Grammar-- part of a course on language : prepared for instruction in the U. S. Corps of Cadets

Front matter

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Introduction

The present work results from no little observation of the deficiencies attendant upon ordinary grammatical instruction.

la the ordinary grammars, these deficiencies appear to be in the Method, the Classification, the Phraseology, the Multiplication of arbitrary Exceptions, and in the Iu utility for improvement in other studies.

In seeking a remedy, the author has found that the last thing to be sought was innovation. In grammar, this is wholly out of place, for in that subject, ever under men's thoughts, the oldest principles are best. These deficiencies are themselves the innovations. The present work will be found to accord with the earliest and simplest views of grammar.

1. Method. — The material in our common grammars is not liable to censure. The substance of all good grammars must be nearly the same. But the arrangement of that material has been such, that what nature, and reason, and the bewildered pupil demanded first, has been put last. It has been made impossible for the learner to proceed from the known to the unknown. But so to proceed is the indispensable condition for all human learning.

The common method has been to begin with letters ; to proceed to syllables ; to parts of speech ; to sentences ; and to do this under the heads of Orthography, Etymology, and Syntax. This method must cause confusion.

Under letters, for example, the use of capitals is to be taught. The rule is given that a capital letter is to begin the first word of an independent sentence ; proper nouns ; common nouns, when personified ; and to be used for the pronoun, I, and the interjection, 0. But the perplexed student has not yet been told of the sentence ; nor of nouns, proper and common ; nor of pronouns ; nor of interjections. This is, certainly, not passing from the known to the unknown.

Under nouns, cases are to be explained. He is told that in the Nominative Case, & noun is toe subject of a finite verb ; and in the Objective, the object of a transitive verb, participle, or preposition. But verbs have not been explained ; nor finite, as the contrast to the infinitive ; nor transitive verbs, nor participles, nor prepositions. This, again, is not passing from the known to the unknown.

The effect of this erroneous method is felt through the whole subject of Grammar.

The remedy is a simple one. It is, to begin with the sentence, as the grammatical unit. This is the method adopted in the present work.

2 INTRODUCTION.

2. The Classification. — In ordinary grammars, the parts of speech have been classified under etymology, and etymology has been said to have Words as its subject.

But the parts of speech are not words apart from their relations and uses in a sentence. They are the names of functions performed in a sentence. They must be classified under the same head to which we refer the sentence, that is, Syntax. The parts of speech and the rules of syntax are but counterparts to each other. They are based on the relations of words in a sentence.

In this work, the parts of speech have been put where they belong, under Syntax. Syntax is viewed as analytic or synthetic. The sentence, analyzed, shows the parts of speech. The parts, re-constructed, show what are usually named " Rules of Syntax." These two are so placed as to throw light upon each other. The definition of a part of speech, as the Adverb, implies a rule of syntax for the Adverb, which grows from the definition. In turn, the rule of syntax for the Adverb implies the corresponding definition, and gives a test for determining an Adverb in the most difiicult sentence. In this way, it has been possible to multiply test on test for all the parts of speech, especially for Substantives, so that the learner may always have certainty as to the part of speech which is under his hand.

Also, in this work, that subject has been put under Etymology, which alone belongs there, viz.: Words, apart from their relations and uses in a sentence.

3. Phraseology. — In every science or art, a correct nomenclature is indispensable. Each subject should be divided into its parts, parts which nature has given, (and nature is always simple,) parts which will stand forth definitely and perpetually. To each head and subdivision thus found, names must be given. Those names must be such, in their etymology, as to correspond, by their sense, to the things represented. Tnese names should also be those sanctioned by usage and antiquity.

Tho ordinary grammars violate these principles. They employ, incorrectly, the terms Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and give no one head to Prosody. Under Orthography they embrace too much, since they include sounds, or language as spoken, when the word itself declares that it treats of language written, and therein teaches correct representation only. Under Etymology, they embrace too much and too little, since they include parts of speech, and not the derivation and formation of words. But the very name, Etymology, declares that it treats of words as regards the source of their form and sense, while parts of speech are names for sentential functions.

Under Syntax, they embrace too little, since they include the rules of government and agreement, based on sentential relations, and do not include the functions of tho parts of speech equally based on those relations. But the word Syntax shows that it must treat of words as combined together in sentences. It must, then, treat of relations, and of function, as resulting from relation.

Under Prosody, they give no definition of prosody itself; no statement of the one subject to which it applies. Some place under it Elocution and Versification. Murray very properly considered under Prosody the Pronunciation of Words, and the laws of accent and quantity. Later grammarians have thrown out that subject altogether. They have defined English Grammar to be " the art of speaking and writing the English language correctly," and yet give the pupil no guide to the pronunciation of the words which he is daily employing.

But Prosody has for its subject tho representation of sentences, in the forms necessary to satisfy the ears and eyes of men. The word shows that the laws of such representation are drawn originally from poetry, because there their development is most full ; and thence extended to prose.

Such are some of tho defects in the use of terminology, serving as specimeas.

INTRODUCTION. 3

To avoid these defects, the author has sought for the simplest division, one which, resting on reason and nature, could be perpetual.

He finds two subjects. They are, the Sentence and the Word. In grammar, wc» simply want to know how these are made, and how these are to be correctly represented. This is all.

The making of the sentence belongs to Syntax ; the making of the word, to Etymology ; the representation of the word, to Orthonomy ; the representation of the sentence, to Prosody.

Three of the terms just given, are the old terms of grammar, rightly applied, according to their primitive meanings. The name Orthography is retained as a subdivision, addressing the eye by correct writing. With it is joined Orthoepy, as the correspondent subdivision, addressing the ear by correct speaking. The two have been placed under Orthonomy, as the head of the division. The name has been made to deviate as little as possible from the terms orthography and orthoepy.

The order given has been such as to give the sentence first, as the unit, and prosody last. And thus the four heads are Syntax, Etymology, Othonomy, and Prosody. This method is indicated in the opening of English Grammar.

4. The Multiplication of Exceptions. — Many grammars are filled with arbitrary exceptions and counter-exceptions. He who attempts to learn them finds himself in a labyrinth without a clue, and is led to regard grammar as a science without principles.

Every science may be so treated by those who will not ascend high enough to reach comprehensive principles, that will embrace all facts, and bring under rule what at first seemed to be exceptions and deviations.

To avoid this defect, the author has, at the outset, defined language as " a system." We are near the truth when we say there is no irregularity in language. In it, every fact fixed by universal consent and usage, has a reason.

He has then sought to lay down principles, clear, simple, rational, and to make every part of grammar but the application of those principles : By regarding the parts of speech as functions, and not categories ; by reducing those functions to eight ; by recognizing it as a law in language, that the same word may perform, now one, and now another of these eight functions ; by naming this law abnormal use ; by presenting it in two simple canons ; by extending abnormal use to synthetic syntax ; he believes he has given great relief to pupils, especially to those who are old enough to use reason, and not merely memory.

If there are facts not included, he prefers leaving them for the observation of the pupil through life.

5. Harmony with other Studies. — Grammar should be so presented as to be a help, and not a hindrance, in other studies.

Our common grammars are not so written as to assist the learner in the acquisition of other languages. They furnish no proper basis for arrangement and style in writing. They give no clue for understanding the technical terms employed in the arts and sciences.

But, in the present work, grammar is made subservient to improvement elsewhere.

It opens with a chapter introductory to a course on language, in Logic, Rhetoric, and Literature. The definitions, the divisions, the rules for study there given, and the note, form the foundation for such course. This subservience is preserved throughout the work. Principles are given, which will be wanted in each of those subjects. Nothing is given which must afterward be unlearned and contradicted.

It then places Universal Grammar before English, with a comprehensive view of the languages. The principles common to all precede those belonging to English, that the learner may have assistance in acquiring other languages.

d INTRODUCTION.

Under Etymology, it shows how any one who has never studied Latin and Greek may yet acquire a good knowledge of the common words and technical terms drawn from those sources. This will he of great advantage, as the pupil, in passing into other sciences or arts, will need to know the sense of the terms which they employ.

Such are the deficiencies which have been noted in the popular works on this subject, and such the mode by which the author has sought to avoid them. He would not speak thus freely of any single work. But censure may be rightly and unsparingly given where the works of nearly a century have followed a wrong direction.

The plan and aim of the present work may now be understood. It lays a foundation for studies on Language. It then treats of Universal Grammar. This simplifies the subject so much, that the author recommends the same order in works designed for children. After seeiDg the common principles, and the families of all languages, it passes to English Grammar. It begins with the sentence, and thence advances to the Rules of Syntax. It then shows how sounds, and out of sounds, words are formed. It teaches, next, the rules of spelling and accentuation by principles. It then givea the rules for writing, speaking, and reading correctly.

Throughout it is practical, insisting constantly upon written and spoken exercises.

Among its minor recommendations, is the selection of sentiments from Lord Bacon, presenting maxims and sentiments needed in the conduct of life, and among the responsibilities incident to the military profession.

The writer believes it to be a work which all learners of grammar might use with advantage. He knows that it meets the wants of those minds for whom it was prepared, since he knows how they act, and how they need to grasp each subject which they learn.

THE AUTHOR.

West Point, 1S61.

PLAN OF THE COURSE,

Chapter I

1 . The subject in this part of the course of study is Language.

2. Language is a system of signs for representing objects in classes, and for expressing and directing thought and emotion.

3. In language, we consider its elements and their combinations. 4 Its elements are words, with their parts and subdivisions.

5. The combinations of language are the arrangements of its elements, which are necessary for securing certain specified objects.

6. There are four such objects. They are: 1. Correctness in speaking or writing any language which we employ; 2. Reasoning; 3. Persuasion ; 4. Pleasure, united with instruction.

7. Four sciences or arts give direction how to use language for these objects. They are, for the first, Grammar ; for the second, Logic ; for the third, Rhetoric ; for the fourth, Literature.*

8. The elements of language, it might be thought, should be referred to a separate science.

This, however, is not the fact. By general consent, grammar includes not only the combinations necessary for correctness, but also the elements of language.

* Note for Instructors, Readers, and Mature Pupils. Language, the basis of these subjects, has two great functions — representation and direction.

Language represents objects. These objects are without us, within us, or in Speech. Those without us are called Things ; those within, Thoughts; those of Speech, Signs or Words. These objects are in classes. By a class is meant some whole, divisible into parts. Things exist in classes, as animal, man, Peter. Peter belongs to the class min, and man to a larger class called animal. Words exist in classes, as Substantive, Noun, Proper Noun. Tho Proper Noun belongs to the class Noun, and Noun to the class Substantive ; Substantive, to a head called Parts of Speech ; Parts of Speech, to a division of Grammar ; Grammar to Sciences of language : these, to the head of Sciences. Thoughts, including emotions, exist in classes, as reasoning, calculation, addition, are expressions for ways of thinking. Addition is one mode of calculating, calculating is one mode of reasoning, and reasoning is one mode of thought.

6 PLAN OP THE COURSE.

Grammar is, therefore, a science which treats of the elements of language, and gives rules for combining them in correct communication.

9. Grammar is universal or special. Universal Grammar considers the elements and rules of combination belonging to all languages in common : Special Grammar considers those which belong to one.

The divisions of Special Grammar are determined by the language which is applied. "We have, thus, Greek, .Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, German, or English Grammar, according to the language which we study and learn to use correctly.

10. The first subject is Universal Grammar.

11. Before that is taken, the learner should observe four important aids, which he will require. They are : 1. Skill in drawing subjects into the form of tables. 2. Exactness in definitions. 3. The constant use of a good dictionary. 4. Constant practice in written and spoken exercises.

They will be needed equally in all other studies as in those which regard language.

I. Tables are representations of the wholes and parts of subjects, by means of larger and smaller braces.

A brace is a crooked line, with two curves meeting in its centre, or opposite to the head of the division, and is used to connect two or more words, or points, thus :

o« .{gar 1

Putting any subject in that form, is called tabulating. Tabulating is of the greatest utility, because it presents a subject with its subordinate divisions orderly to the eye and mind in a single view. The pupil should learn the practice, in his studies, as soon as possible.

Language also directs. It directs our own mental operations. By using its signs for thought, we assist thought. It also directs the thoughts and feelings of others. A perfectly logical argument can lead the understanding to assent. An eloquent oration, or touching poetry, may move the feelings.

We are thus brought to the definition of language as it is viewed in the present course.

Language is a system of signs used for representing objects in classes, and for directing, as well as expressing, thought and feeling. (2)

This definition involves several points. 3. Language is a system. The English, for example, is like a machine whoso parts are mutually dependent, while all conspire to a common end. If it were not a system it could not perform its functions, which are to rep?-esent and direct. 2. Language has signs. It is significant. By signs, for the ear and eye, it represents all objects of sensation or consciousness. 3. It is the funda-

PLAN OF STUD Y. 7

II. Definitions are explanations which present the wholes and parts of what is defined by a series of words, in which the class is placed first, and the subdivision afterwards, so as to become less and less general to the last.

e. g. : A Pronoun is a word substituted for a Noun. The class here is word. The first division is substitute ; the subdivision, substitute for a Noun. Geography is a science, descriptive of the earth's surface. The class is science; the first division, a descriptive science; the subdivision, a descriptive science of the earth. But geology, also, is a descriptive science of the earth. Another subdivision must therefore bo made. It is that of surface of the earth. With this addition the definition of geography is completed.

Most definitions in books of education exemplify this rule more or less strictly. Mathematical definitions do so, strictly. A strict definition is one made according to the rule.

The pupil, therefore, should learn how to analyze, and thus to remember and state a definition.

He should not only read a strict definition over once, but should consider its parts one by one, regarding the first as the head of a class, and the others as its subdivisions.

In remembering it so as to answer the question so often put to him ; "What is such a thing ? he should bring up, in his mind, the class which the definition divides.

III. Another assistance is in a good dictionary. The learner must look out every word of which he does not know the meaning, the pronunciation, and the spelling.

IV. Another assistance is peculiarly needed in all studies based on language. It is that of practice, by means of written and spoken exercises.

Theory must be reduced to practice, and by practice must theory be understood. In the learning of language, the plan of nature is, to put practice before theory. We learn to speak before we learn rules for speaking.

mental law of language that it represents objects in classes, as general or particular. This underlies the whole subjectof Grammar. It is tho basis in Logic, for Terms, Propositions, Syllogisms, and Method. It pervades the rules tor words, sentences, style in Rhetoric-, and Literature. Great difficulties have been caused by men forgetting that this is not only a fact in language, but the fundamental law of all language and all thought.

4. Language expresses thought. This is seen in every sentence which we speak or v/rit<\

5. Language expresses feeling. This is seen in the Interjections of Grammar, in all Rhetoric, and throughout Poetry. 6. Language directs our thoughts. Logic tel's how to arrange our thoughts before we write or speak, and draws the rules of arrangement from the natural system of language. 7. Language directs thought and feeling in

PLAN OF THE COURSE.

12. He who studies faithfully the subjects now under examination, will acquire correctness and skill in using his own language ; he will understand the materials and resources of his mother tongue ; he will acquire mental discipline, since experience has fully shown that studies, based on language, unfold, not one, but all the faculties of the mind.

RECAPITULATION.

Language.

1. Elements Grammar.

2. Combinations for purposes :

f 1. Tables. 2. Definitions.

Means for

IMPROVEMENT, 1 3 . A DictioIlaIy .

4. Practice.

1. Correctness in ) nnk „ > Communication. \ Gramma R-

2. Reasoning... I Logic.

3. Persuasion. . . > Rhetoric.

4. Pleasure with l^™*,™™' Instruction.... \ ?gg£

Benefits,.

c

Attainments.

Discipline.

others. This is seen in Rhetoric, and in the persuasion of the orator. It is witnessed in Poetry, as where a tragedy moves multitudes to tears.

As each language is a system, it has analogies. These analogies form principles. The principles induce common consent. Common consent forms usage. Usage deter* mines the authorized mode for speaking correctly.

Analogy and usage thus become guides for the laws of language.

But usage itself is guided by analogy, and by principles. Hence, a language, apparently the most irregular, such as the English, will be found reducible to regularity, if we look far enough for the analogies and principles which usage has followed.

This inference will receive application specially when we consider the rules for spell, ing and accentuation in English.