Outlines of ecclesiastical history, before the reformation

Preface

As the title of this book sufficiently explains itself, it is merely necessary to observe, that, in order to bring it within reasonable compass, the biographical notices have been restricted to as few as possible. An exception has, however, been made, whenever it appeared that the lives of individuals belonged essentially to the history of the times in which they lived. Thus Charlemagne, the Gregories, WicklifFe, and such other remarkable characters, will be found noticed at greater length ; while a brief account of others, omitted in the text, will be occasionally supplied in the notes.

It is hoped that these Outlines may thus prove a convenient manual, both for furnishing the student with the principal facts of Ecclesiastical History before the [Reformation, and for pointing out their bearing on the subsequent history of reformed churches, and of our own apostolic branch in particular. For the authorities, except where they are given in the text, the reader is referred to Soames' edition of Mosheim, and to the valuable work of Mr. Wadding ton, which two have been very fully consulted. Chronologies of the Roman empire, before and after its division into East and West, and also of the new empire of the West, after its re- construction under Charlemagne, will be found

IV PREFACE.

appended to each part. Some other chronological tables, and also questions for the nse of younger readers, are added at the end. But in times when, in the complicated relations of the church, the appeal is so often made to first principles, it is hoped even the more advanced inquirer may find something here to assist him in forming clearer and more definite views, particularly on the points in controversy between the Romanists and ourselves. And with this aim the Author commends his labours to the blessing of that God, who has set His church, like the branches of the golden candlestick in the temple of old, to diffuse the light of the blessed Gfospei throughout the world.

W. H. H.

London, 1852.

OUTLINES

OF

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.

PAET I.

FROM THE ASCENSION OF OUR LORD, TO THE CONVERSION OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.

Chapter I

Acts of the Apostles— Opposition of the Jews — Conversion of the Gentiles — Destruction of Jerusalem — Barchochebas — Peculiar history of St. Paul — Antioch — Alexandria — Jerusalem — Other Apostolic churches — St. Paul, and the British isles — St. Peter — Martyrdom of St. James — Death of St. John, the last of the apostles.

nPHE three first centuries are, perhaps, the most inte- -*■ resting period in ecclesiastical history. Truth and error, the light of revelation and the darkness of heathen superstition, were then brought into the most direct and open collision. The faith of the Cross was assailed by every species of opposition ; yet gloriously triumphed over all impediments, and bowed even empires to its sway.

Of the earlier events, we possess an inspired record in the Acts of the Apostles, composed by the evangelist St. Luke, who himself accompanied St. Paul over a considerable part of the countries in which he laboured. We there find, that at first the greatest enemies of the truth were those who should have been its best friends. The Jewish people were so elated by a notion of their own superiority, and so

B

2 JEWISH PREJUDICES.

proud of tlieir natural descent from Abraham, that, instead of putting that spiritual sense on the promises which the patriarch himself had done, they looked down with contempt on all other people of the earth, and expected in their Messiah some great temporal prince, who should deliver them from the yoke of the Romans. This sentiment appears to have infected even the chosen apostles of our Lord ; — so blinded are men by early prejudice, and so apt to be swayed by a principle, however erroneous, which has once taken strong possession of their minds. Yet, the universal extension of the Christian faith had formed no obscure part of those very prophecies, which were commonly received among the Jews ; and to the Christians it was the express injunction of their Divine Master, ' to go into all nations baptizing' and bringing them unto the faith of the Gospel. The more effectually, however, to remove so mistaken but deeply rooted a prejudice, it pleased God by a special miracle to enlighten the eyes of the apostle Peter, and to show him that* ■ in every nation he that feareth God and worketh righteousness is accepted with him.' And after this time, there is no point more assiduously pressed by the writers of the JNTew Testament, than the equality of Jew and Gentile under the Christian covenant; and that it was the express design of the Almighty, to gather a new people out of all kindreds, and nations, and tongues, into the one Catholicf fold of Christ. The kindly spirit of the Gospel did indeed lead Christians for awhile to treat with peculiar deference their Jewish countrymen, looking up to them as to their elder brethren in the faith ;J and in the same spirit they

Acts x. 35.

f i.e. universal; comprehending .Jew and Gentile alike.

X How far the ceremonies of the Mosaic Law were still binding, was indeed the first question which came before a general meeting, or council of the church. — Vide Acts xv.

SIEGE AND FALL OF JERUSALEM. 8

continued to frequent the temple and observe the feasts. But as soon as this moderation was abused, and some began to insist on circumcision as essential to salvation, a firmer tone was assumed, and the rites of Judaism more and more fell into disuse. The faith of Christ shone out in its native lustre ; many # thousands of the Jews l themselves believed,' and ' of the Priests a great company.'

But as multitudes also persisted in unbelief, the hand of God at length visibly interfered in favour of the truth. The stone which the builders rejected, was destined to become the head of the corner, and a new and more glorious temple to be erected upon the ruins of that mere worldly and material sanctuary, which had already served its purpose and was about to vanish away. The obduracy and disappointed pride of the Jew was not left to wreak itself with impunity on the innocent and unoffending Christian. Christ had threatened them, unless they repented, with a special act of judgment, and upon that generation the judgment fell. It was less than forty years from the time when the prediction was uttered,f that its awful accomplishment came to pass. After a war of three years, a Roman army lay encamped under the walls of Jerusalem. And such were the horrors of the siege which ensued, and such the desperate valour of the infatuated Jews, that even Titus, the Eoman general, exclaimed, that without the aid of an offended God fighting on his side, he never could have reduced the city. It was the wish of the conqueror to have spared the temple, but his laudable desires were frustrated by the madness of the enemy. Eire and sword were carried into every quarter ; neither temple nor city were spared from the

* Acts vi. 7 ; xxi. 20. t Matthew xxiii. 86—38 ; xxiv. 2. Mark xiii. 2. Luke xix. 41—44.

4 LABOUKS OF THE APOSTLES.

general conflagration. The sacred utensils and manycaptives were carried in triumph to Koine, where they are still represented on the arch of Titus — a monument at once of the truth of the history, and of the righteous judgment of God. An attempt, in the time of Julian, to rebuild the temple, is credibly reported to have been hindered by hot balls of fire issuing up from the ground. The Jews stirred up a fresh war against the Romans, but without success; and the rebellion of Barchochebas* (a.d. 120), who imposed upon many by the pretence of being the Messiah, may be regarded as a last convulsive struggle to regain their national independence. Thus speedily and surely were the predictions of our Lord fulfilled ; and thus signally was the guilt of that people punished, both for rejecting the Messiah, and for so cruelly persecuting those who received Him.

About the same time we find the apostles labouring in different countries of the Gentiles ; one pre-eminent above the rest, both for the manner of his conversion, and for the extraordinary difficulties and dangers which he encountered in the execution of his office. The greater part of the Acts, as is well-known to the attentive reader, is occupied with the history of St. Paul ; how he went first over the provinces of Asia, and thence to the most famous cities of Greece, At last, after many such missionary labours over the same or adjoining districts, he was brought prisoner to Rome, where the sacred narrative leaves him. Returning to the other apostles, we find them at first uniting their labours in the formation of the churches in Judaea, Samaria, and parts of Syria : at Antioch, the residence of the Roman Presidents of Syria, they met with very

• Known also as a fierce persecutor of the Christians. Bossuet makes him out to be the 'man of sin,' predicted 2 These, ii. 3; but, there are many parts of St. Paul's description in that chapter* which arc clearly not answered by Barchochebas.

ST. PAUL, THE APOSTLE OF THE WEST. 5

signal success; and 'the disciples were first called Christians'* in that city. Starting thence, but always in close communion with the Mother Church of Jerusalem, they branched off in different directions to new spheres of duty. We read of Andreio in Scythia ; Philip in Upper Asia and Phrygia: Matthew and Bartholomew in India, ^Ethiopia, and Armenia ; Jude in Mesopotamia; Simon in Egypt and Cyrene; Thomas in Parthia and Mesopatamia, where he planted a church, and was buried at Edessa. The Church of Alexandria boasts of St. Mark for its founder, and probably this Evangelist founded also the celebrated schools in that city. The two brothers of Jude, James,f and Simeon, became successively bishops of Jerusalem, where each suffered martyrdom in a good old age.

But the labours of St. Paul are the most fully recorded, not only in Scripture, but also in other ecclesiastical records of that period. It is to him especially that Clemens Eomanus (bishop of Home, and 6 author,' says Dr. Burton, ' of the only Christian writing now extant, which was composed in the first century, besides the books of the JNew Testament') assigns the honour of ' preaching righteousness through the whole world;' and 'in so doing,' he says, 'he went to the utmost bounds of the west.' Erom this it is inferred, that when Eusebius speaks of ' some having passed over' the ocean, and preached the Gospel in those which are called the - British Isles > he alludes to St. Paul. But of St. Peter visiting the west, neither these nor any other writers speak anything with certainty. This apostle seems rather to have confined himself to the more eastern regions, and especially to those ' strangers of Pontus, Galatea, Cappadocia, Asia,

* Acts xi. 26. f This James was James the Less, and one of the Apostles. The elder James suffered martyrdom in the reign of Herod. See Acts 3 - xii. 2.

B2

G ST. PETER, AND ST. JAMES.

and Bithynia, whom lie addresses in his first Epistle. He was also for a long time resident in Antioch, and he visited Alexandria in Egypt. Both these apostles met at Eome, and suffered martyrdom together; but of St. Peter, Lactantius tells us, ' that he came not to Rome till the reign of Nero, and not long before his martyrdom,' (a.d. 68.)

The death of St. James, first bishop of Jerusalem, is worthy of mention ; more especially as we have the account of it in the words of an Hebrew convert of the very next age,* quoted by Eusebius. ' This blessed apostle had gained for himself, even among the unbelievers, the surname of the Just, by his unblamable life of mortification and constant prayer. But the evil passions of the more zealous of the Pharisees were aroused, and they resolved on an attempt to seduce him to apostasy. He was placed in an exalted situation in the temple on the Eeast of the Passover, and required to persuade the assembled multitude against the Messiahship of the Lord Jesus. He availed himself of the opportunity to bear witness to the truth of it ; proclaiming aloud his session at the right-hand of power, and his future advent in the clouds of heaven. Many were convinced of the truth. The Scribes and Pharisees, maddened with disappointment, and furious at the success of his preaching, resolved on instant vengeance. The holy man was cast down headlong from the battlements, and stoned ; but he had space to fall upon his knees, and pray for the pardon of his murderers, after the example and in the words of his Divine Master, saying, * I entreat Thee, O Lord God the Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.* Wounded, bruised, and bleeding, his life was still

* Hegesippus, For the following account see William tfsHolt/ City, Vol. i. p. 11*7. JjuscO, ii. 23.

APOSTOLIC DISCIPLINE. 7

whole in him, when one of the bystanders smote him on the head with a fuller's club, and terminated at once his sufferings and his life.'

St. John appears to have outlived all the apostles. He is said to have been exposed to a cruel death at Home, by being plunged into a vessel of boiling oil, from which, however, he came out unhurt. It is certain that, under Domitian, he suffered banishment to the Isle of Patmos, where he saw and wrote the remarkable visions of the Apocalypse. As the Christian exiles regained their liberty upon the accession of Nerva, it is probable that this Apostle returned in peace, and lived to a good old age in the midst of the churches which he had long superintended in Ephesus and the adjoining districts of Asia Minor. Before his death, he is said to have been carried round the church, bestowing his blessing on the people, and calling out to them all, { Little children, love one another.'

Chapteb II.

Apostolic discipline — Formation of new churches — Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons, Prophets — Deaconesses, Widows — Apostolic doctrine — Apostles' creed — Canon of Scriptures — Liturgies — Holy days — Sunday^E aster- day— -Whitsunday — Baptism, and the Supper of the Lord— Confirmation — Excommunication — Confession — Prayers to Saints.

We must not leave the apostolic period, without observing upon the method by which the apostles usually proceeded in the settlement of new churches. To every city or town where they came, they took with them some faithful disciple, whom they afterwards left in charge of the church or churches around. In other cases, they chose fit persons on the spot, or approved such a3 were set before them. The ' ciders' thus

8 THREE ORDERS IN THE MINISTRY.

'ordained in every church, ,# usually became bishops of that, or of some other place where their labours were most required. The name of bishop is indeed generally admitted to have been shared by the next inferior order of ministers, the presbyter or priest ; but, however this might be, a distinction of offices had certainly been observed from the beginning, as is evident from the Epistles of St. Paul to Timothy and Titus. And accordingly, on the death of the apostles, this title was reserved exclusively for those who succeeded to their office. The s angel' (as St. John in the Revelation designates the bishops of the seven churches) is of the same signification as c apostle ;' each implying a messenger sent from heaven. Subordinate to these, came the two orders of presbyter and deacon ; the latter being originally appointed for the discharge of the more secular parts of ministerial duty. (See Acts vi. 1 — 5.) The prophets appear to have been a less regular class of teachers, inspired with the gift of tongues for the purpose of preaching (for so the word 'prophecy' frequently signifies), or explaining the Scriptures. There were not only deacons, but deaconesses, for the performance of many minor works of usefulness and charity. They had also a class of widows, whom, however, by the advice of St. Paul, they received not into that company under threescore years of age. 1 Tim. 5,9.

In the matter of doctrine, the apostolic teaching was doubtless plain and simple. It appears probable, that some short and comprehensive form was in use, for the convenience of instructing the new converts, and that such form was afterwards expanded into the Apostles' creed ; their own immediate authority supplying what was wanting to the fuller explication of the faith. The

* Acts xiv. 23.

APOSTLES' CREED — KULE OF FAITH. 9

substance of the whole they have left in writing, in the epistles which they addressed to particular churches or the bishops of the same. These, in a short time, were collected into one volume, together with the four Gospels and the other books of the sacred canon ; where they remain for ever the rule of faith to the church. But because it was an abridgment of the necessary articles of Christian faith contained in Holy Scripture, the creed itself is often, by the early fathers, spoken of, as in a manner, the * rule of faith.'

The liturgies ascribed to St. James and St. Mark,* are not to be taken as the genuine compositions of these apostles ; nor the * Apostolic Constitutions and Canons' as their work. But it is highly probable, that some such formsf were in use from the earliest times : especially as such usage appears most agreeable both to Jewish precedent, and to the prevailing habit of all eastern countries, and it had been expressly sanctioned by our Lord himself in the prayer which he gave to his disciples.

The same may be said of set times and places of public worship. In the Acts we find them not unfrequently alluded to, — as where we read of ' the disciples at Troas coming together on the first day of the week to break bread ;'J and ' Saul and Barnabas a whole year assembling themselves with the church.' The same appears from several other passages of Scripture, § and we read, that among those upper rooms of houses, which were usually resorted to for this purpose in the East, that engaged by our blessed Lord for the last Passover, and where he instituted the Holy

* Both of these Mr. Palmer supposes anterior at latest to the council of Chalcedon, a.d. 451.

t See Palmer's Origines Liturgicce, vol. i. pp. 42, 44, 92, &c.

t See Acts xx. 7 ; xi. 26.

§ See 1 Cor. xi. IS. 20 ; Heb. x. 25.

10 THE LORD's-DAY, EASTER-DAY, WHITSUNDAY.

Sacrament of the Lord's Supper, was long held in peculiar veneration.

The first day of the week, — as being that on which the Saviour rose, — that also on which he appeared, one week after, to the whole assembly of his disciples, and on which again the Holy Ghost descended upon them at the Jewish feast of Pentecost, — was chosen as the great weekly festival of the church, and gradually obtained the name of the Lord's day. The Jewish sabbath fell gradually into disuse.

Besides this, they observed a more solemn annual commemoration of the Resurrection on Easter or Paschal day ; and of the descent of the Spirit on Whitsunday.

The Lord's Supper, called from his own action at its first institution the ' breaking of the bread,' was administered always on Sunday — sometimes every day, and sometimes morning and evening, or whenever an opportunity might be had. Different customs prevailed on this point in different churches. All received under both kinds, minister and people alike. The bread was common bread, broken in pieces ; the wine they usually mixed with water. None were accounted to partake worthily, or to receive any benefit, but those who lived piously, and came with true repentance and faith.

Baptism was, in like manner, administered, according as occasion required ; but the more solemn seasons of Easter and Whitsuntide were preferred for its regular administration. Submersion, or dipping in the water, was recommended to be used, but was rarely practicable at first, and therefore never accounted essential. A class of catechumens was held in every church, preparatory to the rite. But infants were never excluded when presented by their parents and relatives. The sacrament of baptism was universally followed by the

SACRAMENTS AND RITES, 11

rite of confirmation, or laying on of the hands of the apostles. In this rite the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit were at first conferred, but, when these ceased to be necessary, the rite was continued for the purpose of procuring a fresh accession of the Spirit's ordinary grace ; and, where administered by the bishops, or chief pastors after the apostles, it was considered to correspond in effect with that originally administered by the apostles themselves in the case of the Samaritan converts, Acts viii. 14 — 17.

Of fasts, the earliest we read of was kept in literal accordance with those words of our Saviour, # ' the Bridegroom shall be taken away from you, and then shall ye fast.' The early Christians therefore fasted during the time intervening between the afternoon of the day of Crucifixion, and the morning of that of the Resurrection ; a space of time comprising about forty hours. This was very strictly observed, and was called from the number of hours, the quadragesimal fast. On Wednesdays and Fridays also, they abstained from their usual food till three o'clock, and often spent these days in prayers, which they called their stations. They also fasted in times of public calamity; and when for any open and scandalous sin they were in the class of public penitents.

Traces of excommunication {i.e. of separation from the society and ordinances of the church) not unfrequently occur in the most primitive times. This was agreeable to the express words of our Lord, ' If he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man and a publican. 'f In favour of some kind of salutary discipline, we might also adduce the example of our Lord, in that significant action whereby he began and ended his public ministry in Jerusalem, of ' over-

* See Matt. ix. 15. t Matt, xyiii. 17.

12 DEPARTED SAINTS.

throwing the tables of the money changers, and driving them out of the temple.'*

Private confession, as was natural, was made for private offences, according to that of St. James. ' Confess your faults one to another, brethren, and pray one for another.' (Jam. v. 16.) And of our Lord himself, in the passage before cited, ' If thy brother trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone; if he shall hear thou hast gained thy brother. 'f But for public offences public penance was required, and the offender cast out from the congregation, till he had both made reparation, and showed sufficient signs of repentance. And this was in accordance with the apostolic precept, ' Them that sin rebuke before all, that all may fear. 'J

We have no traces in Scripture, or during the xipostolic age, of any particular veneration of relics, or any prayers to departed saints. "We are enjoined to * follow their faith,' and to 'remember' them with all affection, § but not to invoke their assistance as intercessors with God on our behalf. Even the Apostolic Constitutions and Canons, though confessedly a collection of later date, make no mention of any such devotions. The excessive veneration of holy places, which in after ages so much encouraged these devotions, was a thing which had not yet grown up in the church. We find no mention of even Calvary or the Holy Sepulchre, in the whole New Testament, after Christ's ascension. When by this event the Messiah was no more personally present with his disciples, they ceased to frequent his tomb or to seek the living among the dead. It is the just observation of the late bishop Mant, ' That as when

* See John ii. 11—17; Matt. xxi. 12, 13. ^Ve have further proofs in the conduct of the apostles themselves. See 1 Cor. v. 5—11; lCor.ii.4— 11; 2 Thess. iii. 6, 14; ITiin.v. 20; Tit. iii. 10.

t Matt, xviii. 15. J 1 Tim. v. 20. § Heb. xiii. 7.

GHOWTH OF THE CHRISTIAN CHUKCH. 13

tlie Lord liad buried Moses in the valley of Moab, the place of his sepulchre was withh olden from all human knowledge, whence his tomb could not be made an object with the Israelites of idolatrous worship or superstitious veneration; so the Holy Spirit over-ruled in the primitive Christians the natural propensity to the feeling of local attachment in respect of our Lord's place of burial, fixing their minds on the monuments and memorials which he himself had instituted, in the sacramental commemoration of his death, in the offices of his commissioned ministers, and in the devotional assemblies of his people. But whatever be the explanation, the fact is as we have stated. And the conduct of the primitive Christians in this particular stands in memorable contrast with that of succeeding generations, whereby an excessive indulgence of the feeling of local association has led to many superstitious observances, detrimental to the holy simplicity of Christian truth/*

Chapter III

Simon Magus and Gnostics — Valentinian, Saturninus, and Basilides — Cerinthus and Mcolaitanes — Marcion, Cerdo, Carpocrates—- Platonic philosophy — Plotinus, Porphyry, Celsus — Ammonius Saccas, and Eclectics — Christian apologists, Tatian, Athenagoras, Origen — Manes, Montanus — Ascetics, Encratites — Nazarenes, Ebionites — Sabellianism, Paul of Samosata — Novatus, Novatian — Catholic doctrine and discipline — Allowable differences— . Roman arbitration.

We are now tracing the first lineaments of that great society, the Christian Church, which was destined to occupy so distinguished a place in the history of the world, and to be like a city set upon an hill giving light to all around. Deriving its origin from Christ and his

See Mant'S Primitive Christianity, chap. v. C

14 SIMON MAGUS.

apostles, based upon his word and sacraments, it claims our particular attention while expanding into tangible form, and shaping out for itself, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, a distinct and regular organization. If the records of this period are comparatively scanty, enough is known to impart a very correct idea of the general features of the Ante-JSTicene Church;* and if we might sometimes wish for a little fuller information,f we have the greater reason to attend carefully to such as we possess.

The death of the last of the apostles must needs have been an era of special anxiety to the churches. But even before this time, some false and heretical opinions had begun to corrupt the purity of the truth. Simon Magus, a Samaritan, whom we read of in the Acts J as receiving baptism of St. Peter, appears soon to have thrown off the mask, and become the avowed enemy of Christianity. He laboured hard to disseminate his false doctrines in the parts of Asia where the apostles were most likely to come : allusions to which we may perceive in several of the Apostolic Epistles addressed to the churches of that district. He held what was called the Gnostic§ philosophy, which taught that this world was the work of some inferior deity, and not the creation of the One Supreme God; they regarded matter as the root of all evil; the Creator of this world, who was also the Lawgiver and "Ruler of the Jews, and whom they called the Demiurge, was not with them

* i.e. the church before the council of Nice, which was the first general council, and convoked by Constantine, a.d. 825.

f Of Christian writers who can be traced with certainty to the age of the apostles, there are but five extant — Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, who suffered martyrdom, a.d. 107 (see below, ch. iv. p. 24); Poli/carp, bishop of Smyrna ; Clemens, bishop of Rome; St. Barnabas; and Hermas. These five are called the Apostolic Fathers.

% Acts, viii.

§ From fvuxri?, the Greek word for Tcnoivledge, in which they pretended to excel all other philosophers.

CERINTHUS AND OTHER GNOSTICS. 15

the true God, but a rebel against him; they filled the world with a multitude of JEons, or angelic natures, endowed with powers approaching those of the divinity itself, and they went to such a pitch of absurdity, that some of them believed in an exact number of thirty* -ZSons, male and female, some reckoned seven 9 f whom they considered lords of the seven planets, while others carried up the angelic orders to 365, J a number answering to the numeral letters in the word Abraxas, which was an old Egyptian title of the Supreme Being. Such were the preposterous notions of these boasted sages. Menander, a native of Samaria, like Simon Magus, followed the steps of that heretic; as also Cerintkus,§ teaching, particularly, that the acts of the body were indifferent, and could not affect the state of the soul, thereby opening the door to all kinds of licentiousness. It was Cerinthus of whom the story is told, that St. John being at Ephesus, and meeting him in the bath, hurried out of the house and exclaimed, " Let us run away, lest even the bath should fall to pieces while the enemy of the truth is in it." He was of those who, in perfect consistency with the Gnostic ideas of matter, taught that Christ did not come in actual flesh, or with a real body, but only in the appearance of our mortal nature. An allusion to this the reader will at once perceive in the Epistle of St. John. 1 1 Marcion and Cerdo, in the second century, held the same pernicious error. Carpocrates, in the third, refined upon it, by affirming that the man Jesus became, at his baptism, united to the iEon, whom he called Christ. This man added to his heretical opinions the most depraved maxims of morality.