Contextualizing Practical Knowledge in Early Modern Europe

Front matter

CITCEM -= STUDIES IN LITERATURE 13

Annemie D.G. Leemans

Contextualizing Practical Knowledge in Early Modern Europe

Preface

Writing long books is a laborious and impoverishing act of foolishness: expanding in five hundred pages an idea that could be perfectly explained in a few minutes. A better procedure is to pretend that those books already exist and to offer a summary, a commentary.

Jorge Luis Borges'

In light of the quoted wisdom of Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges (1899- 1944), this introduction shall be short, offering a summary of this book. During the course of my studies and, later on, my PhD program, I learned that unnecessarily lengthy and detailed descriptions do not necessarily serve their purpose. I shall therefore try to introduce my topic, sources, method, structure, and underlying ideas only briefly in order to facilitate their reading.

This book was built on the PhD thesis I wrote for the joint Erasmus Mundus program TEEME, an acronym for Text and Event in Early Modern Europe. I had the great pleasure to work together with Amelia Polónia at the Universidade do Porto in Portugal and Catherine Richardson at the University of Kent in the UK. The other two universities forming part of this international collaboration were Freie Universitat Berlin and Charles University of Prague.

The way this book is structured is twofold. It investigates practical knowledge in a general sense across early modern Europe, and alongside this, it contains a case study of technological knowledge of art in early modern Europe. Both parts consist of three symmetrical chapters: the first chapter of each respective part investigates the origin or genesis of practical knowledge; the second chapter the transmission dynamics; and the third chapter assesses the consumers and consumption of practical knowledge.’

The overarching topic of this book is practical knowledge in early modern Europe. Practical knowledge is the know-how people have in order to make something, do something, or obtain something. Textually speaking, this knowledge presents itself as a prescription, recipe, secret, or formula. The areas of interest of practical knowledge are very wide. This can be illustrated by the variety of examples such as recipes

1 Cary 2014, p. 102. The quote comes from the introduction to Jorge Luis Borges’ collection of short stories El Jardin de senderos que se bifurcan, published in 1941.

2 Inspiration for this structure started growing after I enjoyed the teaching and guidance of professor Jan Van der Stock.

to make a perfume, to make ink, to make gunpowder, to dye leather, cure a cancer, remove grease from parchment, discover the sex of an unborn child, make snail water, cure bed-wetting, make almond butter, and many more.

These often interesting, curious, or odd types are textual variants of practical knowledge. The real essence of knowledge or knowing is a feature specific to the brain. Knowing is a mental comprehension of information. This means that the actual knowledge principally existed inside the brains of people. As you may imagine, getting information from the brains of the long dead is a complicated matter. Happily, for various needs and purposes, these owners of practical knowledge left written documents. It is these textual witnesses that provide the primary sources for this book. The repertoire of sources examined is largely early modern. When relevant, sources outside of the early modern timeframe (ca. 1400-ca. 1700) are consulted and referred to. Going outside the prescribed timeframe might not be very problematic considering the nature of texts containing practical knowledge: a lot of the texts that circulated in early modern Europe were copies of older texts. Some of the copied recipes go back to antiquity.’ Texts were copied and recopied, used and re-used, kept identical, or adapted and changed (for transmission principles see Part I, Chapter 2). This is why texts with practical knowledge could have a long lifespan. That is the reason why the boundaries of the early modern period can and should be crossed.

In order to maintain a dynamic picture of practical knowledge, a good range of commonly used recipes and recipe books and previously unconsidered material were selected. In order to maintain a European dimension, sources in several languages and from several geographical areas were considered.* Hence, the sources used come from several European and a few North American libraries and institutions. The largest number of recipe books consulted came from British libraries, such as the Wellcome Library, the British Library, and the Bodleian Library. Other libraries consulted in the UK were the National Art Library, the Caird Library of the National Maritime Museum London, the library of the Society of Antiquaries of London, Corpus Christi College Oxford, Magdalen College Oxford, the Chetham’s Library Manchester, the John Rylands University Library

4 The languages are: English, Italian, French, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, German, and Latin. Generally, one might state that the geographical areas coincide with the languages that appear in the recipe books, but this is not entirely true. For example, instances of Spanish and Portuguese recipes appear in an English recipe book Cf. London, Wellcome Library: Wellcome MS 7113). Also, Latin, not being among the targets of this book, can be seen as a way to cross boundaries.

of Manchester, the Sydney Jones University Library of Liverpool, the University Library of Glasgow, the University Library of Birmingham, and the University Library of Cambridge. In other European countries several libraries proved suitable for this research: Trinity College Dublin (TCD), Bibliothèque National de France (BnF), the library and archive of the Plantin-Moretus museum at Antwerp, the library of Rubenianum at Antwerp, the heritage library Hendrik Conscience at Antwerp, the university library of Antwerp, the university library of Bologna, the Biblioteca comunale dell’Archiginnasio at Bologna, and finally, the private library of Giovanni Mazzaferro at Bologna. In North America the Library of Congress and the Folger Shakespeare Library, both in Washington D.C., have been helpful. Furthermore, digital or paper reproductions of recipe books through other library systems, distant orders, or exchange with other scholars have proven profitable.

Most of the recipe books consulted for this work come from the first three libraries mentioned: the Wellcome, the BL and the Bodleian. In these libraries the search for recipe books within the set time frame and languages aimed for completeness, as far as possible. Languages considered here are English, Dutch, Italian, French, and German. But occasionally these recipe books introduced other languages, such as Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese. Other libraries were used for specific purposes: for example, the NAL contains a small number of interesting art technological recipe books. Even though the study behind this book contains a lot of work with primary sources, not all were taken up through the reference system. Some recipe books are more adaptable for use than others. This book makes frequent use of MS Wellcome 7113, because it is a very nice example of a seventeenth century recipe book. A lot can be said about this particular manuscript. However, the majority of studied sources are left unmentioned simply for reasons of selection and the legibility of this book.

There is a great deal of diversity and complexity in the contexts of recipe books. Generally, this book will speak about recipe books, but written recipes may appear almost anywhere: letters, diaries, various accounts, etc. With respect to the producers of the sources: they came from different social backgrounds and all genders. Sources may have produced for personal consumption, for a known or unknown patron or for divulgation, which entailed a specific or non-specific audience. This book tries to glean some general truths about textual and bookish practical knowledge.

The various methods applied here are those used by book historians: mainly a textual and material analysis. A book historian’s point of view is particularly convenient for the study of practical knowledge, because the remaining sources are mainly textual. Texts, which are the communicative vehicles of ideas and knowledge, are intrinsically connected to their material vehicles: books. It is obvious that all kinds of surfaces could be used to write down ideas. People could carve information into a church pillar or scribble a quick note on the butcher’s wrapping paper, but the common denominator for the sources used here is “books”: parchment books, paper books, thick books, thin books, handwritten books, printed books, specialist books, miscellaneous books, clean books, severely damaged books, parts of books, reassembled books, and many more. Books are the vehicles that contain texts; texts have agency - they embody the intellectual expression of information, interpreted here as practical knowledge disclosed in recipes. Throughout the whole of this work a distinction is made between books and texts, the first being a material vehicle, while the second is an intellectual vehicle that reflects ideas or information. A further distinction to be made is between work and text, because not every text is a literary work, such as the case of instructive literature. The use of ‘book title’ refers to the title of a book, meaning all individual copies of one or more editions. A copy is an individual, material book.

The lifespan of books hardly ever equals the lifespan of a text. Also, both books and texts are hardly ever fixed products. Both books and texts are subject to changes: texts change while being narrated or copied; books change through subsequent users. Books endure changes over time by multiple users who add (or remove) text or materially mutate the book. A combined textual and material analysis offers the best understanding of the sources. Through this method transmission dynamics are unveiled, and this method also sheds light on the manuscript — print rate.

This book frequently deals with secrets. Secrets have the literary form of a recipe and principally convey the same kind of information. The words ‘secret’ and ‘recipe’ are used interchangeably. The complex case of Alessio Piemontese could be interesting in the light it sheds on the various uses of the word secret. When talking about the secrets of Alessio Piemontese, what is meant is his collection of recipes as a whole including all the publications and manuscript copies that ever existed, whereas talking about the Secrets by Alessio Piemontese, refers to the English edition first published in 1558. When talking about the Secreti (1555) by Alessio Piemontese, the very first publication of the secrets of Alessio Piemontese is indicated. So ‘secrets’ indicate the content of the work, while ‘Secrets’ indicates the title of a publication.

With regard to the Low Countries, three terminologies are used to identify the linguistical and cultural situation: Flemish, Dutch, and Netherlandish. While being fully aware that the terminology Netherlandish is most commonly used in art history; it nevertheless proves to be suitable for book history. When something concerns only Bruges, the inclination is to refer to the case as Flemish, while, when it concerns Amsterdam, it will be addressed as Dutch. When referring to a language product or identity issue that concerns both regions, the term Nederlandish will be applied. The same reasoning can be used about English and British for instance.

Other than terminologies, this publication contains a lot of non-referenced biographical information, such as the dates of birth and death of people and other biographical details. For these matters, this current study made use of existing databases, unless otherwise stated. For English subjects, the online database of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, also known as the ODNB, was used.° For Italian subjects the online encyclopedia about Italian culture Treccani was consulted.° For subjects from the Low Countries Biographisch woordenboek der Nederlanden’ and the digitale bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse letteren, also known as the dbnl, were used.* The main source for arts- and craftsmen was the database of Oxford Art Online.’ For subjects who do not enter in one of these categories, data came from other secondary literature, was disregarded in cases of doubt or controversy, or, became the subject of research.

In referencing certain art technological recipe books, a conventional system was used, as prescribed in the literature about Cennini. There are many translations of Il libro dellarte by Cennino Cennini, which started to appear as early as the nineteenth century. The transcription of the Italian text was only recently published.” Lara Broecke published the Italian original with an accurate English translation. Unfortunately, the expectation of examining Cennini’s original text in this book proved impractical within this research, but this publication is an absolute must-have in one’s personal library.

Another way to facilitate the reading of this book is by shedding light on its structure. Part I of this publication will contribute to an understanding of the overall setup of practical knowledge. Part II of this publication emphasizes practical knowledge in the arts, hereafter called art technical knowledge. Part I is dedicated to practical knowledge in general whereas Part II addresses art technical knowledge in a precise context. This publication is conceived in two parts, each containing three chapters. The three chapters of both parts are organized www.oxforddnb.com. www.treccani. it. van der Aa 1852-1878. www.dbnl.org. www.oxfordartonline.com. 0 Lara Broecke, Cennino Cennini’s Il Libro delľArte: A New English Translation and Commentary with Italian Transcription (London: Archetype Publications, 2015).

= Oo ooNOADAU

Tab. 1: Schematic overview

PART I TOPIC PART II The study of Contextualization A very proper treatise

texts: practical the case study of an art

knowledge technological printed book

Chapter 1 Creation Chapter 1 The construction of A very proper treatise

practical knowledge (1573) as a literary product, reflecting art technological knowledge

Chapter 2 Dissemination Chapter 2

The transmission of Selling secrets. The print

practical knowledge business as a mediator in the dissemination of art technological knowledge

Chapter 3 Consumption Chapter 3 The early modern users of Buying secrets. The audience practical knowledge and the consumption of art technological literature in a symmetric way, meaning that the main topics correspond to the scheme outlined above.

The main aim of this interdisciplinary study is to contextualize practical knowledge. What is meant by ‘contextualizing’ is the studying of different topics that are intrinsically intertwined with the subject. In this book the origin or creation, transmission or dissemination, and use or consumption are key subjects for understanding the place of practical knowledge in early modern European society. As seen in the grid above, both parts of this publication evolve along these three topics.

The most suitable debut to any topic is an introduction to the topic. For this reason, the first chapter of Part I will be an introduction to the whole thesis. A working definition, historiography or state of the arts, and theorization are included in this chapter. For the historiography the reader is taken on a journey where various terminologies that align with or cover the concept of practical knowledge are touched on. This chapter theorizes the textual aspects of knowledge production. This first chapter acts not only as an introduction to Part I, but also to the whole book. Talking about practical knowledge without addressing transmission dynamics is a hard task. Transmission, dissemination, circulation, and knowledge transfer are a significant part of the nature and behavior of knowledge. Theory and exemplary studies will be addressed in the second chapter of Part I. Another way to contextualize practical knowledge is through the study of its producers and consumers. In the third chapter of Part I some key functions that people can exercise while they are dealing with practical knowledge are delineated.

Part II of this book takes a micro approach. In this part, the study of the early English print, A Very Proper Treatise (1573), finds its legitimate place. Ad Stijnman describes ‘art technology’ as ‘knowledge concerning the production methods of works of art or craft, ic. knowledge concerning materials, tools, machines, techniques and sites used in making objects with a certain cultural value/from cultural heritage." This means that Part II narrows down the topic from a broader concept (practical knowledge) to a more precise concept (art technical knowledge). The Treatise will be examined through the same three lenses used in Part I: creation, dissemination, and consumption. The big methodological difference between the two parts lies in the nature of the sources, Part I uses a variety of primary sources side by side with a significant corpus of bibliography while Part II focuses on a single source. The focus in Part I is mainly textual, while in Part II the material book is considered along with the text. There is a chronological order in the three chapters, which runs parallel to the three key topics. In the first chapter the origin of the text of the book is examined. The following chapter examines the making or origin of the material book. This finds its legitimate place in the second chapter about dissemination, because it was the introduction of print, that facilitated the dissemination of knowledge out into wider circulation. In this chapter it is argued that the book is a printer’s compilation. Finally, the consumption and consumers of the book will be studied in the third and last chapter.

11 Stijnman 2015.

Foreword

The interest in practical knowledge in this work is focused on an early modern European setting. However, I recognize that practical knowledge is timeless. In fact, today it is still a burning issue. Practical knowledge has flourished on social media. The Internet is overflowing with instructions in the form of videos, podcasts, slideshows, apps, wikihow and such like. “How-to” headlines seem to be successful and sexy.

During the summer of 2015, I started to interview my terminally-ill grandfather about trade secrets. My grandfather grew up within the context of a family business in luxury hand-made furniture. One of his responsibilities was to experiment with substances and procedures in order to manipulate the color of wood. I learned a lot during this encounter, in both a micro and macro sense. I learned. about which substances and materials woodworkers used in the fifties and early sixties in the Belgian ‘Westhoek’? I learned about interesting misconceptions about wood. And more importantly, I learned about the context of practical knowledge and secrecy, applied in an actual lucrative family business. A talk with my grandfather could easily lift the mysterious veil associated with secrecy, and this is an underlying concept of this book.

My grandfather assured me that creating and manipulating the color of furniture could keep him at work for several days and nights. He said that he learned everything through experiment; through trial and error. He added that these things could not be done in the kitchen, because they were ‘vuiligheid’ or filthy tasks. Long before a factory was built for family business, my grandfather’s great-grandfather placed furniture in the cowshed. The urine of cows contains ammonia, a substance present in the cowshed that makes beech lighter, and oak darker. My grandfather was aware of this information and used little quantities of bought ammonia to color furniture. Since he did not have a cowshed, he locked the furniture in the aeration room of the company’s independent electricity unit. He also used caligéne, an aggressive substance that caused skin loss from his hands and arms the first time he experimented with it. He also used bister, a substance diluted in water. In order to give bistre, a brown wood-soot pigment, a more intense color, he would boil it rather than just diluting it. Finally, his favorite personal recipe was adding chicory to colors for furniture.

12 The ‘Westhoek or ‘Maritime Flanders’ is the southern part of the coastal area of Flanders and its hinterland.

16 Foreword

His ‘inventions’ were personal but were used within the company. This kind of information was not readily exchanged, as illustrated by my grandfather’s exclamation that ‘the Malines people didnt tell us how they colored their furniture either. One of the challenges my grandfather faced, was conducting experiments without an organized system of record. He took no notes during the various phases of experimenting. Afterwards, if a procedure seemed to be successful, he did not have exact measurements. He would have to repeat it all over again to discover what the exact combinations and quantities were. Measurements were often decided upon, in my grandfather’s words, ‘by eye, which in any case would lead to imprecise descriptions of ‘a little of this’ and ‘a lot of that. But sometimes it was rather easier, such as with caligéne, which he diluted with 50 % water. Another of the company’s secret procedures was the hiring of a painter. Sometimes parts of the wood were not responsive to the coloring agents. Because the coloring procedure happened after the furniture was made, this was problematic, so the painter would paint a fake knot on the affected areas. According to my grandfather, their painter always did impeccable work; nobody ever noticed any painted areas on the furniture.

The secrets described above are procedures based on actual practice, often by trial and error. Secrecy was meant to keep the business or trade running. Practical knowledge can occasionally leave the professional environment and go into wider circulation. This also happened with my grandfather’s practical knowledge and secrets. The family business is no longer operating and has not been for many years, but the circumstances of this book and my personal interest resulted in the secrets leaving their original environment. Through this book, a certain number of people will read about them, so the knowledge will be passed on. If other scholars quote it or reference it, the potential for dissemination will increase significantly.

I would say that this book is like an early modern recipe book: eclectic. It is built from several kinds of practical knowledge. Early modern recipe books were also the product of collecting all kinds of practical knowledge, coming from different sources. A central idea of this book is that recipe books are assembled. Recipe books are rarely the product of a single person, because practical knowledge is always built on knowledge acquired previously by different persons.

Acknowledgements

Writing a book is a laborious task, which would not have been possible without the guidance, expertise, mentorship, support, and patience of two people that stood next to me during my PhD. My infinite gratitude goes to both my PhD supervisors, Amélia Polónia and Catherine Richardson. I owe special thanks to the publisher Peter Lang and also to the research center CITCEM of the University of Porto, for taking me up in their research community and making this book become possible. I must add that any mistakes left are entirely my responsibility. Further, I would also like to thank the TEEME staff and coordinators Bernhard Klein, Rui Carvalho Homem, Sabine Schiilting and Martin Procházka. I am grateful for the welcoming academic environment that they were able to create. I owe thanks for receiving guidance and advice during the research phase from several people: Alixe Bovey, Tony Edwards, David Ormrod, Ben Thomas, Katy Barrett, James Davey, Goran Proot, David Shaw, Robert MacLean, Elizabethanne Boran, Eric Frazier, Steven van Impe, Bill Sherman, Luisa Ciammitti, Carlo Ginzburg, Robert Tittler, Tessa Storey, Jack Cunningham, Giovanni Mazzaferro, Mark Clarke, Okihito Utamura, Jon, Stuart Palmer, Lynn and Matthew Salt, Liam Benison, Somnath Basu, Tim Geerts, Robrecht Van Hee.

Finally, I would like to thank my inner family circle and friends for bearing with me in times of need, for providing laughter and precious moments, for endless Skype calls, and cheering from the side-line.

Contents

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Part I The study of texts: practical knowledge

INGO CUCHION (4 cinaestigusdinumnnitiouinindamnim meinen iminaiananas 29 1 The premise of knowledge: placing practical knowledge 0... 33