Balanced Urban Development: Options and Strategies for Liveable Cities

Front matter

Water Science and Technology Library

Basant Maheshwari ve me n:

Water Science and Technology Library

Preface

The current world population is about seven billion, split almost evenly between rural and urban. Projections are that by 2050 the global population will increase to about ten billion. It is likely that the bulk of the increase will occur in urban population, perhaps due to migration from rural areas. The massive migration is and will be posing huge challenges with regard to water security, energy security, food security, transportation, housing, education, health services, protection from natural disasters, social tranquillity, economic opportunities and health of ecosystems. These challenges will be daunting for any government — local, state and national. Already, migration of people from rural areas to urban areas is occurring at an accelerating pace, particularly in developing countries, such as Brazil, China, Egypt, India and Mexico. For the lack of space, urban development is moving into the countryside, eliminating much of the best farmland surrounding cities, and periurban areas are rapidly sprouting. In many countries, some of the highly valued natural resource assets, such as biodiversity, native vegetation, peri-urban agriculture, wetlands and waterways, occur in peri-urban landscapes. In view of the impacts of climate change, energy costs, rising world population and changing patterns of food consumption, the value of these assets will increase even further.

The aim of any government body is to strive for balanced urban development (BUD). However, BUD may mean different things to different people and different sectors. There is no universal definition of BUD. It is therefore important to have a dialog on this very critically important issue. In many countries, the way urban areas have come up, there are limited options left for BUD. The local and state governments do not have well-developed strategies to achieve BUD or have limited opportunities to develop new and innovative strategies for BUD. The motivation for this book therefore stemmed from the desire to provide a discussion of BUD and options and strategies for achieving it.

Introducing the theme of this book in Chap. 1, the subject matter of the book is divided into nine parts. Part II deals with peri-urbanisation comprising five chapters. Chapter 2 discusses lessons learnt from re-ruralising in the USA, Europe and Global South; what is being done to keep the countryside (peri-urban areas) green is treated in Chap. 3. Chapter 4 discusses rural design connecting urban and rural futures. The vi Preface role of archaeology and urban dynamics in developing more resilient and sustainable cities in the peri-urban interface is presented in Chap. 5. One consequence of urbanisation is the generation of pollutants and their transport by run-off. Chapter 6 deals with the decontamination of urban run-off.

Part III, comprising three chapters, deals with peri-urban culture and social economy. Chapter 7 discusses the case of Lisbon, Portugal, to illustrate the social and economic dimensions of urban areas. Taking the case of Udaipur City in Rajasthan, India, Chap. 8 discusses the changing economic scenario of peri-urban areas. Chapter 9 deals with the stakeholder viewpoints on urbanisation, with particular reference to Ma Oya River in Sri Lanka.

Peri-urban land use planning is the theme of Part IV that comprises three chapters. Chapter 10 discusses the role of peri-urban land use planning, with particular reference to Melbourne, Australia, whereas Chap. 11 discusses how to engage periurban stakeholders in natural resource management which is a challenge in any landscape. Chapter 12 deals with a master plan for urban farming in western Sydney from planning to implementation. It highlights the challenges the plan will face, including legislative and regulatory processes and environmental and social factors, and provides insights into planning-to-reality of the farming plan.

Urban water security is the theme of Part V that comprises four chapters. Chapter 13 discusses urban water bodies, such as wetlands, that act as coolers for urban environment and natural filters for water purification. Chapter 14 deals with groundwater crisis, with particular reference to Delhi, India, and reflects on the sustainability of this valuable resource. Using the case of peri-urban communities of southeast Nigeria, Chap. 15 discusses safe water supply determinants, and Chap. 16 deals with risks of groundwater and aquifer contamination due to hydraulic fracking.

Part VI deals with the recycling of wastewater and its use for irrigation. It contains three chapters. Chapter 17 deals with the use of recycled wastewater for irrigation of open spaces, such as lawns, golf courses and parks. Chapter 18 discusses challenges and opportunities, based on global experiences on the use of wastewater for irrigation. It makes a strong argument for the employment of modern technologies to mitigate detrimental environmental consequences of wastewater irrigation. Discussing a case study of Udaipur City, Rajasthan, India, Chap. 19 deals with the impacts of wastewater reuse on peri-urban agriculture.

Urban agriculture and food security constitute the subject matter of Part VII containing four chapters. Chapter 20 deals with urban agriculture in Cuba, with regard to legal structures in response to food security crisis. Chapter 21 discusses news ways to identify high-quality agricultural lands and use them as a decision-making tool, whereas Chap. 22 discusses planning and design of food-efficient neighbourhoods. Using Kampala, Uganda, as a case study, Chap. 23 discusses the role of peri-urban areas in the food system.

Part VIII treats the impact of climate change and adaptations and contains four chapters. Chapter 24 discusses a project in Victoria, Australia, that identifies, analyses and evaluates climate change risks and develops an adaptation plan to prepare for likely impacts of climate change. Chapter 25 emphasises the role of awareness

Preface vii through education and training to understand climate change impacts and develop plans to cope with these impacts, using a case of Pakistan. Chapter 26 considers the effect of climate change on food production with particular reference to urban agriculture and the associated impact on food security. It also considers the value of urban agriculture to the health and nutrition of developing and developed countries. Chapter 27 discusses the adaptive capacity of Indigenous People living in coastal urban and peri-urban areas to climate change.

Legal, policy and institutional challenges are described in Part IX that contains three chapters. Chapter 28 argues for voluntary collective action to be essential for natural resource governance in peri-urban settings, where a complex behavioural and institutional matrix and the net balance of incentives and disincentives, supports and impediments determine the likelihood of effective action. The chapter explores the dynamic nature of the challenge of collective action in a peri-urban setting. Real estate is a major driver of the economy in many countries of the world and is one of the main barriers to the development or implementation of zoning and planning regulations that would make urban agriculture more than a fortuitous and temporary use of space. Taking the case of Beirut, Chap. 29 deals with gentrification versus territorialisation in reference to peri-urban agriculture. Chapter 30 discusses the role of mega urban regions as economic integration regions in Southeast Asia.

The last part, Part X, deals with integrated urban development. Beginning a discussion of lessons learnt from the journey of engagement for the sustainability of water resources in peri-urban landscapes in Chap. 31, it goes on to discussing the development of future management options for Hawkesbury River in Chap. 32. Case studies from New South Wales discussing the development of plans for reducing mosquito hazards in peri-urban landscapes are presented in Chap. 33. Chapter 34 presents and demonstrates the use of an information modelling platform for assessing alternative urban development scenarios. It also illustrates the application of the platform to a peri-urban development in the city of Melbourne, Australia.

It is hoped that peri-urban planners and managers, municipal council representatives, local governments and state governments, as well as students, researchers and consultants of water and land use planning, environmental management, peri-urban agriculture, food security, water security, energy security and ecosystems management, will find this book to be useful.

Penrith, NSW, Australia Basant Maheshwari College Station, TX, USA Vijay P. Singh Moratuwa, Sri Lanka Bhadranie Thoradeniya

Acknowledgments

This book is a result of the International Conference on Peri-Urban Landscapes: Water, Food and Environmental Security held during 8-10 July 2014 Western Sydney University, Australia.

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of UNESCO Regional Science Bureau for Asia and the Pacific Office, Jakarta, Indonesia; King Saud University and Alamoudi Water Chair; and the Ian Potter Foundation for their generous support for the conference.

We thank the Conference Organising Committee, particularly the Hon. Kevin Rozzoli, Adj. Associate Professor Bruce Simmons, Dr Maria Varua, Professor Shahbaz Khan, Dr Keith Bristow and Professor Hector Malano for all the help during the conference. The assistance of Ms. Joycelyn Applebee in the edit and preparation of the chapters is gratefully acknowledged.

Open access publication of this book has been made possible through financial support from Mistra Urban Future, Sweden, and Western Sydney University, Australia. Mistra Urban Future is a Swedish-based international research and knowledge centre in sustainable urban development. It works through transdisciplinary cocreation and co-production in local research partnerships among different academic and nonacademic stakeholders in Sweden and abroad.

We would like to take this opportunity to thank all the chapter authors for their contribution in the book.

Contents

PartI Introduction

Basant Maheshwari, Vijay P. Singh, and Bhadranie Thoradeniya

Part II Peri-Urbansation Re-Ruralising the Urban Edge: Helen Armstrong and Abby Mellick Lopes

Jennifer Scott, Marnie Kikken, Michelle Rose, and Penny Colyer

Dewey Thorbeck and John Troughton

Archaeology and Contemporary Dynamics for

More Sustainable, Resilient Cities

David Simon and Andrew Adam-Bradford

Leo Crasti

Part III Peri-Urban Culture and Socio-economy Socio-Economy of Peri-Urban Areas

The Case of Lisbon Metropolitan Area... 111 Maria Fatima de Ferreiro, Sebastião Santos, Pedro Costa,

Teresa Costa Pinto, and Conceição Colaço xi

Changing Economic Scenario of the

Peri-Urban Area of Udaipur City, India... eee

P.S. Rao, Hari Singh, and R.C. Purohit

Community Stakeholder Viewpoints on Issues

Bhadranie Thoradeniya and Malik Ranasinghe

Part IV Peri-Urban Landuse Planning The Role of Peri-Urban Land Use Planning in Resilient

Michael Buxton, Rachel Carey, and Kath Phelan Engaging Peri-Urban Landholders

Stephanie Spry, Shayne Annett, Simon McGuinness, and Stephen Thuan

Implementing the Urban Farming Master Plan in Horsley

Yolanda Gil, David Kirkland, and Rocco Sergi

Part V Urban Water Security

Study of Urban Water Bodies in View of Potential for Micro-climatic Cooling and

Abu Taib Mohammed Shahjahan and Khandaker Shabbir Ahmed

Groundwater Crisis of a Mega City:

A Case Study of New Delhi, India 00.00... cece eeeeeeeeecneeneeneenees

Vijendra K. Boken

Safe Water Supply Determinants in Peri-urban

Communities of South-East Nigeria... eee eeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeees

E.E. Ezenwaji, H.O. Ahiadu, and V.I. Otti

Risks of Coal Seam and Shale Gas Extraction

Donald P. Dingsdag

Part VI Wastewater and Irrigation Use of Recycled Water for Irrigation

Muhammad Muhitur Rahman, Dharma Hagare, and Basant Maheshwari

Contents

Contents

Global Experiences on Wastewater Irrigation:

Mohammad Valipour and Vijay P. Singh

Impacts of Wastewater Reuse on Peri-Urban Agriculture:

Part VII Urban Agriculture and Food Security Urban Agriculture in Cuba

Liesel Spencer

High Quality Agricultural Land in Western Australia:

Dennis van Gool, Angela Stuart-Street, and Peter Tille

Food Efficient Planning and Design

Sumita Ghosh Role of Peri-Urban Areas in the Food System of Kampala, Uganda 0... ee eeeesecseeneeeeseeeeeeeeeseeceeeeeees

Elly N. Sabiiti and Constantine B. Katongole

Part VIII Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations

Climate Change Adaptation Planning with Peri-Urban Local Government in Victoria, Australia Carl Larsen and Shelley McGuinness

Awareness of Climate Change Impacts

Zareen Shahid and Awais Piracha

Urbanisation, Nutrition and Food Security:

Tom Beer, Brenda B. Lin, and Albert E.J. McGill

Coastal Urban and Peri-Urban Indigenous

Darryl Low Choy, Philip Clarke, Silvia Serrao-Neumann, Robert Hales, Olivia Koschade, and David Jones xiii

Part IX Legal, Policy and Institutional Challenges Effect of Social and Institutional Fragmentation

Paul Martin, Elodie Le Gal, and Darryl Low Choy

Gentrification Versus Territorialisation:

The Peri-Urban Agriculture Area in Beirut «0.0.0.0... ee

Maria Gabriella Trovato, Nadim Farajalla, and Orazio Truglio

Reimagining the “Peri-Urban”

Part X_ Integrated Urban Development

Sustainability of Water Resources in Peri-Urban

Kevin Rozzoli and Basant Maheshwari

Development of Future Management

Options for the Hawkesbury River...

Bruce Simmons, Uthpala Pinto, Jennifer Scott, and Basant Maheshwari

Planning Development to Reduce Mosquito Hazard in Coastal Peri-Urban Areas:

An Integrated Simulation and Visualisation Platform for the Design of Sustainable Urban

Developments in a Peri-Urban Context 00.00.0000. eee eeeeneneeees

Meenakshi Arora, Tuan Ngo, Lu Aye, Hector Malano, and Oliver Lade

Options and Strategies for Balanced Development for Liveable Cities: An Epilogue...

Vijay P. Singh, Basant Maheshwari, and Bhadranie Thoradeniya

Contents

List of Contributors

Andrew Adam-Bradford Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, Coventry, Warwickshire, UK

H.O. Ahiadu Department of Geography and Meteorology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria

Khandaker Shabbir Ahmed Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Shayne Annett RM Consulting Group, Camberwell, VIC, Australia Helen Armstrong QUT, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Meenakshi Arora Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Lu Aye Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Tom Beer CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, VIC, Australia

Vijendra K. Boken Department of Geography and Earth Science, University of Nebraska-Kearney, Kearney, NE, USA

Michael Buxton School of Global Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Rachel Carey Research Fellow, University of Melbourne, VIC, Australia Philip Clarke Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia

Conceição Colaço ISA-UL/CEABN, Lisboa, Portugal

Penny Colyer Ku-ring-gai Council, Sydney, NSW, Australia

XV xvi List of Contributors

Pedro Costa Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL) and Dinâmia’ CET- IUL, Av. das Forças Armadas, Lisboa, Portugal

Leo Crasti A Consultplus Engineering, Luddenham, NSW, Australia

P.E.R. Dale Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith School of Environment, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia

Maria Fátima de Ferreiro Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL) and Dinâmia’ CET-IUL, Av. das Forças Armadas, Lisboa, Portugal

Donald P. Dingsdag South Penrith Distribution Centre, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

P.G. Dwyer Aquatic Ecosystems DPI Fisheries, Wollongbar, NSW, Australia

E.E. Ezenwaji Department of Geography and Meteorology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria

Nadim Farajalla FAFS — Landscape Department, American University of Beirut Bliss Street, Riad El-Solh, Lebanon

Sumita Ghosh Faculty of Design, Architecture and Building, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Yolanda Gil Western Sydney Parklands Trust, Parramatta, NSW, Australia

Dharma Hagare School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

Robert Hales Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia David Jones Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia

Constantine B. Katongole Department of Agricultural Production, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda

Marnie Kikken Ku-ring-gai Council, Sydney, NSW, Australia David Kirkland Western Sydney Parklands Trust, Parramatta, NSW, Australia

J.M. Knight QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute, Herston, QLD, Australia

Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith School of Environment, Nathan, QLD, Australia

Olivia Koschade Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia

Oliver Lade Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Carl Larsen RM Consulting Group, Camberwell, VIC, Australia Elodie Le Gal University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia

List of Contributors xvii

Brenda B. Lin CSIRO Marine and Atmospheric Research, Aspendale, VIC, Australia

Darryl Low Choy Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia

Basant Maheshwari School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

Hector Malano Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Paul Martin University of New England, Armidale, NSW, Australia T.G. Mc Gee University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Albert E.J. McGill International Union of Food Science and Technology, Riddells Creek, VIC, Australia

Shelley McGuinness RM Consulting Group, Camberwell, VIC, Australia Simon McGuinness RM Consulting Group, Camberwell, VIC, Australia

Abby Mellick Lopes School of Humanities & Communication Arts, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Tuan Ngo Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

V.I. Otti Civil Engineering Department, Federal Polytechnic, Oko, Nigeria

Kath Phelan School of Global Urban and Social Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Teresa Costa Pinto Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL) and Dinâmia’ CET-IUL, Av. das Forças Armadas, Lisboa, Portugal

Uthpala Pinto School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

Awais Piracha Geographies and Urban Studies Department, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

R.C. Purohit Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

Muhammad Muhitur Rahman School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

Malik Ranasinghe Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

P.S. Rao Department of Soil and Water Engineering, CTAE, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India xviii List of Contributors

Michelle Rose Ku-ring-gai Council, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Kevin Rozzoli Chair, Water and Land Management Innovation & Sustainability Enhancement Partnership in Peri-urban Research, Grose Vale, NSW, Australia

Elly N. Sabiiti Department of Agricultural Production, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda

Sebastião Santos Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL) and Dinamia’CET-IUL, Av. das Forgas Armadas, Lisboa, Portugal

Jennifer Scott Ku-ring-gai Council, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Rocco Sergi Western Sydney Parklands Trust, Parramatta, NSW, Australia

Silvia Serrao-Neumann Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia

I. Shaharudin Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia Zareen Shahid University of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan

Abu Taib Mohammed Shahjahan Department of Architecture, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Bruce Simmons School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

David Simon Mistra Urban Futures, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden

Department of Geography, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham, Surrey, UK

Hari Singh Department of Agricultural Economics & Management, RCA, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

P.K. Singh Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

Vijay P. Singh Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Liesel Spencer School of Law, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia

Stephanie Spry RM Consulting Group, Camberwell, VIC, Australia

Angela Stuart-Street Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, WA, Australia

Bhadranie Thoradeniya Institute of Technology, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

List of Contributors xix

Dewey Thorbeck Center for Rural Design, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA

Stephen Thuan Port Phillip & Westernport Catchment Management Authority, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Peter Tille Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, WA, Australia John Troughton Guntonia Investments Ltd, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Maria Gabriella Trovato FAFS — Landscape Department, American University of Beirut Bliss Street, Riad El-Solh, Lebanon

Orazio Truglio Lebanese Academy of Fine Arts - ALBA, Beirut, Lebanon

Mohammad Valipour Young Researchers and Elite Club, Kermanshah Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran

Dennis van Gool Department of Agriculture and Food, South Perth, WA, Australia

K.K. Yadav Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Technology & Engineering, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India

Editors Biography

Basant Maheshwari has wide-ranging research experience in urban and peri-urban water management, planning and sustainability. Over the past 10 years, his work has involved transdisciplinary approach to water research and has focussed on understanding how water, landscape and people at the interface of urban and rural fringe (peri-urban) interact and influence the environment and sustainability. His work in recent years focussed on modelling and analysing the surface and groundwater resources for long-term water resource planning at regional level and examining the implications of social, economic, cultural, policy and institutional aspects of water resources management. He has over 180 publications, including more than 75 journal articles in peer-reviewed, international journals. He was recipient of the 2010 Collaboration and Leadership Award from CRC for Irrigation Futures and fellow of ISAE.

Vijay P. Singh Ph.D., D.Sc., P.E., P.H., Hon. D.WRE, is distinguished professor and Caroline and William N. Lehrer distinguished chair in water engineering at Texas A&M University. Professor Singh has been recognised for four decades of leadership in research, teaching and service to the hydrologic and water resources engineering profession. He has published his research in more than 710 refereed journal articles, 300 conference proceedings papers, 80 book chapters and 70 technical reports. He has authored or co-authored 21 books and has edited another 54 reference books. He has been the recipient of 63 national/international awards from professional organisations. He is a recipient xxii Editors Biography of the Arid Land Hydraulic Engineering Award, Ven Te Chow Award, Torrens Award, Norma Medal and Lifetime Achievement Award all given by ASCE and Ray K. Linsley Award and the Founders Award given by the American Institute of Hydrology. He has been awarded two honorary doctorates one by the University of Waterloo, Canada, and the other by the University of Basilicata, Italy. He is a fellow of ASCE, EWRI, AWRA, IE, ISAE, IWRS, IASWC and IAH and a member of AGU, IAHR, IAHS and WASER. He is member/fellow of ten engineering/science academies.

Bhadranie Thoradeniya is a senior lecturer at the Division of Civil Engineering, Institute of Technology, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka. Her research interests and teaching experience over 30 years in the subjects related to water and land are underpinned by the M.Sc (Distinction) degree she obtained from the UNESCO-IHE, the Netherlands, in 1995. Over the years her research has focused on social, economic and environmental aspects of water resources development and specifically on stakeholder involvements in engineering projects. Currently she is leading an international research team on a project aiming to ascertain the impacts of water quality on livelihood of the dry zone farming communities of Sri Lanka. She has authored and co-authored several conference and journal articles and book chapters.

Chapter 1 Balanced Urban Development: Is It a Myth or Reality?

Basant Maheshwari, Vijay P. Singh, and Bhadranie Thoradeniya

Abstract A major challenge we face globally is that cities are growing rapidly and most of this growth is inevitably is occurring in peri-urban areas. The concept of balanced urban development is complex and is linked to liveability of urban areas along with water, food and energy security. Increasingly, liveability is becoming important for urban planners and governments at all levels. There are many environmental, economic, political and social challenges if the goals of achieving sustainable, liveable and productive urban regions are to be achieved. The concept of sustainable development and liveable cities symbolise the big visionary ideas for urban planning and balanced development but implementation of these popular visions can encounter a host of conflicts due to a range of interests and stakeholders involved. The process of achieving balanced urban development may require learning from the past successes and mistakes to identify what makes a good practice for balanced urban development and guide local governments, planning agencies and developers to plan and design future cities that are highly liveable. At present there is insufficient policy focus on the challenges of the peri-urban areas of growing mega-urban regions around the world, because they are not recognised as an integral part of the functional activities that drive the growth of these urban areas. Thus, policies for peri-urban regions have to be given priority at both national and global levels, if ‘globally just urban places’ are to emerge.

Keywords Liveable cities e Urbanisation ° Peri-urban fringe * Balanced urban development * Food security * Water security e Land management ° Urban agriculture

B. Maheshwari (È<)

School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Hawkesbury Campus, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia e-mail: b.maheshwari @ westernsydney.edu.au

V.P. Singh Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A and M University, College Station, TX 77843-2117, USA

B. Thoradeniya Institute of Technology, University of Moratuwa, Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

© The Author(s) 2016 3 B. Maheshwari et al. (eds.), Balanced Urban Development:

4 B. Maheshwari et al.

A major challenge we face globally is that cities are growing rapidly, with current forecasts indicating strong growth in the urban fringe well into the future (Cohen 2006). Most cities around the world play an increasingly dominant role in the national economy in terms of both production and consumption but the urban growth, particularly in developing world, so rapid in the 10-15 years that it is putting a question mark on the capacity of most cities to provide adequate services and amenities for their residents. Our local, state and federal governments are faced with the complex task of creating future urban areas that are sustainable and liveable. Most of the future urban growth will occur in peri-urban areas that are complex to manage and have significant impact on the liveability of cities. Urban growth is inevitably linked to peri-urban areas, the zones of transition from rural to urban land uses located between the outer limits of urban and regional centres and the rural environment. The boundaries of peri-urban areas are porous and transitory, as urban development extends into the rural and industrial land. Irrespective of how the boundaries move, there will always be peri-urban zones.

There are growing concerns about water and food security to meet increases in population in urban areas. The pressure of urbanisation is enormous in the Asia- Pacific region which includes six of the world’s most populous countries, viz., China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Japan, and include over 55 % of the world’s total population (CISS 2013). The population growth and ensuing urbanisation, particularly in this region, has obvious implications for water and food security and liveability of cities. For cities to be liveable and sustainable into the future there is a need to maintain the natural resource base, food production and the ecosystem services in the peri-urban areas surrounding cities. The development of peri-urban areas involves the conversion of rural lands to residential use, closer subdivision, fragmentation and a changing mix of urban and rural activities and functions. Changes within these areas can have significant impacts upon ecohydrological functions, environmental amenity and natural habitat, supply and quality of water and water and energy consumption. These changes affect the peri-urban water and land management and food production.

By the middle of 2009, the number of people living in urban areas exceeded the number living in rural areas and according to the UN estimates, by 2050, two out three people in the world will live in urban areas (United Nations 2009). Therefore, peri-urban development as a consequence of urbanisation is inevitable. There are challenges of water availability for urban irrigation, for drinking and a number of other uses. The future liveability of urban areas is very much linked to water availability along with a number of other factors. There is some sort of ‘revolution’ taking place around cities and towns around the world to build new suburbs partly to accommodate more people but it is also encouraged by government policies and financial assistance (e.g., the first home buyers grant in Australia) to maintain a “healthy” economy.

The growth of urban areas is now dominated by vertical expansion around the main city areas and horizontal expansion in surrounding areas, mainly into periurban zones (McGee 2009). We still do not fully appreciate how the liveability of cities is impacted by land and water use changes and consequent changes we cause in natural vegetation and wildlife through urbanisation. The growth also has influence on peri-urban food production and range of other services. The urbanisation process presents unprecedented complex environmental, social, economic and political challenges, especially in terms of keeping urban areas greener and cooler and thus more liveable. Although, there are some differences in terms of local conditions and scales, the problems of urbanisation are similar for cities and towns across different countries.

1.2 What Makes a City Liveable?

Liveability is becoming important now-a-days for urban planners and governments at all levels. The definition of liveability varies depending upon the purpose of why it is being considered in the first place and by whom, yet the common goal of liveability is that how we direct our actions, planning and designs that will make a place enjoyable to live in (Ruth and Franklin 2014; de Haan et al. 2014). The idea of a liveable city is to bring community together for healthy living, enhance their interaction among themselves and surrounding environment and promote their productivity and wellbeing in a sustainable way. Liveability is often related to the values and preferences local community places for amenity, wellbeing aspect and sense of place or belonging. However, it must be noted that the meaning of liveability may vary, depending upon the needs of the community and local environment and placerelated factors. The main purpose of balanced urban development is to improve liveability, and for this we need to plan for an appropriate access to drinking water and sanitation, healthy waterways and efficient and environmentally friendly transport networks. When urban development is well balanced with different needs, it will provide opportunities for businesses and commerce to grow, create jobs and facilitate affordable housing and living for different levels of society. Furthermore, such development will result in access to surroundings that appeal to local residents, provide ample opportunities for strong social and cultural networks, and foster a sense of place and belonging (Goldberg et al. 2012).

1.3 Urbanisation is Inevitable

Urban expansion is accelerating with projections that cities will accommodate more than 70 % of the global population by 2050 (United Nations 2011). The growth of urban areas will be dominated by vertical expansion of mega cities and horizontal expansion in surrounding areas into peri-urban zones. It is not fully appreciated that

6 B. Maheshwari et al.

what occurs in peri-urban areas affects both the urban areas and surrounding rural communities. The urbanisation process presents unprecedented complex environmental, social, economic and political challenges. Although there are diverse local conditions and scales, the problems of expanding cities have similarities worldwide, e.g., loss of productive agricultural land, changes in the hydrology of the place due to more areas under hard surfaces and loss of natural habitat.

In the period up to year 2050, the growth of urban population will occur primarily in the developing countries of Asia and Africa (McGee 2009). This region could contribute up some 60% of urban increase in this period. The growth of urban places will be dominated by two spatial processes. First, the growth of central cities in mega-urban regions, and second an ongoing process of horizontal urban expansion into surrounding hinterlands creating peri-urban regions that will contain-up to 70 % of mega-urban regions population by 2050. This latter process presents many environmental, economic, political and social challenges if the goals of achieving sustainable, liveable and productive urban regions are to be achieved.

1.4 The Role of Water in Peri-Urban Landscapes

Water is a vital input to the liveability of cities but there are many other factors related to population growth, competition for land and water resources, globalisation and climate change that need to be overcome for enhancing and sustaining the liveability. When we see green space, it is pleasing to the human eye and indoor and outdoor areas that contain green spaces benefit community in a range of ways, including promoting physical activities, relieving mental stress, cooling environment through transpiration, and biodiversity (Schebella et al. 2012). For maintaining green space, urban irrigation is critical and the provision of water that is secure and fit-for-purpose is essential. In addition to significant changes in the local water cycle, with urbanisation, there are also water policy and regulatory aspects that impact the water sources available for irrigation, the places that are irrigated and the management of irrigated spaces.