Heroic Poets, Poetic Heroes

Front matter

HEROIC POETS.

POETIC HEROES

THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF PERFORMANCE IN AN -ARABIE ORAL EPTC ERADITION

Part Two: Textual and Performance Strategies in the Sahra

4. The Interplay of Genres 5. The Sahra as Social Interaction Conclusion: Epic Text and Context

Appendix: Texts in Transliteration Works Cited Index

139 177 207

227 239 vii

F

Illustrations

IGURES Evidence from the oral tradition (map of Middle East) . Poet families of al-Bakātūsh

. Residence patterns in al-Bakatüsh

. Performance collusions

I. 2 3 4. Bifurcation of the epic hero 5 6.

. Thematic movement in Hitat Baladi performance

PHOTOGRAPHS

I. Shaykh Biyalī Abū Fahmi

2 3 4

. Shaykh ‘Abd al-Wahhab Ghazi . Shaykh Taha Abū Zayd . Shaykh ‘Abd al-Hamid Tawfiq

2-3 $$ 58 84 86

129 131 132 134

Foreword by Gregory Nagy

Heroic Poets, Poetic Heroes: The Ethnography of Performance in an Arabic Oral Epic Tradition, by Dwight Fletcher Reynolds, introduces an important new perspective into the Myth and Poetics series. An intensive study of heroic poetry (the Strat Bani Hilal epic) in al-Bakātūsh, the Nile Delta “village of the poets,” this book concretely illustrates the centrality of performance in the very process of composition or recomposition in oral traditions. Or, to put it in Saussure’s terms, we see how the element of parole is key to understanding the langue of the poetic process. Reynolds’s emphasis on the performative dimension of oral poetics gives the reader a chance to observe how an oral tradition works in its own social framework. The author explains the tradition itself, not just a given text sample of the tradition.

Another highlight of the book is its emphasis on a poetic mentality that assumes a dialogue linking poet and audience with the characters in the story being told. Such a mentality has been investigated in the case of Homeric poetry by classicists such as Joseph Russo and Bennett Simon, but here we see, for the very first time, a detailed demonstration on the basis of a living tradition, and the result is a quantum leap in our understanding of oral epic. Reynolds isolates those tenuous moments of performance when poets and audience members alike expect to find reflections, or interactions, between their reality and the reality of the epic heroes. The poetic tradition of Sirat Bani Hilal struggles to reconcile and even unite the worlds of poets and heroes, men of words and men of deeds. The heroes may be long dead, but they become ever-present each time the epic performance gets under way.

This book brings another new perspective to the Myth and Poetics xi xii Foreword series. Unlike most ethnographers of today, Reynolds has taken with him into his fieldwork the questions classicists and other literary critics ask about the very nature of epic as genre. His research in a living oral epic tradition corroborates, and has in fact been strongly influenced by, Richard Martin’s work on speech acts in Homer, The Language of Heroes (1989), the very first book in this series.

Heroic Poets, Poetic Heroes addresses the performative realities of a living epic tradition. It accounts for the economic forces that shape the dynamics of performance, the individual poet’s personal ambition to be popular, and the artistic choices necessitated by the immediacy of interaction with the audience. It demonstrates that epic can represent very different things to audiences of different social and educational backgrounds. Refuting the stereotypical image of a static “folk” poem, supposedly immutable from time immemorial, Reynolds’s book reveals an epic tradition open to constant reshaping and reinterpretation, even within its conservative rural setting. In its performative context, epic is revealed as an ongoing interaction of poet, audience, and the heroes that it glorifies.

Preface

Sirat Bani Hilal, the epic history of the Bani Hilal Bedouin tribe, is an astonishingly rich and varied oral tradition. Its roots lie in historic events that took place between the tenth and twelfth centuries C.E. in the Arabian peninsula and North Africa. The exploits and fatal weaknesses of the heroes of the Bani Hilal tribe have been recounted in Arabic oral tradition for nearly a thousand years, and traces of the tradition are found throughout the Arab world from the Atlantic coast of North Africa to the shores of the Indian Ocean. In different regions and over different historical periods the epic has been performed as a complex tale cycle narrated entirely in prose, as a prose narrative embellished with lengthy poems, as a narrative recited in rhymed verse, and as narrative sung in rhymed verse to the accompaniment of various musical instruments. In some areas, several styles of performance coexist and may be patronized by different social groups. In many regions, verses from the sira also circulate widely as proverbs and riddles. The main characters of the story have become folk archetypes of the courageous warrior, the cunning schemer, the irresistibly beautiful maiden, and the stranger-in-a-strange-land; as such they are often utilized by modern Arab writers and poets as deeply resonant social symbols.

This work treats the Strat Bani Hilal tradition as it is found in a single village in northern Egypt, a village known throughout the Nile Delta as the “village of the poets,” owing to the large community of hereditary epic-singers resident there. These fourteen households of professional poets all perform in the same basic style: to the accompaniment of the Egyptian two-stringed spike-fiddle, the rabab, they sing the immense tale of the Bani Hilal heroes in measured, rhymed verse with only xin xiv Preface occasional intervening prose passages to set the scene or gloss the main action. The most accomplished poets in the village may take well over one hundred hours to sing the entire story. As we shall see, however, there is no such thing as a complete rendition, for there exists a virtually unlimited body of subtales, historical background, and possible descriptive expansions, passed down from master poet to apprentice. These tools and techniques of the trade are many; thus some but never all are deployed in a given performance.

The focus of this book is the intense tripartite relationship that obtains between the poets, their listeners, and the heroes of the Bani Hilal narrative. In examining the tradition from several different angles, I demonstrate that poets, heroes, and audience members perceive one another, interact with one another, and even rely on one another as social allies (or adversaries) in fascinating and highly significant ways, all of which contribute to the continual re-creation and propagation of the epic tradition. Furthermore, this process is not necessarily restricted to moments that we outsiders would recognize as moments of epic performance, but rather is one that takes place both inside and outside of the epic “text.” Though it might at first seem surprising to consider the epic heroes as active participants in this exchange, they are deployed both by poets when singing and by audience members in the ensuing discussions, so that their characters as conceived and constructed by participants invariably leave their mark on the personal relationships and social tensions that are played out during epic performances. Major issues, including ethnic identification, Arabness, religious orientation, traditional codes of behavior, manhood, womanhood, and the hierarchization of social power, are woven into the texture of any modern performance of Strat Bani Hilāl. The tradition of performing the epic poem in this region is to a great extent kept alive by its role as catalyst for such significant social concerns. While outside researchers approach the epic seeking tradition and cultural continuity, the actual participants in the epic tradition are often present for entirely different reasons.

This book thus offers an ethnographic portrait of a tradition that is definable by its central text, the oral folk epic of the Bani Hilal, but that is by no means restricted to the boundaries of that text. The Introduction provides a brief historical and geographical survey of the Bani Hilal epic. Part 1, “The Ethnography of a Poetic Tradition,” presents a general ethnographic portrait of the village, followed by a detailed examination of the epic poets’ community and their relationship to the larger society in which they live. The implications of this relationship are traced through various traditional contexts for epic singing, the story of the epic itself, and the recurring structures of social interaction observed in epic performances. In Part 2, “Textual and Performance Strategies in the Sahra,”

Preface XV

I examine the epic as a context for social interaction and criticism through the analysis of performance texts from a single milieu, the sahra, or private evening gathering. The (living) epic poets and (fictional) epic heroes are seen as figures engaged in an ongoing dialogue with audience members concerning honor, social status, and manhood, represented not only through the narrative of the epic but also in the parallel “ways of speaking” deployed by both poets and heroes.

Three topics that have come to play central roles in contemporary oral epic research are only briefly touched upon in this volume: (1) the process of transmission and composition, that is, the issues of “oralformulaic composition” and “composition in performance” such as delineated in the work of Milman Parry and Albert Lord; (2) the musical dimensions of the epic performance; and (3) detailed analysis of the poems as literary texts divorced from specific performance events. I have set these issues aside for the moment, to be taken up, I hope, in a companion volume in the near future. The present work, which struggles to bring into sharp focus the types of contextual and interactive processes that shape epic performances, and thus epic texts, has seemed to me a necessary foundation for any satisfactory understanding of renditions of the Bani Hilal epic from northern Egypt. Whatever its faults, I hope it will be of use to many.

I wish to express my thanks first and foremost to the poets and other residents of the village of al-Bakātūsh who so graciously allowed me to live among them as guest and friend, and who so patiently endured my questions and unbounded curiosity. I sincerely hope they will see this and other works resulting from this project as fitting tributes to the poetic tradition of which they have been patrons and performers for so many years and to their own hospitality. I am grateful to all the poets of al-Bakatush and their families, but in particular to the late Shaykhs Taha Abu Zayd and ‘Abd al-Wahhab Ghazi, and also to Shaykhs Biyali Abu Fahmi and «Abd al-Hamīd Tawfiq. Special thanks to my research assistants ‘Abd al-Qadir Subh and Hamdi Jalama, and to my close companions who made certain that I always felt welcome in al-Bakātūsh, among them Tulba ‘Abd al-Latif al-Disūgī, Māhir Muhammad Sulayman, Ibrahim al-Khatīb, Ahmad ‘Abd al-Hamid abū l-Awn, Hamdī ‘Abd al-Sattar, and al-Shāfiī «Abd Allāh. My most deeply felt appreciation, however, goes to Sa‘id ‘Abd al-Qadir Haydar and his family, who acted as my family away from home during my sojourns in al-Bakātūsh and without whose support this project could not have been completed.

Many thanks to Dell Hymes, Roger Allen, and Dan Ben-Amos, for their comments, instruction, support, and guidance.

I also thank those who have assisted me in this research at various xvi Preface points in its development with their suggestions, criticisms, and discussions: Abderrahman Ayoub [‘Abd al-Rahman Ayyub], ‘Abd al-Rahman al- Abnūdī, Pierre Cachia, Giovanni Canova, Micheline Galley, ‘Abd al- Hamid Haw was, Scott Marcus, H. T. Norris, Susan Slyomovics, Abbas El-Tonsi (Abbas al-Tünisi], and Muhammad *Umran; George Makdisi and Margaret Mills at the University of Pennsylvania; Joseph Harris, Gregory Nagy, and Jeffrey Wills at Harvard University; and Juliet Fleming, Robin Fleming, Joseph Koerner, Leslie Kurke, and Seth Schwartz at the Harvard Society of Fellows (1986-90). I am grateful also to the late Albert Lord, whose work inspired much of my own enthusiasm for studying oral epic traditions.

If I have received professional guidance from many sources, my prime source of inspiration and enthusiasm has been the members of R.R.A.L.L. (Radical Reassessments of Arabic Language and Literature): Kristen Brustad, Michael Cooperson, Jamal Elias, Nuha Khoury, Joseph Lowry, Nasser Rabbat, Devin Stewart, and Shawkat Toorawa. Their energy and excitement have always been contagious, and the level of creative thinking and intellectual inquiry I have encountered in the many meetings and conferences of this research group remains unmatched by those of any other organization I have known—many thanks.

Funding was provided by the Center for Arabic Studies Abroad I and II (1980-81, 1982-83) and a Fulbright-Hays research grant (1986—87). My appointment to the Harvard Society of Fellows (1986—90) provided the extended period of time necessary to inventory, catalog, and analyze many, many hours of field recordings, which greatly contributed to the quality of the final product. Portions of the section on mawwal have appeared in the essay “The Interplay of Genres: Differentially Marked Discourse in a Northern Egyptian Tradition,” in The Ballad and Oral Literature, edited by Joseph Harris (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991), reprinted here with permission. The section “Construction of Commercial Images” in Chapter 2 is based on an article published in Pacific Review of Ethnomusicology (1989), used with permission of University of California Press. A portion of the Introduction appeared in an article in the journal Oral Tradition (1989).

Copies of the tapes cited in this study are on deposit at the Center for the Folk Arts (Markaz al-funūn al-sha‘biyya), 18 al-Bursa al-Qadima Street, Tawfīgiyya, Cairo, Egypt, and in the Milman Parry Collections of Oral Literature, Widener Library C, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138.

DWIGHT FLETCHER REYNOLDS Santa Barbara, California

Notes on Transcription and Transliteration

I have used two transliteration systems to represent standard Arabic (SA) and colloquial Egyptian Arabic (EA):

1. Written sources in standard literary Arabic are cited according to the International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES) transliteration system with the additional underlining of bigraphic symbols that reflect a single phoneme (kh, rather than kh as in IJMES, for example, so that the latter is not left undifferentiated from the sequential occurrence of k and h). Standard Arabic forms of some colloquial lexical items have been adopted in the English passages of the text with minimal diacritic markings (thus, throughout the English text, Bani Hilal, Shaykh, and Abū Zayd rather than Beni Hilal, shaykh, Abū Zéd or Zeyd, etc.). In addition, a number of the most commonly recurring place-names such as al-Bakātūsh and Kafr al-Shaykh are left without diacritics in the English text. Transliterations have not been used for proper names and terms that have accepted English forms such as Mecca, Islam, and Sufi.

2. In transliterating colloquial Egyptian dialect, I have adopted the basics of the IJMES transcription system with the addition of several vowels to accommodate Egyptian colloquial Arabic forms:

a a [ay] à = alif maqsüra in SA transliteration i ī

e € [ey]

o O

u ū [aw]

In addition, certain modifications have been adopted for transliterating Egyptian colloquial Arabic consonants in order to preserve key features that mark code-shifting between colloquial Arabic, “elevated” colloquial, and standard Arabic, a process common in Strat Bani Hilal perforxvii xvii ^ Notes on Transcription and Transliteration mances. This modified system represents an attempt to provide a broadly phonemic transcription of colloquial texts in a manner that reflects both the occurrence of significant phonological shifts and the commonly understood cognate standard Arabic forms.

p. L t = b s z[IH] - t € [4 ^ sih] t gh c yg pee ^p c h 8 O/da/g* t kh eo) ie > d J | > z[dh]' t m > T o n > Z e h v s 2 W 6 sh s v $ 5 a/at? w d -JI al-?

— -I "helping vowel" (epenthetic)

For Arab scholars who have published in languages other than Arabic, I have, for the most part, both cited their chosen spelling in European languages and provided a transliteration of the original Arabic form.

I. The bracketed standard Arabic allophones are transcribed as such where they occur in the texts.

2. -at form in construct state.

3. The definite article has been transcribed in the body of the text (al-) as per IJMES, without assimilation, except in direct quotations from actual performances: thus al-shams rather than ish-shams in the body of the text, but al-, il-, el-, and ul- with assimilation where it occurs, in quotations from performances.

4. The local dialect of al-Bakatüsh, and Strat Bani Hilal texts in general in this region, makes use of j/g alternation for the phoneme [ C ] as well as three forms of the phoneme [G]: /q/, /glottal stop/, and /g/, which have been rendered as follows:

O = /q/, voiceless uvular stop, as in standard Arabic al-Qahira ‘Cairo’

g = /^/, glottal stop, as in the Cairene pronunciation of ?dl lī ‘he said to me’

q = /g/, voiced velar stop, as in Upper Egyptian dialect galli ‘he said to me’

Since the latter form is by far the most common in texts from this region, this system has the advantage of leaving most occurrences of the phoneme unmarked, while distinguishing only the less common, variant allophones. N.B. In these transcriptions, q and g represent the same spoken sound, though they reflect two distinct Standard Arabic phonemes.

In addition, numerous forms occur in Sirat Bani Hilal performances from the region of al- Bakātūsh which appear to reflect case endings similar to those of standard written Arabic; these have been superscripted: ruht-I bilad"" tirkab il-afyal ‘I have gone to countries where elephants are ridden’.

HEROIC POETS, POETIC HEROES

Introduction

Then he remembers how he used to like to go out of the house at sunset when people were having their evening meal, and used to lean against the maize fence pondering deep in thought, until he was recalled to his surroundings by the voice of a poet who was sitting at some distance to his left, with his audience round him. Then the poet would begin to recite in a wonderfully sweet tone the doings of Abu Zayd, Khalifa and Diyab, and his hearers would remain silent except when ecstasy enlivened them or desire startled them. Then they would demand a repetition and argue and dispute. And so the poet would be silent until they ceased their clamour after a period which might be short or long. Then he would continue his sweet recitation in a monotone.

Taha Husayn, al-Ayyam

This poetic tradition which Egypt’s preeminent literary scholar, Taha Husayn, recalls at the outset of his autobiography is one familiar throughout most of the Arab world—the sira, or epic history, of the Bani Hilal tribe, which chronicles the tribe’s massive migration out of their homeland in the Arabian peninsula, their passage through Egypt, their subsequent conquest of North Africa, and their final defeat one hundred years later. The migration, the conquest, and the defeat are historical events that occurred between the tenth and twelfth centuries C.E. From this skein of actual events, Arabic oral tradition has woven a rich and complex narrative centered on a cluster of heroic characters. Time and again Bedouin warriors and heroines are pitted against the kings and princes of towns and cities. The individual destinies of the main actors are constantly placed in a fragile balance with the fate of the tribe itself as they seek pasturage, safe passage, and a new homeland. With the conquest of North Africa, the Bani Hilal nomads themselves become rulers of cities, a situation that leads to the internal fragmentation of the tribe, internecine wars, and the tribe’s eventual demise.

Across the breadth of the Arab world, narratives about the Bani Hilal tribe have been set down in written form from the oral tradition since the fourteenth century: from Morocco, on the shores of the Atlantic, to the sultanate of Oman, on the shores of the Indian Ocean, from the Mediterranean in the north, and as far south into Africa as Nigeria, Chad, and the Sudan (see fig. 1).

Strat Bani Hilal is the single most widespread and best-documented narrative tradition of Arabic oral literature. Far more is known about the historical development, the geographical distribution, and the living oral tradition of Strat Bani Hilal than the stories that to most Western readers exemplify the Arabic folk tale, the Thousand and One Nights. The latter owes its fame and survival not to its position in the Arab world, but to the enormous amount of attention it received in eighteenth-

Figure 1. Evidence from the oral tradition

Algeria: M. L. Guin (1884); L. Féraud (1868); V. Largeau (1879); A. Vaissiére (1892); A. Bel (1902-03); R. Lartigue (1904); J. Desparmet (1939); Claude H. Breteau and Galley (1973).

Cairo: Edward Lane (1895); Bridget Connelly (1986).

Chad: H. Carbou (1913).

Jordan: Abderrahman Ayoub (1990).

Libya: Abderrahman Ayoub (1979); L. Féraud (1868); H. Stumme (1894); Martin Hartmann (1898).

Mali/Niger: H. T. Norris (1975).

Morocco: M. Ben Rahhal (1889); V. Loubignac (1924-25).

Nigeria: J. R. Patterson (1930).

Northeast Arabia/Kuwait: Bruce Ingham (1982).

Northern Egypt: S. Slyomovics (19872); D. Reynolds (1989c; 1989d).

Oman: T. M. Johnstone (1980).

Palestine: C. Conder (1883); J. Rosenhouse (1984).

Saudi Arabia: A. Lerrick (1984).

Southern Egypt: Abderrahman al-Abnoudy (1978, 1988); Taha Husayn (1926—27; Rpt. 1973); R. Critchfield (1978); Giovanni Canova (1977, 1980, 1983); Susan Slyomovics (1986; 1987b).

Sudan: Sayyid Hurreiz (1977); H. MacMichael (1912, 1922).

Syria: G. Canova (1990).

Tunisia: Ibn Khaldün (14th c.—F. Rosenthal, 1958); A. Guiga (1968); Anita Baker (1978); Abderrahman Ayoub and Micheline Galley (1977); Cl. Breteau, M. Galley, and A. Roth (1978); P. Provotelle (1911).

Yemen: G. Canova (1985); R. J. Serjeant (1951).

3reAny/erqexy 3s?9u) ON]

and nineteenth-century Europe.' Though Sirat Bani Hilal is now seldom heard in the urban centers of the Arab world, in rural areas it continues to be performed in prose, in poetry, and in song. The most famous versions are those sung in Egypt by epic singers who perform their versified narrative for nights at a time while accompanying themselves on the rabab ‘spike-fiddle’, tar ‘large frame-drum', or kamanja ‘Western violin'.

The folk sira tradition is familiar to most scholars of Arabic literature, but it has, for the most part, escaped the notice of epic scholars, folklorists, and anthropologists in the West, due primarily to the dearth of translations into European languages, and, in particular, into English. Since the 1970s, however, Sirat Bani Hilal has sparked new academic interest and even a few translations.

The Question of Genre

Epic as a literary genre has acquired strong associations with high culture, civilization, and nationalism. These cultural and political associa-

I. The collection of tales known in the West as the Thousand and One Nights or the Arabian Nights bears only a tenuous relation to its Arabic original, which may in fact never have been in oral tradition. The title and famous frame-tale were translated into Arabic, probably as early as the ninth century C.E., from a Middle Persian work that has not come down to us. The multiply-framed stories, which have made the collection famous, are nowhere found in Arabic oral folk tradition and appear to bea device developed solely by redactors and anthologizers within the written tradition.

Antoine Galland, who completed the first "translation" of the Arabic Alf layla wa-layla, freehandedly expurgated, retold, and rearranged the tales of his Arabic sources. To these original tales his editor added tales from other sources, and Galland himself filled out nearly one-third of the collection with stories he heard at dinner parties in Paris from a visiting Aleppan Maronite. Later translators padded even this debased collection with ethnographic detail (Edward W. Lane) and Victorian erotica (Richard Burton), or completely falsified insertions (Mardrus). The hundreds of versions and editions of the Nights published in Europe remain a monument to the West's fantasies about the Middle East rather than examples of Arabic folk literature.

The extreme popularity of the work in Europe eventually motivated Arabic editions, which appeared in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Previous to these reintroduced editions, the popularity of the Nights in the Middle East had been limited. Each of the major European translators (Galland, Lane, Burton, Payne, and others) complained of the extreme difficulty of obtaining the few extant manuscripts of the Nights, but then triumphantly presented the work to Western readers as a recognized classic of Arabic literature (quite the opposite of its actual status in the Arab world).

For a general if somewhat dated introduction, see E. Littman, "Alf laylah wa-laylah,” in Encyclopedia of Islam, 2d ed. (Hereafter the Encyclopedia of Islam is referred to as EI, with ET or Ef indicating edition.) Duncan B. MacDonald, “A Bibliographical and Literary Study of the First Appearance of the Arabian Nights in Europe" (1932), provides a detailed account of the compilation of the early European editions. The most important recent academic work on the Nights has been Muhsin Mahdi's edition of a fourteenth-century manuscript, Kitab alf tions have to a great extent muddied the waters in defining the genre (or genres) of European epic poetry and in promoting or discouraging comparisons to similar but distinct genres from other cultures. Quite simply, epic is a literary genre with high status; scholars and researchers of different cultures have had good reason, and clear political agendas, for claiming the existence of an indigenous “national” epic. These high literary overtones, however, often hinder the exploration of actual similarities and divergences.”

Strat Bani Hilal has been referred to by Western scholars as epic, saga, romance, tale cycle, legend, and geste.’ A great deal of the confusion stems from the wide variation in modes of performance across the Arab world, but the gist of the problem arises from the fact that sira is an indigenous Arabic genre with no exact parallel in European literatures. A sira is literally a traveling, a journeying, or a path—the nominal form of the verb sara ‘to travel, to journey, to move (on)’. It is used to designate a history, a biography, or even a mode of behavior or conduct. The term was first applied within Arabic written literature to the biography of the Prophet Muhammad, Sīrat rasūl allah, specifically that by Ibn Ishaq (d. 768 c.E.) in the recension of Ibn Hisham (d. 833 c.E.).* Though in the early centuries the term sira had been used with several different meanings, the literary genre of sira later grew to be more and more closely associated with the idea of biography.

The evolution of the folk genre of sira (the oral folk epics) is cloudy at best, but it did not parallel the development of the literary genre of the same name. The earliest surviving extracts of the folk siyar (pl. of sira) date from the late medieval period, though references to them are found as early as the twelfth century. They most probably have roots in a still earlier oral tradition. These lengthy narratives, told in alternating sequences of prose and poetry, appeared in manuscripts over many laylah wa-laylah min usūlihi al-*arabiyyah al-ūlā (The book of the thousand nights and a night from its earliest Arabic sources) (1984), an English translation of which is available as The Arabian Nights, trans. Husain Haddawy (1990).

2. These issues are explored in Gilbert M. Cuthbertson, Political Myth and Epic (1975); see also Felix Oinas, ed., Heroic Epic and Saga (1978), and Arthur T. Hatto, ed., Traditions of Heroic and Epic Poetry (1980), among others.

3. See, for example, Susan Slyomovics, The Merchant of Art: An Egyptian Hilali Oral Epic Poet in Performance (1987); Cathryn Anita Baker, "The Hilali Saga in the Tunisian South," (1978); Edward Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, chaps. 21-23 (1895); J. R. Patterson, trans., Stories of Abu Zeid the Hilali in Shuwa Arabic (1930); Abderrahman al-Abnoudy, La geste hilalienne (1978).

4. G. Levi Della Vida, “Sira,” ET. ‘Abd al-Malik, Ibn Hisham, The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishāg's “Sirat Rasūl Allāh” (1955). For an intriguing analysis of parallels between the life story of the Prophet Muhammad in relation to the revelation of the Quran, and the life story of an Egyptian epic-singer in relation to the acquisition of the ability to sing epic poetry, see Slyomovics, Merchant, 11-13.

centuries, until the nineteenth century. With the arrival of printing, they reappeared in a new form as cheaply printed chapbooks, which are found throughout the Arab world in prodigious numbers. The relationship between the oral and written traditions of the folk siyar is complex: some of the siyar developed entirely within the oral tradition and were only at a very late date committed to writing, but there is also good reason to suspect that a few of them were literary creations by later authors imitating the oral folk genre for consumption by a popular readership. The siyar for which we have manuscript and/or chapbook texts all share key stylistic features, and, at least in their written form, clearly make up a cohesive and identifiable genre: Sīrat «Antar ibn Shaddad? (the sira of the pre-Islamic black poet-knight, ‘Antara son of Shaddad); Sīrat al-Zāhir Baybars? (the sīra of the thirteenth-century Egyptian ruler and folk hero, al-Zahir Baybars); Sīrat al-amīr Hamza al-Bahlawan’ (the sira of Hamza, uncle of the Prophet Muhammad); Sirat Dhat al-Himma* (the sira of the heroine Dhat al-Himma and her wars against the Byzantines); Strat al-malik Sayf il ibn Dhi Yazan’ (the sira of the Himyarite king, Sayf ibn dhi dhi Yazan, and his wars against the Abyssinians); Sirat al-Zir Sālim'” (the sira of the Bedouin warrior al-Zir Salim); and of course, Sirat Bani Hilal. All except for Sirat Bani Hilal have now disappeared

$. See Cedric Dover, “The Black Knight" (1954); Peter Heath, “A Critical Review of Modern Scholarship on Sirat *Antar ibn Shaddad and the Popular Sira" (1984); Martin Hartmann, "The Romance of Antar,” El'; B. Heller, “The Romance of Antar,” EF; also idem, Die Bedeutung des arabischen ? Antarromans für die vergleichende Litteraturkunde (193 1). For texts in translation see Terrick Hamilton, Antar: A Bedoueen Romance (1819); H. T. Norris, The Adventures of Antar (1980); L. Marcel Devic, Les aventures d' Antar, fils de Cheddad (1878); Gustave Rouger, Le roman d' Antar (1923); Diana Richmond, ?Antar and? Abla, a Bedouin Romance (1978).