Sisters in Science

Front matter

Conversations with Black Women Scientists on Race, Génder,; and Their Passion for Science

Diann Jordan yS IREA

Se

Contents

Preface ix Acknowledgments xiii Introduction 1

Timeline: Black Women in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering 27

Tables 38 Hattie Carwell: Civil Rights for All 41 Yvonne Young Clark: Still Going Strong 53 Anna J. Coble: To the Beat of Her Own Drum 61 Freddie M. Dixon: One of Our Own 73 Elvira Doman: A Class Act 81 Georgia Dunston: It’s in My Genes 91 Evelyn Boyd Granville: Destined to Greater Heights 107 Shirley Ann Jackson: The Sky Is the Limit 121 Lynda M. Jordan: An Unlikely Scientist 129 Shelia McClure: A Woman's Place 141 Etheleen McGinnis-Hill: It’s a Good Thing 151 Jennie R. Patrick: Rebel with a Cause 163 Jann Patrice Primus: Her Voice Lives On 175 Dolores Cooper Shockley: It’s a Family Affair 191 Rubye Torrey: Just Call Me a Scientist 201 Geraldine W. Twitty: Still on the Battlefield 207 LaVern Whisenton-Davidson: A Passion for Mosquito Research 219 Epilogue: Continuing to Tell the Story 229

Preface

In her book Find Where the Wind Goes: Moments from My Life, Dr. Mae Carol Jemison, the first black woman astronaut, relates a very revealing childhood experience that epitomizes the early challenge many potential young black female scientists face when selecting science as a career. When a teacher posed the question what she would like to be when she grew up Mae replied, “I want to be a scientist.” Her teacher tried to convince her that what she meant was a nurse. Jemison, though only a child, was undaunted and persisted in stating that she wanted to be a scientist. In the 1960s, that was a pretty bold stance for a little black girl to not be persuaded by an authority figure. There are many potential Mae Jemisons in the world, but many of their dreams are actually never realized. How many goals are not met because some teacher, parent, or peer may have innocently dissuaded them? How many girls or young minorities become convinced that somehow they are not capable of doing math or science? Unfortunately, one of the earliest hurdles that females and minorities often face is similar to Jemison’s story and that of other women scientists.

Research continues to show that girls are eager to study math and science, but around middle school girls tend to give up their science. For black girls, the dilemma of choosing a science career is compounded by issues of race as well as gender. While it is true that young black women actually go to college more often and earn more degrees than their black male counterparts, their numbers are a small percentage at the graduate level in some science and technology fields. A study by James Jay (1971) on black doctorates in America from 1876 to 1969 documents that only 58 of 650 doctorates were awarded to black women. Recent studies by the National Science Foundation (NSF) do not show a great deal of improvement for black women at the doctoral level in science, especially for those in mathematics and engineering (Jordan, 1997). For example, in 1995, 15 black females, 58 black males, 320 white females, and 1,766 white males received doctorates in engineering across the United States. Despite these dismal statistics, some black women, like Jemison, persevere to become highly successful scientists and engineers, The question then remains, Why do so few black women enter scientific careers, and

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

ix x SISTERS IN SCIENCE for those who do, what can they teach us about how black women survive and succeed in science?

A number of significant factors contribute to black women’s success in science. Lynda Jordan, a biochemist, has candidly discussed how race and gender have impacted her career as a student in a predominantly white institution as well as professionally in a historically black institution. While there is no denying that race and gender may affect success in science, they are not the only factors that contribute to black women’s success and achievement. Familial support in childhood and adulthood can have a profound effect on black females entering and staying in science for the long haul. One need only look at the Mae Jemison story to see the power of a loving and nurturing family. A supportive spouse or a strong support system can also play a vital role in long-term success. Some of the women interviewed here are very candid about their marriages and how family life affected their career goals. For example, Freddie Dixon talks about how important it was to have a husband who did not mind cooking and taking care of their young child while she was in graduate school. Equally important but not always discussed, class can have a profound effect on the black female’s desire to study science and the available opportunities to pursue it as a career. The late Jann Primus openly discusses how being from a privileged background influenced how she was viewed and treated as a scientist.

For too long the lives of black women scientists have been virtually invisible and often neglected in the larger American society and even in their own culture. My goal has been to let the black woman scientist speak for herself and tell her story in her own way. This goal, along with my lack of experience as an interviewer, may have influenced the flow and content of the interviews. I began this project over nine years ago with the intention of discussing three major areas of interest with the women. As I began to get to know them and discuss issues, more questions would arise, so that the later interviews may appear more detailed. Because I was a full-time practicing research scientist, my time spent on this project was limited to my spare and vacation time. Therefore, some of the interviews have greater content while others lack some needed discussion. Of course, this is also due in part to the interviewee’s own comfort level in discussing matters of race, gender, and family life. Some of them were very forthcoming, while others preferred to not comment on specific issues related to race, gender, or family life. There were others who commented but were not comfortable allowing those comments to be published. A few times, I, as an unknown

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Preface xi interviewer, may have been viewed with some suspicion, too. After all, little research has been done on this area of black women’s lives. Far too often, the image of the black woman is not positive in print. Therefore, I, too, had to gain the trust of some of the women, even though I am black and tried to make clear my intention to present the black woman scientist in a positive light. Despite these inherent problems in the interviewing process, the writing of Sisters in Science has been one of the most rewarding endeavors of my life. The women who are presented here have wholeheartedly supported me and, in a few cases, allowed me to re-interview them to get the best story possible.

After along, tiring day of doing research in the laboratory and the field, dealing with sometimes difficult colleagues, and engaging in a disproportionate share of university and community service, I still would come home and work on this project. I even used my holidays to gather and collect data on this group. I spent a great deal of time establishing a relationship with many of the women scientists. In fact, I loved doing the interviews. ‘They made my own journey as a scientist much more bearable because I didn’t feel alone as I talked with these women, my Sisters in science. Consequently, when I sent the interviews back to the scientist, I had high expectations. Some of those expectations were disappointed when it sometimes took months to receive a response—and some never responded. I understood that these women, too, were inundated with all kinds of responsibilities in their everyday lives as scientists, but I wondered how I could tell their stories without their input. As I matured in the process, I learned to accept that a 50 percent return rate was better than no rate at all. I also had to accept my role as a full-time scientist and educator and that my limited time was a factor in doing the project the way that I may have desired. In a few cases, I simply did not return the transcribed interviews in a timely manner, which may have affected my response rate. Moreover, there were other outstanding black women scientists that I wanted to interview, but time simply did not permit me to do so. In any event, the process of doing research on the lives of black women scientists has been a labor of love that has opened me up to a different writing and critical thinking process as a scientist and the beginnings of an untold, fascinating history of American women.

When I was asked to doa presentation on black women scientists as a part of the Black Culture Center Week at the University of Missouri, Collumbia, I thought, “Sure, that shouldn't be a problem. I'll just go to the library and get some key references and prepare for my presentation.” I was

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor xii SISTERS IN SCIENCE shocked to find so little information on black women scientists; for that matter, there wasn't that much research on African American scientists—period. I slowly began that journey of trying to locate relevant sources. I even wrote and published a few articles myself. After my presentation on the subject in 1995 and receiving tenure and promotion in 1996, I decided that I had to tell our stories in a book format. Thus, Sisters in Science was conceived.

I still had to struggle to find time to interview black women scientists, collect data and resource material, and travel to the institutions where many black women get their first glimpse of science—historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). I simply planned my vacations around that kind of travel. I was determined and passionate about finally telling some of our stories, Fortunately, most of the women were eager to talk and welcomed me with open arms. It was the beginning of a dream come true. Initially, I interviewed black female graduate students, who provided some information; but because students are transient and my schedule was tight in the early days, that process proved to be less productive. I think my overall goals were best served by interviewing the more established black woman scientist.

Although it may be somewhat of a challenge, I would encourage other researchers to consider studying this group and documenting their lives and stories, Over the years, I have also interviewed and talked with black women scientists from other countries who have particular challenges in the scientific and engineering professions, and their stories are worth investigating further. There is also a whole group of black women scientists who never pursued doctorates in science or engineering but are quite active in industry, government, and educational institutions in their chosen profession. Iam fortunate to include two such women, Hattie Carwell and Yvonne Clark, in this volume. Their stories and research about them should be told in a much more comprehensive way, since they represent a large percentage of the practicing black women scientists. There is still much work to be done on the scholarship and stories of the black woman scientist. The harvest is plentiful but the laborers are few.

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Acknowledgments

When I was nine years old my mother bought me a pair of “microscopic” binoculars. It was the closest thing that she could afford to a microscope. She wanted to nurture the “scientist within me” and encourage me to be whatever I dreamed. My mother has been one of my strongest supporters throughout my sometimes rocky road to a successful scientific career. She, along with other family members, has been my Rock of Gibraltar. I thank Elizabeth Grooms Jordan, my mother; Willie James Jordan, my father, and Shirley Marie Jordan, my sister, for constantly being there for me. I especially thank Shirley for the initial typing and editing of the manuscript and our lively debates over the issues of women and minorities in science. You have lifted, listened, and loved me when I felt like I could not go on. You are my sisterfriend extraordinaire.

I have been blessed with a beautiful extended family—my second parents, Eddie Lee and Mae Willie Jordan; and siblings, Willie Jr., Charles, Leona, Clement, Aretha, Demetruis (deceased), Eddie, Jr, Dionne, and Sharon—who have been a great source of support. In the black community, no one person just “raises” you; you have a whole entourage of aunts and uncles, cousins, and grandparents. It took a village to raise me. I thank my aunts, Nasrine Smith, Mildred Ricks, Lovie Lee Mitchell; and my uncle, Joe Timothy Grooms, for being so encouraging of my academic pursuits, especially during my childhood.

‘There have been many great teachers, scientists, and community leaders who influenced me along the way. A few people stand out in my mind. My junior high school science teacher, the late Charles Dockery, gently nurtured my first signs of interest in science, along with my English teacher, Margaret Buford Jones, who simply gave me an outstanding background in literature and writing, Later, my tenth-grade biology teacher, Richard Carter (affectionately known as Coach Carter), really spurred me on by encouraging me to do my first scientific experiment and present it to all the students taking biology in my high school. Of course, my initial motives for taking on the extra assignment were to ensure that I got an A for the term, but he wanted to encourage and expose me to an audience early on. I was a nervous, skinny 15-year-old,

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628

Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor eee X111 xiv SISTERS IN SCIENCE but he assured me that I could do anything that I really wanted to do in my life. The experience helped to give me the confidence to go to Tuskegee University and successfully complete a program in biology. Later I had the good fortune to meet and work with some great soil scientists at Alabama A & M University. They encouraged and mentored me to become a soil microbiologist. At Michigan State University, I met my next two mentors, James M. Tiedje and Charles W. Rice. These two people were significant in my survival of a rigorous Ph.D. program, but more importantly, they have mentored me in my scientific career. In the soil sciences, the number of black women doctorates is fewer than the fingers on both hands, even in the twenty-first century. I thank “Jim” and “Chuck” for being good mentors, friends, and kind colleagues.

The kind acts of my early and latter mentors led me to a successful research career at the University of Missouri for over ten years. I thank all colleagues and friends who shared and contributed to my success during my tenure there. As I have restructured my life goals and aspirations, I have been fortunate to have met others who have recognized what I can contribute to an organization. After leaving the University of Missouri, I met T. Clifford Bibb at Alabama State University, I thank him for giving me the opportunity to began anew and share my talents and skills with the ASU family. My colleagues (Shuntele, Emma “EC,” Kartz, Shree, and Gladstone in biology, and others) have welcomed me home with open arms in my new department.

I have met a lot of people over the years, and some have remained good friends. I have been friends with Judy V. Burton for 25 years. She has supported me wholeheartedly throughout my career and life. Thank you, Judy. You are a gem of a friend. A special thanks to Gregory McDonald for being a ‘good brother in science” and forming a research collaboration with me and my students when I needed it the most. I would be remiss if I did not mention my friend John McClendon, III, former director of the Black Culture Center at the University of Missouri-Columbia. John provided the first forum where students and faculty could begin to discuss the issues of race and gender in science with his seminar series. Those fruitful discussions challenged me to begin this project.

I would also like to thank the staff of the library and archives at Tuskegee University (Cynthia Wilson), Spelman College (Taronda Spencer), and Howard University (Joellen Elbashir) for providing assistance in locating information on and photographs of black women in science. James Henderson, emeritus director of the Carver Research Foundation and professor of biology at Tuskegee University, was kind enough to share what files he had on the

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Acknowledgments XV subject. I am grateful to Dr. Henderson for his generosity and teaching me some environmental science. I thank Beverly Guy-Sheftall (Spelman College), Susan Hill (National Science Foundation), Jill Tietjen (past president of the Society of Women Engineers and consultant), and the late Barbara Lazarus (Carnegie Mellon University) for their support in this project. I never met Barbara Lazarus, but she always supported my work and so many other programs to increase women and minority participation in science. Most importantly, I thank all the scientists who participated in this project (published and unpublished), and especially those who stuck with me through the thick and thin of it all. I am deeply grateful to the family of the late Jann Patrice Primus, especially her sister, Jeanne Johnson, and mother, Ruth Boston Primus, who granted me permission to publish the interview and provided me with valuable insight into Jann’s life and early years. I would also like to thank the director, Thomas Bacher, Margaret Hunt, Donna VanLeer, and Bryan Shaffer at Purdue University Press for believing in the project, being extremely patient, and providing me the opportunity to tell our stories,

And above all of these wonderful people who were brought into my life for a reason at the right time or place, I give all the glory to God.

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628 Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor

Jordan, Diann. Sisters In Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists On Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. E-book, West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2006, https://doi.org/10.5703/128828431 7628. Downloaded on behalf of University of Michigan, Ann Arbor