History of the literature of ancient Greece, to the period of Isocrates

Front matter

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Chapter I. The Races And Language Of The Greeks

§ ] . General account of the languages of the Indo-Teutonic family ... 3 § 2. Origin and formation of the Indo-Teutonic languages — multiplicity of

their grammatical forms 4

§ 3. Characteristics of the Greek language, as compared with the other languages of the Indo-Teutonic family 6

§ 4. Variety of forms, inflexions, and dialects in the Greek language ... 7 § 5. The tribes of Greece, and their several dialects — characteristics of each

dialect 8

Chapter II. The Religion Of The Greeks

§ 1 . The earliest form of the Greek religion not portrayed in the Homeric

§ 2. The Olympic deities, as described by Homer 12

§ 3. Earlier form of worship in Greece directed to the outward objects of

Nature . ib.

§ 4. Character and attributes of the several Greek deities, as personifications

of the powers and objects of Nature 13

§ 5. Subsequent modification of these ideas, as displayed in the Homeric

description of the same deities 15

Chapter III. Earliest Popular Songs

§ 1. First efforts of Greek poetry. Plaintive songs of husbandmen ... 16

§ 2. Description of several of these songs, viz. the Linus 17

§ 3. The Ialemus, the Scephrus, the Lityerses, the Bormus, the Maneros, and

the laments for H ylas and Adonis 18

§ 4. The Paean, its origin and character 19

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§ 5. The Threnos, or lament for the dead, and the HymenceoS) or bridal song . 20

§ 6. Origin and character of the chorus .22

§ 7. Ancient poets who composed sacred hymns, divided into three classes, viz. those connected, i. With the worship of Apollo ; ii. With the worship of Demeter and Dionysus ; and iii. With the Phrygian worship of the

mother of the Gods, of the Corybantes, &c 24

§ 8, Explanation of the Thracian origin of several of the early Greek poets . 25 § 9. Influence of the early Thracian or Pierian poets on the epic poetry of

Homer 28

Chapter IV. Origin Of The Epic Poetry

§ 1. Social position of the minstrels or poets in the heroic age .... 29 § 2. Epic poems sung at the feasts of princes and nobles, and at public

festivals 30

§ 3. Manner of reciting epic poems, explanation of rhapsodists and rhapsodising 32

§ 4. Metrical form, and poetical character of the epic poetry ..... 35

§ 5. Perpetuation of the early epic poems by memory and not by writing . 37

§ 6. Subjects and extent of the ante-Homeric epic poetry ...... 39

Chapter V. Homer

§ 1. Opinions on the birth-place and country of Homer 41

§ 2. Homer probably a Smyrnsean : early history of Smyrna 42

§ 3. Union of ./Eolian and Ionian characteristics in Homer 44

§ 4. Novelty of Homer's choice of subjects for his two poems 47

§ 5. Subject of the Iliad : the anger of Achilles 48

§ 6. Enlargement of the subject by introducing the events of the entire war . 50

§ 7. And by dwelling on the exploits of the Grecian heroes 52

§ 8. Change of tone in the Iliad in its progress 53

§ 9. The Catalogue of Ships 54

§ 10. The later books, and the conclusion of the Iliad 56

§ 11. Subject of the Odyssey : the return of Ulysses 57

§12. Interpolations in the Odyssey 60

§ 13. The Odyssey posterior to the Iliad % but both poems composed by the

same person ib.

§ 14. Preservation of the Homeric poems by rhapsodists, and manner of their

recitation 62

Chapter VI. The Cyclic Poets

\ 1. General character of the Cyclic poems 64

§ 2. The Destruction of Troy and -^thiopis of Arctinus of Miletus ... 65

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§ 3. The little Iliad of Lesches 66

§ 4. The Cypria of Stasinus * 68

§ 5. The Nostoi of Agias of Troezen 69

§ 6. The Telegonia of Eugammon of Cyrene . 70

§ 7. Poems on the War against Thebes ib.

Chapter VII. The Homeric Hymns

§ 1. General character of the Homeric Hymns, or Prooemia 72

§ 2. Occasions on which they were sung: Poets by whom, and times at which,

they were composed 73

§ 3. Hymn to the Delian Apollo 74

§ 4. Hymn to the Pythian Apollo 75

§ 5. Hyinn to Hermes ib.

§ 6. Hymn to Aphrodite 76

§ 7. Hymn to Demeter * ib.

Chapter VIII. Hesiod

§ 1. Circumstances of Hesiod's Life, and general character of his Poetry . . 77

§ 2. The Works and Days, the Poem on Divination, and the Lessons of Chiron 82

§ 3. The Theogony 87

§ 4. The Great Eoise, the Catalogues of Women, the Melampodia, the JEgi-

mius 95

§ 5. The Marriage of Ceyx, the Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis, the

Descent of Theseus and Pirithous into Hell, the Shield of Hercules. . 98

Chapter IX. Other Epic Poets

§ 1. General character of other Epic Puets • • . . 100

§ 2. Cinaethon of Lacedaemon, Eumelus of Corinth, Asius of Samos, Chersias

of Orchomenus ib.

§ 3. Epic Poems on Hercules; the Taking of CEchalia; the Heraclea of Pei

sander of Rhodes • 102

Chapter X. The Elegy And The Epigram

§ 1 . Exclusive prevalence of Epic Poetry, in connexion with the monarchical period ; influence of the change in the forms of Government upon Poetry 104

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§ 2. Elegeion, its meaning ; origin of Elegos ; plaintive songs of Asia Minor,

accompanied by the flute ; mode of Recitation of the Elegy . . .105

§ 3. Metre of the Elegy 106

§ 4. Political and military tendency of the Elegy as composed by Callinus ;

the circumstances of his time ib.

§ 5. Tyrfaeus, his Life ; occasion and subject of his Elegy of Eunomia . .110 § 6. Character and mode of recitation of the Elegies of Tyrtaeus .... 112 § 7. Elegies of Archilochus, their reference to Banquets ; mixture of convivial

jollity (Asius) ib.

§ 8. Plaintive Elegies of Archilochus 114

§ 9. Mimnermus; his Elegies; the expression of the impaired strength of the

Ionic nation ib.

§ 10. Luxury, a consolation in this state ; the Nanno of Mimnermus . . .116 § 11. Solon's character ; his Elegy of Salamis ......... 117

§12. Elegies before and after Solon's Legislation; the expression of his political feeling ; mixture of Gnomic Passages (Phocylides) . . . .118

§ 13. Elegies of Theognis ; their original character 120

§ 14. Their origin in the political Revolutions of Megara ib.

§ 15. Their personal reference to the Friends of Theognis , 122

§ 16. Elegies of Xenophanes ; their philosophical tendency 124

§ 17. Elegies of Simonides on the Victories of the Persian War; tender and pathetic spirit of his Poetry ; general View of the course of Elegiac

Poetry 125

§ 18. Epigrams in elegiac form ; their Object and Character; Simonides, as a

Composer of Epigrams . 126

Chapter XI. Iambic Poetry

§ 1. Striking contrast of the Iambic and other contemporaneous Poetry . . 128

§ 2. Poetry in reference to the bad and the vulgar 129

§ 3. Different treatment of it in Homer and Hesiod 130

§ 4. Homeric Comic Poems, Margites, &c 13 1

§ 5. Scurrilous songs at meals, at the worship of Demeter ; the Festival of

Demeter of Paros, the cradle of the Iambic poetry of Archilochus . 132

§ 6. Date and Public Life of Archilochus 133

§ 7. His Private Life ; subject of his Iambics 134

§ 8. Metrical form of his iambic and trochaic verses, and different application

of the two asynartetes ; epodes I35

$ 9. Inventions and innovations in the musical recitation 138

§ 10. Innovations in Language . , 139

§11. Simonides of Amorgus ; his Satirical Poem against Women .... 140

§ 12. Solon's iambics and trochaics ib.

6 13. Iambic Poems of Hipponax; invention of choliambics ; Ananias . . 141 § 14. The Fable ; its application among the Greeks, especially in Iambic

p° etr y o 143

§ 15. Kinds of the Fable, named after different races and cities . . . .144 § 16. JEsoip, his Life, and the Character of his Fables . . . . . , .145

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§ 17. Parody, burlesques in an epic form, by Hipponax 146

\ 18. Batrachomyomachia 147

Chapter XII

PROGRESS OF THE GREEK MUSIC. § 1. Transition from the Epos, through the Elegy and Iambus, to Lyric

Poetry; connexion of Lyric Poetry with Music ....... 148

§ 2. Founders of Greek Music ; Terpander, his descent and date . . , . . 149

§ 3. Terpander's invention of the seven-stringed Cithar a 151

§ 4. Musical scales and styles 152

§ 5. Nomes of Terpander for singing to the Cithara; their rhythmical form. 154 § 6. Olympus, descended from an ancient Phrygian family of flute-players • 156 § 7. His influence upon the development of the music of the flute and rhythm

among the Greeks ib.

§ 8. His influence confined to music 158

§ 9. Thaletas, his age 159

§ 10. His connexion with ancient Cretan worships. Paeans and hyporchemes

of Thaletas 160

§ 11. Musicians of the succeeding period — Clonas, Hierax, Xenodamus, Xeno-

critus, Polymnestus, Sacadas 161

§12. State of Greek Music at this period 163

Chapter XIII

THE iEOLIC SCHOOL OF LYRIC POETRY. § 1. Difference between the Lyric Poetry of the vEolians, and the Choral

Lyric Poetry of the Dorians 164

§ 2. Life and Political Acts of Alcaeus 166

§ 3. Their connexion with his Poetry 167

§ 4. The other subjects of his Poems 168

§ 5. Their metrical form 170

§ 6. Life and moral character of Sappho 172

§ 7. Her Erotic Poetry to Phaon 174

§ 8. Poems of Sappho to women 176

§ .9. Hymenseals of Sappho 178

§ 10. Followers of Sappho, Damophila, Erinna 179

§ 11. Life of Anacreon 180

§ 12. His Poems to the youths at the Court of Polycrates 182

§ 13. His Love-songs to Hetserae 183

§ 14. Character of his versification 185

§ 15. Comparison of the later Anacreontics 186

§ 16. Scolia; occasions on which they were sung, and their subjects . . . 187

§ 17. Scolia of Hybrias and Caliistratus 189

Chapter XIV. Choral Lyric Poetry

§ 1. Connexion of lyric poetry with choral songs gradual rise of regular forms

from this connexion . . 190

CONTENTS.

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First stage.— § 2. Aleman; his origin and date; mode of recitation and form

of his choral songs 193

§ 3. Their poetical character 19 6

6 4. Stesichorus ; hereditary transmission of his poetical taste ; his reformation of the chorus 197

§ 5. Subjects and character of his poetry 199

§ 6. Erotic and bucolic poetry of Stesichorus 202

§ 7. Arion. The dithyramb raised to a regular choral song 203

Second stage. — § 8. Life of Ibycus ; his imitation of Stesichorus .... 205

§ 9. Erotic tendency of his poetry 206

§ 10. Life of Simonides 207

§11. Variety and ingenuity of his poetical powers. Comparison of his Epi-

nikia with those of Pindar 209

§ 12. Characteristics of his style 212

§ 13. Lyric poetry of Bacchylides, imitated from that of Simonides . . . 213 § 14. Parties among the lyric poets; rivalry of Lasus, Timocreon, and Pindar

with Simonides 214

Chapter XV. Pindar

§ 1. Pindar's descent; his early training in poetry and music 216

§ 2. Exercise of his art ; his independent position with respect to the Greek

princes and republics 218

§ 3. Kinds of poetry cultivated by him 220

§ 4. His Epinikia ; their origin and objects • 222

§ 5. Their two main elements ; general remarks, and mythical narrations . 224 § 6. Connexion of these two elements; peculiarities of the structure of Pindar's

odes 226

§ 7. Variety of tone in his odes, according to the different musical styles . 227

Chapter XVI

THEOLOGICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL POETRY. § 1 . Moral improvement of Greek poetry after Homer especially evident in

the notions as to the state of man after death. * 229

§ 2. Influence of the mysteries and of the Orphic doctrines on these notions . 230 § 3. First traces of Orphic ideas iu Hesiod and other epic poets .... 232 § 4. Sacerdotal enthusiasts in the age of the Seven Sages; Epimenides,

Abaris, Aristeas, and Pherecydes 233

§ 5. An Orphic literature arises after the destruction of the Pythagorean

league 235

§ 6. Subjects of the Orphic poetry ; at first cosmogonic 235

§ 7. afterwards prophetic, in reference to Dionysus 237

Chapter XVII

THE EARLY GREEK PHILOSOPHERS. § 1 . Opposition of philosophy and poetry among the Greeks ; causes of the

introduction of prose writings 238

CONTENTS. XI

PAGE

§ 2. The Ionians give the main impulse ; tendency of philosophical speculation

among* the Ionians 240

§ 3. Retrospect of the theological speculations of Pherecydes ib.

§ 4. Thales; he combines practical talents with bold ideas concerning the

nature of things 241

§ 5. Anaximander, a writer and inquirer on the nature of things .... 242

§ 6 Anaximenes pursues the physical inquiries of his predecessors . . . 243

§ 7. Heraclitus; profound character of his natural philosophy. .... 244

§ 8. Changes introduced by Anaxagoras ; new direction of the physical speculations of the Ionians 246

§ 9. Diogenes continues the early doctrine. Archelaus, an Anaxagorean,

carries the Ionic philosophy to Athens 248

§10. Doctrines of the Eleatics, founded by Xenophanes ; their enthusiastic

character is expressed in a poetic form 249

§ 11. Parmenides gives a logical form to the doctrines of Xenophanes; plan of

his poem 251

§ 12. Further development of the Eleatic doctrine by Melissus and Zeno . . 252

§ 13. Empedocles, akin to Anaxagoras and the Eleatics, but conceives lofty

ideas of his own 253

§ 14. Italic school ; receives its impulse from an Ionian, which is modified by the Doric character of the inhabitants. Coincidence of its practical tendency with its philosophical principle 255

Chapter XVIII. The Early Greek Historians

§ 1. High antiquity of history in Asia; causes of its comparative lateness

among the Greeks 258

§ 2. Origin of history among the Greeks. The Ionians, particularly the Milesians, took the lead 260

§ 3. Mythological historians ; Cadmus, Acusilaus 261

§ 4. Extensive geographical knowledge of Hecataeus ; his freer treatment of

native traditions ib.

§ 5. Pherecydes; his genealogical arrangement of traditions and history . 263

§ 6. Charon ; his chronicles of general and special history ib.

§ 7. Hellanicus ; a learned inquirer into mythical and true history. Beginning

of chronological researches 264

§ S. Xanthus, an acute observer. Dionysius of Miletus, the historian of the

Persian wars ib.

§ 9. General remarks on the composition and style of the logogt aphers . . 265

Chapter XIX Herodotus

§ 1. Events of the life of Herodotus 266

§ 2. His travels. . . * 267

§ 3. Gradual formation of his work 268

I 4. Its plan ' . 269

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V 5. Its leading ideas • 271

§6. Defects and excellencies of his historical researches. ....... 272

§ 7. Style of his narrative ; character of his language 273

SECOND PERIOD OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Chapter XX. Literary Predominance Of Athens

§ 1. Early formation of a national literature in Greece 275

§ 2. Athens subsequently takes the lead in literature and art. Her fitness for

this purpose ib.

§ 3. Concurrence of the political circumstances of Athens to the same end.

Solon. The Pisistratids 277

§ 4. Great increase in the power of Athens after the Persian war .... 279 § 5. Administration and policy of Pericles, particularly with respect to art and

literature 280

§ 6. Seeds of degeneracy in the Athenian Commonwealth at its most flourishing period 282

§ 7. Causes and modes of the degeneracy 283

§ 8. Literature and art were not affected by the causes of moral degeneracy . 285

Chapter XXI. Origin Of The Greek Drama

§ 1. Causes of dramatic poetry in Greece 285

§ 2„ The invention of dramatic poetry peculiar to Greece 287

§ 3. Origin of the Greek drama from the worship of Bacchus ib.

§ 4. Earliest, or Doric form of tragedy, a choral or dithyrambic song in the

worship of Bacchus 289

§ "5. Connexion of the early tragedy with a chorus of satyrs . . • . . 290

§ 6. Improvement of tragedy at Athens by Thespis 292

§ 7. By Phrynichus . 293

§ 8. And by Choerilus. Cultivation of the satyric drama by the latter . . .294 § 9. The satyric drama completely separated from tragedy by Pratinas . . 295

Chapter XXII. Form And Character Of The Greek Tragedy

§ 1. Ideal character of the Greek tragedy ; splendid costume of the actors . 296

§ 2. Cothurnus j masks ^ 297

§ 3. Structure of the theatre . . ♦ t 29a

§ 4. Arrangement of the orchestra in connexion with the form and position of

the chorus 299

§ 5. Form of the stage, and its meaning in tragedy 300

§ 6. Meaning of the entrances of the stage 302

§ 7. The actors ; limitation of their number , 303

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PAGE

§ 8. Meaning of the protagonist, deuteragonist, tritagonist, 305-

§ 9. The changes of the scene inconsiderable j ancient tragedy not being a

picture of outward acts 307

§ 10 Eccyclema 309

§11. Composition of the drama from various parts; songs of the entire chorus 310

§ 12. Division of a tragedy by the choral songs 312

§ 13. Songs of single persons, of the chorus, and of the actors ib.

§ 14. Parts of the drama intermediate between song and speech .... 315 § 15. Speech of the actors; arrangement of the dialogue and its metrical

form . 316

CHAPTER XXIII. ^ESCHYLUS. x

§ 1. Life of ^Eschylus 317

§ 2. Number of his tragedies, and their distribution into trilogies. . . . 319

§ 3. Outline of his tragedies; the Persians 320

§ 4. The Phineus and the Glaucus Pontius 321

§ 5. The ^tnaean women 322

§ 6. The Seven against Thebes 323

§ 7. The Eleusinians 324

§ 8. The Suppliants ; the Egyptians 325

§ 9. The Prometheus bound . . . . . 327

§ 10. The Prometheus unbound 329

§ 11. The Agamemnon 331

§ 12. The Choephorce 332

§ 13. The Eumenides, and the Proteus . 333

§ 14. General characteristics of the poetry of vEschylus 335

§ 15. His latter years and death • . . . . 336

Chapter XXIV. Sophocles

§ 1. Condition in which tragic poetry came into the hands of Sophocles. His

first appearance 337

§ 2. Subsequent events of his life ; his devotion to the drama 338

§ 3. Epochs in the poetry of Sophocles 340

§ 4. Thorough change in the form of tragedy 341

§ 5. Outline of his plays ; the Antigone 342

§ 6. The Electra 344

§ 7. The Trachinian Women 346

§ 8. King (Edipus ib.

§ 9. The Ajax 348

§ 10. The Philoctetes 350

§11, 12. The CEdipus at Colonus, in connexion with the character and conduct

of Sophocles in his latter years • 351

§ 13. The style of Sophocles ♦ . 355

XIV CONTENTS.

Chapter XXV. Euripides

PAGE

§ 1. Difference between Sophocles and Euripides. The latter essentially spe- .

culative. Tragedy, a subject ill-suited for his genius 357

£ 2. Intrusion of tragedy into the interests of the private 359

§ 3. And public life of the time 360

§ 4. Alterations in the plan of tragedy introduced by Euripides. Prologue . 362

§ 5. And Deus ex machina . 363

§ 6. Comparative insignificance of the chorus. Prevalence of monodies . . 364

§ 7. Style of Euripides 366

§ 8. Outline of his plays : the Alcestis ib.

§ 9. The Medea 367

§ 10. The Hippolytus 368

§ 11. The Hfecuba 369

§ 12. Epochs in the mode of treating his subject: -the Heracleidse. . . . 370

§ 13. The Suppliants 371

§ 14. The Ion ib.

§ 15. The raging Heracles 372

§ 16. The Andromache 373

§ 1 7. The Trojan Women ib.

§ 18. The Electra 374

§ 19. The Helena 375

§ 20. The Iphigenia at Tauri 376

§ 21. The Orestes 377

§ 22. The Phoenician Women ib.

§ 23. The Bacchanalians 378

§ -24. The Iphigenia at Aulis 379

§ 25. Lost pieces : the Cyclops 380

Chapter XXVI. The Other Tragic Poets

§ 1. Inferiority of the other tragic poets 381

§ 2. Contemporaries of Sophocles and Euripides : Neophron, Ion, Aristaichns,

Achaeus, Carcinus, Xenocles 382

6 3. Tragedians somewhat more recent : Agathon ; the anonymous son of

Cleomachus. Tragedy grows effeminate 3g3

£ 4. Men of education employ tragedy as a vehicle of their opinions on the

social relations of the age 384

§ 5. The families of the great tragedians : the iEschyleans, Sophocleans, and

the younger Euripides 335

6 6. Influence of other branches of literature ; tragedy is treated by Chseremon

in the spirit of lax and effeminate lyric poetry ....... 386

§ 7. Tragedy is subordinated to rhetoric in the dramas of Theodectes. . . 387

Chapter XXVII

1. The comic element in Greek poetry due to the worship of Bacchus . .391 Also connected with the Comus at the lesser Dionvsia : Phallic Songs . 393 Beginnings of dramatic comedy at Megara, Susari'on, Chionides, &c. . 395

§ 2

5 3.

CONTENTS. ■ XV

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'$ 4. The perfectors of the old Attic comedy 397

§ 5. The structure of comedy. What it has in common with tragedy . . . 398

§ 6. Peculiar arrangemeut of the chorus ; Parabasis 400

§ 7. Dances, metres, and style 402

Chapter XXVIII

§ 1. Events of the life of Aristophanes; the mode of his first appearance . . 405

§ 2. His dramas ; the Da/aleis ; the Babylonians ........ 406

§ 3. The Acharnians analyzed 408

§ 4. The Knights 412

§ 5. The Clouds 415

§ 6. The Wasps 419

§ 7. The Peace 420

§ 8. The Birds 420

§ 9. The Lysistrata, Tkesmojzhoriqzusaz . 423

§11. The Ecclesiazvsce ; the second Plutus. Transition to the middle comedy . 426

Chapter XXIX

§ 1. Characteristics of Gratinus . . 423

§ 3. Peculiar tendencies of dates; his connexion with Sicilian comedy . .431 6 4. Sicilian comedy originates in the Doric farces of Megara .... 432 § 5. Events in the life of Epicharmus ; general tendency and nature of his

comedy . 433

§ 6. The middle Attic comedy : poets of this class akin to those of the Sicilian

comedy in many of their pieces 436

§ 7. Poets of the new comedy the immediate successors of those of the middle

comedy. How the new comedy becomes naturalized at Rome . . 438 § 8. Public morality at Athens at the time of the new comedy .... 440 § 9. Character of the new comedy in connexion therewith ..... 443

Chapter XXX

§ 1. The Dithyramb becomes the chief form of Athenian lyric poetry. Lasus

of Hermione 44b"

§ 2. New style of the Dithyramb introduced by Melanippides, Philoxenus,

Cinesias, Phrynis, Timutheus, Polyeidus 447

§ 3. Mode of producing the new Dithyramb : its contents and character. . 450

§ 4, Reflective lyric poetry ....... 452

§ 5. Social and political elegies. The Lyde of Antimachus essentially different

' from these 452

6 6. Epic poetry, Panyasis, Chcerilus, Antiinachus 454

CHAPTER XXXI. § 1 , Importance of prose at this period 456

§ 2. Oratory at Athens rendered necessary by the democratical form of government 456

§ 3. Themistocles ; Pericles: power of their oratory 458

6 4. Characteristics of their oratory in relation to their opinions and modes of

thought 459

§ 5. Form and style of their speeches 460

XVI CONTENTS.

Chapter XXXII. Pagk

§ 1. Profession of the Sophists; essential elements of their doctrines. The

principle of Protagoras 462

§ 2. Opinions of Gorgias. Pernicious effects of his doctrines, especially as they

were carried out by his disciples . 463

§ 3. Important services of the Sophists in forming a prose style : different tendencies of the Sicilian and other Sophists in this respect .... 465 y 5. His forms of expression 467

Chapter XXXIII

§ i. Antiphon's career and employments 469

§ 2. His school exercises, the Tetralogies 471

§ 3. His speeches before the courts ; character of his oratory 472

§ 4, 5. More particular examination of his style 474

§ 6. Andocides; his life and character . 477

Chapter XXXIV

§ 1. The life of Thucydides : his training that of the age of Pericles . . . 479

§ 2. His new method of teaching history 481

§ 3. The consequent distribution and arrangement of his materials, as well in

his whole work as . 482

§ 4. In the Introduction 483

§ 5. His mode of treating these materials ; his research and criticism . . 485

§ 6. Accuracy and, 486

§ 7. Intellectual character of his history 487

v 8, 9. The speeches considered as the soul of his history ...... 488

§ 10,11. His mode of expression and the structure of his sentences • . .491

Chapter XXXV

§ 1. Events which followed the Peloponnesian War. The adventures of

Lysias. Leading epochs of his life • . • . 495

o 2. The earliest sophistical rhetoric of Lysias . 497

§ 3. The style of this rhetoric preserved in his later panegyrical speeches . 499 § 4. Change in the oratory of Lysias produced by his own impulses and4)y

his employment as a writer of speeches for private individuals . . . 500

§ 5. Analysis of his speech against Agoratas 501

§ 6. General view of his extant orations 503

Chapter XXXVI

y 1 . Early training of Isocrates ; but slightly influenced by Socrates . . . 504 y 2. School of Isocrates ; its great repute ; his attempts to influence the politics of the day without thoroughly understanding them 505

y 3. The form of a speech the principal matter in his judgment .... 507

y 4. New development which he gave to prose composition 508

§ 5. His structure of periods 509

§ 6. Smoothness and evenness of his style .511

y 7. He prefers the panegyrical oratory to the forensic 512

HISTORY

Introduction

In undertaking to write a history of Grecian literature, it is not our intention to enumerate the names of those many hundred authors whose works, accumulated in the Alexandrine Library, are reported, after passing through many other perils, to have finally been burnt by the Khalif Omar — an event from which the cause of civilisation has not, perhaps, suffered so much as many have thought; inasmuch as the inheritance of so vast a collection of writings from antiquity would, by engrossing all the leisure and attention of the moderns, have diminished tljeir zeal and their opportunities for original productions. Nor will it be necessary to carry our younger readers (for whose use this work is chiefly designed) into the controversies of the philosophical schools, the theories of grammarians and critics, or the successive hypotheses of natural philosophy among the Greeks — in short, into those departments of literature which are the province of the learned by profession, and whose influence is confined to them alone. Our object is to consider Grecian literature as a main constituent of the character of the Grecian people, and to show how those illustrious compositions, which we still justly admire as the classical writings of the Greeks, naturally sprung from the taste and genius of the Greek races, and the constitution of civil and domestic society as established among them. For this purpose our inquiries may be divided into three principal heads: — 1. The development of Grecian poetry and prose before the rise of the Athenian literature ; 2. The flourishing era of poetry and eloquence at Athens ; and, 3. The history of Greek literature in the long period after Alexander; which last, although it produced a much larger number cf writings than the former periods, need not, consistently with the object of the present work, be treated at great length, as literature had in this age fallen into the hands of the learned few, and had lost its living influence on the general mass of the community.

In attempting to trace the gradual development of the literature of ancient Greece from its earliest origin, it would be easy to make a beginning, by treating of the extant works of Grecian writers in their chronological order. We mig-ht then commence at once with Homer and Hesiod : but if we were to adopt this course, we should, like an epic poet, place our beginning in the middle of the history ; for, like the Pallas of Grecian poetry, who sprang full-armed from the head of Jupiter, the literature of Greece wears the perfection of beauty in those works which Herodotus and Aristotle, and all critical and trust-worthy inquirers among the Greeks, recognised as being the most ancient that had descended to their times. Although both in the Iliad and Odyssey we can clearly discern traces of the infancy of the nation to which they belong, and although a spirit of simplicity pervades them, peculiar to the childhood of the human race, yet the class of poetry under which they fall, appears in them at its full maturity ; all the laws which reflection and experience can suggest for the epic form are observed with the most refined taste ; all the means are employed by which the general effect can be heightened ; no where does the poetry bear the character of a first essay or an unsuccessful attempt at some higher poetical flight ; indeed, as no subsequent poem, either of ancient or modern times, has so completely caught the genuine epic tone, there seems good reason to doubt whether any future poet will again be able to strike the same chord. It seems, however, manifest, that there must have been many attempts and experiments before epic poetry could reach this elevation ; and it was, doubtless, the perfection of the Iliad and Odyssey, to which these prior essays had led, that buried the productions of former bards in oblivion. Hence the first dawn of Grecian literature is without any perfect memorial ; but we must be content to remain in ignorance of the connexion of literature with the character of the Greek races at the outset of their national existence, if we renounced all attempt at forming a conception of the times anterior to the Homeric poems. In order, therefore, to throw some light on this obscure period, we shall first consider those creations of the human intellect which in general are prior to poetry, and which naturally precede poetical composition, as poetry in its turn is followed by regular composition in prose. These are language and religion. When these two important subjects have been examined, we shall proceed, by means of allusions in the Homeric poems themselves, and the most credible testimonies of later times, to inquire into the progress and character of the Greek poetry before the time of Homer.