Motivation – Mechanisms of the Mind and their Quest for Expression

Front matter

Amsterdam University Press

M.A. Mennes Series on Motivation Volume I

Motivation — Mechanisms of the Mind and their Quest for Expression

Prologue

In nearly all activities one sets about, a purpose, an intention or an act of will can be seen. And all these intentional acts appear to have a common origin in the will of the individual to intervene in his or her destiny and surroundings, both mentally and physically.

Over the last hundred years an astonishing library of ideas, thoughts, insights, theories, research findings and 'best practices' has been produced on the subject, detailing almost every aspect of ‘human motivation’, as it has been conceptualized in literature.

Surprisingly, this vast body of knowledge on human motivation could not prevent conflicts, discrimination, genocide, poverty or injustice from occurring, all of which are a direct result of our will ‘to intervene in our destiny’.

Despite our present knowledge, no substantial insights appear to have been generated to prevent us from almost identical expressions of these atrocities to reoccur over the course of our time. The crucial elements that could lead us to these precious insights are grounded in our knowledge and understanding of the intricate mechanisms that constitute the process of motivation, which is at the core of these frightful expressions. No one wants this. And it seems that strong and compelling forces beyond our measure are at work within this mighty process. It seems to lead us astray, despite a deep sense of urgency felt by most, if not all, involved in the noble pursuit to have the human condition strive and prosper in a better world.

HI

This study, most ambitiously, finds its origin in these fearful considerations, made long years ago.

The study has expanded over a period of almost thirty years, and aims at initiating further thought and understanding in the field of human motivation. At its core is a fundamental departure from common practice in generating knowledge and insights. The approach has led to a new theoretical ‘Model of Motivation’ and to the formulation of determinants that are essential in adequately addressing its intricate mechanisms.

If these findings hold true, they appear to lead to a number of profound implications.

This Volume, marking the first of a series of ten, provides a general introduction to this theoretical Model, that is to be further described in detail in subsequent Volumes.

VI

Table of Contents

Prologue Table of Contents

Motivation

Outlines for a Model on

Introduction to Motivation

Theories on motivation all seek to provide a fundamental knowledge of the intricate processes involved in activities we undertake, or intend to initiate. As motivation determines not only why we do the things we do, but also what we do to ourselves and to others, it also affects the course of events in our daily lives. Why situations persist which we all agree shouldn’t, or why they make us fall back in passive resilience, despite our good intentions.

As a consequence, theories on motivation can provide us with essential leads to insights and implications that offer a better understanding, not only of ourselves, but also of people and the occurrence of events surrounding us. And perhaps even, in due course, a better understanding of how to address others in these events by motivating them as best as we can. And this applies to all settings of our lives. In our relations with our loved ones, our children, in our work, in education, and in welfare, to name but a few...

So, we have a noble cause in pursuing knowledge about this process of motivation; in how it progresses, and how it affects (and obscures) the many aspects of our lives and

Motivation provides those of others, and in how it affects in general what we might call the ‘human condition’.

How are we to proceed in providing insights into this process?

essential information not only on ‘why we do the things we do’, but also on how it affects many aspects of our lives, the occurrence of events, and, more in general, on what we might call the ‘human condition’...

At first, one might think of motivation as ‘a flow of collective energies’ where everybody plays a part, and where the outcome, somehow, leads to action, behavior, performance, achievement.

But this doesn’t do justice to the intricacy of the processes involved and obscures our understanding even further...

Let us start by making a number of assumptions to help us in the approach. This is the procedure we usually follow both in scientific research and in designing scientific theories: we assume, a priori, a number of things that can help as first steps in simplifying a complex problem or phenomenon that we are trying to verify through research or to capture in a theory.

Now, in defining our theory on motivation, an important assumption we make is that there is a distinction between how motivation works, or how the process unfolds within the individual, and how motivation can be addressed, can be made to work, can be managed. Jn short, we make a distinction between the content of the process that internally drives people to do the things they do, and the methods we may use externally to influence this process.

This distinction will prove to be essential in the approach we will take in describing motivation in this first Volume of the ‘Series on Motivation’. And this distinction will define the entire outline of the study, that will be covered subsequently in the Series.

So, let us briefly clarify why this distinction has been made, and why it is imperative in the approach taken in this study.

And, as we intend to do throughout this Volume, for this, we refer to a separate exhibit which is to provide further background information, as follows!:

see the exhibit next page >

1 For more on these exhibits that are used throughout the text, see pp. 16-17.

Why a ‘Process of Motivation’ and a ‘Process of Interference’?

So, why this distinction? Let us try to visualize our case... Our aim is to provide insights into the intricate and complex ‘thing’, which is defined as ‘motivation’. Where to start in capturing this construct?...

Let us illustrate, first, what we are aiming at:

ARRKTE 7 RA AK

Here it is: lots of people, with thoughts of their own. The one influencing the other; the other being told what to do. The next person having thoughts of his or her own and trying to start ‘whatever-it-is’, and communicating about it with others; and this, in turn, inspiring someone else to pursue further dreams... It is a ‘cacophony’ of thoughts, ideas, voices that are all somehow related to motivation:

AERTS — TRARAAT

This ‘cacophony’ of motivation needs simplification. So, we will observe only two of these people, in the assumption that if we look at all the processes involved between these two people, we assume they will be the same for all others. So why bother observing them also?

Now, observing these two, which are now representatives of the entire group, we can assume both to have thoughts of their own, and to influence and affect one another:

This mutual interaction could be further simplified. We can assume that ‘having thoughts of their own’ unfolds in a similar manner in both individuals. And, in addition, we can assume that ‘influencing and affecting’ each other, proceeds also in identical steps for both: Ce R— A

So, we assume that all processes involved in motivation occurring in this large group of people can be reduced to two fundamental states that can be used to explain and capture all these processes: the one is defined as a ‘Process of

Motivation’... Ca?

... and the other as a ‘Process of Interference’:

wt —

So it is assumed that if we are to observe motivation, we need to make a distinction between how motivation works and how motivation can be addressed. Between the process that emerges and progresses ‘in our heads’, and the steps an outsider needs to make in order to influence us in this process. This distinction between what occurs ‘internally’ in the ‘privacy of our minds’, and what needs to be done ‘externally’ by others in order to affect our motivation, appears to be clear and self-evident at first sight. But, most remarkably, this distinction has not been made in current literature (or is at best implicitly made), causing profound confusion both in theory and in the interpretation of findings from research.

As a fundamental assumption underlying our approach, then, let us make a clear distinction, and define the constructs and mechanisms involved in how motivation works as being part of a ‘Process of Motivation’, and methods and procedures involved in addressing and managing motivation as being part of a ‘Process of Interference’.

We will use capital letters to indicate both Processes and the assumptions made in referring to this distinction. So, if we are to refer to elements of the Process of Motivation, we will use capital letters, (as in ‘Goal’, or in ‘Phase’), to clearly differentiate these constructs from those used in literature and in other settings, both in theories and in findings from empirical research.

This first Volume, then, in the ‘Series on Motivation’, is to provide an introduction to A distinctive feature in the the Process of Motivation. Model of Motivation

And thus, is to exclude presented here, is that it coverage of all aspects differentiates between a involved in addressing or ‘Process of Motivation’, and managing Motivation, as a ‘Process of Interference’

referred to in a Process of which is meant to address or Interference. manage Motivation.

Assumptions, then, are essential in defining theoretical models. In addition to the important distinction between the Process of Motivation and the methods used to externally influence Motivation in the Process of Interference, a number of further assumptions are briefly mentioned, that follow from the observations made previously in the exhibit!.

And a second assumption, based on these observations, is that the proposed Model aims at the individual and that this Process of Motivation occurring in the individual progresses in similar patterns in all individuals?.

In addition, and as a further refinement of this second assumption, it is assumed that these patterns in which the Process of Motivation manifests itself, occur irrespective of one’s gender, personality, age or background, amongst others?.

So, these underlying assumptions help us in defining the Process of Motivation and to capture its essentials in the proposed theoretical Model‘.

lA complete overview and background rationale of assumptions made in the study is provided in a separate Volume, Volume II of the ‘Series on Motivation’.

2 Otherwise, if each Process of Motivation would be different in each individual no generalized observations would be possible. And as a consequence, no general Model of Motivation capturing the Process of Motivation in essential constructs that reoccur in most, if not all individuals, would be possible!

3 Which, in turn, touches on the issue of generalizability. The less affected by gender, personality, age and background, the more a model becomes applicable in a variety of settings. This, however, comes at a price, which is mentioned in the next observation: the proposed Model thus becomes highly abstract in conceptualizing the Process of Motivation.

4 From these series of important assumptions underlying the Model, a concluding observation can be made that the Model is to describe the Process of Motivation at a high level of abstraction. This important observation is briefly elaborated on p. 41.

Introduction to Volume I

In this first introductory Volume, then, of the ‘Series on Motivation’, we will restrict ourselves to the Process of Motivation as it occurs in an individual, and we will leave the Process of Interference and the addressing, or management, of Motivation to be covered separately in other Volumes of the Series.

How are we to proceed?

In successive steps, we will reveal every aspect of the The Model of Motivation Process of Motivation. We presented here consists of will come to realize eight distinct sequential Motivation is a sequential steps, or ‘Phases’, through Process in which each step, which the Process of defined as a ‘Phase’, builds in Motivation progresses succession on a previous step. towards achieving an

The Process starts in fantasy, objective.

in a so-called ‘Phase of

Expectancies’, covered The Process evolves back to its origin several times, and thus manifests itself as a stepwise, cyclical extensively in Chapter 1. We will observe that a Process of Motivation evolves around an objective. Where many Process. objectives in our daily lives coexist, there are many Processes of Motivation evolving next to each other, and influencing their different outcomes.

The Process gradually manifests itself towards actual behavior in a second Phase, a ‘Phase of Effort’, as covered in Chapter 2. Followed by a ‘Phase of Internally Evoked Self-Assessment’, Chapter 3, where evaluations bring us to deploy clever strategies and mechanisms to help us ‘protect and preserve’ the objectives we have reached, either partly or in full, as we have set ourselves to do.

Despite these protective measures, this ‘cocoon’ in which our Efforts are regulated and maintained according to our standards and wishes, is sooner or later likely to be disrupted by actions, or events, or influences, obstructing this carefully orchestrated balance. Chapter 4 covers these interfering actions or events, in a ‘Phase of Reality’.

The repercussions of a Phase of Reality are manifold, and are covered in Chapter 5 in a ‘Phase of Impact’. And this Phase is followed by a sequence of evaluative steps in the Process of Motivation that are covered in successive Chapters: a ‘Phase of Externally Evoked Self-

Assessment’ in Chapter 6, a ‘Phase of Anticipated Change’ in Chapter 7, and a ‘Phase of Dedication’ in Chapter 8: the last Phase which will lead us back to reconsider our initial

In presenting the Model, Chapters 1 to 8 are to cover each a separate Phase in the Process of Motivation.

As the Process evolves back and becomes cyclical, Chapter 9 is to cover this subsequent cycle of the Process, and Chapter 10 the intricate mechanisms involved.

And these, in turn, will lead to profound implications in Chapter 11 and Chapter 12.

Finally, a last Chapter is to conclude and summarize the main findings.

settings in a Phase of Expectancies, thereby turning the Process of Motivation into a cyclical, recurring Process.

This cyclical Process of Motivation will be visualized in successive steps throughout the different Chapters, covering each of these eight distinct Phases, as depicted in Fig. 0.1.:

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Anticap Change |

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Fig. 0.1.

A visualized overview of the Model of Motivation

So, each step in the Model is covered in a different Chapter, one for each Phase. As we reach Chapter 8, then, we can observe the Process of Motivation in its final form. Chapter 9 will subsequently uncover the intricacies occurring when this Process evolves back to the first Phase, thus covering a second cycle in the Process of Motivation. Chapter 10 will cover regular patterns that occur as the Process further unfolds. Chapter 11 and Chapter 12 reveal far-reaching implications as we observe these successive cycles. In both Chapters, these implications are briefly commented on with examples, anticipating on a more extensive coverage in later Volumes of the Series. Finally, in a concluding Chapter, a summary is provided of the proposed Model of Motivation.

In addition, however, to this detailed presentation and overview of the Model of Motivation, the introduction of the Model in Volume I of the ‘Series on Motivation’ also provides a linkage, or connection, to important theories on the subject that have appeared in literature over the past seventy years, since the early 1950s. In progressing through successive Phases of the Model, each Phase is to be observed in connection to those theories, or important elements thereof, thus elaborating on the Model, or adding further, or differing perspectives, thereby providing a context and liaison with existing views on Motivation.

An integral part of those theories that have appeared in literature are the outcomes from research that have been generated in their respective fields of study. Where findings from research on the Model of Motivation have been presented in Mennes (2016), and can be found in open access (as referred to on p. 4), and where a comprehensive overview of all research findings associated to the Model is to appear in a separate Volume, Volume VII of the Series, we will restrict our coverage of research findings to those associated with the various theories from literature that are covered in each Chapter as they relate to the Model.

In this first introductory Volume of the ‘Series on Motivation’, then, each Chapter is to cover a separate Phase in the Process of Motivation, as proposed in the Model.

And each Chapter in this Volume is to provide a connection to important theories and research as they have appeared in literature, whereby it seeks to relate the Model of Motivation to findings obtained from a long tradition of existing studies on the subject in the field of applied psychology.

Introduction to the Content

In this Volume, then, within each Chapter, a recurring structure will guide us through the description of the eight successive Phases and their connections to existing theories and research.

Each Chapter starts with a general description with examples that illustrate the basics aimed at those who seek a general understanding of the various Phases of the Model of Motivation.

This general description is separated from a next partition in the text, where the general description is further elaborated on in more detail. In a separate part, or ‘Section’, definitions and refinements are provided of each Phase covered in the preceding description. In addition, in a second Section reference is made to associated theories as they have appeared in literature, complemented in a third Section by research findings, thus providing an overview and summary of current thinking on Motivation, as related to each Phase of the Model.

This second partition, then, following the general description of each Phase in each Chapter, is subdivided into three Sections:

To clearly differentiate this partition with its three Sections from the main text, the partition has been given a different background color (in gray) and a smaller font.

Throughout these three Sections, additional information, background implications and examples are provided to add and clarify the topics that are covered.

To demarcate these informative additions from the rest of the text in the three Sections, they are presented in the form of separate ‘exhibits’, as briefly referred to earlier when covering the distinction between a Process of Motivation and a Process of Interference. Each exhibit has its specific headings and references. A color scheme is used in these informative exhibits, depending on their content as commented on in more detail on the next page.

Color indications are used in the various exhibits, see next page >

Although the informative value of these Sections and exhibits is evident, there is an additional reason to provide these overviews, clarifications and commentaries.

As stated at the start, there is no story more exciting than the one that tells the tale of who we are and why we do the things we do. In essence, we are all experts in defining our own Motivation. Perhaps not fully conscious of all the details, but in retrospect we often are aware of our experiences to be able to compare those with the ones suggested in the Model, and in theories and research that are presented in literature. Not only do these findings contribute in explaining our thoughts, feelings and actions. The reverse is also true... If these findings provide explanations in a way that confirms our own impressions (or better still, reveals our true intentions to ourselves), then those experiences by themselves also provide a form of confirmation, both for the Model of Motivation we are to present and for the findings obtained in theories and research from literature.

In following pages of this ‘Introduction to the Content’, an overview is provided in more detail of these three Sections and of the information and features they are to contain to supplement the information in each Chapter.

Chapter Contents and Structure used

In the following Chapters, each Chapter is to present a general In each Chapter, a general description of a separate Phase introduction on a separate in the Model of Motivation. k Each Phase is introduced in the main Phase of the Process of text by a general description, with Motivation is provided. examples and explanations. oe ; In distinct ‘Sections’,

For those seeking more in-depth Definitions, Theories and information, additional details are Research are covered. provided in subsequent ‘Sections’, following the general description. Additional information is To clearly separate these Sections, they feature a different background pi ovided Sepal ate

color (gray), and a smaller exhibits, where different font. Throughout the text, additional colors are used depending information is provided in separate on their content:

exhibits. Depending on their content, each exhibit is displayed in a specific color:

Clarifications of selected topics

Examples

Implications of findings, related topics

Topics beyond the scope of study

Summaries

For those seeking more detailed information, a first Section on ‘Definitions’ is provided, describing in more detail each Phase covered in each Chapter,

Section 1 in each Chapter is dedicated to an in-depth and especially the Stages that it description of each Phase consists of as proposed in the covered from the Model of Model of Motivation. Motivation.

However detailed these A

descriptions are, reference is For more detailed

made to a more in-depth information, overviews and description ee Model of assumptions especially on Motivation, winien is t appear the various Stages these

in a separate Volume, Volume :

Hie ries a Phases consist of, reference Motivation’. is made to Volume III in the

‘Series on Motivation’.

Although the main text in each Chapter, with its storyline and examples, is meant to provide the reader with materials and context to position and compare the ideas with one’s own frame of reference and experiences, the Section on Definitions is also meant to extend on these personal experiences.

Having a theoretical Model of Motivation is one thing, providing enough information to have these theoretical constructs add meaning and provide insights into one’s own personal experiences is yet another. As stated, if the Model proves to be adequate in explaining our thoughts, feelings and actions in ways that confirm our own impressions, then these, in turn, also provide support for the Model we are to present.

So, the Section on Definitions with its more in-depth descriptions is meant to provide, not only insights into the Model of Motivation, but also a means of personalized verification to the accuracy and relevance of our findings. In the approach we will use, reference will be made to further descriptions and clarifications in exhibits provided throughout the text.

For those wishing background information on related theories, a separate Section is provided, with references to important theories of motivation in current literature.

As stated, relating the Model to prominent theories of motivation provides a liaison to thoughts and findings obtained from a long tradition of existing studies on the subject.

Many great ideas and theories

The Model of Motivation is to be related in Section 2 to theories that have appeared in literature.

Those theories are clustered according to six major categories. Only prominent theories are observed. For a (schematic) overview of

120+ theories of motivation, reference is made to Volume Ill of the Series.

on motivation have been proposed since the 1950s, the most important of which will be described throughout the text.

Insights are provided on how these findings from theories relate to the Model, and we will observe how theories, over the years, have covered different Phases proposed in the Model. As such, these theories will be presented over various Chapters covering these Phases. Throughout the text, references are provided to these theories as they are progressively covered.

As we proceed through the Phases, we will find that although these major theories have been developed from different perspectives and different scientific disciplines, they all seem to be related in their common origin to provide insights in motivation. And although the aim is to find relations and congruencies between the Model and these various theories, it appears the reverse is also true: the Model of Motivation seems to provide insights into how these theories are mutually related in this common cause.

There are many theories covering the subject. We will restrict ourselves to six major clusters in capturing those prominent theories covered in literature. As a basis for clustering, relevant literature has been used, where various classifications used in literature have been combined and (occasionally)

extended!. Within each cluster, a selection has been made of the most important theory, or theories, including references.

AS we progress in covering the Phases of the Model, we will refer to those major clusters in different Sections throughout the text. In order to keep an overview as we proceed

It is to be noted that only theories related to the through our coverage, color Process of Motivation are codes are used as a reference. observed, thereby excluding Theories are covered in colored theories aimed at addressing exhibits, see next page > motivation, as those are assumed to be related to a So, progressing on the thoughts Process of Interference.

of others, and comparing those theories with the Model of Motivation, provides a means to relate to those theories and to related to a Process of verify the assumptions and Interference, will appear in propositions made in the later Volumes of the Series. Model. Where the Model assumes a complete coverage of the Process of Motivation as it manifests itself, all these (major) theories from literature are assumed to display a clear relation with one or more of the proposed Phases in the Model.

An overview of theories

A final and most important observation is to be made on the coverage of theories in Section 2. In the selection made, no theories related to a Process of Interference have been included, as previously elaborated on in the ‘Introduction to Motivation’ ?.

i Amongst others, reference is made to: Elliot, Dweck & Yeager, 2017; Kanfer, Chen & Pritchard, 2008; Latham, 2012; Reeve, 2005; Renninger & Hidi, 2019a; Ryan, 2012; Ryan & Deci 2018; Sansone & Harackiewicz, 2000a; Shah & Gardner, 2008; Weiner 1980b, 1992.

2 Those theories include, among others: Equity theory (Adams, 1965); Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldham, 1975, 1976, 1980); Herzberg’s dual-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966, 1968); Locke and Latham’s high performance cycle (Latham, 2007; Latham, Locke & Fassina, 2002; Locke & Latham 1990); Porter and Lawler’s model of motivation (Porter & Lawler, 1968); and McGregor’s ‘theory X - theory Y’ (McGregor, 1960).

Colored Clusters of Current Theories of Motivation

The Model of Motivation is to be compared to current theories of The Model of Motivation motivation. These theories are ; is related to the most clustered according to six major categories. prominent theories from literature, clustered according to the following six major categories.

In different exhibits throughout

the text, background information

is provided on these prominent clusters of theories. For convenience, color codes are used in referring to Throughout the text, color these major clusters. codes are used to refer to

The six clusters of theories are as each of these clusters:

follows, together with the color codes used for reference:

5. Social cognitive theories

6. Attribution theories li»

Given the embedment in and connection with present theories from literature, Section 3 on research extends on these findings by providing an

Findings from research, as they relate to the theories overview of empirical evidence observed in literature, are that has been advanced by mentioned in Section 3. researchers in the respective

fields of study. As such, it is to be noted In Section 3, these findings are that no findings directly observed and referenced as they related to research on the relate to the Model of Model are reported.

Motivation. Where connections can be made between theories These overviews are to and the Model of Motivation, findings obtained from research appear in Volume VII of the in those fields of study Series. confirming the plausibility of those theories may also reflect on assumptions made in (related areas of) the Model.

Finally, as stated earlier in the ‘Introduction to Volume I’, it is noted that no references are provided to research conducted over the years directly related to the Model of Motivation. These findings are to be reported on extensively in Volume VII of the Series. For a summarized overview of these results, reference is made to the dissertation mentioned earlier (Mennes, 2016, refer to p. 4).

' A brief observation for those less familiar with the various forms of scientific enquiry and analysis. Verifying the assumptions made by means of empirical research is often perceived as a way of providing some sort of ‘proof’. But the truth of the matter is that in scientific research we cannot really prove that ‘things are as they are’. We can only prove with certainty that processes are either not happening as we had expected (and in doing so we subsequently disregard such a theory), or we can establish that processes are indeed progressing as expected and not occurring by chance, in which case we assume such empirical findings provide an indication of the plausibility of our assumptions. So, the approach is not meant to obtain ‘proof’. Rather, in providing an overview of findings from research and their analyses, only a confirmation (or rejection) as to the plausibility of these assumptions can be made.

In a ‘Series on Motivation’, covering the outcomes of almost thirty years of research, the present Volume is to provide a general introduction to a new Model of Motivation, and, as the title implies, to the ‘Mechanisms of the Mind’ that are involved in the underlying processes it contains.

In describing the eight Phases the Model of Motivation consists of, each Chapter will cover a separate Phase.