China and the West

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PART 1: CHINESE-WESTERN HISTORICAL ENCOUNTERS AND MUSICAL EXCHANGES The Pipe Organ of the Baroque Era in China David Francis Urrows

From Colonial Modernity to Global Identity: The Shanghai Municipal Orchestra Hon-Lun Yang

Calafati, Sou-Chong, Lang Lang, and Li Wei: Two Hundred Years of “the Chinese” in Austrian Music, Drama, and Film

Cornelia Szab6-Knotik

Part 2: “staged” Encounters And Theatrical Representations Of Chineseness

Eastern Fantasies on Western Stages: Chinese- Themed Operettas and Musical Comedies in Turn-of-the-Last- Century London and New York

Michael Saffle

The Many Lives of Flower Drum Song (1957-2002): Negotiating Chinese American Identity in Print, on Stage, and on Screen James Deaville

Deterritorializing Spirituality: Intercultural Encounters in Iron Road Mary Ingraham ix viii CONTENTS

Part 3: Chinese-western Musical Encounters And Intercultural Compositions

Chinese Opera Percussion from Model Opera to Tan Dun 163 Nancy Yunhwa Rao

Spanning the Timbral Divide: Insiders, Outsiders, and Novelty in Chinese-Western Fusion Concertos 186 John Winzenburg

Combinations of the Familiar and the Strange: Aspects of Asian-Dutch Encounters in Recent Music History 205 Emile Wennekes

PART 4: IDEOLOGICAL ENCOUNTERS AND THE RECEPTION OF CHINESE MUSIC AND ENSEMBLES IN THE WEST

The Shanghai Quartets Chinasong: A Musical Counterpart to English-Language Cultural Revolution Memoirs? 223 Eric Hung

Contested Imaginaries of Collective Harmony: The Poetics and Politics of “Silk Road” Nostalgia in China and the West 243

Harm Langenkamp

When a Great Nation Emerges: Chinese Music in the World 265 Frederick Lau

A Postscript 283 Michael Saffle

Preface

‘The present volume had its origin in a four-day conference held in Hong Kong, a city often regarded as an East-West melting pot. Entitled “East Meets West: Sino-Western Musical Relations/Intersections/Receptions/ Representations,’ the conference took place at Hong Kong Baptist University from 16 to 19 April 2009 and was made possible by support provided by that university, its Department of Music, and the Hong Kong Arts Development Council. Both the conference and this, the volume that it inspired, testify to the efficacy of cross-cultural and interdisciplinary research. The conference itself brought together musicologists, ethnomusicologists, and music theorists from Austria, Belgium, Canada, Hong Kong, Mainland China, the Netherlands, and the United States. These participants sought to explore issues pertinent to East-West musical encounters of many kinds, especially those involving China.

The phrase cultural encounters often refers to actual contacts between individuals or groups of people of different origins, ethnicities, or nations. In the present volume, the term encounter refers as well to forms of musical representation, appropriation, and discourse. Encounters may involve products, not merely exchanges of ideas. The goal of this volume is a holistic approach to the study of Chinese-Western musical relationships, whatever their character or outcome, Inevitably, such an approach must be informed by notions of exoticism, orientalism, globalization, transculturation, and hybridity, but our contributors do not let these notions ignore a host of heterogenic/polyphonic cross-cultural musical activities across centuries of exchange. In the introductory essay, Hon-Lun Yang addresses these and other closely related issues in terms of existing theoretical approaches to the Chinese-Western musical “problem.”

Part 1 is devoted to actual encounters between Chinese and European individuals and to the artifacts, instruments, institutions, and compositions that resulted from these encounters. Part 2 examines theatricalized and mediated encounters involving performances of imagined “exotics” by cultural g P g y xX PREFACE insiders as well as outsiders, and for Chinese as well as Western audiences. Part 3 is devoted to musical encounters as manifested in musical languages, sonorities, and subject matters of “intercultural” compositions by composers from East and West. Part 4 is devoted to reception studies and considers ways in which differences are articulated in musical discourse by different actors serving different purposes, whether self-promotion, marketing, or modes of national—which sometimes means propagandistic—expression.

Part 1 begins with David Francis Urrows’ study of the pipe organ in China. Urrows opens a window into Sino-Western musical exchanges of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. In addition to facilitating worship, organs functioned as mechanisms of cultural diplomacy and were presented as gifts to several Chinese emperors, to demonstrate what Urrows calls the “curious and wonderful invention from the West.’ In his conclusion, Urrows notes that China's positive and open-minded reception of this Western instrument challenges the myth of an isolationist China intent on rejecting Western culture and technology.

Just as the pipe organ was an early icon of Western technology and engineering, the symphony orchestra served as a symbol of Western imperial power for both resident and expatriate audiences. Hon-Lun Yang's discussion of the Shanghai Municipal Orchestra (SMO), China's first professional orchestra, offers insights into another phase of Sino-Western interaction. Established in 1881 as a municipal band serving British interests in Shanghai, the SMO took on a multitude of new meanings and eventually became a metropolitan organization of which Shanghai was and still is proud. As such, the orchestra played an important role in the twentieth-century transculturation of Chinese music.

Cornelia Szabé-Knotik explores the uncharted territory of Austrian- Chinese musical relations. Her essay considers “Chinese” aspects of a nineteenth-century Viennese amusement park, Prince Sou-Chong as a character in an Austrian operetta, Austrias reception of Chinese pianist Lang Lang, and the exploitation of the “gifted body” in terms of the Sino-Austrian television movie Mozart in China. Szabé-Knotik raises a number of issues pertinent to the nature of cultural encounters, from notions of orientalism and chinoiserie that are associated with the performing arts to recent mediated encounters between East and West. Her discussion of Mozart in China unpacks film as a form of nationalist self-representation that, as she puts it, “covertly reasserts colonialist prejudices in favor of Western cultural superiority, revealing the “seemingly banal conclusion’ that orientalist attitudes

PREFACE xi remain powerful within the twenty-first century's “world of technologically sophisticated unawareness.”

Part 2 considers “staged” encounters that exploited as well as repositioned Westernized images of a more or less realistically portrayed China. Michael Safle deals with some two dozen Chinese-themed operettas and musical comedies presented during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries on London and New York stages. Works considered include Cole Porter's Anything Goes and the still-familiar Chu Chin Chow as well as The Pearl of Pekin, A Trip to Chinatown, and other “lost” productions. Drawing on Bellmans argument about both the shortcomings of recent musicological discussions “untethered” from the music they purport to engage, and the “preemptive disavowal of transcultural musics that don't pass ideological litmus tests,’ Safle pays attention primarily to the ways in which Chinese musical tropes—almost entirely Western products that nevertheless incorporated a few concessions to the traditional sources they purported to imitate—help today’s scholars understand a repertory now almost entirely forgotten.

James Deaville considers a work more familiar to contemporary enthusiasts of musical comedy, Rodgers and Hammerstein's Flower Drum Song, as well as that show’s various iterations in print, on stage, and in film. Chinese American immigrant author Chin Yang Lee's 1957 novel about San Franciscos Chinatown became the basis of a successful Broadway show and a well-known Hollywood movie, only to return to Broadway in 2002 as a less-thansuccessful “revisical.’ By examining textual and dramaturgical aspects of Lees original story and its several re-presentations, Deaville casts light on different forms of stereotypical Chinese Americanness and the “Chinatown experience, drawing attention to the complex identity negotiations that, in this case, extended across entire generations and modes of musical-dramatic expression.

Mary Ingraham examines Iron Road, a postmodern, politically conscious opera cowritten by Chinese Canadian composer CHAN Ka Nin and Canadian librettist Mark Brownell. As Ingraham points out, Iron Road is not merely an illustration of intercultural encounters—many of them highly unpleasant—between Canadian and Chinese communities of a century ago. Instead, the opera also deals with the construction of the trans-Canadian railroad and the lives of the Chinese immigrants who helped build it, and Ingraham’ discussion of its character and contents casts light on present-day Canadian interculturality, through “the immediacy and mediating properties of both Chinese cultural traditions and a Western operatic framework engaged for the work.’

xii PREFACE

Part 3 concerns intercultural compositions by both Chinese and Western composers. Nancy Yunhwa Rao’s essay deals with well-known contemporary Chinese composers—TAN Dun, CHEN Yi, ZHOU Long, CHEN Qigang, and Bright Sheng—and some of their cross-cultural compositions. Rao points out that what characterizes these individuals in terms of Chinese-Western musical relations is fourfold in nature: the composers themselves number among the success stories of the open-door economic policy of the Peoples Republic of China; they make good use of Western musical influences; their works reflect a hybridized approach to contemporary cross-cultural composition; and their compositions have been enthusiastically received in the West. Rao also argues that the cultural syntheses produced by these individuals are rooted in yangbanxi, the “model works” (especially the “model operas”) popularized during China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Her arguments, which contradict the opinions of critics eager to valorize Western influences over Eastern ones, revisit the East-West dichotomy in terms of recent Chinese culture and its often surprising musical evolution.

John Winzenburg deals with sinification in terms of timbral mixtures in Chinese-Western fusion works, especially concertos that feature hybrid instrumental sonorities. Beginning with Western notions of timbre, Winzenburg argues that the addition of new—that is, Chinese—instrumental sounds to the Western symphony orchestra exemplifies a cultural power struggle between opposing views of cultural identity and nationhood. Winzenburg also explains that new timbral possibilities provide Chinese as well as Western composers with opportunities to challenge traditional timbral and compositional boundaries—challenges apparent in and contributing to the proliferation, during the past few decades, of fusion/hybrid works such as GAO Weijie's Dreams of Meeting for Chinese bamboo flute, Western flute, and orchestra, and WANG Jianmin’s First Erhu Rhapsody for Chinese two-stringed fiddle and orchestra.

Emile Wennekes examines Dutch composers’ intercultural musical efforts within the context of nineteenth- and twentieth-century Sino-Dutch cultural exchanges. By comparing the musical/cultural combinations of “familiar” and “strange” elements in such contemporary compositions as Hier”, Hôtel de Pékin: Dreams for a Dragon Queen, and Monkey Subdues the White-Bone Demon, Wennekes unpacks reception issues central to all cross-cultural musical borrowings and appropriations. As Wennekes him-

PREFACE xiii self points out, the works in question were intended for Eastern as well as Western audiences, and they were created with both Eastern and Western performers in mind. His conclusions challenge binary notions of exoticism and orientalism, because the Dutch composers he examines have zealously sought to transcend existing cultural boundaries.

Part 4 opens with Eric Hungs intertextual and intercultural reading of the Shanghai Quartets Chinasong CD, especially JIANG Yiwen’s arrangements of Chinese folk songs foregrounded in that recording. Hung sheds light on Jiangs modes of self-representation, including music, liner notes, and reviews that, deliberately or accidentally, help consolidate a narrative of Chinese Cultural Revolution traumas previously introduced through firstperson memoirs of abuse, especially those published in the United States. For Hung, the ensembles Chinasong project represents a “musical memoir of exile” for American music lovers; for Chinese audiences, it opens “a space that allows Cultural Revolution survivors to discuss their personal experiences and thereby to overcome their personal traumas.”

Harm Langenkamp returns to the notion of a Chinese-Western dichotomy through an examination of ways in which the Silk Road has been imagined within the People’s Republic of China as well as by its sociopolitical other, the West. After analyzing both contemporary Chinese policies toward the muqam and the 2002 Smithsonian Folklife Festival, which featured the Silk Road as one of its themes, Langenkamp argues that both China and the United States use Silk Road imagery and music on behalf of what Fredrick Jameson would call a “symbolic enactment” of “collective unity.’ In reality, however, the Silk Road remains an example of hegemonic political propaganda, exploited by both Chinese and Western powers, rather than an example of successful multicultural cooperation.

Finally, Frederic Lau evaluates the orientalism embedded in the conception, reception, negotiation, contestation, and representation of cultural differences both inside and outside recent musical activities and artifacts. After reviewing certain aspects of Sino-Western relations, Lau scrutinizes several of the motives behind the quest for “Chineseness’—motives reflected through the showcasing of Chinese musical elements in certain quasi- “exotic’ compositions, the use of such extramusical “arguments” as program notes, and critical and audience-driven forms of reception—as well as pressures imposed by global marketing. For Lau, “attention to multiple interdependencies between history, praxis, human agency, production, consumpxiv PREFACE tion, and networks of ideological constructions is a must if we are to make sense of musical and cultural production in the twenty-first century and the Sino-Western relationship.’

Following a postscript by Michael Saffle, the volume concludes with a bibliography of principal primary and secondary sources. Online sources and sources from popular newspapers and magazines, cited in authors’ notes, are not included in the bibliography. Throughout the volume, Chinese names are generally presented last name first according to the Chinese practice unless those names are well established in the West or are names associated with publications in English. In such a case, the names are presented according to the Western practice. First occurrences of Chinese names in each chapter are presented surname first in capitalization followed by the given name (e.g., YANG Hon-Lun)., In the bibliography, all names—Chinese and Western—are cited in Western order (e.g.,“Yang, Hon-Lun’),

For support toward completion of this volume, the editors thank Hong Kong Baptist University, including its Faulty of Arts and Department of Music as well as the conference grant that supported part of the funding of the conference; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, especially its College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences; the Hong Kong Arts Development Council; and the University of Michigan Press. They also thank HO Wai-Chung, who helped organize the 2009 conference that contributed so much to the pages that follow, and Amanda Liu, who prepared the volume’s bibliography. Thanks as well to our editors Ellen Bauerle, Susan Cronin, and Kevin Rennells. Without their help this volume would never have appeared in print!

Hon-Lun Yang, Hong Kong Baptist University Michael Saffle, Virginia Tech

A Musical- Theoretical Introduction

Hon-Lun Yang

‘The appropriateness of such phrases as East-West, East meets West, and even China and the West is often challenged. Their use in academic discourse or in the names of institutions and organizations is predicated on a hypothetical dichotomy based on cultural as well as geographical differences.' This theoretical construct has long been regarded as binary (i.e., simplistic) and problematic, What is “East” or even China and what is“ West” depends largely on the person defining these words, on the purpose(s) for the definitions, and especially on when the distinctions themselves (e.g., national and regional boundaries) were made. Equally questionable is the inherent stereotyping of cultures and people associated with such terms.” Positing an unqualified China-West dichotomy suggests that power relationships and exchanges are equal on both sides of the hyphen or conjunction, which is often far from the truth. A case in point is Chinas complex musical interactions with the West during the past century as well as today, which has inspired the theme of this volume: China's encounters with Western music and, to a lesser extent, vice versa.

After discussing this “oriental-occidental” issue, the present essay is devoted to providing necessary contexts for a better understanding of various forms of musical exchange between China and the West and to examining different theoretical frameworks that have informed previous studies in intercultural and cross-cultural encounters, including exoticism, orientalism, globalization, transculturation, and hybridization. My coeditor and I consider it timely to examine Sino-Western musical encounters from different periods in history, at different occasions of contacts, and in different musical formats. The present volume not only fills the gap in the existing literature but also promotes cross-cultural understanding in a world in which distance is increasingly compressed through technological transformations. This essay not only provides a theoretical introduction to the rest of the volume but also accounts, to some extent, for its contents.

A SYNOPSIS OF CHINAS MUSICAL EXCHANGES WITH THE WEST

Chinese definitions of “the West” have shifted over time. Before the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), the term West referred to anything west of China's boundaries. After ZHENG Hes seven voyages of 1405-33 CE, however, this notion was expanded to include regions as distant as India and Arabia. Only during the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE) did “the West” come to include Europe and the Americas.’

Musical exchanges between China and the West—whether defined in terms of present-day India, the Middle East, or Europe and North America—have a long history. The Tang dynasty (618-907) was said to be a period marked by metropolitan culture, during which Chinese art and music was supposedly touched by many foreign elements.’ One significant phase of East-West exchange took place during the sixteenth century, as a result of European missionaries settling in southern China to spread Christianity.’ In the eighteenth century, Western music and musical practices were introduced to the Chinese imperial court through missionaries who served as government officials.® After trade or treaty ports were established on behalf of Western nations—one result of Britains victory over China at the end of the First Opium War and of China's military defeats by other Western nations during the decades that followed—Western music gradually began to enter Chinese society overall.” One example involves military bands and small orchestral ensembles, which emerged in major cities, such as Beijing, Shanghai, and Tianjin, during the early twentieth century.’

After the onset in China of the New Culture Movement in 1919, Western music became commonplace in Chinese cities, especially among the cultural elite.” The subsequent return of Chinese intellectuals from studying abroad, the founding of Western music programs at various universities in Beijing and Shanghai, and the establishment of the National Conservatory of Music in Shanghai in 1927 contributed to a large-scale musical Westernization, regarded by Chinese intellectuals—then as well as now—as routes to modernity.” Since the 1930s, Western music, also known as “new music,’ has coexisted in competition with traditional Chinese music.

In 1949, the establishment of the People's Republic of China (hereafter the PRC) opened a new page in China's musical development, with an array of government-initiated and politically motivated activities and genres. ‘The emergence of a global economy also facilitated the practice of Western music within the PRC, particularly after the end of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) and the introduction of open-door policies during the early 1980s. The soundscape of present-day China is multifarious; traditional and/or folk music coexists with various types of popular music (local-dialect pop, Chinese or Mandopop, and all types of Western popular music), as well as Western classical music. Millions of Chinese children are currently learning to play Western instruments.

EXISTING STUDIES ON SINO-WESTERN MUSICAL INTERCHANGES

Compared to other areas of Sino-Western studies,’ music has lagged behind in scholarly pursuits, particularly in English language discourses. Such a phenomenon is perhaps a result of both musicological interest in Western practices and ethnomusicological quests for cultural authenticity and tradition in Chinese music.’* In fact, most of the leading studies on Western music in China have been written by sinologists rather than musicologists or ethnomusicologists.” (Ethno)musicologists’ previous general lack of interest in Sino-Western musical encounters and interchanges is another example of an ingrained East-West dichotomy. When Chinese and Western music cultures are perceived as “different,” both “Eastern” and “Western” genres perceived as “pure” are privileged, an attitude that, inevitably, is reflected in what music scholars study and discuss in their literature.” After all, knowledge is closely tied to power. Discourse (research and publication), itself indicative of what is considered important, reinforces the knowledge that builds its own belief system,” which reinforces the Chinese-Western divide and overlooks the hybrid nature of contemporary soundscapes, be they Chinese or foreign.

Interests have been increasing in Sino-Western musical interchanges within the West, especially interchanges pertaining to Chinese American or Asian American musical interactions within Canada and the United States.

Notions of diaspora, orientalism, exoticism, imperialism, postcolonialism, and multiculturalism have been employed to cast light on issues pertinent to Chinese American music. Recently, scholars have published books and articles with subjects ranging from the traditions of Chinese music in Chinatowns’ to the role of Chinese culture in American avant-garde music” and American society,'® the stereotypical/orientalist portrayal and representation of Chineseness on stage and screen,” and the perception and reception of Chinese American musicians’ performances.”

Two monographs devoted to intercultural music studies possess special relevance for the present volume. The interdisciplinary study Locating East Asia in Western Art Music (2004) takes a holistic view of East-West musical relations in its exploration of both Asian-influenced Western composers and Western-influenced Asian composers as agents of cultural exchange.” Issues of intercultural dialogue through music are the focus of West Meets East: Musik im Interkulturellen Dialog.”

In addition to these monographs, several Chinese composers of contemporary music have gained the attention of a number of musicologists and theorists, paving the way for portions of the present volume.” A number of recent publications have been devoted to various aspects of contemporary Chinese music, testifying to increasing interest on the part of Western scholars. Thus far, however, the present volume is the only one devoted to Sino-Western musical encounters.

‘There is no denying a Chinese-Western divide in the encounters discussed in this volume. It is foregrounded in sights, sounds, and composition conceptions as well as popular and critical reception. But the notion of such a divide can also be contested. The organ and symphony orchestra, brought to China and discussed in the essays by Urrows and myself, were welcomed by local Chinese. Both have become parts of China's musical culture, which showcases cultural synergy rather than opposition. The portrayal and representation of Chinese themes on the Western stage have long evinced orientalism and stereotyping, but they can also be understood as celebrating multiculturalism; Canadian composer CHAN Ka Nin’s opera Iron Road, discussed by Ingraham, is a case in point. The hybrid sonorities of Western orchestras showcasing Chinese instrumentation, as discussed in Winzenburg’s essay, are not only examples of musical-cultural mixing; for many Chinese, then as well as now, they are icons of national glory, one of many ways of asserting national identity and recognition in a world of unequal political, economic, and cultural Chinese-Western relations.

EXISTING THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR INTERCULTURAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES

The notion of Western music as a “universal language,’ especially in regard to its impact on the musical practices of other cultures, has inspired recent works of scholarship devoted to issues associated with the weakening of cultural boundaries in the face of globalization.” As Bruno Nettl pointed out two decades ago, the world’s musical cultures are converging as a result of the “intensive diffusion of elements derived from European society—its technology, economic and political organizations.” After examining the impact of Western music on traditional musical cultures around the world, Nettl concluded that the process might bring musical diversity and enrichment to local cultures, thereby anticipating what has come to be termed “globalization.”

Yet intercultural contacts predated globalization by decades and even centuries, One form of such contact involves the idea of exoticism: a fascination with the unfamiliar that was manifested in literature and art as well as music. Western musical exoticism is generally understood as “the borrowing or use of musical melodies that evoke distant locales or alien frames of reference.” As a theoretical framework for discussing intercultural musical influences, especially focusing on musical compositions, exoticism has inspired a critical literature of its own.”® The breath and complexities of musical exoticism have received attention from Ralph Locke, who has applied the notion of “full context”—an otherness communicated not only stylistically but also programmatically—as a way of identifying musical exoticism.”

Recently, discussions of exoticism have entered the study of popular music and musical discourse, as well as studies of the appropriation of Western music by non-Western musical cultures, Philip Hayward, for example, has examined the presence of exotic themes in so-called world music as well as in the works of some American pop singers from the 1950s and 1960s.” Both the distant past and geographical distance are frequently referenced by pop groups as ways of engaging with present-day audiences. The English Australian rock band Dead Can Dance, for example, employs medievalism, whereas the Chinese fusion group 12 Girls Band alludes to China's ancient past through its nomenclature and visual allusions in music videos.”

In concert reviews and other venues of musical reception and study, exoticism is sometimes invoked to identify (i.e., essentialize) characteristic traits of particular types of local, regional, or ethnic music. A case in point involves discussions of Brazilian music in the New York Times.” Exoticism is not associated exclusively with Western notions of the unfamiliar. Today, belly dancing in Taiwan, although originally an imported art, has been taken over by the Taiwanese as a form of physical exercise and has thereby lost its original exotic connotations.”

Exoticism has also long been linked with colonialism and imperialism, and its manifestations in Western music almost inevitably reflect the patronizing attitudes of conquerors toward the conquered. Stereotypical representations of “the Orient” were identified in Edward Said’s seminal monograph Orientalism.™ In fact, as a critical construct, orientalism provides another framework for studying musical contacts closely tied to exoticism.” As a postcolonial critique, it has been employed in studies ranging in subject matter from, for example, Mozart's appropriation of the Turkish style** to Russian musical nationalism,” musical practices of the British Empire,” and the music of Asian immigrant communities in California.”

Insights provided through discussions of orientalism and postcolonial theory have empowered scholars to be critical of Western musical practices. Georgina Born and David Hesmondhalgh, for example, have examined intricate musical relationships between the West and other cultures in terms of borrowings, representations, and appropriations.“ Timothy Taylor has taken a step further, to unpack Western musical domination in terms of imperialism, colonialism, and globalization, as well as the ideologies these activities have produced.“

But the use of orientalism and postcolonial theory as critical frameworks has been confronted with criticism. As Jonathan Bellman has suggested, postcolonial critics often treat all musical references to other peoples or places with suspicion.“ Because postcolonial theory focuses attention on unequal power relations and hegemonic exploitation as results of political/ economic/social systems, Bellman questions the validity of its application to all intercultural relationships under the auspices of globalization.” Is it possible for intercultural music to exist outside hegemonies of any and every kind? For the present author, postcolonial theory is problematic because it is itself hegemonic, insofar as it concentrates on its own tradition and excludes the voices of others.

‘This takes us to another theoretical construct: globalization itself. One of the most important and perhaps overused modes of intercultural and cross-cultural research, globalization implies worldwide interdependencies that render distances and cultural differences irrelevant, a process often assumed to take place everywhere in economic, political, and cultural circumstances** and marked by “increased trade and transnational economic activity, faster and denser communication networks, increased tensions between (and within) cultural groups due to intensified mutual exposures.” The advent of such technological innovations as phonograph recordings, cassettes, CDs, VCRs, DVDs, MP3, MP4, and YouTube posts is considered crucial for the globalizing processes that began during the early twentieth century.‘ At the same time, Richard Wetzel reminds us that the movement of music from one place to another has enjoyed a very long history prior to the advent of globalization.“

One of the direct consequences of globalization is the worldwide market for what is known as “world music.” Be it “authentic” or “hybrid,” the production and consumption of this commodified product largely depend on notions of difference and otherness, themselves central to any form of exoticism.*? In Global Pop: World Music, World Market, Timothy Taylor examines the intricacies between pop music in the West and the so-called world music and addresses issues of authenticity by examining first-world artists’ appropriation of third-world materials to reveal the exoticism embedded in globalization.” What Western consumers want, according to Taylor, is not genuine foreign music but a hybrid product almost, but not quite, the same as the music they already know.” World music, in other words, is a fabricated genre that feeds the West's imagination of its others. Increasingly, too, it is sold in third-world markets around the globe.”

In Music and Globalization, editor Bob White points out that music is itself an important source of information about globalization, because musical practices demonstrate how people engage with one another cross-culturally.” The intercultural flow of music is involved with global capital, local economies, international relations, cultural diplomacy, national identities, cultural politics, representations of peoples, commodification, cultural hegemonies, imperialism, hybridizations, and consumer cosmopolitanism. ‘The increasing dissemination of popular music, for example, is sometimes seen simply as the onslaught of American culture, a form of cultural imperialism that scholars have criticized and that the governments of certain countries are trying to ward off.**

At the same time, different forms of popular music are proliferating in non-Western countries, as documented in a number of cross-cultural studies that relate popular music to issues of national identity and resistance.” ‘The impact of such transnational soundscapes on indigenous music culture is itself evolving in the face of local and global markets controlled by popular music industries, themselves both local and global. Studies of issues pertinent to capitalism and Western cultural values and their relationship to local cultures, peoples, and industries often draw attention to tensions between global and local forces that are moving some countries toward cosmopolitanism and cultural heteroglossia.”° Brazil is one such country: providing one of the world’s six largest musical markets, it has made immeasurable contributions to modern urban popular music, creating styles and genres that have served as inspirations for popular music of other locations.” While exoticism and globalization represent frameworks for discussing musical contacts cross-culturally, transculturation and cultural hybridity serve as frameworks that help us analyze the products resulting from cultural contacts. Transculturation, itself a concept invented by Fernando Ortiz, represents a process that “necessarily involves the loss or uprooting of a previous culture” and then “the consequent creation of new cultural phenomena. ... [T]he result of every union of cultures is similar to that of the reproductive process between individuals: the offspring always has something of both parents but is always different from each of them.” New cultures, like those that have emerged in Cuba as Ortiz points out in his seminal work Cuban Counterpoint and China as the chapters in this volume present, have undergone transformations through cultural exchanges, mutations, and cross-pollinations due to colonialism and/or globalization. Hybridity theory is a form of postcolonial discourse that resists notions of colonialism and imperialism, instead providing a multilayered framework for students of cultural practices, As such, it valorizes hybridized cultural forms and emphasizes the mutuality of contacts between colonizer and colonized.” As a theoretical framework, hybridity has been applied to the study of such postcolonial musical forms as Latino popular music and Chinese popular music from Hong Kong (also known as Cantopop).® As a manifestation of cultural globalization, hybridity informs the study of a number of musical genres, including tango and flamenco, as well as fusion works that combine instruments of different cultural practices.” It is also often used as a marketing strategy in the promotion of world music, linking industry products to exoticism as well as globalization.”