Sport, Identity and Inclusion in Europe

Front matter

Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society

SPORT, IDENTITY AND INCLUSION IN EUROPE

THE EXPERIENCES OF LGBTQ PEOPLE IN SPORT Edited by

PART I Mapping the Field

1 Theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches for studying LGBTQ experiences in sport BIRGIT BRAUMULLER AND TIM SCHLUNSKI

2 Experiences of LGBTQ individuals in sport in Europe: The impact of societal, organisational, and individual factors

ILSE HARTMANN-TEWS, TOBIAS MENZEL, AND

BIRGIT BRAUMULLER

Advocacy work in Europe ANNETTE WACHTER AND HUGH TORRANCE vi

Contents

PART II Country Reports: Policy of Inclusion and Experiences of LGBTQ People in Sport

Masculinity, homonegativity, and ignorance as barriers to the inclusion of LGBTQ people in Austrian sports cultures NIKOLA STARITZ AND ALMUT SÚLZLE

LGBTOQ-related sports policies and the experiences of LGBTQ individuals in sports in France MATHILDE HUILLARD AND ILSE HARTMANN-TEWS

Experiences of LGBTQ people in sports and sports inclusion policies in Germany: Sport for all!?

ILSE HARTMANN-TEWS AND BENJAMIN CSONKA

LGBTQ people and the influence of gender in sports in Hungary ANNA SZLÁVI

Inclusion policy and the experiences of LGBTQ athletes in grassroots sports in Italy KLAUS HEUSSLEIN, ROSARIO COCO, AND ILARIA BIBBIANI

Policies of inclusion and experiences of LGBTQ people in sports in the UK HUGH TORRANCE

LGBTQ people in physical activity and sport in Spain: Research, sport policy, and inclusion

JAVIER GIL-QUINTANA, ANGÉLICA MARIA SÁENZ-MACANA, ELENA LOPEZ-CANADA, JOAN ÚBEDA-COLOMER, AND SOFÍA PEREIRA-GARCÍA

PART III Diversity Matters: Policy of Inclusion and Experiences of Gender and Sexual Minorities

Sexual diversity in the eyes of sport managers: Are we building inclusive physical activity and sport contexts?

JUAN ALDAZ ARREGUI, NAGORE MARTINEZ-MERINO, OIDUI USABIAGA ARRUABARRENA, AND UXUE FERNANDEZ-LASA

Contents vii

Monitoring “inclusive masculinity” in sport in the Netherlands 2008-2021: No problems with gay men, but no gay-inclusive cultures

Lesbianism in sport: The heteronormative challenge SUSANNA SOLER-PRAT, ANNA VILANOVA, JUDITH SOLANAS, DANIEL MARTOS-GARCIA, AND WENCESLAO GARCÍA-PUCHADES

Gay athletes at the 2017 World Outgames: A qualitative analysis JOAQUÍN PIEDRA AND DAVID MOSCOSO-SÁNCHEZ

Physical activity and sport among Spanish trans persons: Participation data and personal and sociocultural factors

JOSÉ DEVÍS-DEVÍS, ELENA LÓPEZ-CAÑADA, SOFÍA PEREIRA-GARCÍA,

JORGE FUENTES-MIGUEL, ALEXANDRA VALENCIA-PERIS, AND VÍCTOR

PÉREZ-SAMANIEGO

Conclusion ILSE HARTMANN-TEWS

Index

Figures

2.1

2.2 12.1

12:2

12.3

12.4

Perception of homo-/transnegative language in various settings (mean values, scale from 1 — never to 5 — very often)

Forms of experienced homo-/transnegative incidents Statement: "Jokes or negative comments about homo- or bisexuality are made in my team on a regular basis" among Dutch sport club members 15-79 years (n = 446) and subgroups of men (n — 247) and male club team players

(n = 89); elite male hockey players (n — 130) and professional football players (n = 102). In percentage

Statement: "Referees should intervene when athletes use

'gay' or 'sissy' as swear words", among total Dutch population 15—79 years (n = 1.509) and subpopulations men (n = 742) and male team sport players (n — 131); elite male hockey players (n — 130); professional football players (n — 98); and Dutch homo-/bisexual men and women (n = 716). In percentage Statement: "It is difficult for men to be openly homosexual

at my sports club"/"It is difficult to be an openly homosexual professional soccer/elite hockey player in the Netherlands", among Dutch amateur sport club members (n — 446) and subpopulations of male team sport players (n = 89) and football players (n = 62); elite male hockey players (n = 130) and professional football players (n — 99). In percentage Degree of support for measures that contribute to the acceptance of homo- and bisexuality, among elite male hockey players (2020) and professional football players (2021).

In percentage

Tables

2.1

2.2

3.1 10.1 12.1

Multiple linear regression analysis for the variables predicting witnessed homo-/transnegative language (n = 2,728) and feeling offended by homo-/transnegative language (n = 1,466) Binary logistic regression analysis for variables predicting homo-/transnegative incidents (n = 2,731)

Key EGLSF projects

Sociodemographic characteristics of the sample (N = 1,447) Statement “Showering with a same-gender homo- or bisexual person/teammate would not bother me”, according to the total Dutch population 15-79 years (2020; n = 1.509) and subgroups of men (n = 742) and male team players (n = 131), elite male hockey players (2020; n = 130) and professional football players (2021; n = 99). In percentage

Research on PE and sport in Europe including lesbian women as part of LGBTQ persons (in English)

Characteristics of the different types of climate for lesbian women

170 173

Contributors

Juan Aldaz Arregui is a lecturer in Sociology in the Faculty of Law at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, and a member of The Basque Institute of Criminology (IVAC/KRED.

Ilaria Bibbiani is a student of the master’s degree in International Sport Development and Politics at the German Sport University Cologne, Germany.

Birgit Braumiiller is a postdoc researcher at the Institute of Sociology and Gender Studies at the German Sport University Cologne, Germany.

Rosario Coco is a project manager of the Erasmus+ Outsport project and National Secretary of Gaynet, Italian association of LGBTIQ journalists and culture operators, Italy.

Rens Cremers is a researcher at the Mulier Institute, the Netherlands, with a specific expertise in social diversity and in-/exclusion, especially with respect to ethnicity and LGBT+ acceptance.

Benjamin Csonka is a part-time lecturer at the Institute of Sport Science in Berlin, Germany, a representative for diversity and equality at the State Sports Association in Berlin, and a co-organiser of BuNT conferences.

José Devís-Devís is a professor in the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences and the coordinator of the “Physical Activity, Education and Society” (AFES) Research Group at the University of Valencia, Spain. José is also a member of the Spanish “LGBTI: Physical Education and Sport” Research Network.

Agnes Elling is a senior researcher at the Mulier Institute, The Netherlands, with a specific interest and expertise in mechanisms of social in-/exclusion in sport, especially with respect to gender, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and its intersections.

Uxue Fernandez-Lasa is a lecturer in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences in the Faculty of Education and Sport at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/ EHU), Spain.

Contributors xi

Jorge Fuentes-Miguel is a PE teacher and part-time lecturer in the Faculty of Teacher Education and a member of the research group “Physical Activity, Education and Society” at the University of Valencia, Spain.

Wenceslao García-Puchades is Associate Professor at the Department of Musical, Artistic and Physical Expression Education at the University of Valencia, Spain, with a research focus on the study of the relationship between philosophy and aesthetic and political education.

Javier Gil-Quintana is a lecturer professor at the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sports Sciences of the University of Valencia, Spain, and a member of the research group “Physical Activity, Education and Society”.

Klaus Heusslein is a freelance project coordinator in the field of Erasmus+ Outsport projects, Germany, with a special focus on anti-discrimination policies.

Mathilde Huillard is a PhD student and lecturer at the Institute of Sociology and Gender Studies, German Sport University Cologne, Germany, with a research focus on the sociology of weight management and self-tracking.

Elena López-Cañada is a lecturer in the Faculty of Teacher Education and member of the research group “Physical Activity, Education and Society” at the University of Valencia, Spain. Her PhD was about “Physical activity and sports in trans people: participation, reasons, and socio-ecological factors”.

Nagore Martinez-Merino is a lecturer in Childhood Education in the Faculty of Education of Bilbao in the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain.

Daniel Martos-Garcia is Associate Professor in the Department of Musical, Artistic and Physical Expression Education at the University of Valencia, Spain.

Tobias Menzel is a freelance researcher, formerly at the Institute of Sociology of Sport and Gender Studies, German Sport University Cologne, Germany. He is responsible for study design, data management, and statistical analyses of the Outsport survey.

David Moscoso-Sánchez is a senior lecturer in the Department of Social Science at the University of Córdoba, Spain, an editor of “Sociología del Deporte journal”, and President of the Sports Sociology Research Committee of the Spanish Federation of Sociology.

Sofía Pereira-García is Lecturer in the Faculty of Social Sciences, and a member of the “Physical Activity, Education and Society” (AFES) Research Group at the University of Valencia, Spain, and of the Spanish “LGBTI: Physical Education and Sport” Research Network.

Víctor Pérez-Samaniego is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, and a member of the “Physical Activity, Education and xii Contributors

Society” (AFES) Research Group at the University of Valencia, Spain, and of the Spanish “LGBTI: Physical Education and Sport’ Research Network”.

Joaquin Piedra is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Physical Education and Sport at the University of Sevilla, Spain, with a focus on gender and sexual diversity in sport.

Angélica Maria Sáenz-Macana is a PhD student in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences at the University of Valencia, Spain.

Tim Schlunski is a student of the bachelor’s degree in Sport Management and Sport Communication at the German Sport University Cologne, Germany, and works as a research assistant at the Institute of Sociology and Gender Studies.

Judith Solanas is a PhD student of Sport, Gender and Sexuality at the National Institute of Physical Education of Catalonia (INEFC), Spain.

Susanna Soler-Prat is a professor at the Barcelona Centre of the National Institute of Sport Education of Catalonia (INEFC), Spain, and the coordinator of the Social and Educational Research Group on Physical Activity and Sport.

Nikola Staritz is a political scientist, football coach, and expert in the field of antidiscrimination, in particular homophobia and equal participation of women and girls, in sports. Nikola is based at the Vienna Institute for International Dialogue and Cooperation (VIDC), Austria.

Almut Sülzle is a cultural anthropologist with the Competence Group for Fan Cultures and Sports-Related Social Work (KoFaS), Germany, who researches youth cultures, masculinities, discrimination, and LGBTIQ+ football fans in Berlin, Germany.

Anna Szlávi is a researcher and activist based at Eötvös Loránd University, Hungary, with a focus on gender and gender minorities. She is a co-founder of qLit lesbian magazine and the section leader at Atlasz LGBT Sports Club.

Hugh Torrance is Executive Director for Scotland’s LGBTIQ+ sports charity, LEAP Sports Scotland, and chairs the National LGBTI Sports Group. He is also a sports activist and organiser and is Co-President of the European Gay & Lesbian Sport Federation.

Joan Ubeda-Colomer is Assistant Professor in the Department of Physical and Sports Education at the University of Valencia, Spain.

Oidui Usabiaga Arruabarrena is a lecturer in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences in the Faculty of Education and Sport at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain.

Alexandra Valencia-Peris is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Teacher Education and a member of the “Physical Activity, Education and Society” (AFES)

Contributors xiii

Research Group at the University of Valencia, Spain. She is interested in physical activity, sedentary behaviours, and youth lifestyles.

Anna Vilanova is Professor of Sport Sociology at the National Institute of Sport Education of Catalonia (INEFC), Spain, and a member of the Coordination and Research Team of the Social and Educational Research Group in Physical Activity and Sport (GISEAFE).

Amnette Wachter is an activist in Germany with a focus on women in sport and former Co-President of the EGLSE

The idea for this book can be traced back to the kick-off meeting of the Erasmus +- funded project Outsport in Glasgow in 2016. The central intention of the project has been to develop innovative and educational approaches to prevent violence and to tackle discrimination in sport based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Empirical evidence for these activities would be gained by conducting the first European survey of LGBTIQ people in sport in Europe.

The kick-off meeting was hosted by Hugh Torrance, Executive Director of LEAP Sports Scotland, who provided a perfect setting for our meeting in the headquarters of LEAP and, at the same time, relit my passion for Scottish scones. Our first meeting was an inspiring multicultural get-together of individuals from different fields of work — journalism, academia, and LGBTQ and gender equality advocacy — in five European countries (Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Scotland), characterised by a Babylonian crisscross of languages and a colourful entanglement of experiences and aspirations with regard to the project.

Our meeting triggered my wish to make the diversity of LGBTIQ people and their experiences of homo- and transnegativity in sport visible and to identify the social structures that frame their situations in different European cultures and sports systems. I am very pleased and proud that the initial idea has resulted in this book, with its diverse and rich collection of data and critical reflections on LGBTQ diversity and sport inclusion policy in Europe.

A European endeavour such as this book can only be successful with the expertise and commitment of the authors. I would like to thank all of them for their willingness to contribute and their dedication to expanding our knowledge of the situation of LGBTQ people in sport in Europe, as well as for their commitment to and patience with the editorial feedback loops.

I particularly want to acknowledge and thank Tim Schlunski, who efficiently supported the editorial work as an intern, a student assistant, and, last but not least, a co-author.

Abbreviations

ADI AFES AICS ASKÓ ASVÓ BANG BLV BMI BOA BPA BuNT CAS CBS CEE CGPIF CNOSF CONI Consejo COLEF CSD DFB DILCRAH

DNI DOSB DSB EGLSF EL*C ENGSO

EPS ETS EU

Agrupación Deportiva Ibérica LGTBI

Grup d'investigació Activitat Física, Educació i Societat Associazione Italiana Cultura Sport

Allgemeiner Sportverband Osterreichs Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Sport und Körperkultur Österreich Budapest All Nations’ Games

Berliner Leichtathletik Verein

Bundesministerium des Inneren, Bau und Heimat British Olympic Committee

British Paralympic Committee

BundesNetzwerk Tagung queerer Sportvereine

Court of Arbitration for Sport

Central and Eastern Europe

Comité Gay Paris Ile-de-France

Comité National Olympique et Sportif Frangais Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano

Consejo General de la Educación Física y Deportiva Consejo Superior de Deportes

Deutscher Fußball-Bund

Délégation Interministérielle pour la Lutte contre le Racisme, l'Antisémitisme et la Haine anti-LGBT

Deutscher Olympischer Sportbund

Deutscher Sportbund

European Gay and Lesbian Sport Federation Eurocentralasian Lesbian Community

Equality Within Sport Committee of the European Non-Governmental Sports Organisation

Enti di Promozione Sportiva

Education through sport

European Union xvi Abbreviations

FARE FFBB

OII-Europe OOC OPC PACE PACS PAS

PE

PETE RIVM SCEG SGB

SMK SOGIESC

SOO TAO

Football Against Racism Europe

Fédération Frangaise de Basket Ball

Fédération Frangaise de Football

Federazione Italiana Gioco Calcio

Federazione Italiana Rugby

European Agency for Fundamental Rights

Fédération Sportive Gaie et Lesbienne (until 2021); Fédération Sportive LGBT + (since 2021)

Gender and sexual minority

International Association of Athletics Federations (until 2019); World Athletics (since 2019)

Iniziativa Contro l'Omofobia Nello Sport

International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association

International Olympic Committee

International Working Group on Women and Sport John Blankenstein Foundation

Koninklijke Nederlandse Hockey Bond

Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbal Bond

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex and Queer Ligue Internationale Contre le Racisme et l'Antisémitisme National Governing Bodies

Non-governmental organisation

Nationales Olympisches Komitee

National Sports Observatory for Diversity Osterreichischer Behindertensportverband Österreichischer Fußball-Bund

Österreichische Fußball-Bundesliga

Organisation Intersex International Europe Österreichisches Olympisches Comite

Österreichisches Paralympisches Comité

Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe

Pacte Civil de Solidarité

Physical and sport education

Physical Education

Physical Education Teachers Education

Sports Council Equality Group

Scottish Governing Bodies

Sportministerkonferenz

Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and Expression, and Sex Characteristics

Special Olympics Osterreich

The corporate income tax relief system

Abbreviations xvii

TGEU UISP UK UN USA VVCS WHO

Transgender Europe

Unione Italiana Sport Per tutti United Kingdom

United Nations

United States of America Vereniging van Contractspelers World Health Organization

Introduction - Sport, Identity and Inclusion in Europe

Values of equal treatment and policies for inclusion and anti-discrimination have a long tradition in Europe and are clearly expressed in Article 2 of the Treaty on the European Union (Council of the European Communities & Commission of the European Communities, 1992) and Article 21 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (EU, 2000).

In 2010, the first recommendations of measures dealing specifically with the challenge of combatting discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity were released by the EU Committee of Ministers (Council of Europe, 2010). The implementation of the respective recommendations in the member states was reviewed in two reports. The review report of 2019 concluded that a considerable number of member states had made substantial progress regarding the legal and social recognition of LGBT people (Council of Europe, 2019). It also indicated that discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation has been proscribed in legal documents across most European countries, whereas discrimination on grounds of gender identity has been covered to a lesser extent.

The development and implementation of LGBTQ anti-discrimination policies in Europe have been assessed annually by the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA). The so-called Rainbow Europe Index generally confirms the progress documented by the review report (ILGA-Europe, 2021). Political leadership and the greater visibility of the LGBTQ movement, combined with support and guidance from the Council of Europe, are identified as among the driving forces behind this progress. However, both the review report and ILGA have underlined the heterogeneity of the LGBTQ rights implemented across European countries and the fact that not all European countries are continually expanding anti-discrimination policies with regard to LGBTQ people.

Based on a demand for data on the human rights situation of European citizens, the Council of Europe launched a huge EU-wide survey in 2012, delivering, for the first time, comparable data on how LGBT people experience their daily lives. A second wave of this survey was conducted in 2019, now including intersex people and participants of a younger age (15 to 17 years; European Union Agency of Fundamental Rights, 2014, 2020). The results of the surveys revealed little progress in the way LGBT(I) people in the EU experience their human and fundamental rights in their daily lives. The surveys have uncovered variations in the extent of experienced homo- and transnegativity with regard to two reference points: areas of life and countries. Discrimination, harassment, and violence on grounds of sexual orientation and gender identity vary between the areas of life covered in the report (i.e. education, work, housing, and healthcare) as well as across national contexts, predominantly in correspondence with the findings of the Rainbow Europe Index. Thus, the overall EU average result of little progress in curtailing homo- and transnegativity conceals important differences between member states (European Union Agency of Fundamental Rights, 2020).

(In-)Visibility of LGBTQ issues in sport in Europe

It is striking that both the EU surveys on LGBT(I) experiences did not include physical activity and sport as a specific area of life. However, the 2019 review report on the implementation of measures referred to sport in its section on “Trends and Challenges”. Sport, in particular, is identified as “a hostile environment for LGBT persons where little real progress is being made compared to other areas” (Council of Europe, 2019, p. 14). Moreover, the fact that only very few professional athletes have come out as LGBT is interpreted as “a consequence of the lack of inclusive policies in the sports sector regarding SOGI [sexual orientation and gender identity]” (Council of Europe, 2019, p. 14). These observations, together with evidence from international research and LGBTQ advocacy work, are reflected in the Revised European Sports Charter (Council of Europe, 2021), which, in a section entitled “Sport for All”, includes Article 10 “The Right to Sport”. For the first time since the adoption of the European Sport for All Charter in 1975 and its update in 1992 and 2001 as the European Sports Charter, this includes a no-discrimination clause that specifically integrates sexual orientation as one of the grounds listed.

There has been a growing spectrum of international studies providing evidence that LGBTQ people regularly experience discrimination in physical education and sport (Denison et al., 2021). However, while there is a large body of research from North America, Canada, New Zealand, and Australia (Anderson et al., 2016; Anderson & Travers, 2017; Denison et al., 2021; Kavoura & Kokkonen, 2020; Krane, 2019), LGBTQ issues in sport in European countries still need to be critically assessed by scholars (Hartmann-Tews et al., 2021).

From a social science perspective, it is evident that sport is particularly predestined to be a homo- and transnegative area of life on the grounds of its specific characteristics as a societal system. The general mindset of sport, evident in all sports activities, is the communication of body-centred performance (Hartmann- Tews, 1996; Stichweh, 1990). This sport-specific mindset unfolds within the heteronormative gender order of society, which is reproduced and reinforced by the social structures and processes of the sports system. Heteronormativity is based on three interwoven beliefs: first, there are only two biologically natural and immutable sexes, male and female; second, there is a natural (sexual) attraction between

Introduction 3 males and females; third, there is a hierarchical order between men and women, placing men and masculinity above women and femininity. A huge amount of critical research documents as to how sport reproduces heteronormativity through its structures and processes (e.g. sex segregation and gender verification tests; Krane, 2019). It is this general cultural matrix, reinforced by the sport-specific mindset, that gives rise to homo- and transnegativity and discrimination against LGBTIQ individuals.

As shown in reviews of research, there is a dearth of research on the situation of LGBTQ athletes in Europe (Denison et al., 2021; Kavoura & Kokkonen, 2020). This book intends to fill the gap with regard to a critical assessment of the situation of LGBTQ individuals in sport and inclusion policies in Europe.

Diversity

Comparative research on sports development and governance shows that historical contexts and political configurations of nations are evident in sports systems. Structures and governance of sports systems vary across Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Oceania, and South America (Hallmann & Petry, 2013). The roots of modern sport in Europe refer to freedom of association, one of the central ideas of liberalism. Thereby, they differ from the features of the sports systems in, for example, the USA or Asia. The dominant policy framework of sports development in Europe is the autonomy of non-profit voluntary sports organisations (Chappelet, 2010). Based on this idea, there are many parallels in the development of organised sports and policy making across European countries. However, there are also significant differences between the countries. Variations can be identified with regard to the importance attached to leisure and grassroots sports compared to elite sports. Another crucial difference is the division of responsibilities for sports development between civil society (i.e. the non-profit voluntary sports organisations), the public sector (i.e. government), and the private market sector (Hartmann-Tews, 1996; Henry, 2009; Scheerder et al., 2017).

Although there is a dearth of research literature on LGBTQ issues in sport in Europe, research cooperation between researchers and advocacy policy practitioners in the context of LGBTQ issues in sport in Europe is increasing. Against this background, one of the intentions of this volume is to explore and critically assess the challenges and experiences of LGBTQ people in sport and sports inclusion policies with regard to LGBTQ people in various European countries.

Another central intention of the book is to raise awareness of and be sensitive towards the different experiences and challenges of LGBTQ individuals in face of the heteronormative and often hegemonic masculine social structures of sport in Europe and elsewhere (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005; Cunningham, 2019). Over the past decades, there has been growing evidence regarding the heterogeneity of sexual and gender identities, the potential intersections of both, and the mediating effects of gender, sexual and gender identity, and gender expression with regard to experiences of discrimination (Calzo et al., 2014; Harrison et al., 2012).

LGBTQ individuals and LGBTQ issues are the central reference points of the contributions. The term LGBTQ embraces lesbian, gay, and bisexual people, transgender individuals, and those who are identified as queer. The latter denotes a political stance and intentionally subverts the heteronormative gender order by providing a characterisation devoid of sex or gender categories. Little is known about the specific situation of intersex athletes in European sport, and none of the contributions or sections of the contributions are explicitly devoted to the specific situations and experiences of this group. Therefore, this book uses the acronym LGBTQ and does not include “I”. However, there are various cases of exclusion of intersex elite sports athletes, most of them are black women, on the grounds of regulations that treat testosterone as the essence of masculinity. The social construction of these regulations indicates the fragility of heteronormativity and should be critically assessed by social scientists in the field of sport.

The authors of the chapters use terms and identity labels in ways that, to the best of our current understanding, are most appropriate for the people being discussed and the focus of their analyses. Moreover, the terms homonegativity and transnegativity are preferred to describe anti-LGBTQ sentiments and actions, and thus, we refrain from using the common terms homo- and transphobia. This is because phobia implies an irrational fear, which is often linked to avoiding a specific phobic context. By contrast, the terms homo- and transnegativity more adequately grasp the active enactment of negative attitudes and discriminatory behaviours (MacDonald, 2018).

Contents of the book

These reference points shape the structure of the book, and the chapters are organised into three parts. Part I situates the book as a contribution to the field of sport-related LGBTQ research, with an explicit focus on the situation in Europe. Part II focuses on country-specific issues, examining the experiences of LGBTQ people in sport and inclusion policies in seven European countries. Part III covers a variety of topics with regard to specific subgroups of LGBTQ people (gay men, lesbian women, and transgender people) and the (policy) contexts of sports in which they are involved (leisure sports and competitive sports).

Part |

The first section contains three chapters that map the field with regard to theoretical and methodological approaches for analysing LGBTQ issues in sport, empirical findings of research on the experiences of LGBTQ people in sport in Europe, and European LGBTQ sport advocacy policies.

Braumiiller and Schlunski (Chapter 1) present a critical overview of the concept of LGBTQ and the theoretical approaches that researchers refer to when studying the situation of LGBTQ people in sport. In Chapter 2, Hartmann-Tews,

Introduction 5

Menzel, and Braumiiller present data from the Erasmus+ Outsport survey on the experiences of LGBTQ people in sport in Europe (based on a sample of 5,524 self-identifying LGBTQ people). The analysis takes into account the diversity of LGBTO people, different sports contexts that reflect the broad scope of sports cultures, and the general legal and political situation of LGBTO people in the EU member states. Complementing this section, Wachter and Torrance (Chapter 3) outline the development of the European Gay & Lesbian Sport Federation (EGLSP), highlight priorities, and explore areas of advocacy work being undertaken in relation to these priorities. They also pinpoint some internal and external cultural and structural constraints to establishing LGBTQ advocacy.

Part Il

The second section is devoted to seven country-specific reports on the situation of LGBTQ athletes and policies of inclusion in the respective national sports systems. The chapters include contributions from Western Europe (UK/Scotland, France, Germany, and Austria), Eastern Europe (Hungary), and Southern Europe (Italy and Spain). The countries represent different policy frame configurations, including sports systems with little state intervention (Austria, Germany, and Italy) and countries with strong state involvement (France, Hungary, and UK/ Scotland) (Willem & Scheerder, 2017). Moreover, these countries are located across the annual Rainbow Europe Index, representing various degrees of implementation of LGBTQ legal and political rights and different cultures of LGBTQ acceptance (Gerhards, 2010; ILGA-Europe, 2021). In the Rainbow Index of EU-27 plus UK, Spain (65%) and the UK (64%) are listed in the upper third of the index, while France (57%), Germany (52%), and Austria (50%) are positioned in the middle third, and Hungary (33%) and Italy (22%) are in the lower third (ILGA-Europe, 2021).

Each chapter includes brief information on the structure of the sports systems, the experiences of LGBTQ people in sports in each country based on the Outsport survey, and governments’ and sport organisations’ strategies for LGBTQ inclusion in sport. Although all the authors developed their chapters based on this frame of reference, the foci of the contributions vary according to central issues in the respective countries. The sequence of the country chapters is based on alphabetical order.

Staritz and Siilzle (Chapter 4, Austria) outline Austria’s sports culture, with its inherent homonegativity and sexism, and examine the roots of homonegativity in different types of sports. Against this background, they show the struggle of various LGBTQ initiatives against discrimination in organised sports in Austria, with its invisibility of LGBTQ inclusion policies.

Huillard and Hartmann-Tews (Chapter 5, France) outline the central role of the French state and public administration in decision making regarding sports development and their influence in the establishment of equality and diversity standards. The different paths and paces that federations are taking to implement

LGBTQ anti-discrimination measures are illustrated through interviews with central stakeholders.

Hartmann-Tews and Csonka (Chapter 6, Germany) illustrate the effects of the missionary corporatist policy framework of sports in Germany on the development of LGBTQ anti-discriminatory activities. Within this framework, queer sports clubs and their federal networking conference (BuNT) play an important role in increasing the visibility of LGBTQ issues in sport and fostering inclusion policy.

Szlavi (Chapter 7, Hungary) explores the obstacles that LGBTQ athletes, especially (cis and non-cis) women, are facing in Hungary, a country with decreasing equality rights for LGBTQ people. An account of initiatives aiming to challenge stereotypes and to make sports more inclusive completes the chapter.

Heusslein, Coco, and Bibbiani (Chapter 8, Italy) consider the conservative culture and low level of implementation of LGBTQ rights in Italy as the dominant frame for the homo- and transnegativity found in Italian sport. However, they identify several recent grassroots initiatives and voices that are beginning to signal a change towards a more LGBTQ- inclusive climate in sport.

Torrance (Chapter 9, UK) outlines the entrepreneurial sports policy configuration in the UK and the growing commitment of organised sports in England and Scotland to basic principles of diversity in sport based on the UK Equality Standard in Sport. The chapter discusses whether these developments correlate with improved experiences of LGBTQ athletes.