Christianity and its conflicts

Front matter

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CHRISTIANITY

CHAPTER I.— Condition of the World at the Tibie op the Bieth of Chbist

The liuman mind at that period chiefly under the control of pagan idolatiy, Pantheism, and the Epicurean philosophy, 1.— Plato and otlftr exponents of these systems, 2.— The ancient philosophers had no true ideas of a supreme personal God, 3.— Their rules of individual conduct formed only with reference to the wants and interests of the present life, 5. — The individual man not respected, 7.— Influence of Christianity in demanding radical reforms in human conduct and governments, 8.— Eoman institutions and religious ideas, 9.— Moral and social condition of the people ; individual rights, 13.— Condition of women, 10. Their degradation, 13.— Moral condition of the Jews, 15.— Influence of Paganism on them, 16.— General influence of Christianity, 17.— The teaching of Christ, 18. —The establishment of His Church, 20.— Its perpetuity, 22.— Its obscurity, 23.— He requires unconditional faith and obedience, 25.— Views of M. Guizot respecting the early Christian Church, 21. — Answer to M. Guizot, 21-24.— Object of religion, 27.— Form of doctrine, 28.— Influence of the apostles and early fathers, 29.— Human brotherhood, 31.

CHAPTER n.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ.

God as manifested under the old and new dispensations ; ancient ideas, 32.— The finite intelligence cannot comprehend the Infinite, 35. — God reveals Himself to men through His wonderful works, 35— and His prophets, 37.— Christ's Incarnation, 33.— His divinity, 34.— Jewish ideas of the Supreme Being imperfect, 36.— The prophets, 39-41.— The new dispensation, 43.— God manifest in the flesh, or God in Christ, 44.— Christ truly God in direct communication with mankind, 45. —He is the true object of worship, 46. — He is the embodiment and impersonation of the Almighty, 48.— His mission on earth, 49.

CHAPTER III.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

Faith, 51.— Influences arrayed against Christ and His doctrines, 51.— Sensuality of the times, 52.— The Emperor Tiberius, 52.— Absolute and unquestioning/ai^A demanded by Jesus, 54.— Obdurate unbelief of the Jews and Pagans, 54.— Miracles a means of inspiring faith, 54-64.— Rewards of faith given to true believers, 55.— Faith the first element of religion, 56.— Objects of faith chiefly miraculous, 56.— Doubts suggested by sensual philosophy, 59. — Doctrine of the Council of Trent, 62.— Apostles' Creed, 63.— Miracles, 64.

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

Bepentance, Confession, and Reformation., 66.— True penitence requires botli faitii and works, 66.— Demanded by both divine and human laws, 67.— Men are naturally prone to evil, 67.— Pride and self-will deter men from penance, 67.— Conservative agencies, 68.— Sacrament of penance, 69.— Objections, 69.— Refutation from the Bible and the Council of Trent, 70.— Utility, 72.— Admissions of Protestants, 72.— Duties of priests and penitents in the confessional, 73.— Objections to public confessions, 74.— This sacrament established by Christ and practised by the apostles, 76. .

CHAPTER v.— DocTEESTES taught et Jesus Christ

Baptism, 78.- Baptism instituted by Christ, 78.— Appropriate as an initiatoiy ceremony, 78.— Its necessity, 79.— The Saviour and apostles taught that it confers grace on the believer, 78.— Several Christian sects acknowledge this, 80.— Danger of ignoring it, 81.

CHAPTER VI.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

Confirmation, 82.— Evidently o^ divine origin, 82.— Christ and the apostles practised it, 82.— Ajibstles at the day of Pentecost, 84.— A canon of the Council of Trent on this subject, 84.— Confirmation as a means of grace, 85.

CHAPTER VII.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

The Eucharist, 86.— A divine institution, 86.— Effects flowing from it, 87,— The conversion of the elements miraculous, 87.— Teaching of the Council of Trent, 88.— The mass, 88-91.— Its signification, 89.— The miracle represented in the mass only consistent with the Lord's positive promise, 89.— Difference between the Catholic and Protestant Churches respecting this sacrament, 90-97.— Protestants object as the unbelieving Jews did, 93.— Faith in Christ the great want of all Christians, 94.

CHAPTER Vni.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ.

Orders, 99.— Institution of the priesthood of divine origin, 99.— The ministry established by Christ, 100.— Its great importance, 102.— Danger of denying its sacredness, or of assuming to speak lightly of its functions, 100.— Interests of the Church committed to the priesthood, 102

CHAPTER IX.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

Matri7non?/.— Wisdom and mercy of God manifested in this sacrament, 103.— Its sacredness proved, 104.— Its influence in promoting the religious sentiment and the welfare of society, 105.— Texts showing its sacramental character, 105. — Remarks of Allies on this subject, 105.

CHAPTER X.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

Extreme Z7/icfe'o?2..— Apostolic direction to pray over and anoint the sick, 107. — Practice of the disciples sent forth by Jesus, 107.— Manifest use of this sacrament, 108. — The Lord's love is herein shown to man in his greatest trials, 108. —Teaching of the fathers of Trent, 109.

CHAPTER XI.— Doctrines taught bt Jesus Christ

TJie Ten Commandments, 110.— Revealed by the Almighty on Mount Sinai, 110.— Reasserted by Christ as of perpetual obligation. 111.— The golden rule, 111. — One of the four fundamental divisions of the Catholic Church, 112.

CONTENTS. ^^1

CHAPTER xn.— Doctrines taught ey Jesus Chbist.

The Lord's Prayer.-TMs model prayer the gift of Christ to man, I13.-Its

adaptation to his wants, contrasted with the long prayers of the Pharisees, 114.

-The teachings and example of Christ at variance with the opinions, morals,

habits, and usages of the most enlightened ancient nations, I15.-Extract from

"EcceHomo," 116.

ClIAPTEE Xni.— The Church founded by Christ and the Catholic Church

IDENTICAL.

Eecapitnlation of doctrines, I18.-The Church in obscurity, I20.-Becomes the reli<-ion of the empire under Constantine, 120.-Tyrannical emperors, I21.-PcrsecStion I21.-The Church protected by Constantine, 122.-Exalted character of Constantine, 122.-Barbarian invasions, 123.-Efforts of the Christian Church to preserve the Scriptures, 124.-Siegc of Rome by Attila, 125.-Conduct of the Pope, 126.— Condition of Europe after the incorporation of the barbarians, 12T. -Three distinct elements struggling for themasteiy, 127.-The Church counteracts barbarism, preserves the Holy Scriptures and ancient learning through the dark a^-es 127.— Elevation of industry, 128.— Labors of the priesthood; St. Benedict, 128.-Reforms then made within the Church, 129.-Saracens invade Europe, 131.— They were Unitarians, 131.— Fanatics, 1.30.— Defeated at Tours, ■ 131.— Feudal oppressions of the people, 132.— The Church resists tyranny, 133. —Charlemagne, 134.— Darkness and ignorance of the ninth and tenth centuries, 134 —The Church eveiywhere "protests against excesses of mere strength and violence," 135.-The Normans in France, 136.-The Crusades against the Mohammedans, 136.-Progress during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, 138. -Missions in Eastern Asia, 140.-Sacriflces made by the missionaries, I41.-St. Francis Xavier and others, 142.— True interpretation of the Scriptures, 143.— Advantages of oral teaching, 143.-Tradition3 of the Church, 144.-Unwritten traditions, 146, 147.-Teachings of St. Paul, 147.-The ancient fathers, 149.- Innovations of protesters, 152.-Christ and the ancient fathers harmonize, 154. —Evils of private interpretation, im.—Besume, 160.

CHAPTER SIV.— Common Grounds of Religious Faith.

Unity of faith essential to the efficiency of the Church, 163.-Necessity of unity taught by Christ and the apostles, 1G3.-Evll of divisions and dissensions, 164. —Marks of a true church, 165.— Doctrines held in common by Christians generally, 168.— The Catholic Church holds all that are essential to salvation, 168.— Poiits of hai-mony between Roman, Qreek, and Anglican Churches, 169.— Three out of the four grand divisions of essential elements of faith accepted by them all, 171.— Influence of private interpretation in dividing and setting Chiistians at variance, 171.

CHAPTER XV.— On the Invocation of Saints, and on Sacred Images and Pictures.

Errors of Protestant teaching on this subject refuted, 174.-Actual doctrines of the Church, 174.— Christ the object of worship by men and "angels, 175.— Scripture proofs that prayers to saints and angels have been answered, 176.— The Catholic Church prohibits divine worship of the Virgin Mary, 177.— Saints passed from earth do not forget those they love, 178.-The prayers of the good in earth or heaven, 179.-Death is only a new birth, 180.-Teaching of the Council of Trent, 180-186.— Pictures only recall to our memories the acts of the persons they represent, ISl.-An ihustrative incident, 182.-Value of pictures, busts, and statues of our friends, 183.-True use of symbols and representatives, but not idols, 185.- Honor to the martyrs, 187.— Empress Helena, 187.—

Vlll CONTENTS.

Eeverence of sepulchi-es and relics of beloved persons ancient and universal, 188.— Protestant inconsistencies and vpant of reverence, 189.— Definition by St. Jerome, 191.

CHAPTER XVI.— Cathedeaxs, and Fobms and Cekemonies of the Church. Grand churclies and imposing ceremonies impossible to the first Christians, 192. — Poverty and persecution, 193.— Subjects cheerfully bonor their rulers with costly palaces and the paraphernalia of royalty, 193.— Shall the King of kings receive less honor ? Selfishness and coldness characteristic of non-demonstrative men, 195.

Christ selected one of his apostles as head of the visible Chui'ch, 201.— Necessity of organization, 203. — Successors of Saint Peter, 204.— Examples and authorities from the apostles and early fathers, 208.— The Bishop of Rome always acknowledged as head of the Church, 209.— Authorities, 210.

What the Church teaches on this point, 215.— Definition of the faith as given by successive popes, 216.— The pope's representative character, 218.— The Church safe from innovations or papal abuse of power, 219.— Authorities, 222.

CHAPTER XIX.— Papal Intebperence in Sectilae Appaies. Examples, 226.— These acts justifiable, 22T.— Authorities, 228.

CHAPTER XX.— Condition op the World at the Commencement op the Repoemation.

Three systems of civilization in operation, 233.— Preservation of Christianity to the fifteenth century due to the Catholic Church, 237.— Influence of the Reformation, 238. — Great number of books printed before Luther, 210.— The Scriptures, 240. — Great achievements of Catholic discoverers and missionaries, 242. — ^Reformation already going on within the Church, M4.

CHAPTER XXI.— Peimith^e Peotestantism.

Ancient protesters ; they reject Christ, 247.— Examples of revolt from the Church in the early centuries, 250.— TertuUian's remarks on heresies, 253.

CHAPTER XXn.— Modern Protestantism.

The large number of modern sects, 255.— Influence of Puritanic Protestantism, 258.— Objects of the innovators, 257.— Elements of failure in their scheme, 260. —Luther, 262.

CHAPTER XXm.— Doctrines op the Innovators op the Sixteenth Centuey. Rationalism, 265.— Original sin, 266.— Teachings of the leaders, 267.— Of the Catholic Church, 2G7.— Free-will, 269.— Predestination, 270, 271.— Justification by faith alone, 273.— Good works condemned, 274.— Luther, Calvin, Zwinglius, 274. Evil consequences of their teachings, 278.— Dissensions, 279.— Fatalistic tendencies, 281.— Scriptural evidence against them, 284.

CHAPTER XXIV.— Traits op a Few op the Prominent Repormers.

Luther : early life of, 287. —His first disafi"ection to the Church, 288.— His visions and fantasies, 289.- Extravagant assertions and conduct, 290, 291.— He tolerated polygamy, 293.— His intolerance and cruelty, 292.— Conferences with the devil,

CONTENTS. IX

294.— Luther certainly a monomaniac, 295-299.— Melancthon, 300.— Superstitions, 30i._Private opinions of tlie Reformers discordant, 302.— General character, 302.— Calvin; mental and physical peculiarities of, 303.— His stem and cruel character, 304.— His doctrines misrepresent the character of the Creator, 304.— The model Puritan, 306.— Minor innovators, 306.— Bucer, 30T.— Karlstadt, 308- '311.- Zwinglius, 308.— Farel, 309.— Anabaptists, 309.-^ohn of Leyden, 309.— David George, 310.— Stork, 310.— Tanquelin, 311.— Henry YIH. ; Anne Boleyn, 313.— Divorce of Queen Catharine, 314.— The Anglican Church, 314.— Queen Elizabeth, 315.— Cranmer, 314^316.— King Henry excommunicated, 316.— Classification of Reformers, 317.

CHAPTER XXV.— Fkxjits of the Reformatiok in Europe,

Influence on religious sentiment, 319.— Disintegration of the Church begun by the Reformers, 320.— Progress of rationalism and materialism, 321.— Marriage a holy sacrament, 321.— Reformers sanction polygamy, 322.— Vows of celibacy broken by their followers, 323.— The ties of morality loosened, 323.— Monasteries and libraries despoiled, 323.— Churches and nunneries also, 324.— Persecution by the Reformers in Switzerland, 325.— Calvin and Zwinglius, 325.— Progress of infidelity, 327.— Kantian philosophy of human reason as the only revelation, 327.— Testimony of Macaulay to the faithfulness of the Catholic Church, 328.— Calvin and the Puritanical teachings in France, 329.— Calvinism leads to infidelity or back to Catholicism, 330.— Henry VHI. the spiritual head of the Church in England, 331.— His authority triumphant, 332.— Martyrs, 332. —Statement of M. D'Aubigne, 333.— Answer to this, 334-336.— D'Aubigne's admission, 336.

CHAPTER XXVI.— Ekuits of the Rbfokmation in Europe.

Influence on morals, manners, and society, 338.— Reformers should have attempted to reform erring members rather than attack the Church of God itself, 338.— Deterioration of morals caused by the Reformation, 339.— Cruelties, immoralities, divorce-mania, 340.— Proofs fi'om various authors, 340-342.— Moral state of Christendom growing worse under the Reformers, 343.— Various authorities, 343.— Calvin, 344.— Melancthon, 345.— The same evils visible in our own times, 346.— Results of Puritanism in other countries, 347.— Religious civil wars, 348. —Diet of Augsburg, 348.— War in Switzerland, .349-351.— War in France, 352.— Huguenots, 353.— Conde, Prince of Orange, Coligny, 353.— St, Bartholomew's, 354.— Puritanism in Sweden ; Gustavus Vasa, 355.— Denmark ; confiscation and robbery of church property, 356.— Iceland, 356.— Scotland, 356.— John Knox, 356.— Tenets and practical tendencies of Puritanism, 357.— Election, total depravity, predestination, 358.— What has Puritanism accomplished ? 360.— Comparison between Puritanism and paganism, 381.— The primary aim of the Reformers, 363.

CHAPTER XXVn.— The Puritan System in America.

The Bible as the standard of faith and practice, 367.— Materialism ; political economy, 368.— The ascetic and industrial philosophies, 368.— Doctrine of the Sermon on the Mount, 369.— The monastic system, 370.— The renovating influence of the Church, 371.— Parallel between Catholic and Protestant countries, 371.— Influences of the two religious systems on civilization, 373.— Mexico, 374.— New England, 375.— Puritans at Plymouth Rock, 377.— Fate of the American Indians, 378.— North Carolina, 379.— Sir Walter Raleigh, 380.— Indians of Connecticut and Massachusetts, 381.— King Philip, 381.— Reward for Indian scalps, 382.— Catholic colony of Lord Baltimore in Maryland, 383.— Puritanism exterminating the Indians, 383.

X CONTENTS.

CHAPTEE XXVin.— Puritan Intolerance.

The Puritans had been themselves persecuted in England, SSG.— Their progress and character in America, 386.— Persecution by Puritans of Boston and Salem, 387.— Persecution of Catholics in Ireland, 397.— Semi-barbarous character of the people in the middle ages, 397.— Toleration by Catholics in Maryland, 398.

CHAPTER XXIX.— Missions in America.

Influence of Catholic missionaries in America, 399.— Missions among the Indians ; F&ther Marquette, 399.- Jesuits in Canada, 399.— The Hurons ; Brebeuf and Daniel, 400.— Martyrdoms, 400.— Difference between Catholic and Protestant missions, 401.— Contrasts, 402.— War of sects, 402.— Converted Indians of South America, 403.— Statistics of the progress of Catholic missions in America, 404. —Asia and Oceanica, 405.— Africa, 400.- Total Catholic converts from heathenism, 407.

CHAPTER XXX.— Human Slavery in New England.

Commenced by Puritans in 1637, 409.— Great numbers of slaves taken from Africa, 409.— Slave-trade never sanctioned by the See of Rome, 410, 411.— Puritans enslaving Indians, 411.— Queen Isabella saves Indians from being sold, 412.— The wisest Americans contemplated gradual emancipation, 412.

CHAPTER XXXI.— Puritanism in the United States,

Influence on Morals^ Ilanners, and Politics.— Fmit&ias, cold and unsocial, 414.— From Calvinism to infidelity is but a short step, 415.— Socialistic and skeptical elements in Puritanism lead to a perverted supernaturalism, 416.— Their relation to witchcraft and modern Spuitualism, 415.— Evil results of this doctiine, 416.— Rationalism and skepticism, 417.— Radical Puritans imitating the Norman pirates, 418.— Corruption and fanaticism of American radicals, 419.— Degeneration of the Romans at the end of the Republic, 419.— Similar degeneration among Americans at present, 419.— Peculiarities of the Puritans in England, 420.— In England and America, 420.— Northern radicalism ; taxation, 421.— The events of our time compared with those of the French Revolution, 422.— Macaulay'^s description of Barrere, 423.— Comparison with other characters of former times and of the present, 425, 426.— Contrast between the French Revolution of 1789 and that of America in 1861-' 65. —Jacobin and American spy systems compared, 428.— The "rebound" after the French Reign of Terror, 430.— Sectional usurpation of power can be but temporary, 431.— Fanaticism of the South compared with that of the North, 432.— Errors of Northern philanthropy, 433.— The true Christian standard, 433.

CHAPTER XXXn.— Puritanism in the United States.

Influence on the Beligious Sentiment, 435.— The world advancing in skepticism, 435. —The key to this condition, 43G.— The education of Protestants iusufacient to arrest the tide of infidelity, 436.— New England, political, religious, and moral theory, 436.— Want of religious unity, 437.— Rationalism, 437.— Fearful moral state of the Christian world, 438.— Spiritualism, 438.— The rapidly increasing numbers of mediums and advocates, 439.— Statistics, 410.— Their anti-Christian doctrines, 441.—- Skeptics, rationalists, etc., 441.— Causes of decline in religious sentiment, 442.— Unitarians, 443.— Universalists, 443.— Jews, 442.— Summary, 445.— The results of private judgment in matters of faith, 446.— How can these anti-Christian influences be counteracted ? 447.— Cannot religious unity be attained ? 448,— Sectarian organizations must continue to fail, 449.

CONTENTS. XI

CHAPTER XXXm.— Centres of Public Sentiment.

Ancient centres of public opinion, 450.— Luther a chief centre of Protestant sentiment for his time, 451.— Other centres : the university of Paris, 451.— John Calvin In Switzerland, 452.— Gustavus Yasa, in Sweden, 452.— Henry Yin. in England, 452.— Cromwell, 453.— English universities, 453.— John Knox in Scotland, 454.— The priesthood in Ireland, 454.— The Puritans in America, 455.— Puritanism a failure, 456.— An example of a radical agitator, fanatical and rationalistic, 457.— Editors as centres of ultra-radical opinion, 458.— Influence of education and personal surroundings, 459.— Appeal to patriots and philanthropists, 460.— Eadical intolerance, 460.— Abuse of liberty of the press, 481.— M. Guizot's opinion of monarchy as a refuge from anarchy, 462.— Dangers to our country from partisan agitations, 463.— Influence of religious fanaticism, 463.— The spirit of Puritanism revolutionary and sanguinary, 465.— A sample of a Puritan sermon, 4G6. —"Wiser statesmen of former years, 467.

CHAPTER XXXIY.— Present Condition and Peospects of the Catholic Church.

Eeligious statistics of the world, 469. — Statistics of the Catholic Church, 470.— Its rapid progress in heathen and Protestant countries, 470.— Condition of Protestantism in contrast, 471.— The Catholic Church in the United States, 472.— Just comparison between Catholic and Protestant nations, 473.— France and England, 473.— Other countries, Belgium and Holland, 475.— Catholics in the United States, 475. — Heathen converts to Catholicism, 476.— Its principles adapted to men of all classes and to all governments, 476.— Its superiority to the sects, 477.— Effects of true religion, 478.— The mission of the Church is a spiritual one, 479.— Summary of the positions assumed in this work, 479.— Conclusion, 4S0.

CHRISTIAnTY AND ITS CONFLICTS,

ANCIENT AND MODERN,

Chapter I. Condition Of The Woeld At The Bieth Of Ciikist

The idolatry, inlmmamty, licentiousness, tyranny, and persecution of the early centuries of the Christian era, were legitimate offspring of the universally received philosophies of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Epicurus. From the time when Zoroaster reformed the order of the Persian Magi, with their worship of fire and the other elements as emblems of the Deity, until the Christian era, Pantheistic hypotheses had exercised a dominating influence over the religious, political, moral, and social affairs of the nations of earth. In this world, fire, air, water, earth, etc., were regarded and worshipped as gods who presided over the temporal destinies of mankind, and the chief end of life Vv^as the pursuit of happiness. The ancient pantheists also believed in a resurrection after death, and another spiritual existence similar to that of this world, but presided over by two demons — one good, Jupiter or Oromasdes, and one evil, Pluto or Ahrimanes. They regarded these gods as beings who had been born. 1

From this parent source sprang the various pantheistic sects which afterward extended oyer the world, like the Chaldeans and ancient Greeks, who worshipped the stars ; the Druids of ancient Britain, who worshipped mundane objects, and believed in the transmigration of souls, human sacrifices, and exercised supreme temporal and spiritual jurisdiction over their subjects ; the ancient Egyptians, who regarded the sun and moon as gods — and worshipped them under the names of Osiris and Isis ; the Anaxagorians, who believed that matter was endowed with mind — that originally all things were mixed up together, and then mind came and arranged them all in distinct order ; the Socratic sect, which adopted most of the views of the master of Socrates, Anaxagoras; the Sophists, founded by Thales, Solon, etc. ; the Stoic sect, founded by Zeno ; the Cynic, founded by Antisthenes ; the Epicurean, by Epicurus; the Academic, by Plato; the Peripatetic, by Aristotle ; the Skeptics or Pyrrheic school ; and numerous other sects. All of these schools of philosophy were derived from the three great schools of the ancients : the Natural (study of nature), taught by Pythagoras and Thales; the Ethical (study of morals and the things of life), taught by Socrates ; and the Dialectic (argumentative, or polemic sect), taught by Clitomachus.

One of the best exponents of these ancient philosophies was Plato, the pupil of Socrates. He condensed into a single philosophical code the principles of Socrates, Pythagoras, and Heraclitus, embracing all subjects pertaining to morals, politics, intellectual culture, and society. He imbibed many of the notions of his predecessors, but he also originated many new ideas respecting God, a future state, the laws which should govern society, and the duties which men owe to God and to their fellow-creatures.

Plato recognized two primary causes or principles of all things : " God and Matter— \\iq former Mind, and the latter the Cause.'''' He supposed that this matter originally possessed life, sensation, and motion, but without order or form ; and that when God pervaded it, it then became en-

THE WOELD AT THE BIETH OF CHEIST. d

do wed with intelligence, as well as life and motion, was governed by definite laws, and assumed distinctive forms and harmonious organizations. The gods of Plato were vague, spiritual manifestations, possessing intelligence and powers superior to those of mortals, and capable of taking possession of material objects, and governing them according to certain natural and uniform laws. He saw gods in the earth, the sun, moon, and stars, in the instincts of animals, in the laws of Nature, and he adored these manifestations of the Infinite rather than the creative Being Himself. Nature was his god— a subtle, intelligent, ever-active, and potent spirit, similar, but superior to the human soul. In other words, he was a Pantheist. He supposed that the gods superintended all of the afiairs of men, as well as the laws governing the three Mnj;doms of nature. He also believed in demons. He considered the earth the oldest of all the deities, and that the gods are chiefly composed of fire.

Plato regarded the soul as an abstract idea of spirit, diffused in all directions, immortal, transmigratory, and composed of three different principles— the reasoning, located in the head; the appetitive, located around the navel and liver ; and the passionate, located around the heart

Although Plato and his master, Socrates, professed to believe in the immortality of the soul, in a future existence after death, and in superior spiritual beings, who pervade and govern all things in heaven and on earth, and whom they recognized and worshipped as gods, yet these ideas were vague and material. They possessed no just ideas of the attributes of the Infinite Creator, of a future state of rewards and punishments, of the human soul, or of the true relations which exist between God and men.

Not one of the old philosophers before Christ — Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Democritus, Plato, Xenophon, Aristotle, Zeno, Diogenes— believed in one immaterial and personal God. Nearly every one of them believed that the soul perished at death. At the advent of Christ, the civilized world entertained no correct ideas of God, their accountability to Him, or of the immortality of tlie soul. Their highest conceptions of duty toward God, themselves, their fellow-men, and society, were comprehended in the four moral virtues of "prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice." The Christian; virtues of faith, hope, charity, and loveto God and man, had no place in their minds or thoughts. Says Allies : " That God created the visible world and the souls of men out of nothing, was an idea never reached by Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, or any Greek or

Roman mind before Christ It is in vain to seek for any

certain hope of immortal life beyond the grave in Greek or Roman Hterature There is no distinction made between^ the souls of birds, beasts, fishes, insects, and men ; none in their origin, none in their destination; each at its birth catches for itself a tiny spark of the world-soul, passes through its little life, and is resolved into the great world-source again.. In truth, there are the same objections at the bottom to Marcus Aurelius and toEpictetus. Their religious system is a complete materialism. It recognizes only two principles. Matter, and an active Force eternally indwelling in matter and forming it. It knows of no incorporeal things, save as our own abstractions. God is the unity of a force embracing the whole universe, penetrating all things, assuming all forms, and as such, a subtle fluid, fire, ether, or spirit, under which the Stoies understood a fifth element, to which the air served as a material basis. In this ethereal fiery force all modes of existence of the world-body animated by it are contained beforehand, and develop themselves regularly out of it ; it lives and moves itself in every thing, is the common source of all life and all desire. ISTow as in this system God and necessity are one, every thing ethical becomes physical. The soul of man is of like substance, and so is a breath or fire like the world-soul, of ' which it is a portion; but it manifests itself in man at 'the same time as the force from w^hich knowledge and action proceed, as intelligence, will, and self-consciousness." * * Formation of Christendom, pp. 86-88, 1*73,

THE WOELD AT THE BIETH OP CHRIST. 5

During the four thousand years which preceded the Christian era, the philosophies of the world successively grew out of the natural wants and requirements of mankind. Man, as an individual, and in his relations to his family, to society, and to the state, required certain fixed rules of action, in order to secure the greatest amount of worldly prosperity and happiness. As an individual, both instinct and experience taught him that truthfulness, honesty, and fair dealing were necessary to command the respect and confidence of his fellow-men ; while their opposites always created contempt, hatred, and an evil reputation. He knew that intemperance in eating, drinking, and sexual pleasures, entailed disease, sufiering, and an abridgment of life, and he instinctively cultivated temperance and moderation in the gratification of his appetites and passions. Intercourse with his fellows showed him that the practice of gentleness, kindness, charity, and mercy, generated in others kindred sentiments, together with emotions of gratitude and affection ; while selfishness and oppression called forth hatred and curses. He saw that unbecoming pride and pomp excited envy and calumny, and not unfrequently led to poverty and want ; therefore he regarded modesty and economy as praiseworthy virtues.

In the management of his family he was governed by the same general principles. I^atural affection pi-ompted him to act for the highest good of wife, children, and other kindred. For the sustenance and training of the family, industry and thrift were indispensable. To maintain relations of love, respect, and mutual trust and confidence, it was necessary to inculcate principles of truthfulness, justice, honor, and virtue.

in his relations to society and to the general government, the individual found it necessary to obey and to aid in sustaining the laws and the legally constituted authorities, in order that his own person, property, and rights might be preserved. Naturally desirous of personal independence and riches, for the sake of the comforts and luxuries which they

D CHEISTIANITY AND ITS CONFLICTS.

procure, the individual saw that only a well-organized society, upheld by just laws, and a good government, could secure to him these privileges. He was a loyal and lawabiding citizen, because disloyalty and acts of lawlessness would tend to impair the stability of the government, the efficacy of the laws, and endanger his own liberties and property. These ancient philosophers, statesmen, and jurists, in framing their moral, political, and social codes, were governed solely by the natural wants and necessities of men, and not by any abstract principles of right and morality. If they included in their codes certain moral maxims, it was because immorality and vice were certain to cause disease and suffering ; if they established the tenure of property on a secure basis, and conferred upon the people the rights of suffrage, and other political privileges, it was because an opposite course would have led to agrarianism, anarchy, and revolutions. As these men regarded the pursuit of happiness as the chief good and end of life, they submitted all practical affairs to the touchstone of experience, instead of moral principle. If experience had demonstrated that falsehood, theft, and licentiousness would have afforded them the highest degree of happiness, they would, with equal facility, have legalized and practised them. Almost of necessity, all laws derived from simple human reason, and founded on the natural desires and wants of men, and having for their aim and object temporal pleasure, must be imperfect, and productive of a corrupt and debased society. It is only upon the exalted and disinterested principles of Christianity that a stable code of laws, or any beneficent and permanent government can be founded.

The ancients formed their political and social codes solely with reference to this world. N'ot a single element having reference to a future state was incorporated into their social organizations. They enacted laws, established customs and habits, and lived in all respects with reference to the present, and with the idea that at death existence ceased.

In contrasting the ancient civilizations with our own

THE WOELD AT THE BIKTH OF CHEIST. 7

witli respect to the individual, Balmes truly observes : " If we profoundly study the question, without suffering ourselves to be led into error and extravagance, by the desire of passing for deep observers ; if we call to our aid a just and cool philosophy, supported by the facts of history, we see that the principal difference between the ancient civilization and our own with respect to the individual is, that man, considered as man, was not properly esteemed. Ancient nations did not want either the feeling of personal independence, or the pleasure of feeling themselves men ; the fault was not in the heart, but in the head. What they wanted was the comprehension of the dignity of man; the high idea which Christianity has given us of ourselves, while, at the same time, with admirable wisdom, it has shown us our infirmities. What ancient societies wanted, what all those, where Christianity does not prevail, have wanted, and will continue to want, is this respect, and the consideration which surrounds every individual, every man, inasmuch as he is a man. Among the Greeks, the Greeks are every thing ; strangers, barbarians, are nothing. In Rome, the title of Roman citizen makes the man : he who wants this is nothing. In Christian countries, the infant who is born deformed, or deprived of some member, excites compassion, and becomes an object of the tenderest solicitude ; it is enough that he is a man, and unfortunate. Among the ancients this human being was regarded as useless and contemptible*, in certain cities, as, for example, at Lacedsemon, it was forbidden to nourish him, and, by command of the magistrates charged with the regulation of births, horrible to relate! he was thrown into a ditch. He was a hianan being ; but what matter ? He was a human being who would be of no use ; and society, without compassion, did not wish to . undertake the charge of his support. If you read Plato and Aristotle, you will see the horrible doctrine which they professed on the subject of abortion and infanticide; you will see the means which these philosophers imagined, in order to prevent the excess of population ; and you will be sensible of