Adaptive Urban Transformation

Front matter

The Urban Book Seri ia --

Vinin Siig PS Pes Eckart Lange Editors

Adaptive Urban Transformation

Preface

This publication presents the results of the joint research project ‘Adaptive Urban Transformation (AUT): Urban Landscape Dynamics, Regional Design and Territorial Governance in the Pearl River Delta, China’, a collaboration between Delft University of Technology, Department of Urbanism (TUD, the Netherlands), South China University of Technology, School of Architecture (SCUT, China) and The University of Sheffield, Department of Landscape Architecture (UoS, United Kingdom) that took place from 2017 until 2022. The research was funded by the Dutch Science Foundation (NWO grant no. ALWSD 2016.013 Sustainable Delta Program), the National Science Foundation China (NSFC grant no. 5161101690) and the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC grant no. EP/R024979/1).

The overall aim of the research was to develop an integrative and multiscale design and planning approach for adaptive urban transformation in fast urbanising delta landscapes using the PRD as a case study. To achieve this, the research seeks to better understand the relations between urban landscape dynamics, regional design and territorial governance by: (1) developing a portfolio of integrated adaptation measures based on an assessment of ecological capacity and transformation of urban districts and regions; (2) identifying the potential of planning and design approaches for territorial governance and policies that facilitate the implementation of integrated and adaptation measures; and (3) developing and testing innovative visualisation techniques that facilitate participatory, multistakeholder planning approaches. In order to address these aspects, the project involved three interrelated work packages (WPs):

e WPI! focussed on understanding dynamics of transformation and principles of adaptation (TUD). This provided input for WP3 regarding theoretical backgrounds, mapping and identification of planning and design strategies and principles for adaptive urban development. Research questions included: What dynamics of change and transformational cycles at the building, district and urban landscape level offer opportunities for implementing adaptation measures? What (regional) design principles may increase adaptive capacity and mitigate flood risk in the urban landscape at multiple scales?

vi Preface e WP2 focussed on stakeholder involvement and visualisation (UoS). This WP provides methodical and technical input for WP3 regarding state-of-the-art technology to involve stakeholders and to provide the basis for communication among experts and lay people. Research questions included: How can planning and design interventions be visualised both off-site and on-site (remote laboratory or office and/or mobile devices)? How can the developed visualisation methods help to communicate planning and design interventions to local citizens, stakeholders and among experts? How are the planning and design interventions perceived by local and non-local experts and lay people?

e WP3 focussed on the application of AUT in urban design, planning and governance in the Pearl River Delta (SCUT). Research questions included: What are the current governance approaches, strategies and projects to mitigate flood risk in the PRD and how are they perceived in terms of utility and effectiveness? How could a new territorial governance model with mutual support between economic development and protection of ecological landscape be facilitated under the Chinese governance system? What is the potential of open space for adaptive transformation, to cope with flood risks and ecological recovery?

Each WP had a responsible principal investigator (PI) for coordinating and conducting the research. TUD was responsible for the overall project, and the management team was formed by the three PI’s, also the editors of this publication. Regular joint workshops with the involved researchers and local stakeholders safeguarded exchange and synthesis of knowledge.

The chapters in this volume reflect the outcomes of the research conducted within the WPs. As exemplified by the chapters, there are many lessons to be learned for developing sustainable and social-ecological inclusive deltas. The quality, impact and societal relevance of our research in the AUT project are also exemplified by a large number of articles in peer-reviewed journals, more than 30 Ph.D. and M.Sc. theses and several invited keynote addresses at major conferences, such as the prestigious Annual National Planning Conference China 2019 with 10,000 plus visitors and 15,000 plus streamings. Also, online/offline media coverage displays the societal interest in the research, exemplified by interviews and items in (inter)national newspapers and television. Next to policy guidelines and adaptive design principles, the project also led to practical applications and implementation through design projects in which we led the design team responsible for urban development plans in, for example, Guangzhou and Shantou (China).

It is important to keep in mind that the views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of their employers, funders or affiliated institutions.

During the project, the COVID-19 pandemic severely impacted academic and social life and sometimes caused personal tragedy within the research team. Despite the complications, the entire AUT research community showed true resilience and a tremendous capacity for adaptation in maintaining high levels of societally relevant research output.

Preface Vii

We would like to thank all the team members, authors and participants for their contributions to the project and this publication. Aaron Bogart is acknowledged for his proofreading. We are also grateful to Juliana Pitanguy and Sanjievkumar Mathiyazhagan from Springer for their patience and their professional guidance and help. We would like to thank the NWO, NSFC and EPSRC for their generous financial support, and NWO for their additional financial support for enabling this open-access publication.

Delft, The Netherlands Steffen Nijhuis Guangzhou, China Yimin Sun Sheffield, UK Eckart Lange

Part I Introduction Introduction: Adaptive Urban Transformation in the Pearl

River Delta, China iiessciersrisesrineinrerieri tekkie ihitai

Steffen Nijhuis, Yimin Sun, and Eckart Lange

Multi-level Regional Governance and Spatial Development

Dongjin Qi and Jinghuan He

Spatial Dynamics in the Pearl River Delta and Development

Dai Wei, Han Meyer, and Taneha Kuzniecow Bacchin

Part II Spatial Strategy and Design

Territorial Governance and Spatial Planning in Europe: The Relevance for Flood Risk Management in the Chinese Pearl

Vincent Nadin and Meng Meng A Landscape-Based Regional Design Approach for Sustainable

Steffen Nijhuis, Yimin Sun, Daniele Cannatella, and Guangyuan Xie

Daniele Cannatella and Steffen Nijhuis

Unrelenting Change cs or ocacecsknesandecagyebeavcebeds saeuees

Peter Bosselmann, Mathias Kondolf, and Jiang Feng

Part III Stakeholder Participation and Visualization Stakeholder Participation and Visualisation in Sustainable

Xi Lu and Eckart Lange Bridging the Analogue—digital Divide in Stakeholder

Adam Tomkins and Eckart Lange Urban Planning Exhibition Halls in the Pearl River Delta

Xi Lu, Sigrid Hehl-Lange, and Eckart Lange

Part IV Socio-ecological Perspectives

Industrial Transformation and Sustainable Urban Planning in the Pearl River Delta: A Landscape-based Approach ....

Daniele Cannatella

Historical Canals as Urban Landscape Infrastructure in Guangzhou: Reactivating Public Life Through Water ...

Yu Zheng, Steffen Nijhuis, and Gregory Bracken

From Modelling and Analysis of Accessibility of Urban Green Space to Green Infrastructure Planning: Guangzhou asa Case SONG caves cee rs deseoiawn dager genic peenonnes

Yueshan Ma, Paul Brindley, and Eckart Lange

Inclusive Urban Transformation: Embracing the Values

Lei Qu

Wetland Parks in Guangzhou: Ecosystem Services and

Xuezhu Zhai, Ross Cameron, and Eckart Lange

Community Supported Agriculture in the Pearl River Delta Ziyi Liu, Nicola Dempsey, and Eckart Lange

Contents

Contributors

Taneha Kuzniecow Bacchin Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Peter Bosselmann College of Environmental Design, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

Gregory Bracken Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Paul Brindley Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Ross Cameron Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Daniele Cannatella Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Nicola Dempsey Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Jiang Feng School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, TianheGuangzhou, Guangdong, China

Jinghuan He School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Sigrid Hehl-Lange Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Mathias Kondolf College of Environmental Design, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA

Eckart Lange Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK xi xii Contributors

Ziyi Liu Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Xi Lu College of Landscape Architecture, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China

Yueshan Ma Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Meng Meng Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Han Meyer Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Vincent Nadin Department of Urbanism, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Steffen Nijhuis Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Dongjin Qi School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Lei Qu Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Yimin Sun School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Adam Tomkins Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Dai Wei School of Spatial Planning and Design, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China

Guangyuan Xie School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Xuezhu Zhai Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

Yu Zheng Guangzhou, Guangdong, China; Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Chapter 1 A) Introduction: Adaptive Urban giet Transformation in the Pearl River Delta, China

Steffen Nijhuis, Yimin Sun, and Eckart Lange

Abstract Deltaic areas are amidst the most favourable territories around the globe. Their strategic location and superior quality of their soils are core factors supporting both human development and the rise of these regions as global economic hubs. At the same time, deltas are extremely vulnerable to multiple threats from both climate change and the rush to urbanisation. These include an increased flood risk combined with the loss of ecological and social-cultural values. To ensure a more sustainable future for urbanising deltas, spatial strategies are needed to strengthen resilience, i.e. help the systems to cope with their vulnerabilities as well as enhance their capacity to overcome natural and anthropogenic threats. In this chapter, we outline the basic concepts and backgrounds of a joint research project with academic and societal partners called adaptive urban transformation. The objective of this research is to develop and test an integrative and multiscale design and planning approach for the adaptive urban transformation of urbanising deltas, in which the Pearl River Delta serves as a case study. In this approach, landscape-based regional design plays a key role in adaptive urban transformation, as well as innovative participation and visualisation techniques. Applications in urban design, planning, and governance in the PRD are also introduced. This chapter is foundational for the rest of the research presented in the chapters in this volume.

Keywords Resilient urban planning and management - Landscape-based regional design + Adaptive urban planning - Visualisation - Stakeholder participation - Chief urban designer system - Territorial governance

S. Nijhuis (%4)

Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 134, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands

e-mail: s.nijhuis @tudelft.nl

Y. Sun

School of Architecture, South China University of Technology, Tianhe, 381 Wushang Road, Guangzhou 510640, Guangdong, China

e-mail: arymsun @scut.edu.cn

E. Lange Department of Landscape Architecture, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK e-mail: e.lange @ sheffield.ac.uk

© The Author(s) 2023 3 S. Nijhuis et al. (eds.), Adaptive Urban Transformation, The Urban Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89828-1_1

Urbanising deltas are among the most promising and dynamic regions of the world.! As well as contributing greatly to the global economy, they are also valuable ecosystems (Meyer et al. 2016; Costanza et al. 1997). Deltas frequently accommodate large populations in particularly sensitive environments that are dominated by water systems. As a result, urbanising deltas are extremely vulnerable to multiple threats (Nicholls and Cazenave 2010; Ericson et al. 2006). Due to difficulties in steering the intensification of urban land use and economic activity within a sensitive water environment, compounded by the absence of effective governance, the outcomes of delta management are often a combination of ecosystem damage and the loss of sociocultural values. This weakens the capacity of deltas to resist natural hazards as well as the risks associated with climate change, thereby negatively impacting the environment, the local economy as well as the health and prosperity of citizens that live around these water systems (Nijhuis et al. 2017).

Urbanising deltas can be understood as a set of complex social—ecological systems and subsystems, each with their own dynamics and speed of change (Fig. 1.1). To ensure a more sustainable future, spatial strategies are needed to strengthen resilience, assist systems to cope with their vulnerabilities, and strengthen their capacity to face natural and human-made threats. These strategies have to consider the complex interrelation of systems in order to avoid damaging ripple effects, such as when urban development increases the risk of flooding. Strategies like these can highlight the potential of ecologically sensitive urban development that ensures economic and social growth, while also providing opportunities to strengthen natural systems and lower the risk of flooding (Nijhuis et al. 2017). At the same time, such spatial strategies must involve a wide range of social and economic actors, while also supporting the social, economic, and cultural conditions of local people. These strategies should be communicated in persuasive ways in order to gain wide understanding, support, and influence (Albrechts 2010; Healey 2006).

Of course, dedicated spatial strategies should not merely improve the living conditions within urban deltas but also promote adaptive measures to climate change in order to decrease the level of risk. Urban planning and management must display a certain degree of adaptive capacity in order to successfully create more resilient deltas. Strategies must also identify eco-dynamic design options that not only enable the integration of nature alongside urban development processes, but also implement adaptive design principles that ensure low flood risk. Additionally, it is necessary to integrate transformative processes in governance combining spatial planning, design, and disaster management in order to optimise land use, institutions, and mechanisms for an efficient, sustainable, and inclusive urbanisation (Nijhuis et al. 2017).

In this chapter, we outline an integrative and multiscale design and planning approach for the adaptive urban transformation of urbanising deltas, taking the Pearl River Delta (PRD) as a case study. In this approach, landscape-based regional design

' This chapter is based on Nijhuis et al. (2017). Parts of this chapter have been published in adapted form in Nijhuis et al. (2019, Chinese, 2020, English).

1 Introduction: Adaptive Urban Transformation in the Pearl River Delta, ... 5

Fig. 1.1 Fast urbanisation process within the PRD leads to confrontations between incremental long-term urban developments and fast short-term developments. Typical fishing villages and new urban developments in Pazhou, Guangzhou. Photo Guangyuan Xie, TU Delft plays a key role, as well as innovative participation and visualisation techniques. Applications in urban design, planning, and governance in the PRD are also introduced. This chapter is foundational for the research presented in the chapters in this volume.

1.2 Adaptive Urban Transformation

From the 2000s onwards, there have been serious attempts to develop an adaptive systems approach to the planning and designing of urbanising deltas. Examples of such attempts include the Rhine—Meuse—Scheldt (RMS) Delta in the Netherlands (Meyer et al. 2015; Rhee 2012), the Mississippi River Delta in the USA (Wagonner et al. 2014; Campanella 2010), and the Mekong Delta in Vietnam (Marchand et al. 2014; Shannon and De Meulder 2013). The research as presented here suggests a much greater potential benefit in using urban landscape dynamics in territorial governance than more traditional planning strategies (Meyer and Nijhuis 2013, 2014, 2016; Van Veelen et al. 2015) (Fig. 1.2).

The main assumption is that urban dynamics, such as processes of urban transformation, regional development, and renovation cycles of individual buildings and assets, offer significant ‘windows of opportunity’ for incorporating adaptation measures at relatively low costs. For example, when buildings are being adapted as part of the normal development cycle, there are opportunities to include flood safety

Fig. 1.2 Adaptive planning in the south-western delta of the Netherlands. Design explorations for the application of Robust Adaptive Frameworks for the Embankments of the Haringvliet. Source Meyer and Nijhuis (2014)

measures. When larger-scale urban transformation is underway, there is an opportunity to make fundamental adaptations to the urban structure through ecosystem design. On a regional scale, changes in port infrastructure, transformation of agricultural landscapes, or patterns of urbanisation create (or prevent) opportunities for creating adaptive capacity. The windows of opportunity in cycles of urban transformation can be used to develop a resilient socio-ecological urban system over the longer term and in a regional context. It requires an integrative approach towards planning and design of urban landscapes that can be channelled through effective territorial governance. Territorial governance can be understood as a process of spatial strategy making which integrates public policies, programmes, and projects for the development of a place/territory (Schmitt and Van Well 2015; Faludi 2012). It coordinates public and private actors that have responsibility or influence over social and ecological systems over large territories. Territorial governance is particularly concerned with integrating policy sectors such as land, water, environment, and transport so as to achieve social cohesion alongside prosperity and sustainability. Territorial governance offers potential to consider the interrelations of systems and avoid the damaging consequences of non-coordination that undermine the resilience of deltas—that is their capacity to absorb shocks while maintaining essential functions (Nijhuis et al. 2017).

At the same time, it is necessary to improve the living conditions in urban deltas and to adapt to climate change in order to decrease their risk level. Urban planning and

1 Introduction: Adaptive Urban Transformation in the Pearl River Delta, ... 7 management for more resilient deltas necessitate adaptive capacity. That is strategies must identify eco-dynamic design options that could provide opportunities for nature alongside urban development processes and apply adaptive design principles that ensure water safety. In addition, there is also the need to make use of transformative processes in governance that combine spatial planning and disaster management by optimising land use, institutions, and mechanisms for efficient, sustainable, and inclusive urbanisation (Nijhuis et al. 2017). In policy, natural and urban dynamics must set the pace and nature of adaptation that is adaptive urban transformation (AUT).

This volume discussed joint research project with academic and societal partners that addresses AUT and, in particular, adaptive socio-ecological inclusive design strategies and principles that employ natural and urban dynamics to address increasing flood risk and loss of biodiversity in fast urbanising deltas. The research consisted of three interrelated research strands. The first strand focused on understanding dynamics of transformation and principles of adaptation, but also elaborated theoretical backgrounds and identified planning and design strategies and principles for adaptive urban development. The second research strand centred on stakeholder involvement and visualisation and provided methodical and technical input regarding state-of-the-art technology to involve stakeholders and to provide the basis for communication among experts and lay people. The third research strand concentrated on the application of AUT in urban design, planning, and governance in the Pearl River Delta. But before we elaborate on these three research strands, we briefly introduce the Pearl River Delta as a case study (Fig. 1.3).

Fig. 1.3 In the space of forty years, the delta area in the Pearl River has been transformed from a predominantly agricultural landscape into one of the world’s largest metropolitan areas of water. Photo Guangyuan Xie, TU Delft

1.3 Pearl River Delta as a Case Study

For the past four decades, the world’s fastest developing delta has been the Pearl River Delta (PRD) in the province of Guangdong in southern China. The delta area in the Pearl River has been transformed from a predominantly agricultural landscape into one of the world’s largest metropolitan areas, encompassing such megacities as Guangzhou, Dongguan, Shenzhen, Zhuhai, and Hong Kong (Fig. 1.4). Residential and industrial complexes are being built at breakneck speed. Already in 2014, the PRD replaced Tokyo as the largest and most populated urbanised area on the planet (World Bank 2015). Since the 1980s, the PRD has been at the vanguard of China’s groundbreaking spatial planning and socio-economic thinking (Yeh and Li 1999). At the same time, this rapid development is causing such problems as reduced biodiversity and flooding made worse by excessive rainfall and rising sea levels. There are also looming social problems because generic urbanisation alienates people from their environment, offering no space for them to have any significant interaction with nature. In other words, the PRD now faces immense challenges regarding its long-term economic development because of threats posed by climate change and environmental degradation. These challenges include issues such as the disappearance of mangroves (Zhao 2010), the loss of farmland (Hu and He 2003), air and water pollution (Li et al. 2008), water shortages (Wang et al. 2006), and a decrease in social security (Xiong 2016).

On the one hand, the region is exposed to increasing flood risks due to urbanisation in flood-prone areas as well as rising sea levels and extreme typhoons/storms in summer, placing stress on the regions infrastructural systems. On the other hand, the

Fig. 1.4 The Pearl River ; apes, ped Ak Sale Nh Delta in the province of 55 a isl P adi ; a7 Guangdong in southern China is one of the most rapidly urbanising deltas in the world. More than sixty million people now live in the flood-prone lowland (+10 m zone, here indicated in dark blue), thereby increasing the flood risk.

Map Steffen Nijhuis

1 Introduction: Adaptive Urban Transformation in the Pearl River Delta, ... 9 deltaic ecosystem is becoming increasingly fragmented and vulnerable (Gao et al. 2012), resulting in a decline in both ecological services (Ye and Dong 2010) and environmental carrying capacity (Huang 2003). Standardisation of solutions (e.g. infrastructure, buildings) also lead to loss of spatial, cultural, and ecological diversity (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6). For instance, at the local level, large-scale interventions have replaced the historically diverse environmental and cultural heritage of the PRD with more uniform, featureless topographies (Guo and Situ 2010). While local and national authorities are showing increasing awareness of the value of more integrated planning and design approaches, these have not yet been widely introduced (Xiong and Nijhuis 2018). For example, the implementation of the so-called national Sponge City policy—a concept of integrated urban water management—has met with delays in the elaboration of both multiple and separate sectoral plans (Che 2016). In general, sectoral and disciplinary silos cause friction between the much-needed integral solutions and the demand for specialisation of knowledge and governance. To overcome these knowledge and institutional barriers, the development multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary ways of working is a necessity (Epstein 2021). The alignment of regional ambitions and local projects is also needed to prevent fragmented solutions and spatial conflict, as well as the friction between long-term objectives and short-term needs needs to be resolved (Krznaric 2020).

In order to guide the PRD towards a more sustainable future, there is an urgent need for new ways of planning and design in the practice of its urban development. The application of the emerging concept and practice of landscape-based regional design offers a way of resolving the conflicts and threats that arise between economic development and environmental recovery, as well as reducing the negative repercussions of climate change. Landscape-based regional design is also an inter- and transdisciplinary approach that combines long-term perspectives with short-term actions and works throughout the scales. The high speed at which the PRD has developed makes it a particularly valuable case study to explore and test the potential of more adaptive integrated planning approaches, such as landscape-based regional design and the

Fig. 1.5 Mai Po Nature Reserve and the surrounding area—consisting of Gei wai, freshwater ponds, inter-tidal mudflats, mangroves, and reed beds—are recognised as a Wetland of International Importance under the prestigious Ramsar Convention. Photo Eckart Lange

Fig. 1.6 The region has a unique cultural history that reflects a strong connection to the landscape. Photo Steffen Nijhuis chief urban designer system. In that regard, the PRD can serve as a practical learning case for other urbanising deltas across the globe.

1.4 AUT Through Landscape-Based Regional Design in the PRD (Research Strand 1)

AUT employed landscape-based regional design as an integrative and multiscale design and planning approach (Nijhuis 2022). Landscape-based regional design relates to a form of territorial governance that takes the natural and urban landscape as the basis to steer urban-rural transformative processes through a combination of sector activities towards more coordinated sustainable outcomes. In that regard, landscape-based regional design is considered an important strategy that shapes the physical form of regions using landscape as the basic condition to generate sustainable urbanised deltas (Nijhuis 2022). In AUT, we employed spatial planning and design to open up pathways to long-term sustainable urban landscape development and at the same time set conditions for short-term interventions. In that regard, regional design is an inter- and transdisciplinary effort that not only safeguards sustainable and coherent development, but also guides and shapes changes that are brought about by socio-economic and environmental processes, while establishing local identity in a region through tangible relationships (Nijhuis 2022). Regional design offers a mode for urban transformation, preservation of biodiversity, management of water resources, leisure, community building, cultural identity, and economic

1 Introduction: Adaptive Urban Transformation in the Pearl River Delta, ... 11 development (Neumann 2000). Such a strategy needs to be persuasive and to influence the actions of others and public opinion as the final aim is to implement ideas via projects.

Therefore, landscape-based regional design also means striking a new balance in the relation between experts, citizens, governments, and other stakeholders and seeks for their active involvement. The idea is that the participation of all relevant stakeholders in strategic planning, design, and decision-making will enhance the resilience and adaptability, and the resilience and adaptive capacity of urban landscapes will be increased, not only in physical terms but certainly also in socioeconomic terms (Ahern 2011). Resilience is defined as a system’s ability to react to change or disruption without any alteration to the primary condition (Walker and Salt 2006). Adaptability is the degree to which certain practices, processes, or structures can be modified to suit changing social, economic, or ecological circumstances (Folke 2016). Modifications can be spontaneous or pre-planned, carried out in response to, or in anticipation of such changes (Folke 2016). This implies a shared understanding of how the landscape system works on the part of all participants. It also requires a forward-looking, proactive approach in which the interaction between all stakeholders is pivotal. Communication is a central issue, and it is crucial to develop and utilise innovative visualisation methods and tools that permit involvement of local stakeholders and decision-makers (Gill and Lange 2015; Lange and Hehl-lange 2010).

Landscape-based regional design is thus also a design process that entails four key phases: (1) diagnosis, (2) strategy making, (3) design explorations, and (4) action perspective. This process is supported by a combination of research and design, meaningful stakeholder involvement, and imagination (Nijhuis 2022) (Fig. 1.7). These phases as well as their application in de PRD are elaborated in Chap. 5 of this volume. Furthermore, more details on territorial governance can be found in Chaps. 2 and 4 of this volume, on spatial dynamics in Chaps. 3 and 11, and Chaps. 6, 7, 12, and 14 for design explorations in the PRD.

Fig. 1.7 Research through design to explore possible and desirable spatial developments for a future-proof delta. Photo Steffen Nijhuis

1.5 AUT Through Stakeholder Involvement and Visualisation in the PRD (Research Strand 2)

Visualisation for communication of planning and design contents is key to integration of stakeholders on multiple scales in planning and design processes. It allows to represent and communicate past, existing, and proposed natural and urban environments. Globally rather unique in this domain, in China, there are altogether over 1000 Urban Planning Exhibition Halls (UPEHs). These are large, dedicated facilities equipped with sophisticated technology and providing opportunities for the wider public to be informed about planning and design (Lu et al. 2020). Typically, in planning and design practice, and also in UPEHs, analogue and digital visualisations are used as an endpoint to communicate the results of a process, rather than as an integrated tool in planning and design. In contrast to this, we aim for visualisation and modelling to be used in a more interactive and iterative way thus offering the potential to facilitate dialogue between experts and the wider public in order to develop solutions to problems in planning and design.

The research centred on developing new techniques and approaches to better inform decision-makers and stakeholders in participatory processes on the potential of integrated adaptation measures and potential of adaptation planning. The focus was on stakeholder involvement and visualisation enabling a multiscale systemic understanding of urban landscape dynamics and transformations through ex-post evaluation of existing urban planning strategies and projects and ex-ante evaluation of scenarios of potential adaptation strategies. Visualisations as stimuli are integrated into the feedback mechanisms either through a paper-based format and/or via digital means. In this context, 3D visualisations are developed for off-site use as well as for on-site use for stakeholder involvement. The visualisation approaches build on recently developed innovations and state-of-the-art immersive visualisations, e.g. for display in a virtual reality laboratory or for devices such as the Oculus Rift as well as innovative onsite visualisations for use on mobile devices (Tomkins and Lange 2020). Mixed qualitative semi-structured interview approaches are employed as well as quantitative methods (e.g. semantic differential, contingent valuation) investigating the views of planning and design experts and lay persons as well as considering off-site (laboratory based) versus on-site (mobile devices) feedback and assessment.

As part of our research, we implemented immersive virtual reality (VR) representations using head mounted displays for testing stakeholder behaviour and perception of different scenarios for large-scale urban developments (Lut al. 2021) (Fig. 1.8). We developed a novel augmented reality (AR) interface that allows enriching GIS maps with overlays of design alternatives while running a dynamic multi-criteria analysis (Fig. 1.9). Bridging the classic analogue—digital divide in representation, we visually enrich physical models with mobile tablet-based AR by implementing 3D model recognition and tracking with superimposed designs of blue and green infrastructure as well as providing opportunities for object occlusion allowing, for example, a virtual replacement of existing buildings with alternative designs (Fig. 1.10). Using