Archaeology and History of Toraijin

Front matter

Archaeology and History

S of I TORAIJIN

Human, technological, and cultural flow from the Korean Peninsula to the Japanese Archipelago c. 800 BC-AD 600

Contents

TGS a FUSS AML TES: a c5nztcaceovovtysedaen wadspetvens A EARE OE NA v ListiOl MAS csctssscsrndndawideanidninduainudeinnmaamaaenmamnanuadunnmaundauaiaial vii Ss ge I Ral fo) Ch eet E E pene Pee PER T E E E T E E EE E viii IAE A A A Rani iin E A EEE A A ies ix 1e e E E A T E E T A nian A R xi NETO AEH OM ccs, erica E I E anni O A ana Race EN OT EA AE Í

I. IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT: TORAIJIN IRON ATA E S D os Sevan es tac ge A E RAA ARR AAAA II. WHO WERE THE TORAIJIN, WHERE DID THEY COME FROM, AND WHAT DID THEY CONTRIBSWTE TO THEARCHIPELAG OT rT RARA 5 IV. PUSH-PULL DYNAMICS IN MIGRATION V. PRIMARY OBJECTIVES OF THIS BOOK: THE SEVEN QUESTIONS VI. RESEARCH DATA: Archaeological and Historical unesie a aR Archaeological Data E orae ME e Te e e E E A E N A A A ES A ETET

CHAPTER ONE: RICE-BEARING TORATIN rurar ERTA E I O 12

I. THEIR HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL BACKGROUND: SONGGUK-NI TYPE CULTURE OF THE PENINSULA’S MIDDLE MUMUN SOCIETY (c. 900-400 BC) 1. Pottery of the Songguk-ni-Type 2 Seteme tssesnin iann a 5) Aeril ineusrannaanan 4. Lithic Implements A adusmialgnd Farming Tooli 5, cs. pevasteastsicayessia eiisenseiia eos ad natives EA B. Ritual Weapons cavcaicuncunninsciens 5. Bronze Daggers and Bronze Industry G Spinnin ile der: baba el ete) a | eve] te ong porono rete nanan verte N 7 Symbols Gr Presse arid Political POWE cide vsaszedredeorar anew nanan ENTRET 3 Middle Manual Mortuary Pra TICOS ariar ar nr r EE r AE anwar: A; Megalithic Burial Structures (Dolmens ) ceoccscsaiscsicsissaveizessaverecvies orne iene B. Stone CISE OTAVE Soir raer A A A R AE C N E a AA Or Emering Soe aC OEN raina aa NTE NEERU H, RICE-REARING TORAUIN APPEA RAIN THE ARCHIPELAGO si55.scvateesaozensso r i 32 t New People Fom the Conritient 4a aana aE RT ONAA ARR 32

A. Dolmens (Megalithic Burial SCR es) anaiona 38

De Sana Ia a aaa 39

4, Initial Toraijin Contributions to the Archipelago... essen een re E l

Be PQUCEy Zoraki EEE E E EEA PEE EEEE E 42

D Spine Weaving Technology ccssassaninimkanvan ia 45

AE EC e Kas e e E T N T A T E en ceeeaas 45

CHAPTER TWO: BRONZE-BEARING TORAIJIN OF THE MIDDLE YAYOI (c. 350 BC-AD BO) EEA, 51 I. THEIR HISTORICAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL BACKGROUND: PENINSULA’S LATE MUMUN

1. The Slender Bronze Dagger Culture of Early Mahan... E A Si

2. Iron Implements and Iron Tool Production... ee NIAE ES E P EE 57 3. Late Mumun Pottery sessiz E E E e Te rar eee 208 4, Late Mumun Mortuary Practices .. FEO RCT TTT ete RCE TET ere 58

B Southwest Carly Mahan te S50 BC AD IO) ecreniinien no 58

ed a E A E E E EE E E E E 60

6: Push-Pull Dynamics during the Late Mumun Period sonisisomanmoisonisoniaroiniasiis 61

I-A NEW GROUP OF TORATJIN COMES TO THE KYUSHU ISLAND sisi ssesssassossssveaestsaseinssesianstsensteoansazes 62

2. New Toraijin Contributions to the Middle fay Sadek, EAEN E EE 64

B New Mormuary Practices scnasnaiiimiaiimamadvimiina aaa 67

b: MOAT =Sarrounded Tombs Chuko po nusinscneanimieiunna a .68

C. ‘Three Sacred Treasures’: Dagger, Mirror, and Comma-Shaped Jewel...ssssssssssseesseees 68

5. Emereing Social Stratification id Northern Kyushu sasiasaainadeninasmsdnniinionimarasdO

A; SIS ol Pen/insular TAOS rsnsanenaminsnnin a Fi CHAPTER THREE: IRON AND GLASS-BEARING TORAIJIN OF THE LATE YAYOI - EARLY KOFUN PERIOD

OVUM Vc In rome’ SEC} cB 0 aaa aA Ta I. HISTORICAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL BACKGROUND OF THE LATE YAYOI/EARLY KOFUN PERIOD

TORAUIN: SAM HAN (c SO BC-AD 30 hinia aA T3

i, Sam Han Society according to the Sarigutehl sacicincsasiuasaianiiasasiaaninimaaieanna 73

2. Sam Han in Archaeology sensnmsimsmiiniissoss

A Tater Mahan Polities (c: 300-30 AD) renanira T3 A Pos EE EE AAN N EAEAN E AAEE EAEE AAAA 79

C. Byeonhan Polities see

3. LELANG and DAIFANG: Their Influence on SAM HAN (Map 2.1) sessssesssssescssssesssssesessnecsessessessnees 83

A, Push-Pull Dynamics during the SAM HAN Period scnscsisnsnssinssssnisunsisaaniasasaasmninsisins 85

IL. NEW TORATJIN FROM SAM HAN | ssissssssseasssssssissssovisasssoasosncseissanassanaseaesoasssnrantaassatesanaseseavsssanaiebipsvtinsaxis 86

1 Teraijin from Later Mahan and Ther Contributions: cimaduchaneninnanamnnnee 2. ee ced eric ihe People in the Archi ne Byeonhan Kaya eee piel inns es sida savasaaseodsesduae sanastaanessxeaaeatasaainsiaansadeed izesasadaneséassidassiasasixsanesaaaasaapsaapsdbaasiaaaazeaaaasIsaai NAAT 94

Chapter Four: The Middle-late Kofun Period Torajjin: Imaki No Tehito

(Recently Arrived Skilled Artisans”) (e: 350=600AD))..sascreisicsrosriteacsncsiassteuooviseciwunsntanniniem eats 97 I, THEIR HISTORICAL AND SOCIO-CULTURAL BACKGROUND: KOREA'S EARLY STATES AND POLITIES (c. 300-700 AD) ssis ieee, Se een Me Sie eee Ur nena ier es ENS ITE 97

SDA Ie oa Gy oases E E E E E E E E setes teeta TE S)

A. Religion, Ideology, Art, and Architecture....uccssecssssseerees Renae A A E initan 98 Biron Rechnigloey ren A ANNEN EENEN NE ERRO PE 100 C. Equestrian Culture and Cavalty TEIT ee ae eco ea ERE ie da sac nin 104 DN SEONS Ware F ORI y pea E N eB enin ins aati nas ines 108 E. Gold, Gilt-Bronze, and Silver Craftsmanship EAN E AE E uote P EE A 113 Froe Culture of SWIS rean a REANNAIG PONER 113 G. Mortuary ArchitectUre senaia

2. Middle ie 6th ens: 3. Major Toraijin Settlements A. The Kinki Core Region (Osaka, Nara, Kyoto)

b. Toraijin in the Asuka District of Southern Nara Asuka-mura: Home of the Yamaton A a rnana AS A 137 NS ie he Soga C reenson NE 138 Weis aie TN es uaa 143 & Elite Toraijin Technicians int Nango, Nāfāsessisiuiwnionnaniinsdinsainonnisn 145 e. Toraijin around Lake Biwa in Ancient OM... essessssessseeseesseeeseesnee PA anne? C Toraijin ta the Kanto Re gion sscvassassicescavvressevavaivassstcnsvsovayeataisaraavassasaiseres presente mnie AS D. Toraja in Kyusi siei scons cap incadavav dana cbeanansaun sisvanclbnetvatanierss iis nae I, THE EARLY AND MIDDLE KOFUN SOCIETIES: COMPARED .. olbZ II. TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTIONS iodoa rania PEERS „154 HS E aeRO R aE A E treet errece teeter receerere rer rerer fener 154 2: Horse Breeding and Horsemanship anusaniarmjrnnionnnunaniienun oA 3. Flood Control, Land Reclamation, and Public Works pistinde aaan ieaiai 163

4, Gold, Gilt-Bronze, and Silver Craftsmanship

BASU TAQUS Uy E AT 6. The Sueki Stoneware Industry .... 1. Confucianization of the Yamato Court. " 2, Duda ist ortie Ni Oasan aaaea 3. Elite Mortuary System: From Vertaal Pit-Chamber Burials to ytorridorstyie Tombs jiis 176 IV. EXCHANGE AND INTERACTION BETWEEN PAEKCHE AND YAMATO ELITES (4TH-6TH CENTURY J unrsunaissinns 2. Intermediary Role of Powertl Paukchè Elites eae PAU AALS acesssrnsiensascsmstiasasts 179 VL.LASTING FRATERNITY BETWEEN YAMATO AND PAERCHE js:s:sacsssasscasscvissastsxsasteasciassesensncsaceear sie 181 CONCLUS TON ur rA A E pi sts E SEAE 190 REFERENC ES ornidin iiia SAA AAAA AEA Aiia aA Ea aiai S iaa 193 Abbreviated Ree Tenoa aa aae 193 INDEX airi EER ROR OOTO N E EEE ER A A 223

List of Figures and Tables

Tableo:1.Chronalesy of Fast Asia (by Lucas Pauly): sisdutiinnssticairinsinisiind as tiisindapamaasiinne 4

Fig. 1.2: Sonpeleni-ty ie villa poSon Fig. 1.3. Middle Mumun lithic implements Fig. 1.4. Ritual polished stone weapons of the Middle Mumun period Fig. 1.5. Liaoning bronzes of the Middle Mumun period: daggers, axes, and arrow points uu... 23 Fig. 1.6. Elite prestige goods from a cist tomb at Songguk-ni Fig: 17: Dolmen typesor the Middle Naiiuttssisccecfcsisntssscnnainincinisiansntialacsonssninnntieas Fig. 1.8. Jomon and Yayoi skeletons and reconstructed facial features Fig. 1.9. Mumun pottery’s influence on the Early Yayoi pottery...cscsesssssssssssssecssessnssnesssssssssssssssssesnees

Fig, 2,1, Late Mumun pottery in southern Rove cssssiscanscsavsceaivaveisesiei mar NE 53 Fig. 2.3. Advanced bronze artifacts of the Korean Slender Bronze Dagger Culture and Amazonite Jewels rona Jeokscok mMOKIWENMYO ririn ANRT AORE 57 Fig. 2.5. Korean slender daggers and associated artifacts found in Kyushu uo... esseesseecseessseeseeneecseeeseeens 65 Fig. 3.1. Vessel types of the soft-fired (yeonjil) and hard-fired (gyeongjil) earthenware

OL LSter Mana S E E S E E ean aN ORR 75

Fig. 3.3. Mahan jugumyo (moat-surrounded tombs) in the Peninsula Fig. 3.4. Pottery vessel types of Sam Han from southern Korea and Nishijinmachi in

Moreni vide ia GTA CE soi ciate ansetviaeisel aati Geteraeeusrsnaienaiy odnresben a Riad eae 87 Fig. 3.5. Hokenoyama Kofun and a wood coffin tomb from Korean southeast ...csssssssecsecsneesesseesnees 90 Fig. 3.6. Salpos (ritual iron spades) and yujarigi (curlicued ritual iron scepter) ...essessssecsessneessessseesseees 91 Fig. 4.1. Iron implements of Paekche and two types of tuyeres used by Paekche iron technicians. .100 Fig: 4:2. Iron implements from Later Mahan /Paekche iss sccassiscssssnstasseisesdssssisncssesssetsaoscsovsaississasessasssensses 103 Fig. 4.3. 4th century iron implements of Kaya from Bokcheon-dong tumuli #57 and #60 in Pusan .105 Fig. 4.4. 5th century iron military implements of Kaya and iron forging tools .sssssssesessssssesesesssseseseses 106 Fig. 4.5. 5th century cuirasses, helmets, and neck guard from southeast Korea ..ssssssessssssssesesessssesesesee 107 Fig. 4.6. Later Mahan kitchenware, an oven frontal guard, and jojokmun (bird foot prints) design 110 Fig. 4.7. Vessel types of Later Mahan/Paekche stoneware. ...cssecssessssssssssssssssssssssssssnscsssssssssssssssssssesseessees 111 Fig. 4.8. Vessel types of Kaya stoneware pottery. From Bokcheon-dong tombs, c. 400... 112

Fig. 4.10. Paekche instruments of political communication I] ot tsesssseesneeseesesssecssensesseeseesneeneesseesees Fig. 4.11. Later Mahan cooking vessels from southern Korea and the Archipelago Fig. 4.12. Later Mahan/Paekche residential types from Korean southwest and the Archipelago ....126 Fig. 4.13. Paekche corridor-style tombs in the Peninsula and the Archipelago on eeesesesesseeeeees 128 v <q =E

Fig. 4.14. Prestige goods from the Toraijin elite tombs at Niizawa, near Asuka. .sssssssssssssssessssssesesesee 144

Fig. 5.1. Kofun period tools for forging iron and iia made iron jmplements

front the Rial core Pesi@nt suaiivsiadiasiiadwnsiadsiesscsninadaramenaiaadalumauianendawimnsloS Fig. 5.2. Kofun period iron tools fom anthora Korea tid jopaasmvnnnnanonaaian naan Fig. 5.3. Fifth century helmets, cuirasses, and horse paraphernalia from Korea a danna BO Fig. 5.5. Prestige goods made in Korea and those made in Japan compared (1) .ssssssssssssssesessssresesesesee 165 Fig. 5.6. Prestige goods made in Korea and those made in Japan compared (2) .sssssssrsssssssseseerserreesesse 166 Fig, 5.7, Prestige goods, naturalized (Japarized) iucnusisistinadnoaasdeinesndationansiaiadenduuade?

Fig. 5.8. Abacus bead-shaped spindle whorls of hard-baked shay Te 4.0-6. ern) from Korean southwest and the Archipelago Fig. 5.9. Vessel types of Early Korean States stoneware abiery found in the Avchipelage... mia O Fig. 5.10. Remains of Asuka Temple, the first Buddhist temple in Japan, built by Paekche arhitecti anaiilesperi aE co sts a n EERI AA EAR ee ee 175

List of Maps

Mag 0.1..Gespeaphical map of Rast Abia ais csriasciicadniebanundiinbasdiisaieiiai ibaa aniion 3 Mag 1.1. Murmun sites in the Korean peninstla. accisssiassiasartsiiicteashsteasieseiasansanadsiaistsississ Map 1.3. Geographical distributions of dolmens in northern Kyushu Map 2.1. Major sites of the Late Mumun/Sam Han and the Middle/Late Yayoi period,

@ 300 BC-AD J00 mprppenrer peer renee Uren errr rer rererrUrivecy cree ererrerrrcertcevecrsrrerer etre Pecveretrerrererreret Terry rerrererrcreyreretrcrrererrerer reste Map 2.2. Jugumyo (J. Shukobo) (moat-surrounded tombs) sites in the Kinki region Mag 4.1. Early states GF Korea 6.400) crscansathisicusischsanaiohagamasasconiniiicurnnmsearaniains

Mag 4.2. Early States Gi Korea, ©. 500 ssiisiesiaced iinan aa aoi Map 4.3. Sites bearing Toraijin’s yeonjil (kanshiki) pottery or other Toraijin cultural remains in the Kinki Core Region during the Kofun period, AD 400-700 wessssssssesssssseesnssssesssssssssssessecsssssessneessesssssessessss 130 Map 5.1. New iron tool manufacturing sites in Kinki, 5th century (after Ichimura 2004: 49). s.s.s... 156 Map 5.2. Corridor-style tomb sites in Kinai and a miniature cooking oven placed in the

Stylistic Notes

* Romanization of Asian words

For many decades, writers around the world used the McCune-Reischauer (M-R) system for romanization of Korean words. Unfortunately, most readers unfamiliar with the M-R system have rendered Korean words and especially Korean personal and place names confusing or unrecognizable. Consequently, in 2000, the Korean government officially adopted the Revised Romanization system (R-R) of Korea. Since then, the latter is used as the primary romanization system in South Korea to the exclusion of the M-R system.

In this book, we use both the M-R system (without diacritical marks) and the R-R system: the former for some Korean personal and place names already well-established in Western literature such as Koguryo, Paekche, Kaya, Pusan, Taegu, Pyongyang, Kyongju, Kimhae, Inchon, Kim, Lee, Rhee, and Park and the latter for less known personal and place names and all common Korean words. In some cases, we have romanized Korean authors’ names as preferred by the authors themselves. Chinese words are romanized according to the Pinyin system that replaced the older Wade-Giles system in 1989. Romanization of Japanese words generally follows the modified Hepburn system without macrons.

*Asian names

When Asian proper names are cited in full, the surname precedes the given name as in the Asian practice. To make it crystal clear we show these surnames with small caps (Example: KiM Won-yong and KADOWAKI Teiji).

* Translated passages

The English translations of the Nihon Shoki, quoted in this book, are from W. G. Aston’s Nihongi (Tuttle

1972). Those of the Samguk Sagi and the Samguk Yusa are from translated texts of YI Pyong-do (1972: 1977) and Jonathan Best (2006). All other translations are our own.

viii

Acknowledgements

From its inception to completion, this book is indebted to a countless number of people around the world in the field of archaeology and history of ancient Korea and Japan. As our research led to Japan and Korea, we met, listened, and dialogued with numerous frontline researchers and scholars shedding light on the subject of our inquiry. In-office discussions, guided field trips to archaeological sites, and research publications which they provided us became the basis of this book.

Our thanks are due the following (in alphabetical order); in Korea, Ki-dong BAE, Seung-ok BAEK, Sung-rak CHOI, Wan-gyu CHOI, Jang-geun GWAK, Bo-shik HONG, Yeong-nae JEON, Gu-Geum KIM, Gyeongtaek KIM, Jang-suk KIM, Seong-gu KIM, Seung-ok KIM, Jae-hyun LEE, Seong-ju LEE, Joong-hwan PARK, Kyeong-cheol SHIN, Ui-jeong SONG, and Duk-hyang YUN; in Japan, HIRAKORI Tatsuya, HIROSE Yuichi, ISHINO Hironobu, KINOSHITA Wataru, KOHAMA Sei, KOYAMADA Koichi, MATSUMOTO Kazuo, NISHITANi Tadashi, TANAKA Toshiaki, TOMOIKA Naoto, and YOSHI’! Hide.

We are also indebted to the research staff of various museums and research institutes for the generous assistance provided during our research; in Korea, Paekche Culture Research Institute, Bokcheon Museum, Buyeo National Museum, Buyeo National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Gongju National Museum, Daeseong-dong (Kimhae) Tumuli Museum, Haman Museum, Kimhae National Museum, Kyongju National Museum, Naju National Museum, Gwangju National Museum, National Museum of Korea, the Pungnap Toseong Research Center, Pusan University Museum, Seoul National University Museum, and Yeongnam University Museum; in Japan. Itokoku History Museum in Maebara City (Kyushu), Yoshinogari Rekishi Koen Center in Yoshinogari (Kyushu), Kashihara Archaeological Institute Museum, Nara National Research Institute of Cultural Properties (Nabunken), Okayama Ancient Kibi Cultural Research Center, Osaka Chikatsuasuka Museum, Osaka Yayoi Culture Museum, and Shiga Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum.

With our heartfelt gratitude we wish to lift up several scholars and frontline researchers around the world, who have been indispensable in the writing and completion of this book. Mong-lyong CHOI of Seoul, Korea, has regularly kept us informed of the most recent archaeological findings and academic discussions regarding prehistoric and ancient Korea through his latest publications and personal conversations. His vast knowledge of the archaeology of the Peninsula’s Mumun, Mahan, and Paekche periods, in particular, have been invaluable.

Jong-cheol LEE of Jeonju, Korea, a specialist on the Songguk-ni type culture, has enlightened us with his insights regarding the Initial Toraijin who arrived in the Archipelago with the Songguk-ni type culture during the first millennium BC. In addition, he has graciously assisted in the preparation of several illustrations included in this book.

SHODA Shinya of Nara, Japan, a highly informed scholarly bridge between the Archipelago and the Peninsula has shared his time, knowledge, and insights on the archaeology of the Peninsula’s bronze age and the Archipelago’s Yayoi period, one of the central topics of this book. With his publications ix and online conversations, he has helped elucidate numerous issues including those of the Yayoi chronology.

KAMEDA Shuichi of Okayama, Japan, a renowned authority on the archaeology of the Toraijin of the Kofun period, has generously provided us the results of his research on the history of the Toraijin and their contributions to the Kofun society, especially in the development of the iron industry in the Archipelago. We are deeply grateful for the time he gave us in Okayama and the guided site trips provided by his staff.

Finally, we wish to thank the University of Oregon Knight Library for its generous and efficient service in acquiring published monographs and journal articles from around the world, essential to our research, through the interlibrary loan and electronic access system, Jeffrey Hanes, Mara Epstein, and Holly Lakey of the Center for Asian and Pacific Studies for their support in the completion of this book.

Preface

In the ongoing saga of Japan-Korea relations, the years of 2000 and 2001 witnessed two extraordinary events. In the former, INOUE Mitsuo (2000, 16-18), a prominent scholar of Japanese history, highlighted the special place of the Toraijin in Japanese history with the publication of a provocative essay, “Without the Toraijin, Japanese history would have been delayed by 200 years”. In the latter, Emperor Akihito publicly announced: “Those who immigrated or were invited to come to Japan from Korea introduced culture and technology... It was truly fortunate that such culture and technology was brought to Japan through the enthusiasm of the Japanese people and the friendly attitude of the Korean people. I also believe that it contributed greatly to Japan’s subsequent development” (Kunaisho 2001; French 2002).

Indeed, one cannot review the development of society in the Japanese Islands without being astonished at the debt Japanese culture and people owe to early societies on the Korean Peninsula. The arrival of immigrant rice-agriculturalists from the Peninsula in the early first millennium BC was the first of three major waves of technological transfer between the continent and the Islands. The second brought bronze and iron-working to the Archipelago around the 4th century BC, and the third brought elite crafts and administrative technology as well as Confucianism and Buddhism in the 5th and 6th centuries AD.

Until the 1970s, the information on the Toraijin (immigrants to the Japanese archipelago mainly from the Korean Peninsula) was based largely on a few ancient historical texts such as the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters, compiled in 712), the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720), the Shoku Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan Continued, 797), and the Shinsen Shojiroku (New Records of Family Registers, 815), documents compiled long after the actual events pertaining to the Toraijin.

Beginning in the early 1980s, however, thanks to massive salvage archaeological excavations undertaken throughout the Archipelago, unprecedented amount of archaeological data has been collected and analyzed, shedding much light on the Toraijin: their beginnings, their settlements, their life, and their contributions to the early Japanese society and the beginnings of Japanese civilization. Likewise, similar excavations in the southern Korean Peninsula of the past four decades, are providing much information on the historical and socio-cultural background of the Toraijin.

Dissecting this information is the task of this book, to document whence, when, and why Peninsular people emigrated and how they and their descendants changed the population structure and material culture within the Archipelago. In doing so, it is important to note that such waves of technology transfer and population movement are common in prehistory, exemplified also by the history of the British Isles. The inhabitants of the Korean Peninsula were also subject to such intrusive waves from the China Mainland, Steppe region, and Northeast Asia.

This is not to say that Korea and Japan did not and do not have unique cultures then and now. Periods

of migratory quiescence allowed the autochthonous flowering of new forms of material creation and

social behavior that became indigenous to the Pen/Insulae. The time-period covered herein can be

compared with the Meiji period (1868-1912) in Japan when Western culture was voraciously acquired

and consumed, No one can say today that Japan does not have a unique Japanese culture despite its o

= r o mm X1 o mm overt Western appearance. So, what is being offered here is not a denigration of Japanese culture but an explanation of some of the roots and ingredients that made Japan what it was historically.

There are people within and without Japan (Egami, Ledyard, Covell and Covell, Hong), who speak of conquests and subjugation of the Archipelago’s inhabitants by militant Peninsular peoples in the 4th-5th centuries. There are also people (SUEMATSU Yasukazu and his followers), mainly in Japan, who believe that early Japan developed its society by gaining advanced culture and technology of Korea through invasion. In fact, the history of early relations between the Peninsula and Islands is far more nuanced, complicated, and variable than that, with no evidence of a massive state-sponsored military invasion either way at any time. Unpicking those relations is a fascinating task, and every year that passes, with new excavations and analyses, allows us to delve in deeper than before. The Toraijin story is a major key unlocking the box containing the mysteries of Japan’s beginnings xii

I, IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT: TORAIJIN

Toraijin (JE A) , a term meaning ‘people who have crossed over’, has ethno-cultural and historical nuances. It is used more in Japan than in other countries in East Asia. In China and Korea, it is rarely mentioned, and their general public would not understand its meaning until they are given an explanation. In Japan it is used primarily to designate people who immigrated to the Archipelago from the Korean Peninsula over two millennia from c. 800 BC to 600 AD.

In the context of such ethno-culturally-driven cognitive differences, Kyoto Bunka Hakubutsukan (Kyoto Museum of Culture) published, in 1989, an attractive photo-laden book with an eye-catching title, MEZ VEO CHIE A & SCL (Umi o Watatte Kita Hito to Bunka [The People Who Crossed the Sea and Their Culture]), as a part of its first anniversary celebration. Its primary focus was Toraijin, “the people A who crossed i the sea to come 2K” [to the Archipelago]) and their cultural, technological, ideological, and demographic contributions to Japanese society.

The book was based on a series of special lectures presented by Japan’s prominent archaeologists and historians, including MORI Koichi, professor of archaeology at Doshisha University, NISHITANI Tadashi, professor of archaeology at Kyushu University, UEDA Masaaki, professor of ancient history at Kyoto University, KADOWAKI Teiji, professor of ancient Japanese history at Kyoto Furitsu University, and INOUE Mitsuo, professor of ancient Japanese history at Kyoto Sangyo University.

These five foremost scholars of Japan’s ancient history and archaeology firmly believed that the Toraijin phenomenon was of such significance that an authentic history of Japan could not be written without telling its story.

Toraijin were mentioned in Japan’s ancient records as a continental people coming into the Archipelago, normally in groups and at various times, with advanced technical skills of varying kinds, long intriguing the Japanese imagination (N Nakamura 1915; Kanno 1932; Maruyama 1934). The initial interest led to serious scholarly investigations in the post WWII Japanese academia (Takeuchi 1948; Seki 1956; Shida 1959; Ueda 1965; Egami 1967; Imai 1969; Kadowaki 1973; Yamao 1977; S Nakamura 1981). Through the 1960s, the ancient aliens were described as Kikajin (#716 A) (‘naturalized people’). Beginning in the 1970s, however, the term has been replaced by Toraijin mainly because not all aliens who came to the Archipelago became naturalized (Ueda 1991: 45-80). Nevertheless, Hirano (2018) has recently published Kikajin to Kodai Kokka (Kikajin and the Ancient State), focusing on the role and the position in ancient Japan of the Toraijin and their descendants who became naturalized citizens of Japan under the auspices of the Yamato state.

In the early 1980s, massive nationwide archaeological investigations in Japan began to shed unprecedented light on the Toraijin, prompting publication in Japan of several archaeological reports on the critical role of the Toraijin during Japan’s formative period (Kyoto Bunka Hakubutsukan 1989; OYBH 1999, OYBH 2004; SKAKH 2001; OFCAH 2004). Along with these, KAMEDA Shuichi (1997: 2000, 2003a, 2003b, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c, 2005, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2016) and others (Iwanaga 1991; Kataoka

1999, 2006; Shichida 2005, 2007a, 2017b; Saga-ken Kyoiku linkai 2008; Sakai 2013; Hashino 2014; K Miyamoto 2017) have made significant contributions on the archaeology of the Toraijin.

The archaeological discoveries have revealed that the first significant wave of Toraijin first appeared in the Archipelago in the early part of the first millennium BC, though individuals may have arrived earlier (Bausch 2017), and that they had helped Japan’s prehistoric hunting-fishing-gathering society become a food producing one and acquire bronze and iron technology during the Yayoi period. In the 5th century, the Toraijin helped Japan advance upward to another level with new hitherto unknown technologies. “The 5th century is viewed as the century of technological revolution,” states KAMEDA Shuichi (2011: 116):

The arrival in Japan of Sueki stoneware, equipments related to war and military power such as horse paraphernalia, weapons, helmets and body armors, new iron forging techniques and gilt-bronze craftsmanship, and (advanced tools) for agriculture, land reclamation, and public works greatly changed the technology of Japan. Furthermore, the horse and the arrival of new cooking facilities including kamado (clay cooking-stove) significantly altered the lifeways of Japan.

The revolutionary changes, Kameda continues, did not happen because certain mono (things, objects) came into the country. They happened because of the coming of the people who possessed techniques and technologies. In the earlier days also, cultural exchanges took place through the movement of people, but particularly the revolutionary changes of the 5th century cannot be considered without the large number of people coming in, namely ‘the Toraijin.’ Therefore, the 5th century may be called ‘the century of Toraijin’.

Echoing Kameda, SHIRAISHI Ta’ichiro, Director of the Osaka Furitsu Chikatsu Asuka Museum, has summed up the significance of the Toraijin in Japanese history (2004: 7-14):

The Toraijin... brought to Wa (Japan) new technologies including horse breeding and horse-riding, metallurgy, a Sueki (stoneware pottery) industry, and weaving skills, along with civil and architectural engineering, astronomy, calendar, arithmetic, Chinese writing, and religious and political ideologies among other things. It goes without saying that these new cultural and technological contributions propelled the advancement of Japanese civilization... The role of the Toraijin in civilizing Wa was immense (kiwamete okii).

By ’Wa’, Shiraishi means ancient Japan, which was described in the ancient Chinese records as Wo ( TE) or Woguo (fe) (J. Wa, Wakoku). According to the Xin Tang Shu (The New History of Tang Dynasty, compiled in 1060), the Archipelago came to be called Nihon ( H Æ) for the first time in 670.

Some of the 5th-century Toraijin were officials on a diplomatic mission, or temporary resident scholars and teachers (somewhat similar to British and American advisors brought in by the Meiji government in the late 19th century); but the majority comprised the general population including farmers, bronze and iron smiths, potters, craftsmen, military personnel, and even elites who fled their homeland for one reason or another in search of a new haven. They settled permanently and became Kikajin (naturalized immigrants).

In time, some of them became powerful magnates (gozoku%¢ lk) while others became government officials, technocrats, and political functionaries, playing a critical role in the advancement of politics, economy, and culture of ancient Japan (Ueda 1965: 86-96, 180). YAMAO Yukihisa (1977: 39- 50) observes that “without the Toraijin, it is impossible to consider the process of state formation [in Japan] during the 6th-7th century”, highlighting the vital role which the Toraijin played in social, economic, agricultural, industrial, and political transformation of ancient Japan. They also became ancestors of many modern Japanese.

In “Japan and Continent,” a chapter in The Cambridge History of Japan Vol. 1, OKAZAKI Takashi highlights Japan’s indebtedness to the Asian continent for its civilization (1993: 268):

Japan’s prehistory was marked by the gradual transmission of techniques and artifacts from the continental civilizations of Asia... Imported technology - the cultivation of rice in paddies, and bronze and iron technology - enabled the Japanese to create a settled and stratified society, and...contributed to the formation of the Japanese state.

This was a part of a grand civilizational drama taking place in a corner of the world aptly named the ‘Yellow Sea Interaction Sphere’ (Map 0.1); it was also the final phase of the formation of the great East

Map 0.1. Geographical map of East Asia (by Lucas Pauly).

Date China Korea Japan

B.C. 14,000 PALAEOLITHIC PALAEOLITHIC PALAEOLITHIC JOMON Incipient

10,000

9000 NEOLITHIC

8000 Yangshao Initial

7000 NEOLITHIC (Chulmun)

5000 Early

3000 Longshan Middle

2000 SHANG BRONZE AGE (Mumun) Late

1000 W. ZHOU Final

900 Early

700 E. ZHOU Middle YAYOI

600 Early

400 WARRING STATES Late

300 IRON AGE

200 QIN/W. HAN GO CHOSON (WIMAN CHOSON) Middle

100 SAM HAN/LELANG-DAIFANG

0 E. HAN

AD 100 KOGURYO Late

200 THREE KINGDOMS PAEKCHE, SILLA, KAYA KOFUN

300 (222-280) LATER MAHAN Early

400 SIX DYNASTIES Middle

700 TANG (618-966) UNIFIED SILLA HEIJO (Nara)

800 HEIAN (Kyoto)

900 (794-857)

Table 0.1. Chronology of East Asia (by Lucas Pauly).

Asian civilization which began more than 10,000 years before in the Asian mainland (Barnes 2015: 361-383) (Table 0.1).

In the transmission of the continental civilization to the Archipelago, many hands were involved, including traders, travelers, diplomats, immigrants, and even soldiers on foreign expeditions. Certain technologies absolutely essential to the advancement of Japanese civilization, however, had to wait for the arrival in the Archipelago of skilled technicians with their technological know-how. The history of iron technology in the Archipelago is a good case in point.

II. IRON, A CASE STUDY

Ever since the inhabitants of the Archipelago discovered the superiority of iron over stone and wooden tools in the 3rd century BC (or even earlier), they sought to develop their own iron technology (Murakami 1999: 84-150, 2007: 9-138). With skills learned from the continent as well as with their own ingenuity the Archipelago smiths made a variety of simple iron implements with raw iron materials imported from the continent. By the Early Kofun period, they were using the improved forging method (tanya) to produce useful iron tools such as iron axes, chisels, sickles, hoes, arrowheads, knives, daggers, and swords (Murakami 2007: 123-126).

Iron implements requiring complex technology such as riveting, however, had to wait until the arrival of skilled Toraijin technicians in the 5th century. It was the latter that helped revolutionize the iron technology of the Middle Kofun period in the production of advanced weapons, horse paraphernalia, iron helmets and body armor, which became the new status symbols of the emerging elites (Murakami 1999: 128-129, 188-189; Kameda 2000: 165-169).