Rand-McNally English grammar and composition

Preface

New text-books on grammar appear annually, a fact which proves clearly the difficulty the teacher experiences in finding the ideal book for school use. Many of these books have admirable features, but few are adapted to the needs of the learner. The young pupil does not need an exhaustive treatise. What he does need is a concise statement of the actual facts of modern English — brief, clear definitions of the laws of language, and ample illustration of these principles by examples that illustrate, chosen from the masters of English.

This second volume of a two-book course on English Grammar is designed to supply pupils of the seventh and eighth grades with a practical text-book. No attempt has been made to present a final treatise on the principles of grammar, or to correct the usages of the language. The method of the Primary Grammar was inductive and constructive, as suited to the needs of less mature pupils ; the method of the English Grammar is expository and constructive.

The essential facts of English, as used by scholars of the present day, are stated and defined, clearly and concisely. Every word or explanation not strictly necessary to clearness has been excluded ; needless comment is more confusing than helpful. For this reason the English Grammar may be criticised when compared with other text-books. But it is believed that a^good definition is worth a page of comment. Additional discussion may be left safely to the teacher. The next step is illustration. Each principle is abundantly illustrated by fresh examples drawn from well-known authors. Short, pithy sentences are here used by preference ; the words of acknowledged masters in English literature are preferred to colloquial examples, or to extracts from less eminent, contemporary writers. Moreover, care has been taken that each illustration shall exemplify exactly the point in question, and that, other things being equal, a noble sentiment or a celebrated utterance shall be placed before the pupil rather than a negative or commonplace expression. A third matter is the exercises, which occur at frequent intervals. Here additional illustrations (as a rule, longer and widely varied in character) are supplied for further practice in parsing or for discussion. But clear definition and ample illustration are not enough. In order

4 PREFACE.

to make the pupil work for himself and to test his information, he is required to construct sentences in illustration of the principles he has just learned.

The plan followed in this book needs a word of comment. The ideal plan for teaching has been sought for rather than a theoretical system of grammar. Thus, in Part II, under Clauses, the subordinate connective is reintroduced for a fuller treatment than was given in the earlier sections, because for the understanding of the clause relation it is essential. Examination of the book will show many other instances of divergence from the usual order of development for the sake of a natural approach to the subject.

Briefly, the plan may be stated as follows : Beginning with the sentence as the primary and necessary unit of thought. Part I is devoted to a short treatment of the Sentence as a wlwle — its essential elements, the subject and the predicate, and the classification of sentences as to form and use. Thus the pupil is enabled at once to handle the thought unit as a whole. In Part II, matters commonly classified as Etymology are developed, as well as Phrases and Clauses. The elements of the sentence now having been fully discussed, Part III is concerned with matters of Syntax — Analyses and Forms of Sentences, the principles of Government, Concord, Order, Ellipsis, etc. — and other allied topics, such as Equivalents and Idioms. Capitalization and Punctuation, together with a brief account of the chief rhetorical figures, are included in this part as naturally related to the subject of the complete sentence.

Here grammar proper ends? but, practically, it has been found useful to include in language study at this point further instruction on Prosody and the elementary rules of composition. Part IV contains a brief treatment of the different kinds of composition, in prose and verse, and a simple statement of rhetorical principles governing the sentence and the paragraph. With the information supplied in this part, and with the training afforded by the exercises, the pupil may proceed at once from the analytic processes of grammar to the constructive work of original composition. At the close, Prosody, or the grammar of verse, is briefly treated, and the chief verse-forms explained and illustrated.

In conclusion, it may be said that while no one book can be expected to answer all the difficult requirements of a text-book in language study, the English Grammar will be found comprehensive, concise, exact, and, above all, practical.

Contents

Introductory. page

Grammar and Its Divisions, 9

Orthography, 10

Elementary Sounds, 10

Language, . 13

PART I. Introductory Syntax, 15

Elements of the Sentence, . 15

Classification of the Sentence, 18

PART II. Etymology — The Grammar op Words, 21

Parts of Speech, 21

The Noun, 21

Classification of Nouns, 22

Classification of Pronouns, 25

The Classification of Adjectives 30

The Adjective Pronoun, , 32

Classification of Verbs, 34

Classification of Adverbs 38

Classification of Prepositions, . . .44

The Conjunction, 47

Classification of Conjunctions, ... .47

The Interjection, 51

6 CONTENTS.

Etymology — The Grammar of Words — continued. page

Inflection, 51

Nouns and Pronouns, 52

Person 52

Number, 52

Gender, 58

Case, 60

Appositives 64

Declension of Nouns, 65

Declension of Pronouns, 66

Absolute Possessive Pronouns, 69

Comparison of Adjectives, 74

Comparison of Adverbs, 78

Inflection of tbe Verb 79

Voice 79

Mode, 82

Tenses in All tbe Modes, 89

Regular and Irregular Verbs, 91

Auxiliary and Defective Verbs 92

Person and Number, 98

Conjugation, 102

Conjugation of tbe Verb Be 102

Conjugation of tbe Verb Love 105

Synopsis of the Verb Love, 107

Forms of Conjugation, 108

List of Irregular Verbs, 110

Participle, Tbe, 114

Infinitive, The 120

Parsing the Preposition, 128

Clauses, 129

Conjunctions in Clauses, 131

Words of Double Use, 133

Varied Use of Words 137

Direct and Indirect Discourse, 139

CONTENTS. 7 PART III.

PAGE

Syntax, 141

Classification of Elements, 142

Principal Elements, 143

Subordinate Elements 146

Independent Elements, 155

The Simple Sentence, 156

The Complex Sentence 160

The Compound Sentence, 171

Diagrams, 176

Simple Sentences, 176

Complex Sentences, ... 180

Compound Sentences, 182

Equivalents, 185

Government 191

Concord, 194

Order, 204

Ellipsis, 213

Idioms, 215

Rules of Syntax, 219

Capitalization 221

Punctuation, 222

PART IV. Composition, . 238

Descriptions 240

Narratives, 244

Expositions— The Essay, 246

Arguments, 247

Persuasion — Orations, Sermons, Addresses, etc., . . 249

Letters, 251

Invitations, 253

Acceptances, 254

Regrets, 254

Suggestions, 258

8 CONTENTS.

Composition — Kinds of Composition — continued. pa q b

Poetry 259

Iambic Measures 268

Trochaic Measures, . . 269

Anapestic Measures, . 270

Dactylic Measures, . . 271

Rhyme 271

Stanza and Verse, 274

Paragraphing, .... 295

tions, . 300

COMPOSITION

INTEODUCTOEY.

GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.

1. Grammar is a systematic account of the usages of a language, in regard especially to the parts of speech it distinguishes, the forms and uses of inflected words, and the combination of words into sentences. Four distinct subjects are usually treated in text-books on grammar, viz. : Orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. The first and the last of these do not properly belong to grammar, though, for convenience, they are generally included in text-books on the subject.

2. Orthography treats of the art of writing words with letters according to accepted usage.

3. Etymology treats of words — their origin, primitive significance, classification, and inflection.

4. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences, and the proper use and arrangement of words in sentences according to established usage.

5. Prosody treats of the accent of syllables in poetry, and the laws of versification.

6. In the following verses orthography teaches that A is a letter, a vowel, a syllable, and a word ; that they and him are monosyllables, and merry a dissyllable. Etymology teaches that A and merry are adjectives, never and again adverbs, and come a verb. Syntax teaches that A and merry are subordinate to or limit boy; that never and again are subordinate to or limit come; that come has the form required by accepted usage to agree in number with its subject that. Prosody teaches that the lines constitute a rhyming triplet, in iambic tetrameter verse.

A merry boy they called him then.

He sat upon the knees of men

In days that never come again. — Tennyson.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.

7. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, from which all the words in the written language are formed.

Letters are marks designed to represent the sounds used in speaking. Some letters represent a variety of sounds ; hence the twenty-six letters represent about forty different sounds.

Vocal sounds are of two classes — vowel and consonant.

ORTHOGRAPHY. 11

8. Vowel sounds are those made with the open mouth, unobstructed by the position or action of the palate, tongue, teeth, or lips. No other aids are needed to enable vowels to be sounded.

These sounds are represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u, which are also called vowels; as, a in mate, e in met, u in mute, etc.

W and y are vowels when in union with other vowels they represent the sounds of u and ij as, 7iow, boy, etc., and y whenever it takes the place of i, as in type.

9. Vowels are classified as long and short.

A long vowel is one that can be prolonged at pleasure; as, a in far, e in me, a in may, etc.

A short vowel is one uttered with a shorter and somewhat explosive effort; as, a in mat, e in met, i in sit, etc.

The union of two vowel sounds, or the letters representing them in oue syllable, is called a diphthong ; as, oi in boil, on in loud, ow in crowd, oy in enjoy, etc.

Obs. — Ea in weak, oa in float, etc. , sometimes called digraphs, have but one vowel sounded and are not, properly speaking, diphthongs.

10. Consonant sounds are those made by the obstructed voice or breath. These sounds are represented by letters, also called consonants; as, b in bat, s in sun, m in man, etc.

The consonants are: b, c, d, f, g, h.j, h, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, z, and y, when used as the initial of a syllable or word.

11. Consonants are classified as suhvocals and aspirates.

The subvocals consist of tone united with breath; as, b in bad, g in gone, th in thin, w in win, etc.

The aspirates consist of breaths without tone. Of these there are ten:

p in pen k in kin eh in chin s in sun t in ten h in hint sh in shun wh in wfon f in fin th in thin

12. A digraph is the union of two letters to represent a single sound. Of the consonant digraphs there are eight, representing eight of the sounds of the language:

ch in chin th in thin zh in azure wh in when sh in shim th in this ng in song ph in sylph

13. Subvocals and aspirates that are produced by the same position of the lips, or of the lips and teeth, or tongue and palate, are called cognates:

d and t in hid, hit p and b in nab, nap

f and v in file, vile z and a in buss, sink

g and k in rag, rack th and th in bath, bathe

*zh and sA in azure, ashes i and ch in jo*?i, chain.

14. Liquids are subvocals that readily unite with other consonants ; as, / in blend, r in brake, m in amber. ng in songster, etc.

15. When the termination erZ is immediately preceded by an aspirate, the d assimilates (becomes like) its cognate t; as, d in flushed, missed, looked, tipped, etc.

This change of sound is called assimilation, and by it many subvocals become aspirate; as, z = s in quartz, chintz, etc.

8, immediately preceded by a sub vocal, assimilates z; as, s in bids, fobs, fogs, bathes, etc.

* The sound of zh represented by s. Zh as a digraph is not found in English.

LANGUAGE. 13

16. The termination eel added to so many English words often unites with the word without forming an extra syllable. This is because the last syllable of the original word coalesces with the eel (unites by a kind of growth).

When, however, the original word ends with t or el, the added eel forms an extra syllable, because td and dd can not be pronounced as syllables.

LANGUAGE.

17. Language is the expression of thought. Thus it may be oral or written.

Oral language is composed of a succession of sounds called words. Words are the signs of ideas.

Written language is the expression of thought by the use of written or printed words.

18. In reference to its significant parts, a word must contain a root, and may contain a prefix or a suffix.

A root is either a single word or that part of a word modified by a prefix or a suffix; as, fold, unfolel, unfoldment.

A prefix is a letter or syllable united with the beginning of a word to modify its meaning ; as, pre in prefix, con in conclude, in in wclude.

A suffix is a letter or syllable united to the end of a word to modify its meaning ; as, less in heart/ess, hooel in chiWwod, ness in goodness.

19. According to form and origin, words are classed as primitive, derivative, and compound.

A primitive word is an original root-word, one derived from no other in the same language; as, go, free, true.

A derivative word is one composed of a primitive word, and one or more formative elements called prefixes or suffixes ; as, going, freedom, truth.

A compound word is one composed of two or more primitive or derivative words united into one ; as,

school and house sch.oolh.ou6e

ink and stand inkstand

black and bird blackbird

marble and box marble-box

rough and tumble rough-and-tumble.

20. A syllable is an elementary sound or combination of sounds made by one effort of the voice, forming a word or part of a word.

Words are also classified as monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables.

A monosyllable is a word with one syllabic ; as, part, home, large.

A dissyllable is a word with two syllables; as, partner, home-less, larg-er.

A trisyllable is a word with three syllables; as, partner-ship, awk-ward-ness.

A polysyllable is a word with more than three syllables; as, co-part-ner-ship, in-de-struct-i-bil-i-ty.

Part I. INTRODUCTORY SYNTAX

THE SENTENCE.

1. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. It is the essential form in which ideas are communicated, and of which discourse is composed.

1. Faithful study improves the mind.

2. All men are mortal.

S. Order is Heaven's first law.

4. That is the best government which desires to make the people happy, and knows how to make them happy.

— Macauxay.

Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.

Elements of the Sentence.

2. The principal elements of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. They are so called because they are essential to its structure.

3. The grammatical subject of a sentence is the noun or pronoun, which represents that of which something is asserted. The logical (or complete) subject includes the grammatical subject and its modifiers.

1. The sun shines brightly.

2. Stars have disappeared.

3. The fleecy clouds are beautiful.

4. Can you forget a friend?

The sun is the logical subject of sentence 1.

4. The grammatical predicate of a sentence is that which is asserted of the subject. It may consist of a verb alone, or a verb combined with an attribute. The logical (or complete) predicate includes the grammatical predicate and its modifiers.

i. The sun shines brightly.

2. Stars have disappears!.

3. The fleecy clouds are beautiful.

4. Can you forget a friend ?

5. The cottage was almost covered with roses.

6. Gold is one of the most precious metals.

Shines brightly is the logical predicate of sun in sentence 1.

5. An attribute is a noun, pronoun, or adjective which assigns some class or quality to the subject.

1. We are Time's subjects.

2. Can that man be he?

3. The pebbles along the beach are beautiful.

4. Birmingham glass is cheap and elegant.

Obs. — A combination of one subject and one predicate is also

culled a proposition. K

6. Subordinate elements are those that modify other elements. With respect to form, all elements may consist of —

1. A word, the simplest element of a sentence, called a part of speech.

1. Soon our ships will sail away.

2. A phrase, a group of words containing neither subject nor predicate, and used as a part of speech.

2. In Holland the stork is protected by law.

3. Keep thy heart with all diligence.

3. A clause, a proposition used as a part of speech.

4. When the, sun shines the stars disappear.

7. With respect to their office, subordinate elements are divided into three classes:

1. Adjective elements, those which modify a noun.

1. A merry heart proves contagious.

2. A heart of mirth dispels sorrow.

3. A heart which is always merry lightens all care.

2. Objective elements, those which limit a transitive verb or verbal by answering the question what or whom the action affects.

4. The wind carries the clouds along.

5. The United States purchased Alaska from Russia.

6. How many peaches did he buy?

3. Adverbial elements, those which modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

8. A clear conscience slumbers in innocence.

9. Is the lesson very difficult?

10. The soldiers fought very bravely.

Classification of the Sentence.

8. According to their use, sentences are classified as follows:

1. Declarative, which affirm or deny something.

1. Business is the salt of life.

2. The sun may shine to-morrow.

3. "We will now discuss in a little more detail the

Struggle for Existence. — Darwin.

tions.

Interrogative, which are used in asking ques-

4. One is what part of three ?

5. Can a mother forget her child ?

6. Doth God pervert judgment ?

7. And dar'st thou then To beard the lion in his den,

The Douglas in his hall ? — Scott.

3. Imperative, which express a command or an earnest request.

8. Think, decide, and act.

9. Please pass me the fruit.

10. Find the number of cords in this pile of wood.

11. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul,

As the swift seasons roll ! — Holmes.

4- Exclamatory, which are declarative, interrogative, or imperative sentences so used as to express great emotion.

12. Oh, I am so glad to see you !

13. What business is this of yours ?

14. Speak ! speak ! thou fearful guest !

15. Come here at once !

16. Oh what a tangled web we weave,

When first we practice to deceive ! — Scott.

Obs.— The subject of an interrogative sentence is placed after the verb or between the parts of a phrase-verb.

The subject of an imperative sentence is usually omitted.

Close every declarative and every imperative sentence with a period (.).

Close every interrogative sentence with an interrogation point (?).

Close every exclamatory sentence with cm exclamation point (/).

EXEKCISE.

(a) Mention the grammatical subject and predicate of each of the foregoing sentences.

(b) Change the declarative to interrogative sentences; the interrogative to declarative ; the imperative to interrogative.

(c) Construct four exclamatory sentences.

9. According to their form, or the number and rank of statements expressed or contained, there are three kinds or classes of sentences :

1. The simple sentence, which is composed of one proposition.

1. Electricity has been harnessed.

2. Rome is the most noted city in the world.

3. A thing of beauty is a joy forever.

Obs. — One thing may be asserted of several objects, or several of one object, or several things of several objects.

In the first case the subject is called compound; in the second the predicate is compound ; in the third both are compound. But the sentence remains simple.

4. Honor and shame from no condition rise.

5. Education expands and elevates the mind.

6. Men and women think and act.

2. The complex sentence, which contains one proposition and one or more clauses.

7. That you may succeed is my desire.

8. Find the cost of 12 hats, if 3 luits cost $9.

9. Let us have faith that right makes might.

10. We shape ourselves the joy or fear

Of which the coming years are made. — Whittiek.

3. The compound sentence, which contains two or more propositions coordinately united.

11. Guy was faithful ; therefore he was rewarded.

12. Cleverness is a desirable quality in men, but it is not

the best.

13. The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new,

And hope is brightest when it dawns from fears.

— Scott.

14. The hearts of men are their books, events are their

tutors, great actions are their eloquence.

Esehcise. («) Construct three simple sentences.

(b) Construct four complex sentences — three containing one clause, one containing two clauses.

(c) Construct three compound sentences — two containing two propositions, and one containing three.