The primacy of the apostolic see vindicated

Front matter

a

4/.

THE

Preface

Towards the close of the year 1837, the first edition of this work was issued from the press, in the form of a series of letters addressed to the Right Rev. John Henry Hopkins, Bishop of the Protestant Church in the State of Vermont. They were written in reply to a work published by him in the same year, and addressed to the Catholic hierarchy, in which he urged them to re-examine the causes of separation, with a view to union. That edition being exhausted, the second appeared early in the year 1845, divested of the epistolary form, and much enlarged, so as to embrace most of the points treated of by controversial writers generally, especially by Isaac Barrow, — a good mathematician, but bad divine, — the most celebrated among the assailants of the pontifical supremacy. This, although much larger than the former edition, met with a rapid sale, and the demand for the work increasing both in Europe and in this country, it has become necessary to issue a third edition. I have taken occasion to revise it, classify the subjects more distinctly, and otherwise remodel it, so that the same materials are presented, arranged in different order, with, I trust, increased perspicuity and force. It is now divided into three parts, the first of which regards the dogma of the supremacy of the Bishop of Rome in matters of faith and morals ; the second contains the explanation of many historical facts, in which he appears clothed with secular attributions ; and the third shows the influence which has been exercised over literature, science, art and civilization, by the succession of Roman Pontiff's. This distinct classification will enable the reader to fix his attention on the great point at issue, without encumbering the investigation with extraneous matter ; but he may gratify his curiosity, if he choose further to inquire how it came to pass that for many ages power was exercised by the Popes over civil governments. I cannot flatter myself that my solution of the many historical problems here presented amounts to demonstration, or that it will appear satisfactory to all : but I offer it for consideration, without any extreme anxiety about the judgment which may be passed on it, cheerfully leaving to others that liberty of opinion which I claim for myself in matters not defined by the Church. If my views of the extent of papal prerogative, or of the acts of the Pontiffs, should startle or shock the reader, let him reflect that he is not called on to adopt them, but only to acknowledge the guardian power which Christ has left for the maintenance of unity.

vi.

PREFACE.

Some are disposed to regard the recent submission of so many learned ministers of the Anglican communion to the authority of the Roman Pontiff, as an earnest of the general return of England to that obedience to his authority which her prelates, during so many ages, professed. " It is impossible to deny," as Bishop Hopkins emphatically avows, " that the whole system of Popery had gained the ascendancy in England for centuries before the Reformation, and that all the prelates of the Church were bound to the Pope by the most solemn vows of ecclesiastical obligation."* It may be visionary to indulge the hope that England will remember and redeem her plighted faith : but may We not, at least, promise ourselves, that the many estimable men, who now exhibit to the world the strange inconsistency of maintaining the tenets of the Church without embracing her communion, will soon follow the example of their former colleagues in recognising the authority of the Chief Bishop ? Dr. Hopkins acknowledges that exemption from his power, if that alone were objectionable, was dearly purchased by the calamities of the Reformation. " Granting, then," he says, " that the Popedom was an usurpation, as it assuredly was, yet no reflecting Christian, steadfastly regarding the strife, the wars, the persecutions, the martyrdoms, and the endless dissensions which the Reformation necessarily brought along with it, could have thought himself justified in urging such a measure, if the evil had been nothing worse than the jurisdiction of the foreign Pontiff." t

The recognition of the pontifical authority by several respectable members of the Episcopal ministry in this country, who, within a few years, have embraced the Catholic communion, gives ground for hope, that it will engage the attention of many others, especially of those who stand in the responsible relation of teachers and guides. It is a fearful thing to remain estranged from the communion of the Universal Church ; but it is still more dreadful to undertake to lead others through devious paths, in manifest opposition to the intentions and prayer of Christ, who willed all his followers to be one, even as He and the Father are one. The example of those who have returned to the obedience of the Chief Pastor will necessarily have a happy influence on such as hitherto looked up to them as leaders : and it may induce others, occupying a still more prominent position, to reflect at what risk they continue to advocate separation and revolt. This work again goes before the public without special reference to the respected individual who first gave occasion to it, and with the sole view of promoting truth and unity.

Philadelphia, Feast of the Annunciation, 1848.

* " The Novelties which disturb our Peace," a second letter, by John Henry Hopkins, &c, p. 66. t Ibidem.

CONTENTS,

Chapter I. — Nature of the Primacy . . . . 15

Organization of the Church by Christ. Necessity of a Central Power. Learned Work of Dr. Spalding. Presumptive Evidence. Reasons of Professor Major. Motives of Luther. Henry VIII. Photius. Acknowledgments of Mr. Allies. Prejudices against the Papacy. Federal System. Abuses.

Chapter II. — Promise of the Primacy ... 24

Custom of our Lord. Change of Name. Concession of Barrow. Promise. Personal Faith. Admission of the First Converts. Christ the Rock. Difference of Gender. Bloomfield's Admission. Gerard. Thompson. Christ the Foundation. St. Leo the Great. Figure of the Keys. Rebuke to Peter. Rivalry of the Apostles. Prayer for Simon.

Chapter III. — The Fathers' Exposition of the Promise 37

Authority of the Fathers. Tertullian. Origen. Mystical Fancies. St. Cyprian. Peter Represents the Church. On him the Church is Built. St. James of Nisibis. St. Cyril of Jerusalem. *St. Basil the Great. St. Gregory of Nazianzum. St. Chrysostom. Peter is placed over the entire World. St. Epiphanius. St. Cyril of Alexandria. St. Hilary of Poictiers. Faith of Peter. Arian Heresy. St. Optatus. St. Ambrose. Power of Forgiveness. Equality of Paul to Peter. St. Jerom. Occasion of Schism Removed. On that Rock the Church is Built. St. Augustin. Hesitation. The Church through Peter receives the Keys. St. Leo the Great. Various Interpretations.

Chapter IV. — Institution of the Primacy ... 68

Manifestation of our Lord. Feed Lambs and Sheep. Union of Jews and Gentiles. One Fold, one Shepherd. Barrow's Avowal. St. Francis de Sales. Perpetuity of the Power. Headship of Peter reconciled with that of Christ. Wisdom of Christ. Bossuet.

Chapter V. — Fathers' Exposition of John xxi. . . 74

Origen. Cyprian. Unity of the Church. Barrow's Admission. St. Cyril of Jerusalem. St. Chrysostom. St. Ambrose. St. Augustin. Observation of Mr. Allies. St. Leo. St. Gregory the Great. St. Bernard.

Chapter VI. — Exercise of the Primacy ... 82

Call of Matthias. Remark of Chrysostom. Council of Jerusalem. Result of Peter's Address. Tertullian. St. Jerom. Theodoret. Chrysostom. Model of Councils. Bossuet. Potter. To send sometimes im- . plies superiority. Condescension of Peter. St. Gregory the Great. Cephas at Antioch. Visit of Paul to Peter. The Jews committed to the charge of Peter, the Gentiles to Paul. Address of Peter to his Fellow- Bishops.

Chapter VII. — Peter Bishop of Rome .... 93

Admission of Cave. Babylon. Clement. Ignatius. Papias. Irenseus. Dionysius of Corinth. Cajus. Origen. Cyprian. Eusebius. Theodoret. Palmer's Admission. Difficulty of arranging Chronology. Both Apostles Founders of the Roman Church. Apostleship compatible with Episcopacy. Silence of St. Paul. Palmer's Admission.

viii.

Chapter VIII. — Roman Church 100

Transmission of the Power of Peter. St. Ignatius IV. addresses the Church that Presides. Celebrated Passage of St. Irenaeus. Palmer's Admission. Tertullian. St. Cyprian. Root and Matrix. Dr. Hopkins. Authority of Roman Clergy. The Emperor Aurelian's Reference to Roman Bishop. St. Augustin. St. Jerom. A Bishop everywhere equal in order. Bishops of Province of Aries. Dignity of Imperial City. Concessions of Emperors. Decree of Valentinian. Concessions of Palmer and Allies. Chapter IX. — Centre of Unity.

§1. Communion with See of Rome 115

Remark of Hallam. St. Cyprian. To communicate with the Roman Bishop is to communicate with the Catholic Church. Union of Spirit without identity in Faith is chimerical. Episcopate in Solidum. St. Ambrose. St. Optatus. Evasion of Palmer. St. Augustin. Inconsistency of Manning. Roman Catholic.

§ 2. Interruptions of Communion ..... 123

Meletius. St. Jerom. Liberality of the Holy See. Inconsistency of Palmer. Testimony of John, Bishop of Constantinople. St. Cyprian on Unity. Instances objected by Mr. Allies. Council of Frankfort. Manning.

Chapter X. — Ancient Examples of Papal Authority

§ 1. Disturbances at Corinth ...... 131

Letter of Clement.

§ 2. Paschal Controversy . • . . . .132

Difference of Discipline. Polycarp and Anicetus. Measures of Victor.

Tertullian. Bishop of Bishops. Faber's Admission. Peter's Church.

§ 4. Controversy Concerning Baptism . . . 138

African Decree. Pope Stephen. Asiatic Usage. Vincent of Lerins.

Papal Authority. St. Cyprian. Candor of Mr. Allies. St. Jerom. St.

Augustin.

Cecilius of Carthage. Decree of Constantine. Sentence of Melchiades. Council of Aries.

Chapter XL — Guardianship of Faith.

§ 1. Constancy of the Holy See . 149

Theophylact. Innocent III. Early Heresies. § 2. Chief Mysteries ..... 151

Divinity of Christ. Dionysius of Alexandria accused. Arianism. Liberius Vindicated. Testimony of Sozomen. Heresy of Apollinaris. Edict of Theodosius. St. Basil. The East as well as the West receives the Decrees of Rome. Nestorius. St. Cyril. Decree of Celestine. Council of Ephesus. Eutyches. Flavian writes to the Pope. Letter of Valentinian. Council of Chalcedon. Acknowledgment of Palmer. Blessed Virgin. § 3. Grace ...... 167

African Councils. Innocent I. Further Examination superfluous. Zosimus. St. Prosper. St. Vincent of Lerins. Paulinus of Milan. Nestorius. St. Leo.

§ 4. Testimonies of Fathers . . . .175

St. Jerom. St. Leo. Acknowledgment of Casaubon. § 5. Vindication of Honorius . . . .177

Anathema. Letters of Honorius. Agatho. St. Bernard. Bishops of Tarragona.

Chapter XII. — Governing Power

§ 1. Exercise of Authority . . . .182

St. Celestine. St Cyprian. Decree of Siricius. Innocent I. Zosimus. St. Leo. Just Declaration of Bossuet. Dispensing Power. Boniface I. Consultations.

CONTENTS.

is.

§ 2. Universal Patriarch .... 190

John the Faster. Council of Chaleedon. St. Gregory the Great. Byzantium. Acknowledgment of the Eastern Church. Acts of Gregory. Serenus of Marseilles admonished. Patriarchs address Gregory with reverence. Decree of Phocas.

Chapter XIII. — The Hierarchy

§ 1. Patriarchal System. . . . 196

Extent of Western Patriarchate. Origin of Patriarchal Jurisdiction. Sixth Canon of Nice. Version of Ruffmus. Suburbicarian Churches. Boniface I. Council of Chaleedon. St. Leo.

§ 2. Western Patriarchate . . . .200

Innocent I. Pallium. Primates. Guizot. Clinch. Acknowledgment of Mr. Allies.

§ 3. Apostolic Vicars ..... 203

Barrow's Avowal. First Instance of Apostolic Vicar for Illyricum. Pontifical Instructions. St. Leo the Great. Modern Vicars Apostolic. Bishops not mere Delegates.

§ 4. Papal Relation to Patriarchs .... 207

Patriarchal Power. Dependence on the Pontiff. Avowal of Mr. Allies. Juvenal of Jerusalem. Bishop of Constantinople. Embassy to Rome. St. Basil.

Chapter XIV. — Deposition of Bishops . . . 213

Occasional Encroachments. Ancient Reservation to the Holy See. Potter's Testimony. Deposition of Marcian of Aries, solicited by St. Cyprian. Observation of Mr. Allies. Roman Council. Imperial Edict. Mosheim and Maclaine. Zosimus. Celestine. Council of Chaleedon. Ephesus. Bishops of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Constantinople Deposed. Anthimus Deposed by Agapitus. Primate of Byzacium.

Chapter XV. — Appeals

§ 1. Ancient Examples ..... 222

Marcion goes to Rome. Basilides. Cyprian's Judgment. Privatus of Lambesita. Cyprian complains of wanton appeals as calculated to Defeat Justice. Observation of Mr. Allies. Appeal of Athanasius. Letter of Julius. Custom to write first to Rome. Marcellus of Ancyra. Passage of Socrates. Council of Sardica. St. Basil an Illustrious Witness. Appeal of Chrysostom.

§ 2. African Controversy ..... 237

Council of Carthage. Appeal of Apiarius. Sardican Canons. Misnomer. Appeals of Bishops. Letter to the Pope. Appeal of Celestius. African Instances of Appeal.

§ 3. Promiscuous Examples .... 245

Chelidonius. Flavian. American Editor of Mosheim. Theodoret. John Talaja. Enumeration of Appeals by Barrow. Pope Gelasius.

Chapter XVI. — The Church of England

Introduction of Christianity. British Bishops in Councils of Aries and Sardica. St. Germanus Legate of Celestine to the Britons. Bishops of Cyprus. Autocephalous Character. Forgery of Address of Abbot Dinoth. Fuller's Quaint Acknowledgment. Gregory gives Authority over British Bishops.

§ 2. Anglo-Saxon Church .... 253

Canterbury Founded by Augustin. § 3. Paschal Controversy .... 255

Britons and Irish follow Old Cycle. King Oswin decides in favor of the Roman usage.

§ 4. Anglo-Saxon Hierarchy .... 256

Plan Traced by Gregory. Changes made by Vitalian and Agatho.

CONTENTS.

Lichfield raised to Metropolitical Dignity by Adrian. Pallium. Several English Metropolitans go to Rome : some are consecrated by the Pope. Papal Legates.

§ 5. Acknowledgment of the Primacy . . ♦ 259

Bede. Alcuin. Anglo-Saxon Pontifical. Councils. Deposition of Bishops. Appeal of Wilfrid.

§ 6. Modern Church of England . . . 263

Plea of Mr. Allies. Measures of Henry VIII. Futile Attempts of Palmer. Female Supremacy.

Chapter XVII. — Papal Prerogatives . . . 268

False Decretals. Presidency of the Universal Church. St. Leo. Right to Judge in Controversies of Faith. Definitions ex cathedra. Assembly of 1682. Plenitude of Power. New Organization of French Hierarchy. Hypothetical Argument of Bellarmine. Acknowledgment of Voltaire. Relations of Pope to Councils. Not necessary to define extent of prerogative. Observation of Palmer.

Chapter XVIII. — Unbroken Succession of the Bishops of Rome .... ... 280

Invitation of Augustin. Schism of Novatian. Cornelius Bishop of the Catholic Church. St. Cyprian. Felix Intruded. Schisms. Imperial Interference. Great Schism. Absence from Rome. Simoniacal Elections. Interregnums. Fable of Pope Joan. Elizabeth of England. St. Augustin's Appeal.

Chapter XIX. — Papal Election

§ 1. Imperial Interposition . . . . 292

Interference of Odoacer, King of Italy. Eastern Emperor. Popes Consecrated without the Imperial Assent. Western Emperors. Oath required by Otho I. Amount of Deference to Emperors. St. Gregory VII. Esclusiva.

§ 2. Mode of Election 296

Office not to be Bequeathed. Popular Influence. St. Celestine. Council of Laodicea. Conclave.

Chapter XX. — Ceremonies

§ 1. Ceremonies after Election . . . 300

Adoration. Kissing of the foot, Ancient Oriental Rite. Chair of State. § 2. Ceremonies of Coronation . . . 302

Burning of Bunch of Flax. Pallium. Gospel in Latin and Greek. Tiara. Cap of Liberty. Address of Council of Baltimore.

Chapter I.— Patrimony of St. Peter . . 309

No Earthly Possessions, or Dominion, given by Christ. Wealth of the Roman Church. Donation of Constantine. Humane Treatment of Tenants. French Princes. Title of Patrician. Acts of Sovereignty. Heroism of Leo IV. Relations of Pope and Emperor to the Romans. Gibbon's account of the origin of the Papal Dominion. Anticipations of Dr. Jarvis.

Chapter II. — -Authority over Princes

§ 1. In Matters of Faith and Morals . 325

Pontiff superior to all members of the Church. Gelasius explains the relations of the two powers. Means employed against Princes. § 2. In Secular Concerns «... 331

No Civil Power now claimed. Creation of Emperor by Leo III. British Critic. Remarkable avowal of Voltaire.

CONTENTS.

Chapter III. — Peace Tribunal . . . 341

Council of Rheims. Louis the Fat. Princes sought the Pope's Mediation. St. Anselm. Genoese and Pisans reconciled. Pope's Power implored by both parties. Federal Union. Decree of Lateran. War Sometimes Necessary. Truce of God. Improvement in the Laws of War.

Chapter IV. — Deposing Power

§ 1. Origin of the Power . . . .351

Abdication of Wamba. Council of Savonieres. Saxons complain to Alexander II. Threats of Gregory VII. Henry IV., seeks his influence to suppress Revolt. Crimes of Henry. Compact. Declaration of Independence. Effects of Excommunication. Views of Gregory. §2. Subsequent Instances .... 358

Alexander III. sanctions the Lombard League. Frederick II. deposed in Council of Lyons. Act of the Pope. Impeachment of the President. § 3. Never formally defined . . . . 361

Bull of Boniface VIII. Definition. Excellence of Sacred Power. Canon 'of Lateran. Acknowledgment of Monarchs.

§ 4. Deposition of Elizabeth . . . .364

Object of the Sentence. Armada. Conduct of English Catholics.

French Clergy in 1682. Cardinal Antonelli. Bull of Pius VII.

Chapter VIII. — Coercion

§ 1. Pagans and Jews . . . . 411

Liberty of Conscience vindicated by Tertullian. Ethelbert. Council of Toledo. Innocent IV. Facts Regarding the Jews. Rome their Asylum. § 2. Sectaries ..... 413

Conduct of Constantino. Right of Property. Imperial Laws. Antisocial Principles. Outrages of Circumcellions. Council of Carthage. § 3. Crusades against Manicheans . . . 418

Canons of Toulouse and Lateran. Excesses of Sectaries. Assassination of Legate. Instructions of Gregory IX. Testimony of Voltaire.

Chapter IX. — Inquisition

§ 1. Ancient Tribunal ..... 424

Council of Verona. Quasitores fidei sent by Innocent III. Spirit of Inquisitors. St. Peter de Castelnau. Civil sanction. § 2. Spanish Inquisition ..... 428

Ferdinand of Spain. Object. Treasonable designs of Moors. Royal tribunal. Opposition of Popes to its establishment in Naples and Milan. § 3. Mode of Proceeding . . . . .430

Secrecy. Requisites for arrest. Mode of trial. Torture seldom used : long abandoned. Searching process. Exaggerations of Llorente. § 4. Roman Inquisition ..... 435

Congregation of cardinals. Temporal attributions. Archives seized by the French. Heresy regarded as a crime against society.

XU. CONTENTS.

Part III. Literary And Moral Influence

Chapter L— Personal attainments . . . 441

Gregory the Great misrepresented. Testimony of Agatho. Rome the source of letters to the West. Nicholas Breakspere.

Chapter II. — Measures to promote learning.

Popes collectors of books. Vatican library. Nicholas V.

§ 2. Schools 449

Schools in England. Literary accomplishments of ladies. Decrees of Roman Councils. Universities.

Chapter III.— Mediaeval Studies . . . 452

Divinity. St. Thomas Aquinas. Aristotle. Modern spirit. Canon law. Oriental languages.

Chapter IV. — Revival of Letters . . . 45S

Dante. Petrarch crowned in Roman capitol. Poets. Historians. Eloquence. Belles Lettres. Tuscan genius. Testimony of Voltaire. Reformation prejudicial to literature. Greek studies. Ippolita Sforza.

Chapter V. — Science.

Salerno. Montpellier. Anatomy. State physicians. Professorship of Medicine. Natural History. Minerals. Botany.

Virgil the Irish missionary. Antipodes. Correction of the calendar by Gregory XIII. Meridians. Earth's motion round the sun. Copernicus. Galileo. Decree of Roman Inquisition. Cassini. Benedict XIV.

Chapter VI. — The Arts .... 476

Rome renders the arts tributary to religion. Temples and statues. Paintings. St. Peter's. Landscapes. Miniatures. Engraving on diamonds.

Chapter VII. — Art of Printing.

§ 1. Encouragement of Printers .... 481

Printers at Rome in 1467. Activity of the Roman press. § 2. Restrictions on the Press .... 485

Decree of Alexander VI. Leo X. Committee apointed by Council of Trent. List of prohibited Books. Freedom of the Press.

Chapter VIII. — Moral Influence. § 1. Civilization ...... 488

Struggle of the Popes against Feudalism. Civilization of the Heathen. Missionaries of Germany. Monastic Institutions. Devotion to the Virgin. § 2. Personal Virtues. . . . . .491

Charity of Roman Bishops. The Martyr Lawrence. Fortitude. Martyrs. Pius VI. Pius VII. Humility. Celestine V.

§ 3. Recognised Sanctity. .... 500

Chapter IX. — Charges against the Popes. . . 502

Formosus. Stephen. Weight of Luitprand's testimony. Boniface VIII. Conduct before receiving orders. Leo X. Innocent X. vindicated. Alexander VI. Character of Pontiffs as Sovereigns. Sixtus IV. Nepotism.

V

THE PRIMACY.

Chapter I. Nature Of The Primacy

The first question which presents itself to the mind in reference to the important subject of the Church, is, whether Christ our Lord formed the multitude of his followers into a society, and appointed officers to govern them. There are many at the present day, who confidently answer in the negative, contending that He left it entirely optional with believers in his doctrine, to assume whatsoever form they pleased for the furtherance of the great objects of His divine mission. It may appear strange, that this can be maintained by any who admit the Scriptures, which testify, so clearly, to the appointment by Christ of teachers and rulers, with a perpetual commission : but it is scarcely so surprising as that some should hold that Christ did organize His Church, and yet deny the main principle of her organization, which is unity by the government of one man, as the Scriptures no less clearly attest. The fact that Christ appeared on earth as Supreme Teacher, invested with all power and authority, should prepare us for a state of Christian society, in which one would hold His place, exercising, by delegation, those powers which He inherently possessed. That such a social form would be best adapted to the great ends of revelation, reason itself must convince us, since in order to diffuse and preserve the revealed doctrines, it must be of the highest importance to have a chief depositary and supreme guardian, from whose chair of instruction the voice of truth might issue to the farthest extremities of the earth, and who, from this eminence, as from a watch-tower, might discover and defeat the efforts of innovators. The union of believers could best be promoted by a central authority divinely established and protected ; and the perpetuity of the Church, which, without unity, is impossible, could thus be secured.

I

In every form of civil government, however limited may be its sphere of action, unity is necessarily sought by means of a supreme magistrate, with such limitations of his power as the genius of the people may require. The existence of such an officer in the Church, is the more necessary, inasmuch as she is composed of an endless variety of nations, who could not unite in one society, unless by means of a general head.* She has been often styled " a master-piece of human policy," because she is so constituted as to resist the many assaults from without, and to be uninjured by the conflict of internal elements. Her strength and power must be ascribed to her unity, which conservative and vital principle of her organization she owes to her Divine Founder. In leaving her a visible head to govern in His Name, He left her the pledge of his own perpetual presence, by which she repels every assault, and remains secure of victory over all her foes. No greater evidence of His divinity is needed to confound the unbeliever, than the fact that He so framed His Church as to secure her perpetual duration, whilst every human institution, howsoever wisely planned and powerfully sustained, after temporary prosperity, more or less rapidly dissolves. Apart from positive evidence, we may infer the divine institution of the primacy, from the fact that it effectually tends to unite the followers of Christ in an unbroken and invincible phalanx. That which makes the Church one, and renders her superior to all the efforts of her enemies, is surely not a device of human policy, but the institution of her Divine Founder.

I would not, however, confine the investigation of the primacy to abstract reasoning. It is a matter of fact, and therefore to be established by positive evidence. The New Testament, as far as it is a record of the institutions of Christ, and of their practical development, presents historical proof to all who regard it as a purely human composition, and divine testimony to such as recognise its inspiration. In an inquiry like the present, the obvious meaning of the words, as gathered from the context, and illustrated by parallel passages, may be fairly urged in proof; and where discrepancy of sentiment

* The reader will find this, and other arguments, ably presented in the tenth Lecture of Dr. Spalding, in his admirable " Lectures on the General Evidences of Catholicity." Louisville, 1847.

NATURE OF THE PRIMACY.

exists in regard to the interpretation, the unbiassed judgment of the ancient Christian writers may be justly appealed to. The monuments of antiquity, which attest the actual government of the Church in the early ages, should be examined in order to ascertain what was believed and acknowledged to be the authority left by Christ for that purpose : since the ancient general and constant persuasion of all Christians, on a matter of public polity, and daily practice, must be held sacred, according to the celebrated axiom of Vincent of Lerins, which is consonant with common sense : Quod semper, quod ubique, quod ab omnibus.

Whoever assails an existing institution, or a received doctrine, necessarily takes on himself the burden of proving that the institution is an innovation, and that the doctrine was introduced subsequently to the age of the apostles.* The presumption is in favor of that which is established, because it is reasonable to suppose that its claims had been thoroughly examined before they were acknowledged. If the opponent himself had previously recognised the authority, he is still more evidently bound to show cause why he now seeks to discard it, and his arguments are unworthy of attention, until all suspicion of improper motives has been removed. 1 Luther rose in revolt against the papal power, after loud protestations of unreserved submission, and after his resentment had been provoked by the condemnation of his errors. Henry VIII. shook off the Papal yoke when it galled him ; the Pontiff refusing to minister to his passions, by divorcing his lawful queen, that he might take an adulteress to his bed. Many centuries before the appearance of the apostate monk, or of the licentious despot, Photius, in the ninth century, assailed the Roman primacy ; but only when the Pontiff had resisted his usurpation of the patriarchal chair, to the injury of the rightful occupant, Ignatius. The motives of these opponents of Rome were unquestionably suspicious. Hence the arguments, by which they attempted to disprove the divine origin of the primacy, were

* For the full development of the presumptive argument, and the complete exposure of the fallacies of Anglican and Episcopalian theories on this point, I beg to refer to " Reasons for Acknowledging the Authority of the Holy Roman See, by Henry Major, late a Clergyman of the P. E. Church." Philadelphia, 1846.

NATURE OF THE PRIMACY.

to be received with caution and distrust. It should be presumed that an authority which existed in the ninth, as well as in the sixteenth century, and which was opposed by men under the influence of passion, was still more ancient, nay, was coeval with Christianity itself. If, as we go back to the earliest times, we meet instances of its exercise in every age, the presumption is strong, that it existed then, substantially the same as when it was assailed by ambitious, restless, or licentious men. In the scarcity of ancient documents, and in the obscurity in which the persecutions of the early ages necessarily involved the constitution and internal administration of the Church, it is unreasonable to expect the same degree of evidence of the exercise of power by her officers, as in later times, of which fuller records are possessed, and in which her action was less controlled. " So long as the Church," observes Mr. Allies, " was engaged in a fierce and unrelenting conflict with the Paganism and despotism of the empire, she could hardly exhibit to the world her complete outward organization."* It is reasonable to infer that her government was the same previously, as in the fifth and fourth ages, unless there be conclusive evidence to the contrary. Those who deny the primacy to be an original principle of Church organization, in vain object the insufficiency of the proofs of its operation in the early ages. In order to meet the abundant evidence of its powerful activity at a subsequent period, they should show the time in which it was first established, the means used for its introduction, and explain how it happened that it met with no opposition, or that that opposition was unsuccessful.

Some of the Pontifical acts which I shall have occasion to enumerate might be referred to mere patriarchal jurisdiction; but the attentive reader will perceive, that they all presuppose the divine institution of the primacy, and the authority of the Bishop of Rome as derived from St. Peter. The proofs here furnished cannot be eluded, merely by saying, that many of them are explicable on the patriarchal theory : for we must examine whether the Pontiffs rested their claims on this ground, or on the divine commission ; and whether the bishops submitted to them on principles of ecclesiastical economy, or

* " The Church of England Cleared from the Charge of Schism, by Thomas William Allies, Rector of Launton, Oxon.," p. 15.

NATURE OF THE PRIMACY.

in obedience to a divine mandate, which they believed to be delivered in the Gospel. To invent a theory, is not sufficient ; we must inquire into a fact, namely, whether the power of the Bishop of Rome throughout the Western patriarchate, as well as in the East, was based on the commission given to the apostle, whose chair he occupied. If continual reference be made to this commission in all the documents which have come down from those times, it is vain to say that the same acts might have been performed in virtue of conventional arrangements, since they actually proceeded from a higher source.

The attempt has recently been made by a most ingenuous, although not successful, inquirer after truth, to distinguish the primacy from the Supremacy,* and by the admission of the former to elude the evidences by which the claims of the Roman Pontiff are supported. Mr. Allies is not to be understood as acknowledging a mere precedency in rank, but an effectual authority in the Bishop of Rome, superior in degree to that of any other bishop, although not different in kind. This primacy of the successor of Peter, which, by his avowal, was always recognised in the East as well as in the West, is wholly different, in his opinion, from supremacy, or monarchy, such as is now ascribed to the Pontiff by his most consistent supporters. The amiable writer has unhappily mixed up a theory with the dogma, and confounded the opinions of individual divines with the defined doctrines of the Church : whence he has created for himself the difficulties which have perplexed him, and caused him to sit down confused and despondent at the end of a laborious research. The result would have been different had he kept in view the definition of the Council of Florence : " We define that the holy Apostolic See and Roman Pontiff holds the primacy throughout the entire world, and that the said Roman Pontiff is the successor of the blessed Peter, the prince of the apostles, and is the true vicar of Christ, and the head of the whole Church, and father and teacher of all Christians ; and that to him, in the person of blessed Peter, full power was given by our Lord Jesus Christ to feed, rule and govern the Universal Church, as also is contained in the acts of oecumenical councils and in the sacred