Exploring Islamic Social Work

Front matter

Muslims in Global Societies Series

Hansjorg Schmid

Amir Sheikhzadegan Editors

Preface

The migration of people from a Muslim background into the Global North since the 1960s, firstly as “guest-workers”, later mostly as asylum seekers, has resulted in Muslim communities of significant size in various countries across Western Europe. Reacting to this demographic transformation, many practitioners, as well as theoreticians of social work, have time and again raised the concern that their conceptual tools and methods of intervention might not always be adequate for Muslim clients. There have therefore been calls for new social work technologies which are sensitive to the religious background of Muslims. Moreover, Muslim protagonists have themselves started initiatives, projects and reflections in the field of social work. Hence the rise of new approaches — be it concerning theological issues or questions of social work practice — that can be subsumed under the concept of Islamic social work.

Exploring Islamic social work in Western contexts is highly challenging, as it touches manifold activities, ideas, protagonists and contexts. Moreover, the development of Islamic social work is closely related to the dynamics of Muslims and Islam in specific constellations of time and space, calling forth both practical engagement and theoretical reflection. As Islamic social work is a young branch of research, many fundamental questions are yet to be clarified and the subject matter itself needs to be defined more precisely. We have therefore decided to place this book and the associated project under the programmatic title “Exploring Islamic Social Work”. At the same time, Islamic social work is proving to be a controversial subject — both within Muslim communities and in the social, media and political debates of Western contexts. Concerns about proselytism are often articulated, as are expectations for the positive participation of Muslim communities in plural civil societies. The subtitle “Between Community and the Common Good” expresses this area of tension and controversy. The diverse chapters in this volume examine the role played by different stakeholders, organisations, target groups, ideas and reflections. However, the chapters do not only refer to Muslim minorities, but also to the broader horizon of current debates in social work. We are therefore pleased to welcome a broad readership from different disciplines and fields of practice.

vi Preface

This book is the outcome of several research activities undertaken by the Swiss Center for Islam and Society (Schweizerisches Zentrum für Islam und Gesellschaft SZIG/Centre Suisse Islam et Société CSIS) at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland. Founded in 2015, the SZIG/CSIS explores the interfaces between Islam and society by integrating perspectives of theological self-reflection by Muslim scholars into interdisciplinary research. The Center maintains a close exchange with Muslim communities and develops its research priorities based on the needs and requirements of practice. In the context of the SZIG/CSIS doctoral programme “Islam and Society: Islamic-theological studies”, various topics with regard to both theoretical reflection and practice analysis are treated. Islamic social work happened to become one of these thematic fields in which empirical research, the further development of social science concepts, the analysis of the framework conditions of the welfare state and the development of Islamic-theological reflection flow into one another. Baptiste Brodard’s PhD thesis served as door opener towards a multiplicity of challenging research questions, especially in the field of local interactions. Workshops with Muslim communities in Switzerland on issues of Islamic social work also opened our eyes to current transformations, processes and challenges.

One may wonder why the initiative of publishing such a volume comes from Switzerland — a small country in which the history of Muslim presence is only a few decades old. This should, however, appear less surprising if one considers the fact that Muslims often act, and the social and scientific debates in this country largely occur, among international networks so that the view automatically falls not only on Switzerland’s neighbouring countries, with which the country is also linguistically connected, but also on other parts of Europe and the world. Moreover, given the fact that Islamic social work is, to say the least, an issue of interest across the Western hemisphere, Switzerland as a traditional host of international bodies and conferences should not be the least suitable site for such an enterprise.

Realising that it would be fruitful to look at the topic of Islamic social work from the basis of different country contexts and scholarly traditions, we decided to organise an international conference under the title “Islamic Social Work? From Community Services to Commitment to the Common Good” which was held on September 11 and 12, 2019. Already 1 year prior, in preparation for this conference, we invited various experts in this field to discuss and share their ideas and findings with us. Some of the chapters in this volume emerged from the above-mentioned conference. To broaden and deepen the picture we had obtained, we recruited some further chapters after the conference. This volume is the result of a long-standing process of discussion and exchange, and we are more than happy to see this exciting enterprise come to a provisional conclusion.

Numerous people have contributed to the preparations and the publication procedure. First of all, we would like to thank the 20 authors from 4 continents for their willingness to share the results of their research, to adapt their ideas to the collective endeavour of this book and to rework their chapters during the reviewing process. It is an inconceivably great joy and honour for us to bring together in this volume the varied and sometimes very different chapters and their contexts. Particular thanks

Preface vii go to Sara Ashencaen Crabtree from Bournemouth University and our colleague Amir Dziri from the SZIG/CSIS for reviewing the introduction and giving us very valuable advice. Next, we would like to thank the collaborators from our institute who have contributed to the organisation of the conference and the publishing process: Arlinda Amiti, Valérie Benghezal, Nadire Mustafi, Nadia Seiler and Anna Zikeli. Catherine Nicholson Pfammatter ensured the proofreading with a high degree of accuracy and sensitivity. The collaborators from Springer Nature have supported the process with great interest and much patience. Our two anonymous reviewers helped to improve the manuscript and to deepen and express various aspects more clearly. David Tittensor and Serena Hussain readily agreed to include this volume in the Muslims in Global Societies Series that they manage as editors and provided constructive feedback. Thanks to all of you for the excellent collaboration!

Finally, we would like to thank Mercator Foundation Switzerland, as well as the Swiss National Research Foundation, without whose support the organisation of the conference and the publication of this volume would have not been possible.

Fribourg, Switzerland Hansjörg Schmid Amir Sheikhzadegan

Contents

Increasing Spiritual Sensitivity and Faith-Based Service

Hansjörg Schmid and Amir Sheikhzadegan

PartI Target Groups and Contexts of Islamic Social Work

Part II Theological and Ethical Discourse on Islamic Social Work Islamic Social Ethics, Social Work and the Common Good

Dilwar Hussain

The magäsid-cum-maslaha Approach as Theological Basis for Islamic Social Work: A Critical Analysis and

Serdar Kurnaz

Islamic Practical Theology: wagf and zakat as Theological

Tarek Badawia

An ‘Epistemic Weight’ of Islamic Practical Theology

Nazila Isgandarova

Islam, Social Work and Common Good in the Muslim Minority

Abdullah Sahin

Part III Perspectives and Contributions to Alternative Social Work Anti-oppressive Practice in Social Work with Women Wearing

Rojan Afrouz and Beth R. Crisp

Social Work and Muslim Welfare: A Women’s Grassroots

Jussra Schröer and Birsen Urek

The Role of tawba (Repentance) in Social Work with Muslim

CONS ee

Somaya Abdullah

Islamic Principles, Inclusivity and Revitalisation in Conceptual

Sara Ashencaen Crabtree

Quo Vadis, Islamic Social Work? Empirical Findings and Theoretical

Hansjörg Schmid and Amir Sheikhzadegan

Contents

About the Editors

Hansjörg Schmid is director of the Swiss Center for Islam and Society and Professor of Interreligious Ethics at the University of Fribourg. Prior to this, he was a researcher at the University of Munich and a guest professor at the University of Salzburg. The founder of the international network “Theological Forum Christianity — Islam”, he acted as its coordinator from 2003 to 2014. He holds a PhD in theological studies from the University of Freiburg and a habilitation (postdoctoral) degree in social ethics from the University of Munich. His research is on political ethics and Muslims in Europe, with a special interest in the interfaces of politics, civil society and Islamic thought. He is the author of Islam im europäischen Haus: Wege zu einer interreligiösen Sozialethik (Freiburg: Herder, 2013). Among his recent articles are “Interfaith Chaplaincy in a Post-Secular Context” (Studies in Interreligious Dialogue, 2020), “‘Tm just an Imam, not Superman’. Imams in Switzerland: Between Stakeholder Objects and Self-Interpretation” (Journal of Muslims in Europe, 2020), “Interreligious Dialogues in Switzerland. A Multiple- Case Study Focusing on Socio-Political Contexts” (Interdisciplinary Journal for Religion and Transformation in Contemporary Society, 2020) and “A Muslim Chaplaincy for Asylum Seekers? Results from an Evaluation Research Study” (Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, 2020, co-authored with Amir Sheikhzadegan). He is presently working on a project on Islam-related conflicts from a social science and theological perspective.

Amir Sheikhzadegan studied sociology and ethnology in Tehran and Zurich. Upon completion of his PhD in sociology at Zurich University, he took up research and teaching positions at Zurich University and later at the University of Fribourg. Lectureships at the Universities of Bern, Lucerne and Basel, as well as fellowships in Berlin and Sydney, were among his further academic activities. His research projects were supported by several grants, including those from the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Swiss Federal Department for Migration (SEM), and The Secretary of Judiciary and Internal Affairs of Zurich Canton. Sheikhzadegan is the author of a book on the rise of political Islam in Iran and Algeria, Der Griff des politischen Islam zur Macht: Iran und Algerien im Vergleich (Lang, 2003).

xi xii About the Editors

Furthermore, he has co-edited a volume on multi- and transculturality, Gesellschaften zwischen Multi- und Transkulturalität (Seismo, 2016), as well as one on political thought in Iran, Beyond the Islamic Revolution: Perceptions of Modernity and Tradition in Iran before and after 1979 (DeGruyter, 2017). His published articles cover a wide range, from edited volumes to peer-reviewed journals such as European Societies, Journal of Muslims in Europe, Spiritual Care, Journal of Pastoral Care & Counseling, sozialpolitik.ch and Social Inclusion. Amir Sheikhzadegan’s fields of expertise include Islamism, Islam and modernity, spiritual transformation, volunteering, social and collective identity, and spiritual care.

Increasing Spiritual Sensitivity A and Faith-Based Service Provision: gas Pathways to Islamic Social Work

Hansjörg Schmid and Amir Sheikhzadegan

Abstract Social work has been characterised in recent years by a growing sensitivity to religious and spiritual issues, both leading back to its historical roots and responding to the challenges of contemporary post-secular society. This sensitivity also requires more knowledge about and attention to the specific needs of Muslims as service users, without neglecting their great diversity. The topic of ‘Islamic social work’, situated within this context, does not only concern Muslim beneficiaries in the field of mainstream social work, but also the central, active role that Muslim communities play: it therefore calls into question a merely individual focus. For Muslim faith-based organisations, Islamically-motivated social ideas and thought are also important. In Western contexts, which are often characterised by mistrust shown to Islam and Muslims, reflection on what contribution can be made to the common good within the framework of pluralistic societies is required. Finally, Islamic social work can be considered in relation to the broader development of social work, which is characterised by a critical approach to power-relations and domination, a sensitivity to diversity and an openness to alternative forms of social work. This chapter introduces the book “Exploring Islamic Social Work. Between Community and the Common Good” by analysing the state of research, identifying guiding questions and then developing and presenting the structure of the volume. Its focus is on contexts of Islamic social work and its target groups, its theological and ethical foundations, as well as its inclusion into general social work discourse.

Keywords Islam - Social work - Spirituality - Faith-based organisations - Community - Human rights

H. Schmid (><) Swiss Center for Islam and Society, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland e-mail: hansjoerg.schmid @unifr.ch

A. Sheikhzadegan Department of Social Work, Social Policy and Global Development, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

© The Author(s) 2022 1 H. Schmid, A. Sheikhzadegan (eds.), Exploring Islamic Social Work, Muslims in Global Societies Series 9, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95880-0_1

The term ‘Islamic social work’ might seem a contradiction in itself: how can largely secular social work discourses and Islamic thought on social issues be brought together at all? The current book seeks to meet exactly this challenge, operating at the interface between Islamic studies and social work research. It aims to contribute both to mainstream social work, which is faced with cultural as well as religious diversity, and to Islamic studies, which is proving itself as a field of practice. In the present-day context where topics linked to Islam often result in highly controversial discussions, researching Islamic social work is no exception. While some might fundamentally criticise Islamic social work, others seem to highlight its merits in a rather apologetic manner. In contrast to both these approaches, this publication aims to analyse the manifold relational dynamics of Islamic social work and place them in a wider context. Looking at issues linked to Islam as a strongly “public religion” (Casanova, 1994) can also be seen as an indication of a soul-searching process within mainstream (Western) social work, an expression of its self-critique of the dogmatic secular as well as of the “profession’s proselytising attitude” (Gray & Coates, 2008, 13).

Despite a growing interest in Islamic social work, the research on this topic is quite scant, as opposed to subjects such as spirituality and social work, or faith-based initiatives with a Christian background (Bielefeld & Cleveland, 2013a). This is partly because Islamic social work remains quite unknown and less visible, which is why it has been characterised as “hidden voluntary social work” (Borell & Gerdner, 2011). Addressing this gap, this volume brings together contributions that, through theoretical reflection as well as empirical research, shed light on various facets of Islamic social work.

Using the term ‘Islamic social work’ might evoke particular geographic associations. The focus of this book, however, is not on the indigenisation of social work in so-called ‘Islamic world’ contexts (Ragab, 2016, 339; Soliman, 2013), but rather on “Western’ contexts including Europe, North America, Australia, and South Africa. Nor is it about international Muslim humanitarian aid and international charity organisations, which are also partly based in Western contexts (Benthall, 2016). Due to the immigration of populations with Muslim faith and culture and a consequent pluralisation of Western societies, the topic of Islamic social work constitutes a major challenge to the respective countries (Gray & Coates, 2008, 18). The focus on Western contexts, however, needs to be substantially differentiated, primarily because of the variety of welfare regimes in these countries (Göcmen, 2013). Despite this diversity, however, some similarities, including Western Muslims’ experiencing of othering (Husain, 2019, 12; Husain & Ross-Sheriff, 2011, 372) can be identified, too. Whereas in Muslim majority countries, Islamic social work can be seen in the context of identity preservation policies, thus evolving from westernstyle social work to an “Islamisation of knowledge” (Ragab, 2016, 330), in Western contexts it is instead more an encounter at the interface between religious motivations and largely secular practices. One major reason why the Western context is of

Increasing Spiritual Sensitivity and Faith-Based Service Provision: Pathways to Islamic... 3 particular relevance in relation to this topic is that there is an ongoing debate, both in integration politics and within Muslim communities themselves, about indigenising Islam as a measure to promote Western Muslims’ contribution to the common good (Ramadan, 2004). Conversely, one can also speak of “Islamically indigenised social work” (Barise, 2005), the result of appropriating a secular concept within an Islamic framework.

Linking the focus on Islam to wider developments within social work, the following discussion is structured into five parts: the subsequent second section reviews recent developments in social work with regard to spirituality and religion, while the third and fourth sections focus on the role of communities and faith-based organisations linked to Islam. The fifth section consists of contemplations on Islamic social work as an alternative form of social work. A key goal of these parts is also to present and structure the current state of research. The sixth section seeks to unfold the structure of the present book and its contributions.

A Growing Awareness of Spiritual and Religious Dimensions in Social Work

It is widely recognised that social work developed from religious forerunners, becoming progressively secularised from the 1920s, and eventually establishing itself as an entirely secular profession (Loue, 2017, 17; Pierson, 2011, 9-11). In many cases, the emergence of social work as a modern discipline meant a secularisation of services that were formerly provided by Christian philanthropy and charities. A process of rationalisation and the limited ability of the churches to cope with the rapidly emerging new urban proletariat were causational factors in this transformation (Bowpitt, 1998, 681). As this shift in orientation gave rise to an attitude that was critical of religion, if not outright anti-religious, a rather “uneasy relationship between social work and its religious origins’ (Shaw, 2018, 414) is understandable.

Similar conflictual developments took place in other applied fields and disciplines such as medicine, psychology and nursing (Sheridan, 2009, 120) which became linked to a general debate on secularism and religion. In this way, previously religious domains became secular, and religious issues were increasingly regarded as a private affair. This development had a strong impact on religious organisations in the field of social work, which likewise often turned into quasisecular service providers. There was even a certain period when being more secular meant being a more professional social worker and vice versa (Karic & Ehlke, 2018; Ross-Sheriff, 2017, 13). More specifically, however, the impact of this very broadly described tendency differs from one context to another and is related to the specific legal and political framework of each country; and, in turn, how far individual nations favour the inclusion of religious organisations in the field of social services.

Parallel to the new perception of the public role of religion, since the 1990s social work has experienced a “spiritual turn” (Gray, 2013, 217). This development de facto signifies a “return to social work’s roots that [were] grounded in spirituality” (Loue, 2017, 17-18) and a tendency towards a “respectful and knowledgeable inclusion of diverse religious and spiritual perspectives” (Loue, 2017, 18). This does not mean the re-integration of primarily secular social work, or its transformation into a religious framework, but rather a stronger consideration of spirituality within social work. In contrast to religion as “an institutionalised system of beliefs and practices concerning the supernatural realm” (Lunn, 2009, 937), thus comprising “the outward and objectified elements of a tradition” (Roof, 2003, 138), spirituality has a more personal and individual character and is therefore more congruent with contemporary social work than religion. Assuming that spirituality aims at “reaching, through some regimen of self-transformation, one’s greatest potential” (Roof, 2003, 138), it corresponds to resource-oriented approaches in social work. Consequently, the focus lies on the convergence between social work and spirituality rather than the juxtaposition of them (Crisp, 2010, 21). An example might be to consider whether or not to include prayer in social work (Loue, 2017, 23-24; Sheridan, 2009) — an issue that involves both the beneficiaries’ needs and the social worker’s professionalism. This example illustrates again that religion and spirituality have far-reaching overlaps and that religion can be practised in the form of spirituality. Therefore, in a broadly understood sense, spirituality includes religion, so that the opening of social work to spirituality can also increase its religious sensitivity.

Such a change is part of a much larger paradigm shift in society often labelled as “post-secular” (Beaumont, 2018), which involves a critical reflection on the secular paradigm. Post-secularity does not mean an abolition of secular principles, but rather their expansion and a re-consideration of the role of religion in different domains. Different institutional and professional contexts, including social work, have been affected by this development (Ratti, 2018, 118). It has become evident that social work as a “holistic profession” (Crisp, 2010, 23) has to consider an allencompassing view of the human being, which also includes spirituality and religion. Against this background, Julia Shaw speaks of “post-secular social work” with the following orientation:

Accordingly, post-secular social work recognises correlations between social work, faith-

based social action and post-liberal ethics of care as indicative of an alternative and supplementary social welfare paradigm to the bureaucratic and consumerist models purported by both the public and private sectors. (2018, 424)

Post-secular social work, understood in this way, emphasises the relational character of the human being and forms a critical counterweight to a merely economic perspective on social services. It is not a simple return of religion, but rather a synthesis of spiritual and religious traditions with contemporary ethically-oriented models. Post-secular social work, as “spiritually sensitive social work” (Canda & Furman, 2010, 1) concerns the relationship between social workers and beneficiaries within institutional and broader social contexts. There are specific ethical and

Increasing Spiritual Sensitivity and Faith-Based Service Provision: Pathways to Islamic... 5 professional requirements for social workers who need to build up their “spiritual competence” (Chaney & Church, 2017, 39), in order to respond to the spiritual needs of service users and to avoid both an over- and an underestimation of religion and spirituality.

Moreover, knowledge of religion and spirituality in a specific faith is essential when working with the followers of that faith (Ross-Sheriff, 2017, 7). Several studies have detected a lack of specific training in this field and have therefore emphasised a need for more profound qualifications for social workers (Furness & Gilligan, 2010, 2186; Furness & Gilligan, 2014, 777-778). Besides acquiring religious knowledge, social workers also need to include religious and spiritual aspects in a permanent reflection on their professional identity and to observe how their own assumptions interact with the expectations and perceptions of beneficiaries.

Spirituality and religion may be sought as a “liberating” or “empowering resource” (Askeland & Dghlie, 2015, 267). However, in the social worker’s interaction with service users, there is always a danger that Michael Sheridan describes as a “potential of erring in both directions” (Sheridan, 2010, 118), that is, the tendency to either over- or underestimate religion and spirituality. It is therefore crucial to strike a balance between these two poles. This concern is a major issue when it comes to assessing how to consider religious and spiritual aspects during social workers’ interventions. The behaviour and actions of Muslims may be impacted by religious norms and concepts. When dealing with Muslim beneficiaries, there is the risk of categorising them as homo islamicus, that is, regarding their gender relations, family arrangements and religious practices as being determined by a stereotyped Islam (Al-Krenawi & Graham, 2000, 299; Rassool, 2014, 280-282). In so doing, one also runs the risk of perceiving Muslims as a “unique but isolated category” (Ashencaen Crabtree, 2017, 119). In order not to base interventions on unilateral projections, the task is to deconstruct such images and take into account the consequences of such ‘Islamising’ projections for both clients and social workers. To avoid these pitfalls, one should try to understand beneficiaries in the most differentiated way possible (Husain & Ross-Sheriff, 2011). These reflections illustrate that the challenges associated with a spiritual and religious opening of social work are already evident at an individual, but also at a communal level, which will be explored further in the following section.

When it comes to categorising and stereotyping there is yet another challenge, commonly labelled as Islamophobia — also known as anti-Muslim racism or anti- Muslim hostility, with a more individual focus. This phenomenon has a significant impact on Muslims in many regions of the world. It therefore also concerns social work, as experiences of anti-Muslim hostility may impact the situation of service-users (Husain, 2015). Consequently, it has been argued that knowledge about Islamophobia and related phenomena should be part of social work education (Savani et al., 2020). As Islamophobia can be understood as an expression of racism, it is usually approached through anti-racist social work (Dominelli, 2018, 145-147). Regarding Islamophobia as a form of oppression, some scholars have adopted anti-oppressive or human rights social work methods to tackle this issue

(Kandylaki & Kallinikaki, 2018). These sensitise social workers to different types of inequality, instead of focussing only on one type of unequal treatment (Penketh, 2014, 165). By being critical of any kind of discrimination and oppression — as required by their professional deontology (Kamali, 2015, 166) — social workers may be seen by those affected by Islamophobia as their allies (Smith, 2020) in counteracting this form of discrimination. Their task appears to be the “methodical identification, prevention and reduction of Islamophobia” (Farooqui & Kaushik, 2021, 465). This may also imply taking a critical stance towards prevention programmes and security policies that reproduce Islamophobic clichés (Latham, 2016). Since Islamophobia implies the “power of definition” (Alund, 1991), a critical stance towards it also entails a critical questioning of one’s own presuppositions and trying to perceive “the other” as subject capable of action, instead of the passive object of one’s own reifying perception. This perspective requires social work “to focus on local knowledges, including the means by which local communities engage in resistance and social justice” (Beck et al., 2017, 69). In other words, overcoming Islamophobia should go beyond the actions of social workers, to also involve communities as actors. Thus, in a broader sense, the empowerment approach pursued here is focused on agency rather than merely looking at the impact of Islamophobia on Muslim communities. An integration of Islamic social work would also help to overcome the hegemonic claim of Western social work in solving social problems (Kamali, 2015, 6).

The Role of Muslim Communities

Taking into consideration the afore-mentioned spiritual turn, the pressing question is not whether but how to include spiritual and religious dimensions in social work (Sheridan, 2004, 23). Beyond the patterns of perception and interaction between social workers and beneficiaries, there is a further major aspect to examine when considering how social work may move towards meeting the religious and spiritual needs of Muslims. It is not sufficient to look solely at individuals; communities must also be taken into account, as they provide “validation and support from within an identifiable group of people” for religious ideas and practices (Hill et al., 2000, 66). Therefore, it is necessary to consider communities as important points of reference for individuals, but also as service providers, because believers may trust community-based services more easily. Situations that push Muslims to use social services are also linked to “communal challenges they face” (Abdullah, 2015a, 169). Looking back at the decade between 2006 and 2015, Faryal Ross-Sheriff, one of the pioneers in the field, states:

The literature in this decade also seems to focus on how social practitioners should interact with Muslim clients and recognize the strengths of Muslim communities and the positive values embraced by the Islamic tradition. (...) However, few of the articles in the last decade in the electronic search of social work literature accentuated the positive contributions of Muslim communities. (2017, 19)

Increasing Spiritual Sensitivity and Faith-Based Service Provision: Pathways to Islamic... 7

She therefore formulates, as one of her recommendations to practitioners, the following advice: “And, lastly, use writings about Islam and Muslims from primary sources and learn from diverse groups of Muslims in general and your clients in particular.” (Ross-Sheriff, 2017, 20) This signals an opening for Muslim social thought and practice at a community level. The focus is therefore not only on the capacity of social workers to deal adequately with spiritual and religious issues of Muslim clients, but also on an integration of both Islamic thought and Muslim service-providers, which respond to the specific needs and choices of their clients (Oelkers et al., 2016, 102).

It seems obvious to connect the Islam-related discussion with the more general debate on ‘community social work’, based on local networks and mutual self-help structures, and to allow communities to participate as service providers (Pierson, 2011, 140-141), thus going beyond “individualised forms of social work” (Sheppard, 2006, 241). The latter relies on liberal individualism and neglects the anchorage of values and conceptions of a good life in communities (Clark, 2006). In contrast, multicultural concepts look at what resources communities can contribute (Abdullah, 2015b). Communities can assume different roles by either providing social services themselves or becoming partners of other service-providers and social workers. Therefore, there is a strong potential for social workers to work “with and within the community” (Hardcastle, 2011, 404). Examples of this are collaborations with mosques and imams (Al-Krenawi, 2016) or situations in which a social worker might pass clients on to specific religious service providers (Scourfield et al., 2013, 339). This may not only lead to partnerships between secular and religious organisations but also to interfaith collaborations, which may further contribute to social cohesion (Gärde, 2015).

The community aspect is also a counterweight to a secular understanding of spirituality. Research related to Muslims is critical of such universal concepts of spirituality because in many cases they do not correspond to the self-understanding of Muslims:

We do not mean to suggest that Muslims have wholly unique needs with regard to social work, but rather that Islam is an example of a formal organized religion which expects its followers to conform to doctrinal, ritual and behavioural prescriptions and this expectation challenges individualized flexible notions of spirituality. (Scourfield et al., 2013, 330)

Nevertheless, the relevance of the individual dimension of Islamic normativity cannot be dismissed categorically, as the way Islamic norms are understood and appropriated differs from one individual to another, not to mention the individual aspect of imän (belief) as the very basis of religiosity and of ihsan (perfection) as spiritual practice. Thus, individual spirituality and collective allegiance to a religion are not in opposition to each other, but rather form a dynamic interaction. Mohd Mahudin et al. perceive three interrelated dimensions of Islam:

A person can submit to God at three levels. At the first level, islam, this is done via works or religious practices such as worship and rituals (...) and other social obligations. The iman level involves understanding and beliefs in God, his prophets, angels, scriptures, and resurrection. The final level, ihsan, in contrast to the previous levels, is the inner dimension where a person performs supererogatory acts of worship in his/her devotion to Allah. (2016, 113)