Aids to Memory

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AIDS TO MEMORY;

or,

Section I

SECTION I. ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. How Memory is revived—Forgetfulness illustrated—Impressions of Childhood—Nature of Ideas—Exercises in Association.

The poetical quotation on our title-page contains a truth of more depth and utility than the writer of it was perhaps aware of. He evidently alludes to the association of ideas which is constantly going on within the mind, and to the power which the mind has of recalling events connected with natural objects or localities presented to the eye. Scenes and circumstances which are imagined to be entirely obliterated from the mind by lapse of time often spring into memory with much of their early freshness. The sight of a single tree, or brook, or stile, has effected the result. Thus an idea that is once thoroughly received into the brain, and accidentally or intentionally associated with something else, is probably never really lost. The absence of the idea or object with which it is connected may cause it to be forgotten, but the remembrance only depends on the recurrence of the missing link. The following incident from St. Mark's Gospel, chapter xi., shows exactly what we mean by object memory:—"And on the morrow, when they were come from Bethany, He was hungry; and seeing a fig-tree afar off having leaves, He came, if haply He might find anything thereon: and when He came to it, He found nothing but leaves; for the time of figs was not yet. And Jesus answered and said unto it, No man eat fruit of thee hereafter for ever. And His disciples heard it And in the morning, as they passed by, they saw the fig-tree dried up from the roots. And Peter calling to remembrance saith unto Him, Master, behold, the fig-tree which Thou cursedst is withered away."

How frequently, in conversation, do we hear people say, "That reminds me!" Many interesting stories are frequently the sequels of a chance word dropped by some one at a social party. We all know the duty of a theatrical prompter, and the value of a "cue" to a performer. In fact, the ordinary methods of memory are based on the association of ideas, for nothing can be remembered without it. They, however, depend on accidental or forced associations, which are more or less uncertain in their character. By constantly repeating words or ideas, they may be temporarily held in the mind; but knowledge thus gained, like water poured into a sieve, soon escapes.

A ludicrous story is told of a certain landlady and her gentleman lodger. The landlady trusted more to memory than to memorandums in making out her lodger's weekly bills, and the gentleman himself was astonished to find such a heavy weekly charge for "fagots," as he imagined the word to be. But one day this item was marked 2s. 6d., and his sense of justice impelled him to ring the bell for an explanation. "How is it," said he, "I find half-a-crown charged for fagots? It is totally impossible I could have burnt so many in such a short time." "Lord bless you, sir!" replied the landlady, "it isn't for fagots I've charged you half-a-crown, but for forgets. You see, sir, I can't think of all the things you have had when I make out your little bill, and so I lump them all together the next week, and call them forgets."

The knowledge of the child, as well as that of the profoundest scholar, is derived from the reception into the mind of a host of sensible, external impressions. The number and nature of these impressions constitute the difference between the child and the man. Let us analyse the child's knowledge. There was a time when he knew nothing—not even the alphabet, that great introduction to all learning. As his faculty of attention or concentrativeness began to be exercised, his mind struggled for development, and the foundations of his mental world were laid. His earliest impressions were derived from the articles of furniture around him, and especially from those things in constant use. He saw, let us suppose, a chair, a stool, or a table. Each of these objects conveyed a certain impression, either of size or form, revived again and again by the repeated sight of the object. Had the object been taken out of the room, he would soon have forgotten all about it. But his parents often had occasion to call it a chair, a stool, or a table. The two ideas (or those attached to the word and to the object) rapidly becoming associated, a definite conception of the object would arise in the mind whenever the name or the thing itself was presented to it. As his vocabulary increased, so did his conversational powers. Could we trace, in like manner, the gradual development of ideas received from books and teachers, we should still derive the fact that the "association of ideas" is the principle upon which memory is based.

The science of memory or mnemonics is, after all, a very simple one. It consists in using the knowledge already acquired as a means whereby to acquire fresh knowledge. Its motto is, "Learn everything well by combining one thing with another." Its effect is the prevention of mental weariness and unnecessary brainwork. Our first practical exercise will be that of learning couples of simple, familiar ideas, so that a word being mentioned shall suggest the associated word. This practice will ensure facility in the future applications of the science.

Exercise 1.—Association of Words.

Bell. | Corkscrew.

Portmanteau. | Sawdust.

Donkey. | Clock.

Photograph. | Gate.

Sword. | Bonnet.

Birdcage. | Sieve.

Ring. | Almanac.

Globe. | Fence.

Decanter. | Hat.

Cake. | Map.

Organ. | Tree.

Butterfly. | Inkstand.

These words have no direct connection with each other, and would require a greater mental effort to learn by the common process of repetition than by the principle of the association of ideas. In order to apply the latter method we will construct sentences combining or associating two ideas.

The first couple of words is bell and corkscrew. A bell strikes by means of a clapper; hence we can imagine a corkscrew substituted for the clapper. The next words are portmanteau and sawdust; these again are easily connected. The sentences containing the various associations might therefore be as follows:—

The bell struck with a corkscrew. A portmanteau filled with sawdust. The donkey ran against the clock. A photograph fixed on the gate. The sword pierced a bonnet. A birdcage placed in a sieve.

A ring hidden in an almanac. A globe fixed to the fence. The decanter under a hat. Cake cut open on the map. An organ playing under the tree. The butterfly fell into the inkstand.

The imagination must be exercised, and a clear mental picture of each association drawn. Now, on a word in either column of Exercise 1 being given, the corresponding word will readily be remembered.

Exercise 2.

Take a piece of paper ruled with single lines, and fold it double. Write down a dozen simple words; turn the paper over, so that what has been written cannot be seen, and write a dozen more words on the same lines. Then open the paper, and associate each couple of ideas. Fold the paper again so that only one list of twelve words is seen, and read from memory the corresponding words.

Repeat this experiment until the lists can be committed to memory in one reading. No attempt should be made to repeat the couples of words consecutively, as the method of remembering a series of ideas will be explained further on. The only object sought to be attained here is the cultivation of the power of mental association; therefore do not proceed to the next section until the instructions given in this one have been successfully followed.

Section II

SECTION II. STUDY OF LANGUAGES. Affinity of Words—How to learn Foreign Vocabularies—Right Use of Grammars—Nature's Method—Assimilation of Words.

Holy Scripture informs us that at one time "the whole earth was of one language and of one speech," and that the lofty ambition of man led to the "confusion" of tongues at present prevailing. "Let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech." There is, in all spoken languages, such an affinity in certain points as clearly shows their derivation from one common stock. The elementary sounds which are combined to produce words are the same, with slight modifications, in all languages. Of these sounds there are between forty and fifty, whatever may be the number of alphabetical characters used to represent them. Although we have only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet, and three of these—c, q, and x—are superfluous, there are a variety of independent sounds expressed by the union of two letters. These are th, ch, sh, au, oi, ou, &c. Besides these, many different sounds are expressed by the same letter. The Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish alphabets being identical with the English, and the German nearly so, the real difficulty to be overcome in acquiring these alphabets is the unfamiliar combinations of letters or sounds which present themselves. Of course, in the study of Greek, Hebrew, Sanscrit, &c., there is a further obstacle in the shape and sequence of the letters.

After a thorough acquaintance with the alphabet of a language, the most important step which the student can take is the acquisition of a plentiful stock of words. "But," it may be said, "the grammar is generally considered to be the first thing that ought to be learned." This implies no wish to discountenance the study of grammar, for it is a delightful one, and an indispensable adjunct to sound scholarship. We all remember an old recipe for cooking a hare which began with the words, "First catch your hare!" It is a pertinent question, "Did language exist before grammar, or grammar before language?" The object of grammar is to explain language, not to teach it. First get your language; then the grammar will be really useful, because it will give reasons for what you already know to be correct. There are many popular mistakes on the subject of language, and this one of putting a grammar-book first is one of the most mischievous. Thousands of youths at school—and also ladies and gentlemen out of school—have plodded through a foreign grammar a dozen times or more, and yet cannot read an elementary book, or carry on a simple conversation in the language.

Permit us to ask, how we learned to speak, read, and write our own tongue? In the first place, words were acquired through the sense of hearing, and correct speech through the faculty of imitation. We could understand others, and make ourselves understood—speaking at the same time with propriety—before we even knew what "grammar" meant. This, of course, supposes that our parents and intimate acquaintances spoke properly; for, if they did not, our defects of pronunciation and syntax were unaffected by the recitation of Lindley Murray to our schoolmaster. Example, imitation, and habit were the influences which moulded our daily conversation, whether for good or evil. Then we read books and wrote letters; and if we did so with earnestness and attention, our knowledge of the language became improved, extended, and surely fixed. We therefore know, that what is constantly heard by the ear, seen by the eye, and written by the hand, makes a lasting impression on the mind. Conversation, reading, and composition are thus the true means of learning perfectly, not only our own but any language. Until the student can read with facility an elementary book, or—if a modern language—carry on a simple conversation, our advice to him is either to let the grammar alone altogether, or to pick out from it all the words he can find to increase his vocabulary. The latter may include the conjugations and declensions of the parts of speech. In the previous section, we referred to the power of association in the case of a child learning the names of familiar objects. As already stated, the elementary sounds in all languages are essentially the same. Now an English child sees the article which in his own tongue is called a chair. He hears it called a chair, and by that name it is of course known to him. A French child sees the same object, but it is called chaise, not chair. The combination of sound contained in the latter word also exists in English, but has not the same meaning. Therefore, if both children heard simultaneously the word chaise, it would convey a distinct impression to each of their minds, but not the same impression. One would understand a "seat," the other a carriage." The exact sound of chair does not occur in French, but that of share does in the word cher. Let them both hear this word; to one it signifies a "portion," and to the other "dear." Thus the same combinations enter into words having totally diverse meanings, according to the language of which they form part.

If a student desire to learn a foreign vocabulary, his ordinary plan is to repeat the unknown word with the English meaning until he knows it. If he have a list of two or three hundred words to commit to memory, this method is, to say the least, tedious and uncertain. It would not be easy to learn by repetition the same number of familiar ideas, arranged as Exercises 1 and 2. Much more, then, is the difficulty increased, when one column consists of words he knows nothing about. The assertion may cause surprise, that by means of the natural affinity of words just pointed out, and by the process called assimilation, or making similar, from one to two hundred foreign words per hour may be acquired. As Latin and French are the two languages most frequently studied, let us select from them a few examples, although the assimilative principle is equally applicable to others: The first six words of the following exercise are Latin, the remaining six French.

Exercise 3.—Foreign Words.

WORD. | ASSIMILATION. | ENGLISH.

Rana. | Rain. | Frog.

Saxum. | Sacks. | Rock.

Nix. | Nicks. | Snow.

Mel. | Mellow. | Honey.

Fundus. | Funds. | Estate.

Canis. | Cane. | Dog.

Bague. | Bag. | Ring.

Porte. | Porter. | Door.

Laitue. | Late. | Lettuce.

Maison. | Mason. | House.

Pain. | Pang. | Bread.

Racloir. | Rake. | Scraper.

The first Latin word in the exercise is rana. It is an unfamiliar idea. We know nothing about it, and it makes no impression save that of sound. That impression must, however, be connected with the word frog. So we assimilate it to an English word of identical sound which we know a great deal about, and which will readily blend with frog. The first three sounds of the word are found in the same order in our word rain. Nothing is now easier than to associate on the principle of the first exercise. "A frog caught in the rain" is the idea pictured, and whenever we meet with the word "rana," we immediately know its signification. The first syllable of saxum suggests sacks, filled up with fragments of a rock. The whole word is the same as nicks, and these have been observed in the snow.

The assimilation for mel may be mellow. Here we notice that the English word contains more sounds than the Latin; but this is immaterial. If no exact affinity of sound can be traced, the nearest approximation will suffice. Thus the word meal would have done as well, the consonant sounds being identical. Either of the words is adapted for association, as mellow honey, or a meal of honey. Fundus suggests funds, which are necessary to the administration of any estate. Canis suggests cane, which was vigorously laid about the intruding dog. The first French word is bague, which is precisely the same as bag. We suppose this to have been used to secrete a ring. Porte suggests a porter standing at the door; and laitue the fact that the lettuce this season is very late. A mason engaged in decorating the house, the pang or pain suffered by those in want of bread, and the rake accommodated with a resting-place against the scraper, complete the series of ideal pictures which have indelibly fixed our little vocabulary in the memory. Study attentively the remarks on these words, and the greatest difficulty will be to forget them, and not, as is usually the case, to keep them in mind.

A great proportion of English words are derived from Latin and French, and the analogy between English and German is also very great. When, therefore, we perceive that the foreign and English word are synonymous, or nearly so, no association besides the natural one will be requisite. Diligent comparison will be the best "aid to memory" in all cases of undoubted derivation. Thus, we should remember pater, mater, and frater, by means of the English words paternal, maternal, and fraternal. Soror has no similar word, therefore the assimilation might be sorrow, the latter having been felt by the sister.

It may be objected that the student of several languages would be required to keep in his head so many different associations connected with the same word, that he would be in danger of confusing them. Not in the least. If he were, the objection would apply with still greater force to the ordinary process of study. The genius of a language is insensibly acquired by reading, and the words will soon become fixed in our memories without reference to the assimilations with which their original unfamiliarity was destroyed.

An additional exercise is now given, with appropriate assimilations, from which the reader can form associations for himself. As before, six words are selected from each language.

Exercise 4.—Foreign Words.

WORD. | ASSIMILATION. | ENGLISH.

Humerus. | Humorous. | Shoulder.

Casus. | Case. | Accident.

Coquĕre. | Cock. | To bake.

Bellum. | Bell. | War.

Pone. | Pony. | Behind.

Nocēre. | Nose. | To injure.

Assez. | Ass. | Enough.

Couteau. | Cut. | Knife.

Etoile. | A toil. | Star.

Cadeau. | Caddy. | Present.

Crepuscle. | Creep. | Twilight.

Ardoise. | Arduous. | Slate.

Procure, if possible, a literal and word-for-word translation of some book in the language you wish to acquire. Read a page or two after previously committing to memory the unknown words contained in that portion. Translate first of all literally, and then into correct English. The second translation should be written down, and then, without looking at the book, read at sight into the foreign tongue, or re-translated and compared with the original. This method is an infallible one, and, moreover, can be pursued without a master after the pronunciation has been acquired. More, in fact, may be accomplished by it in a few months than by illogical study in the same number of years.

Section III

SECTION III. ALPHABET OF FIGURES. Backward Children—Assimilation of Figures—The Alphabet of Nature.

The truth of the assertion that every faculty of the brain has its own memory is constantly being proved by experience. Some persons remember localities distinctly who will pass friends in the street without recognition. Others, who only require to see a person once in order to know him again, are unable to find their way about streets they have frequently visited. The brain resembles the body in two respects. It is strengthened and developed by exercise, or weakened and relaxed by inaction. The muscle of a blacksmith's arm is formed by hard work, in the same way that the faculty of calculation is developed by business pursuits. Many a youth begins his first real lesson in arithmetic behind his master's counter, and learns more there in a few months than he did during the whole of his school career.

Let it not be said of any backward boys and girls that "Nature" made them dunces, until we have tried, by judicious means, to produce a satisfactory change. It is very discouraging to hear parents talk about their children's want of capability. One child has "no ear for music," another "no notion of figures;" a third "will never spell properly," and a fourth "is a perfect blockhead, and will never be anything as long as he lives!" It has never occurred to them that their system of education is defective, or that a child's appreciation of certain studies depends on the special training of some particular faculty. If a boy cannot remember figures, they will not be driven into him by threats, cajolery, punishments, or promises. A schoolmaster once told a simple old lady, who grumbled because her son was not getting on at school, that "all the boy wanted was a capacity." "Dear me!" said the old lady, "is that all? Then pray get him one at once. I don't mind what I have to pay for it!"

Dates and figures are usually retained in the mind with no greater facility than eels are in the fingers, and any one who has tried the latter experiment will readily perceive the analogy. There are, as we well know, ten figures or digits, so called because they correspond to the number of fingers on the hands. These figures are combined to express numbers in the same way as letters are combined to express words. Words, however, make more impression on the mind than numbers, because they excite ideas and associations which assist the memory. A Mnemonic Figure Alphabet, or artificial contrivance for reducing numbers to words, is an old invention. The first used in England was published in Dr. Grey's "Memoria Technica," which appeared in 1730. The book, in spite of the uninviting details which it presents, has gone through several editions. The most artificial and barbarous words are employed as a means of learning dates and figures. The plan is to substitute certain vowels and consonants, and to add them to the word which the figures refer to. Thus, to remember that the Council of Trent began 13th December, 1545, we have to think of the word "Trendecatalfu." Want of space must exclude a review of other methods of remembering figures which have since been submitted to the public. Some of these have much to recommend them, but all fail in one point—the realisation of the natural laws of mental science and the true powers of the brain.

There are, in the English language, twenty-four consonant sounds. Of these, only ten are primary, independent sounds, the others being modified or derived from them. There are also, as we have seen, the same number of figures. A Figure Alphabet of Nature may, therefore, be easily constructed by the help of this analogy. By means of this alphabet, figures may be assimilated and converted into familiar ideas. Of course, it would have been immaterial which sound had been chosen to represent a certain figure; but the following arrangement will be found most convenient to remember, as there is an actual affinity created between the letters and figures. As the Romans used letters to express numbers, the idea embodied cannot be said to be original.

Exercise 5.—Primary Alphabet.

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 0

t | n | m | r | l | h | k | f | p | s

On the ordinary plan, it would require several readings to learn this simple alphabet, but we proceed to acquire it by simple natural association.

The small letter t is written with one down-stroke, and therefore represents one. A small n is written with two down-strokes, and a small m with three. R is the last letter of the word four. L is the Roman numeral for 50, and therefore stands for five. The small letter h would resemble a written six, if the final down-stroke were curved the other way. K is the first letter of key, to which article the figure seven bears a resemblance. The small letter f is often written like the figure eight. P is a reversed nine, as is evident by holding it before a looking-glass, or reversing the printed letter. S is the first sound of the word cipher, which stands for nought. In the following diagram, the figures run round the square in regular order, and attached to each is a word suggesting the right sound. It should be remembered that vowels have no value whatever, and are only used to make up words. The association of the figures and words in their local places, independently of the association already made, will make a permanent impression on the memory.

1. Tea. | 2. No.

| | 9. Pea.

| | 0. Sea.

6. Hay. | 5. Lay.

Proceed to translate the following words into figures, taking no notice of vowels or mute consonants, and attending only to the sounds of each word.

Exercise 6.—Words into Figures.

TWO FIGURES. | THREE FIGURES.

Top. | Prayer.

Pail. | Flail.

Time. | Treat.

Name. | Fret.

Man. | Plot.

Fate. | Tent.

Rum. | Mart.

Mire. | Bright.

Hawk. | Lark.

Laws. | Train.

Pin. | Bloom.

Team. | Alarm.

The process of translation should be conducted as follows: Top, t, p, 19; Pail, p, l, 95; Prayer, p, r, r, 944; and so on.

Exercise 7.—Figures into Words.

The first number is 42. Several words present themselves for selection, as rain, ruin, run, &c.; choose one of these. Re-translate the words into figures, and then compare with the exercise.

When this primary alphabet is thoroughly mastered, the next task is the complete Figure Alphabet, containing all the consonant sounds in the language, and therefore supplying abundant materials for numerical assimilation.

Exercise 8.—Complete Alphabet.

FIGURES. | SOUNDS.

| 1 | T, D, Th.

| 2 | N, Kn, Gn.

| 3 | M.

| 4 | R, Wr, Rh.

| 5 | L, Y.

| 6 | H, Ch, Tch, Sh, Zh, J, G, Dg.

| 7 | K, C, Ch, G, Gh.

| 8 | F, Ph, Gh, V, W, Wh.

| 9 | P, B.

| 0 | S, C, Z.

This list looks a little more formidable than the other, but is still easily acquired, as the additional signs are only modifications of the primary sounds. Beginning with d, we notice that it is a heavy sound of t, and that th is the same letter aspirated. Kn and gn are the same as n, and wr the same as r. Rh is an aspirated r. A child's first effort to articulate l generally produces y. In tch the t is not sounded, and it is equal to ch, which is suggested by the name of the letter h. Sh is the soft pronunciation of ch, and zh a heavy sound of sh. J is a heavy sound of ch, and g, when soft, has the same sound. Dg is always pronounced like j. C hard, and sometimes ch, is the same as k, and g hard a heavier sound. Gh, as in gherkins, is the same as g. Ph has the sound of f, and so has gh at the end of some words. V is a heavy sound of f, and w is a double v. Wh is an aspirated w. B is a heavy sound of p. Finally, c, as in cipher, is the same as s, and z a heavy sound of s, as well as the initial of the word zero, or nought. Sometimes c is equal to sh, as in glacier, and s to zh, as in pleasure. They then represent 6, and not 0. Two like consonants, not separated by a vowel, only stand for one figure, as there is but one sound represented. Thus "tall" equals 15.

The advantage of using sound, instead of spelling, as a basis of assimilation, is self-evident. The word light is composed of four consonants, but only two consonant sounds, and suggests 51 immediately; but if we translated it 5761, the mental exertion would be very great. Besides this, words to suit our purpose would be difficult to select, and the system, instead of being universally valuable, could not be used by persons deficient in orthography. Spelling is, moreover, purely artificial and changeable, while pronunciation is comparatively a settled thing.

As vowels are not to be translated, we must also pass over silent or mute consonants, including h when not aspirated. Words containing the superfluous consonants q and x had better be avoided if others can be found. If used, their value is respectively 78 and 70, for which kw and ks are the equivalents. The practice of Phonography, or Phonetic Shorthand, will materially assist the student of Mnemonics.

The whole of the sounds employed for figure assimilations should be written on a square card in the manner of the previous diagram. Thus, in the first place, besides Tea, should be written Day, The; and so on throughout.

Exercise 9.—Words into Figures.

THREE FIGURES. | FOUR FIGURES.

Breeze. | Good Gun.

King. | Nice Seat.

Knightly. | Her Dog.

Wrong. | His Chair.

Phlegm. | Big Ben.

Donkey. | White Book.

Gnawing. | Meat Knife.

Thoughts. | Your Lily.

Change. | Wise Judge.

Jewels. | Lead Pipe.

Latch-key. | Hair Sofa.

Physic. | Wire Cage.

As some difficulty may at first be experienced in translating the above exercise, which contains harder words than will generally be required, a solution is supplied in the exercise which follows. It should first be attempted without the key, and then compared with the correct figures.

Exercise 10.—Figures into Words.

940 | 7172

727 | 2001

215 | 6417

427 | 6064

853 | 9792

127 | 8197

227 | 3128

110 | 5455

627 | 8066

650 | 5199

567 | 6408

807 | 8476