Elementary education in England with special reference to London, Liverpool, and Manchester / by I. L. Kandel

Front matter

Glass **-fj ■&*t*J

Book -/f 3

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION

Chapter I . — The administration of education 7 II . — School managers and care committees 21

III. — Organization, classification, and coordination of schools 26

IY. — School attendance and its enforcement 33

V. — Infant schools 37

VI. — The elementary school 43

VII. — The teaching of special subjects 56

(1) Nature study 56

(2) Handwork 59

(3) Needlework and domestic subjects 65

(4) Physical training and organized games 70

VII I .—Playgrounds 1 75

VS'

IX. — Medical inspection ^. . .-^ ^ ,, 79

X. — The feeding of necessitous children 92

XI .—Scholarships 96

XII . — Open-air schools 103

(1) Country holiday schools ■. 109

(2) Holidays for poor children 110

XIII. — Extra-school activities Ill

(1) Vacation schools Ill

(2) The school as a social center 113

XIV. — Day industrial schools 116

XV.— Mental defectives 118

XVI.— Central schools 126

XVII. — Evening schools 141

XVIII . — Juvenile employment 151

Index 159

ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page.

Plate 1 . Shooters Hill open-air school Frontispiece.

2A. A newly erected school building, Manchester 16

2B. A newly erected school building, Manchester 16

3A. Woodwork shop — A Liverpool elementary handicraft center 60

3B . Metal- work shop — A Liverpool handicraft center 60

4A . Models made in a Liverpool handicraft center 60

4B . Models made in a Liverpool handicraft center 60

5A. Scheme of metal work for two years. Thomas Street L. C. C. Central

School 64

5B. Scheme of metal work for two years. Thomas Street L. C. C. Central

School 64

6A. Models of woodwork in a Manchester elementary school 64

6B. Models of light metal work in a Manchester elementary school 64

7A. St. James School, Liverpool. Boys' cookery 68

7B. St. James School, Liverpool. Girls' cookery 68

8A. Cooking class at Burgess Street Center, Manchester elementary school. 68

8B . Laundry work in a Manchester elementary school 68

9A . Shooters Hill open-air school — The schoolhouse 104

9B. Shooters Hill open-air school — Gardening 104

10A . Shooters Hill open-air school — The pet house 104

10B . Shooters Hill open-air school — Fencing the school garden 104

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

Department of the Interior,

Washington, D. C, June 27, 1913.

Sir: With the rapid growth of American cities and the large increase in their industrial population, the problems of city school administration are becoming more complex and difficult. These problems are different for different cities and can seldom if ever be solved by imitation. Yet a knowledge of the administration of the schools of one large city can not fail to be helpful in working out plans for the better administration of the schools of another. This helpfulness may. be all the greater if, while some of the conditions in the two cities are quite similar, others are so dissimilar as to amount to contrast, as is the case with the large cities of England and America. For this reason, and because of the desire in this country for a better general knowledge of English schools, I have asked Mr. I. L. Kandel, of Manchester, England, to prepare for this bureau a manuscript on the public schools of London, Manchester, and Liverpool, giving special attention to the methods of dealing with those problems which have more recently assumed importance in American cities. In collecting material for this manuscript, Mr. Kandel visited the cities and studied their schools carefully at first hand. His knowledge of schools and general conditions in America has enabled him to give the subject such treatment as to make his study especially helpful to American teachers and school officers. I recommend that the manuscript be published as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education.

Respectfully submitted.

P. P. Claxton,

Commissioner.

The Secretary of the Interior.

PREFACE,

English education at the present time offers many points of interest, and an account of the systems of elementary education of London, the world metropolis, of Manchester, the center of the world's cotton industry, and of Liverpool, one of the greatest shipping centers of the world, may be taken as typical of the aims and aspirations of the educational activity of other cities of England. The effects of the changes introduced in educational administration by the education act of 1902 can now, after a decade, begin to be evaluated and the promise for the future to be estimated. Education has become a public concern, as it never was before in English education, and the duty of the community to the rising generation is more liberally interpreted. Hence, education now means something more than the mere provision of schools; it includes care for the physical and moral development, as well as the instruction, of all children. The work of the school also presents many interesting aspects, for it now stands at the beginning of a process of development which has unlimited possibilities for the future. If the author has succeeded in arousing an interest in the subject presented in the following pages, it is due to the unfailing courtesy and good will of the school officials, head teachers, and their assistants in the cities visited. The author expresses his acknowledgment of the valuable help and criticism received from his friends, Mr. I. Shaer and Dr. Peter Sandiford.

I: L. K.

Manchester, England, May, 1913.

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND.

Chapter I.

THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION.

There is probably no parallel in the history of education to the remarkable activity and progress which have characterized English education in all its branches since the opening of the present century. It would seem as if all the influences which retarded its development in the last century, the social, political, and religious interests, had entirely disappeared. But it would be a mistake to imagine that something in the nature of a revolution has taken place, or that a national scheme suddenly sprang into being by the will of some legislative body. Such a rapid change would be alien to the English political theory, which prefers progress to be slow and calculated, and introduces compulsory legislation when the conditions are ripe for it. The theory of State control in education has, however, gradually been accepted, and the importance of a national system of education is generally recognized, but it is not intended to surrender to the State that local and private freedom which has always been enjoyed in this matter. The State, under the new system, aims to furnish those conditions which make possible the exercise of local freedom in the interest of a well-coordinated and progressive system of education. Hence the central Government, through its education department, merely acts in an advisory and supervisory capacity, and encourages local effort by financial assistance, if certain minimum standards are observed. The control which the State exercises is accordingly financial, but otherwise no pressure is brought to bear on the local authorities, who are at liberty, if they can afford it, to use their independence in their own way, conduct any experiments they please, and remain free from central control, provided that they bear the expenses themselves. Thus the principle of devolution is applied to the administration of education, and, though the framework of a national system is already in existence, there is no approximation to the centralized and bureaucratic systems of France or Germany. The ultimate responsibility for education accordingly rests with the local authority. This principle of freedom is a characteristic feature of all branches of English education, and is carried through to the individual school. While this doctrine of freedom is to a great extent the secret of the strength of the English system, it is at the same time the cause of many of its weaknesses.

One of the factors which long stood in the way of the establishment of a national system was the religious question, which was the origin of and still is responsible for a dual system of elementary schools. But it seems highly probable that the dimculties which surround the problem of control and religious instruction in the schools are not so great now as they once were and that a complete settlement is in sight. In fact, in the present discussion of educational reform the religious difficulty hardly receives any attention. There still remains the social question, and it is extremely doubtful whether there will ever be established in England a system as national as that of America or comparable to the Einheitsschule demanded by some reformers in Germany. It seems certain that there will always be schools which serve class interests, and many of the leaders of English thought support the retention of private schools, which can perform their work without any restrictions from an external body and make such contributions as they are able in the way of educational experiments. Since these institutions are likely to be sufficiently wealthy not to stand in need of State aid, they will find no difficulty in remaining apart from a centrally administered national system of education. The possibility, however, of inspecting private schools, in much the same way as some schools in the New England States are inspected, has been suggested.

The central authority for the administration of education in England and Wales is the Board of Education, which was created in 1899 to replace the Education Department and the Science and Art Department, and with some few exceptions is concerned with the administration of all branches of education. Its functions are to see that the statutes bearing on education are observed and to administer the grants in respect of education. Through the grants the board is enabled to exercise an indirect control on the education of the country. It issues regulations for the administration of the various branches of education, which serve as conditions for earning the Government grant. In reference to elementary education the board publishes annually a Code of Regulations for Public Elementary Schools in England, which is laid before Parliament and thus acquires the force of law. The code deals with such matters as the curriculum, teaching staff, premises, accommodation, equipment, the grants, attendance, etc., but in each case only lays down the minimum requirements compatible with efficiency. There has been a tendency in recent years to leave more freedom to the local authorities even in these matters, without insisting on the prior approval of the board or its inspectors. Thus local authorities may make experiments in the curriculum and changes in the time-tables without special notification. The code, in giving the number of subjects which may be taught in the elemental schools, does not insist that any one of

THE ADMINISTRATION OP EDUCATION. 9

these, with the exception of physical training, shall be included in the curriculum, nor is any time allotment given for each subject, except in the case of special subjects like handicrafts, domestic subjects, and physical training. Similarly, in the case of attendances, only the minimum of 400 sessions per pupil is definitely required for the grant. The board also issues " Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers and Others Concerned in the Work of Public Elementary Schools," giving advice and suggestions on methods of instruction in the subjects of the curriculum but does not insist on the introduction of these methods in the schools. Except in a few subjects the board does not publish syllabuses of the school subjects and does not require the use of these, although for special reasons, as in the case of physical training, it may recommend the employment of the official syllabus. The board has undoubtedly contributed more than any other agency in the country to the improvement of education by these indirect means, but the point that must be emphasized is that the efforts and initiative of the individual teacher or head teacher are in no way interfered with or discouraged, provided that they can be justified. The policy of the board is well stated in the " Suggestions" in the following terms :

The only uniformity of practice that the Board of Education desire to see in the teaching of the public elementary schools is that each teacher shall think for himself, and work out for himself, such methods of teaching as may use his powers to the best advantage and be best suited to the particular needs and conditions of the school. Uniformity of details in practice (except in the mere routine of school management) is not desirable, even if it were attainable. But freedom implies a corresponaing responsibility in its use. 1

The board also issues regulations for the training of teachers, for secondary schools, schools of art, and technical schools; it is the one potent force for the unification of standards and the promotion of progress in education at the present time.

The inspectors of the Board of Education superintend the observance of the code and regulations by the local education authorities and report on the efficiency of the schools. The inspections of elementary schools do not take place at regular intervals, nor is formal notice of an intended visit given by the inspectors. It is a common practice not to visit schools which are under an efficient head teacher as frequently as schools which seem to require closer attention. But in either case a school may not be inspected for periods of a year or more. The inspectors are required to report not only on the efficiency of the teaching, but also on the adequacy of the buildings and their sanitary condition. Supervision, in the sense of inspecting instruction for the purpose of improving the

1 The latest code provides that: "The Board of Education, or the inspector who visits the school, may require any syllabus to be submitted for approval. The board may require the modification of any syllabus which is unsuitable."— Ed.

teacher, is not attempted by the board. The inspectors may discuss and offer suggestions on the syllabuses drawn up by the head teachers, and they may confer with the teachers on shortcomings in their methods of instruction, but for purposes of improvement the relations are not sufficiently sustained. It always remains in the power of the local education authority to act on an adverse report from the inspectors on a school or teacher. The inadequacy of the inspectorial staff from this point of view can not be denied, but at the same time it is uncertain whether the supervision of teachers is intended to be part of the duties of the inspectors. Whether the numerous criticisms passed on inspectors is due to a general misconception of their duties or merely to some of the differences which have prevailed in recent years between the elementary school teachers and the Board of Education, it is impossible to say, but the statement is frequently made that the teachers derive little benefit from the visits of the inspectors, especially since the opinions of different inspectors are not always the same and there is an absence of definite standards of criticism. At the same time it must be pointed out that the inspectors are in touch with large areas and many different types of schools, and are consequently in a position to draw on a wide experience. As a result of recent agitations for some reform in the method of appointment and in the qualifications for those inspectors who are to deal with elementary schools, the board has decided to appoint about ten assistant inspectors, who must have had at least eight years' experience in elementary school teaching. Some time must elapse before the results of this experiment can be estimated; the insistence on elementary school experience does at any rate open a career for elementary school teachers.

The organization of education is based on the education act of 1902 and other acts which supplement this. Under this scheme the authorities responsible for local administration generally were given control of education in their areas. 1

London is an administrative county, with an area of 120 square miles, established by act of Parliament for purposes of local government, with a population in 1911 of 4,522,961. A special education act was passed for London in 1903, conferring on it the same powers as had already been conferred by the 1902 act on similar areas. Manchester and Liverpool are county boroughs, the former with a popu-

1 Four types of areas are recognized for the purposes of local government— administrative counties, which correspond in general to the counties in some American States; municipal boroughs or cities with a population of from 10,000 to 50,000; county boroughs or cities with not less than 50,000 inhabitants; and urban districts or areas corresponding to townships in some American States. All these authorities are intrusted with the management of elementary education within their areas, provided in the case of municipal boroughs that they have a population of not less than 10,000, and in the case of urban districts that they have a population of not less than 20,000. For the purposes of higher education, however, only administrative counties and county boroughs are autonomous. The three areas with which this work deals, namely, London, Liverpool, and Manchester, belong to the latter class.

lation in 1911 of 714,566, the latter with 746,566. The local authorities, the city councils in Manchester and Liverpool, and the County Council in London, were accordingly empowered to control through special committees all branches of education. The administration of education was thus taken away from special ad hoc bodies and placed in the hands of the authority responsible for the administration of other local public services. Buffalo is an example of an American city in which the same system prevails. The councils accordingly delegate the power intrusted to them to education committees, which consist of members of the respective councils, and coopted members who have experience in education or are acquainted with the needs of the various kinds of schools. The act of 1902 provided that women must be included on education committees. The education committee of the London County Council, which consists of 118 elected members and 19 aldermen, includes 50 members, of whom 38 are members of the Council and 12 are coopted; 2 of the councillors and 5 of the coopted members are women. In Manchester the education committee consists of 20 councillors, including 2 women, and 13 coopted members, 4 of whom are women. In Liverpool the number of members on the committee is 52, of whom 34 are councillors and 18 coopted members (3 being women). The old school boards with their limited sphere of duties, and often small areas and restricted powers, were thus replaced by new education authorities with larger powers over wider areas, corresponding to the areas recognized for local government in other than educational matters. This extension of powers, with a command of greater resources, was bound to attract men and women who would not interest themselves in the routine of small boards. London, Manchester and Liverpool have continued under the Council the progress begun by the former school boards. 1

The education committees have full power to deal with all types of education and of making recommendations on the subject to their councils, but they have no power to raise or borrow money, except that the education committee in London may spend up to $2,500. Educational expenditure is subject to the same considerations as the expenditure in other departments and requires the recommendation of the finance committees of the Councils. The work of the education committees is divided up among a number of subcommittees. In London there are nine subcommittees, as follows: General purposes; accommodation and attendance; books and apparatus; buildings; children's care (central); elementary education; higher education; special schools, and teaching staff. In Manchester there are the following subcommittees: General purposes; finance and audit; schools

1 It should be recalled that the school boards of the large boroughs secured, during what was the formative period of public elementary education in England, the services of notable men and women, and that a return to the ad hoc system for these areas is demanded sometimes. — Ed.

of technology and art; secondary education; elementary education; administrative; sites and buildings. There are similar subdivisions of the work in Liverpool. It is the duty of the local education authorities to maintain and keep efficient all public elementary schools in their area. Since the 1902 act there are two classes of elementary schools under public control — provided or council schools, for which the buildings have been provided out of public funds or have been transferred to the local education authority; and nonprovided or voluntary schools, which have been established out of private funds and are rented to the local education authorities on payment for the wear and tear of the buildings. The nonprovided schools are denominational, and religious education is given in them in accordance with their respective trust deeds. Except that the body of managers is differently constituted, that the buildings must be maintained in good repair by the managers, and that religious instruction of a particular denomination is given, the nonprovided schools are now similar in every respect to the provided or council schools, the local authority being charged with the cost of maintenance generally.

The education act of 1 902 provided further that certain local education authorities, as described above, may take such steps as shall seem desirable to supply or aid the supply of higher education and to promote the general coordination of all forms of education. The local education authorities quickly seized the opportunity of extending the educational facilities in their area, and in addition to elementary schools now provide higher elementary and central schools, trade schools, secondary schools, technical institutes, and evening education of all grades, assist institutions of university rank, and provide extensive scholarship schemes. The scope of the educational activity of the London County Council may be gathered from the following statement of the number of institutions maintained or aided by the Council: There are under the system 917 elementary schools; 9 special schools for the blind; 10 special schools for the deaf; 35 special schools for the physically defective; 89 special schools for the mentally defective; 2 open-air schools; 8 industrial schools; 7 training colleges for teachers; 10 trade schools; 3 schools of domestic economy; 277 evening-school centers; 20 secondary schools; and 17 technical institutes, polytechnics, and schools of art; in addition the Council aids 42 secondary schools, 37 technical institutes, polytechnics, and schools of art, and several institutions of university grade. The educational work of Manchester and Liverpool is organized on similar lines, but is necessarily less ambitious and extensive.

Within recent years there has been a further extension of the functions of education authorities beyond the sphere of what has hitherto been regarded as pertaining to education. Since 1906 local education authorities are empowered by the education (Provision of Meals) act to provide meals for necessitous children attending the elementary schools. Since 1907 they have been charged with the medical inspection of the elemental school children under the education (Administrative Provisions) act, which also permits them to provide vacation schools, play centers, or other means of recreation during the holidays and at any other times. By the education (Choice of Employment) act, 1910, the authorities may also make arrangements for finding suitable employment for boys and girls on leaving school up to the age of 17. Thus the ever-increasing interest in child welfare is extending the sphere of duties which have been assumed by local education authorities.

The education committees delegate some part of their duties to local bodies interested in a particular school or group of schools. The position of such bodies, known as managers and care committees, which serve as links between the school or group of schools and the education committees, is dealt with in another chapter.

The purely administrative work connected with education is in the hands of permanent officials, acting under a director of education, or, as he is known in London, the education officer. The directors of education are, as a general rule, selected for their ability and experience as administrators rather than as educationists. At present the majority of such officials in England have gained their experience in education offices and have never been engaged in school work. An increasing number of positions of this type is being filled by men of university education, but teaching experience or training, other than that of office routine, is not required as a qualification. The director and his staff act as the professional advisers of the education committee and initiate its educational policy. The work of the education office is divided among different departments, each of which is charged with some particular branch of administration. For administrative purposes in connection with elementary education London is divided into 12 districts, each under a district inspector, who is assisted by a divisional correspondent to conduct all correspondence with managers and care committees, and a divisional superintendent concerned with matters affecting attendance, employment of children, and charges for meals and medical treatment.

The supervision of education is in the hands of local inspectors and superintendents and organizers of special subjects, who must be distinguished from the inspectors of the Board of Education. Under the London County Council there are 4 divisional inspectors who are concerned especially with secondary education; 12 district inspectors and 12 assistant inspectors of elementary education; and the following special subjects inspectors and organizers: 6 for art, 12 for domestic economy, 5 for handicraft, 6 for physical exercises, 1 for infants' school method, 1 (part time) for music, 2 for science, and 2 for children's care. In Manchester there are engaged for elementary school inspection 4 inspectors and 8 assistant inspectors, with one superintendent for each of the special subjects, physical exercises, science instruction, drawing, manual work, and domestic economy subjects. The local inspectors are charged more particularly with the supervision of instruction and are required to report on the work of the teachers in the schools under their charge for purposes of promotion, increases of salary, etc. But the methods of supervision are no more intensive than those of the Government inspectors. Frequently the inspection takes the form of an examination of the pupils rather than of the teachers' methods of conducting their classes. The general routine inspection is usually conducted periodically by the assistant inspectors, the district inspectors as a rule confining their attentions to the weaker schools. The onus of maintaining the efficiency of the schools is thus thrown on the head teachers, who enjoy in return a greater degree of independence and confidence. Except in some of the special subjects, the local inspectors do not suggest or provide syllabuses. Schemes of work are drawn up in the case of the newer subjects like manual work and domestic subjects, but the tendency even in these subjects is to allow individual freedom as soon as the teachers appear to be sufficiently competent.

The most prominent question of the present day in educational administration is the problem of raising money to meet the growing demands made upon local authorities. The only sources of income at present are the Government grant and local rates; the amounts derived from school fees and endowments are almost negligible. The cost of education has been increasing rapidly in the last few years. There has been an increase in the cost of buildings since the demands of the Board of Education in respect of accommodation have been raised, and more classrooms are needed; the cost of materials and of building has risen; local authorities are finding difficulties in purchasing sites for school buildings at reasonable rates; the newer schools are provided with larger playgrounds; special rooms and equipment are required for such subjects as handicrafts and domestic economy; medical inspection and the provision of meals have placed an additional burden on local authorities; the salaries of teachers rise automatically each year and add to the necessary expenditure, while the near future will probably see an agitation for higher scales of salary. To these items must be added the heavy cost for higher education of different types. It is impossible to open a school report issued in the last few years which does not refer to the unequal distribution of the financial burden* between the Government and local authorities. Thus in London about 70 per cent of the cost of education is raised locally and in Manchester 54 per cent is thus found. The only new form of subvention in recent years has been an annual grant of $300,000 in respect of medical inspection. But no aid is given for school buildings, for which money is found by means of loans on the security of local rates. Under present conditions it is impossible to find other sources of revenue; the borrowing powers are linn ted by acts of Parliament; the local rates, although rising annually, can probably not stand further strain. The local authorities are accordingly constrained to look to the imperial exchequer for greater financial assistance than is forthcoming at present, although it is possible that a reform in the system of rating may still yield more local revenue than at present.

The Government pays to the local authorities the following grants in respect of elementary education: (1) Aid grant of a sum equal to $1 per scholar, and an additional sum to areas of a low ratable value. (2) A fee grant of $2.50 per child in average attendance between the ages of- 3 and 15. This was introduced in 1891 to compensate the school boards for the abolition or reduction of fees. (3) An average attendance grant of nearly $3.50 per unit of average attendance between the ages of 3 and 5, and of nearly $5.50 for other scholars. (4) Special subjects grants in respect of instruction in handicrafts, gardening, and domestic subjects. Another form of grant for schools in areas with small populations does not affect the three educational authorities here considered.

It will be noticed that no attempt is made to apportion the grants in proportion to local effort. Except for the grants for special subjects, no special assistance is given for educational experiments, or to encourage the employment of teachers with the highest qualifications or toward the cost of buildings and the purchase of sites. The proportion has probably changed very slightly since 1910-11, and it is probable that the increase has been in the contribution from the local rates.