negro who had been carried away by the Pongos, and lived a whole year in their society. On his return, he reported that they had offered him no harm, and that they were of the stature of ordinary men, but much thicker and stouter.

The latest notice of the habits of the Chimpanzee in a state of nature, is by Lieut. Sayers, who obtained possession of a young one in 1838, which he brought to England. He concludes that it ascends trees only for food or for observation; from the negroes he learned that "they do not reach their full growth till between nine and ten years of age; which if true, brings them extremely near to the human species; as the boy or girl of West Africa, at thirteen or fourteen years old, is quite as much a man or woman as at the age of nineteen or twenty in our more northern climate. Their height, when full grown, is said to be between four and five feet: indeed, I was credibly informed that a male Chimpanzee, which had been shot in the neighbourhood, and brought into Freetown, measured four feet five inches in length; and was so heavy as to form a very fair load for two men, who carried him on a pole between them. The natives say that, in the wild state, their strength is enormous; and that they have seen them snap boughs off the trees with the greatest apparent ease, which the united strength of two men could scarcely bend. The Chimpanzee is, without doubt, to be found in all the countries from the banks of the Gambia in the north, to the kingdom of Congo, in the south; as the natives of the intermediate parts seem to be perfectly acquainted with them. From my own experience, I can state that the low shores of the Bullom country, situated on the northern border of the River Sierra Leone, are infested by them in numbers quite equal to those of the commonest species of Monkey. I consider these animals to be gregarious; for, when visiting the rice-farms of the Chief Dalla Mohammadoo, on the Bullom shore, their cries plainly indicated the vicinity of a troop, as the noise heard could not have been produced by less than eight or ten of them. The natives also affirmed that they always travel in strong bodies, armed with sticks, which they use with much dexterity. They are exceedingly watchful; and the first one who discovers the approach of a stranger, utters a protracted cry, much resembling that of a human being in the greatest distress. The first time I heard it I was much startled; the animal was, apparently, not more than thirty paces distant; but had it been but five, I could not have seen it, from the tangled nature of the jungle; and I certainly conceived that such sounds could only have proceeded from a human being, who hoped to gain assistance by his cries, from some terrible and instant death. The native who was with me laid his hand upon my shoulder, and pointing suspiciously to the bush, said, 'Massa, Baboo live there!' and in a few minutes the wood appeared alive with them; their cries resembling the barking of dogs. My guide informed me that the cry first heard was to inform the troop of my approach, and that they would all immediately leave the trees, or any exalted situation that might expose them to view, and seek the bush; he also showed evident fear, and entreated me not to proceed any further in that direction. The plantations of bananas, papaws, and plaintains, which the natives usually intermix with their rice, constituting the favourite food of the Chimpanzees, accounts for their being so frequent in the neighbourhood of rice-fields. The difficulty of procuring live specimens of this genus arises, principally, I should say, from the superstitions of the natives concerning them, who believe they possess the power of 'witching.

Several specimens of this interesting animal in its infancy, have at various times been brought to Europe, and the observations made on their manners in captivity have uniformly shewn it to possess a very high degree of intelligence of a peculiar character, great docility, and an affectionateness mixed with playfulness, far removed indeed from the character of the common Monkeys. The most interesting of all these individuals was a male, which lived in the menagerie of the Zoological Society about a year. For a considerable period after its arrival in September 1835, it continued in the best health and spirits, and having survived a winter in our cold and moist climate, hope was entertained that it might be reared to maturity. It died, however, in the following autumn. Several very pleasing accounts have been published of the manners of "Tommy," from which we select the following.

"On entering the room in which the Chim- panzee was kept," observes Mr. Martin, "the first thing that struck the attention of visitors was its aged appearance, and its resemblance to an old, bent, diminutive Negro.

PORTRAIT OF "TOMMY."

This appearance of age was much increased by a spare beard of short, white hairs, which was spread over the muzzle, and by the deep wrinkles which furrowed the cheeks. It was not until being informed of its age, which, as proved by its dentition, was in all probability about two years and a half, that a person, ignorant of the natural history of the Chimpanzee, would have considered this specimen in the light of an infant; its actions, however, were those of a child, capable of running about and amusing itself; lively and playful, yet neither mischievous nor petulant; it was alive to everything which took place about it, and examined every object within reach, with an air so considerate and thoughtful, as to create a smile on the face of the gravest spectator."

Another zoologist thus describes its manners in detail:

"In the Zoological Gardens he occupied a room in the keeper's apartments, in which a large cage was constructed for his accommodation, and which was kept as nearly as possible in an uniform temperature. Two artificial trees had been erected in the cage, and a rope suspended between them, to afford him an opportunity of amusing himself by climbing or swinging; but unless when commanded by his keeper, to whom he invariably shewed a ready and willing obedience, he generally preferred running about the bottom of the cage, or amusing himself with the visitors. When moving quickly his pace was a kind of brisk canter, and unless when his hands were employed in carrying anything, he invariably walked on all-fours, leaning on the knuckles of the half-closed fist, as observed by Tyson and Dr. Traill. At the same time, the entire sole of the hind-foot was brought into contact with the ground in the act of progression, and as the arms were not very much longer than the legs, the body was stooped or bent at the shoulders, though the attitude, nevertheless, partook more of the erect than the horizontal…

"But though, when perfectly free and unrestrained, his most usual mode of progression was on all-fours, Tommy could, nevertheless, adopt the biped pace and station with great ease, when occasion required it. His feet, and particularly his heels, were broader and better adapted for this purpose than those of the Orang-outan, and in walking upright he was not under the same necessity of stretching out his arms, or moving them to and fro, for the purpose of securing his tottering equilibrium: the soles of his feet, however, were flat, and this circumstance, united to the greater distance and freer movements of his hind-legs, gave his gait a waddling motion, similar to that of human beings whose feet are affected with the same deformity. In many of his other actions, Tommy likewise approximated nearly to the human species. He was, without exception, the only animal we have ever seen, that could leap, or jump upon his hind-feet, like man; and this feat he often performed, both on the floor of his cage, and in descending from his tree, or from the bars of his cage, up which he often climbed for the purpose of seeing over the heads of the spectators. He frequently indulged, too, in a kind of rude stamping dance, perfectly similar to that of a child three or four years old, only that it was executed with greater force and confidence. All this arose from the uninterrupted spirits and buoyancy natural to the infant mind; he was at all times cheerful, lively, and perpetually in motion, from sunrise to sunset, either jumping, dancing, or cantering about his cage, romping and playing with the spectators, or amusing himself by looking out at the window.

"He did not often climb up his tree, unless at the command of his keeper; he appeared, indeed, to be upon the whole but an indifferent climber, particularly when compared with the Orang-outan, and generally preferred the level surface of the ground; whether it was that his tree was not properly constructed, or that he was too heavy and corpulent: but from his manifest awkwardness in performing this action, and his evident preference of the level surface, it is highly probable, as, indeed, most travellers have affirmed, that the progression and habits of the species are more terrestrial than arboreal, and that they ascend trees, principally, if not solely, in search of food. When ordered to seat himself in his swing, Tommy did so with great good humour, stretching out his foot to some of the company to set him in motion. We observed that he used the right hand in preference to the left, and had obviously greater power and facility of action with this than with the opposite member. In the human subject this has generally been attributed to the effects of education; but in Tommy, at least, it was a natural action, since he was perfectly unsophisticated in this respect; and it would be a highly interesting inquiry to ascertain whether the same preference may not be exhibited in other apes, and consequently how far it may depend upon some necessary and inherent principle of the animal conformation, rather than upon mere education…

"All his actions were those of a human infant, and though his powers, both mental and physical, were, comparatively speaking, more developed, he had all the gaiety, playfulness, and curiosity of the child, the same innocence, the same gentleness, the same affection, and the same restless, pettish, and inconstant disposition; even his natural appetites and tastes were similar; he had the same natural fondness for sweets, the same propensity to eat at all times and of all substances, and equally preferred milk and tea to spirituous and fermented liquors.

"In natural shrewdness and sagacity, however, Tommy greatly excelled the human infant, and, indeed, for that matter, many grown individuals… It is more particularly in interpreting your wishes and intentions from your looks, tones, and gestures, that this animal exhibited the most wonderful quickness of apprehension, vastly superior, indeed, to that of ordinary man, and only equalled by what we observe in deaf and dumb people, whose defect of speech is compensated by this unusual acuteness of observation. We have seen Tommy, on one occasion, when commanded by his keeper to bring him the core of an apple which he had thrown down on the floor of his cage, manifest the greatest anxiety to obey, though much perplexed to discover what it was he was required to do, as he evidently did not comprehend the nature of the order. He moved towards the window, stopped and looked back at the keeper, and then at the company; perceiving by their looks that he was mistaken, he returned, put his hand upon his swing as if to mount, again looked round to see if he was right, and was manifestly much puzzled what to do; at length one of the spectators pointed to the core of the apple; he stretched his hand towards it, looked inquiringly at the keeper, hesitated for a moment till he received the expected nod of approbation, and then lifted and carried it to his attendant without farther hesitation."

Considerably less man-like in many of its characters than the preceding genus, the Orang is distinguished by small external ears; a large double throat-sac; anterior extremities greatly developed, the hands reaching to the ankle; hinder hands very long and narrow, thumbs small, and often destitute of the nail and nail-joint; ribs twelve pairs; canines in adult male very large; no cheek pouches, no callosities on the rump; and no tail.

The great islands of the Indian Archipelago are the homes of this genus, particularly Borneo and Sumatra. Eminent zoologists consider that the specimens received from these two islands are of two species, distinguished as Pithecus Wurmbii (Geoff.), the Bornean Orang, and P. Abelli (Clark), that from Sumatra; the principal difference consisting in enormous callous excrescences on the temples and cheeks of the adult male of the former species, which seem to be wanting in the latter. Both attain to a great size and stature: a specimen has been recently obtained in Borneo, measuring five feet nine inches in height; while the individual of whose capture in Sumatra, Dr. Abel has given so interesting a narrative, is said to have attained the gigantic stature of seven feet six inches. The colour of the hair in both species is reddish brown, varying in individuals from a sandy hue to that of dark mahogany; it is copious on the sides, but scanty on most other parts. The disproportionate size and length of the arms, when compared with the legs, is a very marked character, and associated with the long and hooked character of the hands, shews that the Orang is more exclusively arboreal than the Chimpanzee. In young specimens the skull is large in the upper part, and the fore- head is rather high, but in the adult male an immense alteration takes place; while these portions have remained nearly stationary, the muzzle

BORNEAN ORANG.

and jaws have become monstrously developed, and the great canines, as large as those of the Lion, give an aspect, as well as the reality, of brutal power, that could not have been anticipated.

The Dutch zoologist, Dr. Muller, who has spent many years in exploring the great Indian islands, has had, in the course of his various excursions among the primeval forests of Borneo, many opportunities of studying the manners of the Orangs in their native fastnesses. "He describes them as being in the highest degree unsociable, leading for the most part a perfectly solitary life, and never more than two or three being found in company. Their deportment is grave and melancholy, their disposition apathetic, their motions slow and heavy, and their habits so sluggish and lazy, that it is only the cravings of appetite, or the approach of imminent danger, that can rouse them from their habitual lethargy, or force them to active exertion. When under the influence of these powerful motives, however, they exhibit a determination of character, and display a degree of force and activity, which would scarcely be anticipated from their heavy, apathetic appearance; whilst their strength is so redoubtable, that, without the aid of fire-arms, it would be impossible to cope with them. The natives of Borneo hold them in especial dread, and carefully avoid those parts of the forest which they are known to frequent. They are never seen on the ground, but constantly reside in trees, among the branches of which they make their way with surprising agility. Here they build a kind of rude hut, by intertwining the branches, in which they spend most part of their time, and seldom move abroad, except when urged by the calls of appetite. They feed entirely on fruits, and are never known to eat flesh, or even eggs, though young individuals, in a state of confinement, are readily taught to relish animal food. Dr. Muller never met with the Orang-outan in Java or Sumatra; in the latter of which islands, however, he had heard of its existence, though it is seldom seen, and appears to be altogether of rarer occurrence than in Borneo."

The Gibbons much resemble the Orangs, but are of smaller size and more elegant proportions: the hands reach to the heel; the thumb, separated to the wrist, is slightly opposible to the fingers; throat-sacs are found in some species only; very small callosities; no cheek-pouches; and no tail.

The Indian Islands and the Malayan Peninsula are the localities of the Gibbons. They are eminently adapted to an arboreal existence. "Free and unembarrassed, they appear almost to fly from bough to bough, and assume in their gambols every imaginable attitude: hanging by their long arms, they swing themselves forward with admirable facility, seizing, in their rapid launch, the branch at which they aimed; they throw themselves from a higher to a lower perch with consummate address, and again ascend to the loftiest with bird-like rapidity." In these rapid evolutions the great length and power of their arms are of the utmost advantage; and of these they make a far greater use in progression than of their feet.

They live in troops in the dense forests; and some of the species make the air resound with the most piercing and terrific cries. In captivity, they manifest much gentleness, affection, and docility. The fur is longer and more copious than in the preceding genera; it is usually of a black colour, in some varied, however, by grey, yellow, or white. There are eight or nine known species; several of which are marked by the peculiarity of having the index and second toe of the feet united.