Curious questions...

Front matter

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Chapter II. — Philosophical Terms, • , , » , 29 Question First

Question Second.

What Relation has Philosophy to other Sciences ? . . . . 53

Question Third.

What is the Difference between Mental and Oral Terms ? . . .65

Question Fourth.

What is the Criterion of Certitude ? Degrees of Certitude, . . 70

Question Fifth.

What is the True Notion of an Idea? 75

Question Sixth.

Is Idea a Possible Being, or an Existing One ? System of Rosmini, 85

Question Seventh.

What Kind of Existence has Idea ? System of Gioberti, ... 99

Question Eighth.

Does the Intellect apprehend Contingent Facts ? . . . . 130

Question Ninth.

What is Meant by the History and Solution of the Controversy concerning the Universals ? . 138

Vlll CONTENTS.

PAOB

Question Tenth.

"What is the Difference between the Direct and Reflex State of Uie

Soul ? • . lo3

Question Eleventh.

Does God Exist ? 109

Question Twelfth.

Is God's Existence Identified with the Existence of other Beings ? 167

Question Thirteenth.

What is Beauty in Art? 193

Question Fourteenth.

Does Beauty Consist in Magnitude or Exaggeration ? In Illusion or

Imitation? 214

Question Fifteenth.

Does Beauty Consist in Proportion and Order of Parts or in Unity

and Variety ? 224

Question Sixteenth.

Is the Beautiful the " Splendor Veri " as Plato defines^? • • 235

Question Seventeenth.

Are there but two Real Causes in the World — Man and God ? . . 251

Question Eighteenth.

Why is the Spirit of the Age Anti-Christian and Anti-Philosophic ? 251

CURIOUS QUESTIONS.

Introduction.

CHAPTER I.

THE UTILITY OF PHILOSOPHY.

|E live in a most unphilosophical age: principles are despised, and iniquity respected. In religion, in government, in the family circle, all is confusion. Sects swarm, and tear Christianity into bits like ants with a crumb ; some of them destroy not only revealed religion, but reject even tlie law of nature. Political heresies brood among the nations. Robbery is applauded on the ground of expediency; rebellion is justified in the press, and shows itself boldly on the field of battle; plots for the overthrow of established thrones, round which grow the moss of centuries, are hatched in the countless secret societies of Europe and America. The family tie has been broken by the civil laws in admitting divorce; the state in this case showing the corruption of the citizens, for the state is sound so long as its members are incorrupt. Children, in consequence of social vices, have been dragged from their mothers' arms, and allowed to grow up ignorant of true principles ; their minds warped from their natural bent to goodness by the example of fathers without religion, or mothers without virtue. The age is illogical ; unreasonable in its institutions, for it eschews religion in its education, allows the extreme of tyranny and licentiousness in its civil governments, and consequently, partially if not completely ignores the immutable principles of the natural law. Such a diseased state of human society cries out for a remedy, Religion is [hat remedy, and after religion sound philosophy.

We say sound philosophy, for the aberrations of the Germans of modern times have done harm instead of good. The philosophy of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling, imported into France by Victor Cousin and Ernest Renan, and sown broadcast in Italy by the pantheists, has been wafted on the wings of the winds to our own land. It has taken root, and its fruits are an unprincipled press, fanaticism, and general unbelief. The Christian philosopher must try to do his part in healing these eye-sores of modern times. It is a duty he owes to his God and to his fellow-beings; he is bound to be an active member of society, influencing its thought ; not a mere passive spectator of the scenes enacted on the world's theatre. Hence, he must study sound philosophy, and hence one of the great advantages of intellectual philosophy, so often sneered at and so much neglected in our schools. It is our intention, in this preliminary chapter, to expose the utility of this science, that the reader may be induced the more zealously to apply himself to the acquiring of a perfect mastery of it. In order, therefore, that we may proceed with greater clearness, we shall divide our remarks into three parts. In the first we shall speak of the utility of this study considered with regard to the subject-matter of which it treats. In the second we shall discourse of its importance, subjectively considered, as a means of mental culture; and in the third we shall glance at it as relating to revealed religion and smoothing the way to theology, being in this respect the footstool of faith and the handmaid of religion.

Sec. 1. The utility of Philosophy shown from the nature of the matter of which it treats.

What is the object of philosophical research? It is God, the world, and man. There is a great part of this science that treats of the existence, nature, and attributes of the Divinity. The whole of Theodicy has no other scope than to prove the existence of God and explain his attributes. Now, no one will deny the importance of this part of intellectual philosophy ; for what is of more importance than the knowledge of God ? God is the Being of beings, the Creator of all things, and man's final cause. To know such a being is important to man. He was made for no other being but God, he tends to God as to his centre. God is the sun of his planetary system; hence the utility of studying a science that makes of God a special study; that investigates the nature of the Divinity, examines his infinite perfections, his goodness, omnipotence, and immensity. The advantages to be derived from such a study are manifest ; for by knowing our Creator better we love him more, and are more inclined to aim at possessing Him. Now, the possession of the end for which we were formed is that which is most important to us ; therefore, the study of intellectual philosophy which helps us to arrive at the term of our existence is of the greatest importance to us. The second object of which our science treats is the universe. The world of possibilities, which is the world of ideas, cosmology describes and endeavors to explain. This world is the link that binds us and God together; for other beings have their proximate end in man, though their last end, like that of man himself, must be God.

To know the means of arriving at our end, to know the reason of the existence of other beings around us, is of great utility and advantage to us. We must always in these matters go on the hypothesis that nothing is useful or advantageous to man which docs not tend either mediately or immediately to the end for which he was created. For what is meant by the word useful, if no( apt for a purpose? Usefulness, then, supposes a purpose — an end in the acquisition of which useful things are employed. Hence, to man nothing is useful but what leads to his final end, to which all other ends are subservient, and compared with which they are secondary. Now creatures are made to serve man, to aid him in knowing his Creator. St. Augustine, a great philosopher, says that moral deformity consists in endeavoring to enjoy what is only meant to be used, " frui utendis et uti fruendis." When we know creatures and their causes we know the greatness of their Creator, as well as their own littleness better. Besides this there is a great benefit derived from the knowledge of creatures ; we know their exact worth ; they can not, therefore, cheat us ; and this, certainly, is a very useful knowledge. The poet has said, " Felix qui potest rerum cognoscere causas," and he said truly ; for, besides the incontestable pleasure derived from such examinations in the satisfaction of our intellectual curiosity, the utility also is very great, as we have shown ; great because of tlie character of means which the universe bears in our relation to God ; great, also, on account of the subjective improvement of our intellectual capacities. And here we touch on the third great utility of philosophy, considered in relation to the objects of which it treats. There is a very extensive part of our science which treats of the soul and its faculties, and, taken even in its more general sense, which treats of man's body also. Logic and psychology in a special manner deal with human thought, and the different operations of the mind. The old philosophers said that

science Consisted in the yvoOe deov tcai ceavrov,

a the knowledge of God and of ourselves." Now, both these parts of science are embraced by philosophy. Self-knowledge is very important for all. It is useful to know our failings and our strength, so that we may not be tempted to go lx k - yond it. Now, to know our strength, we study in philosophy tin? character of our mental faculties, and their ways of working ; tlie mechanism of the mind, and the play of the passions. Psychology and logic are mental anatomy. "We fathom the depth of our intellect, and learn to distrust its shallows and quicksands ; we feel the pulse of the will, to learn whether it be feverish and wayward, or firm and resolute. We drag our imagination to the bar of reason and interrogate it as to its intentions, so that it may not hurriedly lead us astray before reflection has time to recall it to the right path. Man's mind is a kingdom which philosophy examines, classifying its products, arranging in order its powers, as a geologist places fossils in a cabinet. Knowledge is power ; and hence the knowledge we acquire of ourselves by the philosophical examination of the faculties of the soul gives us a better appreciation of our own ability. In a word, if we reflect for a moment on the character of the objects with which philosophy deals, taking reason as the judge, we shall charge strongly for the utility of the science. Nor .will the result be otherwise if we examine the question of the utility of philosophy from the subjective point of view.

Sec. 2. The importance of tlxe study of Intellectual Philosophy as a means of intellectual culture.

Those who are best able to judge of the utility of our science place it the last in the course of classical education. The reason is obvious, because it is the crowning science of all — it caps the climax of elementary education. It is the scientia scientiarum, the basis of all, and it runs through all, for it is the science of reason, and reason is necessary everywhere. The boy, after having gone through his classics and the greater part of his mathematical studies, is gradually being transformed into a man. lie now needs a greater aid in controlling his passions than heretofore. Though grace is more than sufficient, still lie must not disdain to use her handmaid, Nature. Hence, the science of reason as well as of faith is imparted to him, till his mind becomes inoculated with right principles. The play of his fancy is checked, the waywardness of his will controlled, and the reluctance of his intellect to meditate overcome by constant application to the study of matter, which brings out all the reflective powers. His mind is drilled by syllogisms daily ; he argues ; he proposes his thesis, lays down his premises, and draws his conclusions according to rule, as an architect builds a mansion. He had been accustomed to think as the ostrich flies, by fits and starts ; now his reasoning is close, connected, solid. Heretofore there was an exaggerated growth of the imagination apparent in his style; weeds grew along with flowers ; now his judgment assumes the office of pruner. The style becomes chaster and more elegant. He has passed from being an author of bombastic verses to being the writer of sound prose ; and if lie still preserves tlie character of a poet, his productions are more labored and exact.

There is more common-sense appearing in him as his reason improves under logical discipline and metaphysical drill. He obeys more readily, for the principles he is imbibing influence his will. Exceptions there may be to this rule, but the exceptions prove the rule here as well as in many other cases.

In fact, the improvement of his intellect, will, and imagination is apparent. His intellect grows robust, it seizes great difficulties by the hair, it dives into abysses, scales precipices, it has the 6oa ttov ot& of Archimedes, nothing can shake it, and it can move the world. The intellect becomes more impartial, it examines both sides of questions, acquires a love of justice, stability, and strength, and loves to see them everywhere, in religion a i well as in go vernment. The thoughts become clear — for philosophy is an intellectual clarifier — the conceptions exact, and the expression of the thought more just, according to the rule of Boileau : " Ce qui se con§oit bien s'enonce clairernent." Clearness of expression is a consequence of clearness of thought. On the will, it (our science) produces similar effects, for volition generally follows the intellect. Mental conviction is the next step to persuasion. The young man's ardor is not quenched by our science, but tempered. We had seen more of the animal in the boy and child; philosophy brings out the rational, so that we finally have the definition of the metaphysicians proved : " Homo est animal rationale." The effect of serious study on a wild imagination is evident from experience. Young men, whose passions were mad as Charybdis, whose fancy never dismounted Pegasus, and never let the winged charger relax from a breakneck gallop, have gradually become tamed under the influence of philosophy. The boiling of the Charyb-

difl of the classics has ended in a quiet simmer ; and the furious Pegasus has taken to a quiet and steady walk. We have seen it, and others more competent to judge bear testimony to this good result obtained from the study of intellectual philosophy. It is so useful, too, at a time when young men are going to decide the all-important question of vocation, to have their minds rendered capable of serious rejection, that the choice may be made with prudence and calmness. In fact, philosophy is useful to the statesman ; for how can he decide on questions of civil policy without knowing the princi- \ of the natural law and law of nations I It is useful to the lawyer for the same reasons, but it has a special usefulr him besides. He is a pleader; he must know how t<> refute his a<b sary 3 unents, as well as to prove his

own case; lie needs To be able

to form a judgment on the character of the witnesses, lie must liave studied tlie workings of the minds of men. Even if 'he be a physician, the knowledge of the connection between the body and soul will help him immensely in the curing of sick imaginations as well as corporal infirmities. But if he be a Christian minister, the utility of this science is incontestably suitable to his character and to the nature of the sciences to which he must apply his mind in the holy ministry. This, however, brings us to the third great utility of intellectual philosophy as it appears from its connection with the supernatural order of things.

Sec. 3. The utility of the study of Intellectual Philosophy as the handmaid of Heligion.

There is a philosophy of religion as well as of history ; there is philosophy in every science. No science seems to be more closely joined to intellectual philosophy than theology.

Theology treats of revealed, philosophy of natural religion; but the latter is the footstool of the former, for grace builds on nature. It might be said with truth, that theology is not specifically distinct, but only a degree higher up the scale than philosophy ; it gives us a better knowledge of God than philosophy. In the latter science we see him faintly, as the sun in a cloudy sky ; in the former, though not visible as in noonday brightness, still we behold him more clearly. Reason points him out in the one, faith in the other. In philosophy, we argue from first principles, given by intuition or discovered by the mere workings of intellectual power ; in theology, we build our science on facts which we have learned by revelation, and by uniting these facts together w^e have the principles of a science.

Theology treats of God, of the soul, and of creatures considered in a supernatural light; and as philosophy treats of

INTRODUCTION. 2o

tliem iii a natural point of view, it follows that the philosophical knowledge we acquire of them serves us greatly in rising to the higher sphere. There is, as it were, an echo of the supernatural in the natural order. Revelation's shadow falls into the natural order. In fact the two orders are inseparable and dovetailed into each, other, if we may so speak, in time as well as in eternity.

It was the observation of this fact that made Gioberti invent the mental faculty which he calls sovrintelligenza, or superintelligence — the natural power of apprehending in the supernatural order. We say which made him invent the faculty, for its existence is problematic. It was this connection between theology and philosophy that made the scholastics give the latter science the name of " Ancilla Theologiae." In modern times this name has been rejected by many philosophers, who could not bear to hear their favorite science receive a name that would imply inferiority. This feeling, however, is one of unreasonable pride, for there is no insult meant to philosophy by giving her her natural position. She is a handmaid, and though rationalists may endeavor to put reason above faith, they will never succeed in their undertaking, for things must be as God wills them. At the same time, therefore, that we give our science all the honor that is due to her, we must never exaggerate her worth. Men have done so in our days, and their conduct has been the cause of the general fear that has crept into some minds of philosophy and every thing that sounds like it. They look on a philosopher as a bugbear, a humbug, or a madman, lie is supposed to be a human being who deals only with ethereal objects, and can not descend from his elevated position to the ordinary mundane sphere. This in fact, is one of the great objections against the study of philosophy; avc shall answer it, therefore, before we end this chapter.

Does philosophymake raen unreal and exaggerated ? We have shown its utility from the nature of the matter of which it treats, as well as from its great power in cultivating the mind. We should not, therefore, be induced to consider it a dangerous study on account of the abuse which some have made of it. There is no contesting the fact that all the dangerous systems of modern times have had founders who prided themselves on being philosophers. Communism in France, claims St. Simon and Pierre Le Roux as its authors; the Pantheists, in Germany, glory in Hegel, Fichte, and Schilling. We need not mention some of our own philosophical scapegoats, whose exaggerations are as great as any of the worst European speculations. The abuse never destroys the thing used. The Bible is abused, yet the Bible is the best of books ; and though food is abused by those who eat to excess, it does not therefore follow that we are to die of hunger. So is it with philosophy ; we do not praise bad philosophy, but sound philosophy. We speak of the advantages of sound philosophy, not of the creations of bewildered brains. There are objections against every thing that is good. It is not, therefore, astonishing that* there should be objections against philosophy, But, after all, those who know the science, feel that there is none more useful or more important; none more beloved of reason and more respected by faith. Let us, therefore, proceed to examine some of the most interesting questions which the science proposes to be solved by the human intellect.

CHAPTER II.

PHILOSOPHICAL TERMS.