The theory of teaching and elementary psychology

Preface

This treatise, if such it may be called, is professedly of a rudimentary character; it is designed for beginners in the study of educational psychology and pedagogy. Its purpose is only to lay a foundation for such study, to open up the subject and give the student the necessary tools for working the field of pedagogical thought.

For nearly twenty years, the writer has taken in hand, twice in each year, a class of pupils in the second year of the normal school course with this purpose of inducting them into the elements of pedagogical theory. Finding no text-book in existence suitable to his view of such an undertaking, he was compelled to give the instruction in an oral, *'Socratic," conversational manner, using books only for occasional reference. The time has now come, as it seems to him, for reducing this work to written form, with a view to economizing the time of future pupils, and in the hope that it may serve a useful purpose to young teachers in their daily work or as members of circles for profess-ional reading and study.

The peculiar form and arrangement given to the matter of this book are thus the outgrowth of long experience and direct contact with students as yet unused to introspection or to abstract thought. The writer, as a teacher, has sought continually to find the natural methods of approach and the natural lines of progress in the development of a pedagogical attitude of mind, without too much regard to traditional modes, and yet with a careful avoidance of eccentricity or intentional novelty. Clearness and conciseness have been a constant aim.

IV PREFACE

A fatal defect with most, if not all, text-books on psychology as yet offered to the public is found in the fact that their authors are always, unconsciously, talking to other psychologists and never to tyros. They seem uniformly unable to conceive the real condition of mind in which students in normal schools and high schools come to their first contact with any study of their own minds or the laws of mental activity; and so they proceed to submerge the young people in depths of incomprehension and bewilderment. Another fault common in works of this sort is the dryness and opacity due to dearth of adequate and pertinent illustration. The author hopes that he has been successful in avoiding these sins, whatever other mistakes he may have fallen into.

All rational pedagogy looks to psychology for its guiding principles, but not to psychology alone. The laws of mental growth are laws of teaching; but psychology rests back on physiology and leads forward into logic and ethics. A proper introduction to the principles of teach ing involves, therefore, considerable familiarity with thu physiology of the nervous system as a necessary prelimi^ nary to the comprehension and application of psychological laws. lb also involves some acquaintance with elementary logic, a truth too often overlooked in the training of teachers. There has been no effort in this work to keep the physiology, the psychology, and the logic separate and distinct; indeed, a contrary purpose has prevailed. Whether the "blend" has been successfully effected, it remains for the reader to decide.

It has not been thought necessary to put everything into the book that ought to go into the mind of the student. Much has intentionally been left to the teacher. The several paragraphs, or sections, are rather in the nature of texts than of complete discourses. It is hoped

PREFACE V

that whoever teaches the book, including leaders of reading circles, may keep this fact clearly in mind. Nor has it been thought needful to load the ciiapters up with bibliographies. Each teacher will be able to furnish his own, adjusted to the material Avhich is accessible to his class.

It is believed that the book is well suited as a text-book in either theory of teaching or elementary psychology. High school classes wishing a brief course in psychology without definite reference to teaching may omit Parts I and III, using only Part II. On the other hand, prospective teachers will cover the whole book in regular order, Part III furnishing not only the pedagogical application of what 2^1'ecedes, but also an effective review of Part II. Pupils already well versed in psychology can omit Part II as far as Chapter XXIV. But Chapters XXIV and XXVI, on Language and General Method, should not be omitted under any circumstances.

Special acknowledgment is hereby made to Dr. J. W. Stearns, late of the University of Wisconsin, for valued service in reading the whole work in manuscript and making useful criticisms and suggestions. Similar service was rendered by my assistant in psychology. Prof. H. H. Schroeder. Acknowledgment is also made of the kindness of D. C. Heath & Co., in permitting the use of several cuts from Colton^s Briefer Physiology^ and of Ginn & Co., in allowing the use of cuts from BlaisdelVs Practical Physiology,

Whitewater, Wis.,

January, 1905

CHAPTER II Education, Its Nature and End

The Derivation of the Term 6

What Development Means 6

The Factors of Education 7

The End of Education 8

Other Statements of the End 9

Mental Symmetry as an End 10

The Objects of a School 10

CHAPTER VII The Nervous Mechanism {Continued)

Elements of the Nervous Mechanism 31

Nerve Centers ■ . . , 31

Nerve Ends , , , . • 32

TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

PAGE

The Stimulation of Nerve Ends 32

The Discharge of Nerve Centers 33

Neurones 34

Axones 35

CHAPTER XIII The Sense of Sight The Organ of Sight 66

The Retina 66

The Stimulation of the Retina 68

Accommodation . . 69

The Muscles of the Eyeball 70

Sensations of Sight 70

Muscular Sensations of the Eye 70

Ideas Derived from Sight 71

Ideas of Distance 72

Ideas of Solid Form 73

Another Retinal Sign of Solidity 74

Inversion of the Retinal Image 74

After-images 76

Tabular Outline of the Senses 78

CHAPTER XVII Memory Representation 99

Phases of the Memory Process 100

Retention Defined 101

Nature of the Brain Changes 101

The Conditions of Retention 102

Reproduction 102

Association 103

Law oi Cause and Effect 104

Law of Similarity 104 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Law of Contrast 105

The Place of Association by Contiguity, . 105

Association in Learning to Read 106

The Higher Forms of Association 107

Breadth of Association 107

CHAPTER XVIIl

Memory {Continued)

Recognition 110

Kinds of Memory Ill

Disparagement of Memory Ill

Special Memories 112

Remembrance and Recollection 113

Mnemonics 114

Tabular Outhne of Memory 115

CHAPTER XIX Imagination Images 116

The Process of Imagination 117

Phases, or Kinds, of Imagination 117

The Uses of Imagination 118

Cognitive Imagination 119

Inventive, or Practical, Imagination 119

Aesthetic, or Artistic, Imagination 120

Ethical Imagination 121

Imagination and Emotion 121

Imagination in Children 122

Crudity of Childish Fancy 124

Dangers of Imagination 124

Cultivation of Imagination 125

CHAPTER XX Conception The Thought Powers 128

Concepts 1 29

The Process of Conception 129

TABLE OF CONTENTS XIU

PAGE

Illustration of the Growth of a Concept 130

Abstract Notions 130

Concepts Cannot be Imaged 131

Concepts Not Fixed in Content 132

Relations of Concepts: Genus and Species 133

Intension and Extension 134

Concepts in Series 135

CHAPTER XXI Definition and Division

Definition 137

The Structure of a Definition 137

Rules of Definition 138

Exercise in Applying Rules of Definition 138

Logical Division 139

Rules for Division 140

CHAPTER XXII Judgment What We Mean by a Judgment 141

The Essential Parts, or Elements, of a Judgment 142

Nature of the Predicate Idea 142

Classification of Judgments 143

Exercise in Classification of Judgments 145

Euler's Notation Further Illustrated 145

Indistinct Judgments; Their Causes 147

Relation of Judgment to Other Mental Processes 148

Relation of Judgment to Conception 149

CHAPTER XXIII The Syllogism 150

Essential Characteristics of Deductive Reasoning 151

Dangers of Deductive Reasoning 152

Demonstrative Reasoning 153

Why Mathematical Reasoning is so Certain in its Results. ... 154

XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

The Major Premise May Not be Expressed 154

How We Come by General Judgments 154

The Inductive Process 1 55

The Essential Characteristics of Induction 1 56

Early Use of Inductive Reasoning 156

Reasoning by Analogy 157

CHAPTER XXIV Language What Language Is 161

Division of Language 161

The Language of Animals 162

Can We Think Without Words? 163

Specific Relations of Words to Ideas 164

The Uses of Language 165

Limitations of Language 168

Dangers in the Use of Language 169

Accuracy in Choice of Words 171

Putting One's Thought in Various Ways 172

CHAPTER XXV Analysis and Synthesis Analysis 174

We Analyze Individuals, Not Classes 175

Analysis and Synthesis 175

Analysis a Form of Discrimination 176

CHAPTER XXVI Method. 178

Method and Manner: Special Methods 178

One Method of Learning 179

The Naming of This Method 180

Another Method of Learning 181

Names of This Method 182

The "Complete" Method 183

Further Illustration of the Two Methods 184

TABLE OF COKTEifTS XV

PAGE

The Place of Inductive Method 186

Advantages of the Inductive Method 187

Limitations of the Inductive Method 187

What is Really Economical 189

CHAPTER XXVII Habit The Basis of Habit 192

Examples of Plabit 193

Essential Characteristics of Habit 193

Difference between Habitual and Reflex Action 194

Difference between Habit and Instinct 195

The Effects of Habit on Life 195

The Bondage of Habit 196

CHAPTER XXVIII Instinct

Vagueness in Use of the Term 200

Instinct Applies Only to Action 200

Illustration of Instinctive Action 201

Characteristics of Instinctive Activity 201

Explanation of Instinctive Activity 203

Instinct in Man 203

TransitorinesS of Some Instincts 204

CHAPTER XXIX What Feeling Is 206

Classification of Feelings 206

The Reflexive Effect of Feeling 207

The Genesis of Feeling 208

Different Types of Emotion 209

The Higher Sentiments 210

Conscience 211

Feelings as Motives 212

Children's Feelings 212

Tabular Outline of Feelings 214

XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Chapter I

As already intimated in the preface, it is the purpose of this book to serve the ends of teachers and others who desire to make an elementary but careful and systematic study of the theory of teaching and whatsoever is necessary to a clear and correct apprehension of the same. And perhaps the first step in that direction should be to get a definite conception of what is really meant, or should be meant, by the term theory; since the word, although in very common use, is somewhat ambiguous, well illustrating the fact that many words come to have divergent meanings, and that we need always to discern which meaning is intended in any given instance. Much confusion often arises, among teachers as well as other people, through neglect of this very important fact.

What Theory Means. — Etymologically, the word is derived from a Greek word meaning to behold. Thus, in its ancient use, theoria meant anything found out, information, knowledge of any sort; but the modern use is much more restricted. In common speech, it is often used to denote a supposition, a conjecture, more or less elaborated, and proposed as a reasonable explanation of some obscure fact or condition of things not fully nnderstood. Thus, if a lionse had been mysteriously burned with all its inmates, each witness of the result might have, his own individual "theory" of how the fire originated. If, however, the fact to be accounted for were one of great importance or of scientific interest, the speculation, or tentative solution , would be called a hypothesis. Hypothesis and supposition are respectively the Greek and Latin words denoting one and the same idea; the word theory should not be confused with either of these by careful speakers.

Scientific Use of the Term. — In scientific usage, the term theory has acquired a meaning still farther removed from its original sense. It stands for the tvhole hody of p)Tinci' pies underlying any subject or branch of hnowledge.

Principles are defined as fundamental truths. It thus becomes necessary to understand the difference between truths and facts. Fact is derived from facere^ to make or do. A fact is something made or done, a completed event or thing. Facts are single, individual,, particular. Each tick of a clock, for instance, is a fact; the clock itself is a fact. A fact has reality only at a particular time and place.

Truths, on the other hand, are general, universal. A truth is ahvays true. It is a truth that all clocks tick. It is a fact that I have two eyes; it is a truth that every normally constituted man has two eyes. What we call the laws of nature are truths. Thus /«w, truth., and iwinciple mean much the same thing.

Science is made up of truths, or principles; it is general knowledge. Hence theory and science mean much the same thing.

It seems necessary, therefore, to keep in mind the fact that theory has two divergent meanings, (1) The loose, popular meaning of supposition, hypothesis, guesswork by way of explaining phenomena, and (2) The strict, scientific meaning of the body of principles underlying a subject.

Distinction detiueen Hypothesis and Theory. — It is useful to note a distinctioQ sometimes made between theory and hypothesis. While the supposition, or speculation, especially if somewhat elaborate or complex, is still mere conjecture, it is called a hypothesis. When evidence for it has accumulated so that it comes to be generally accepted as established, it is then called a theory. Thus, men once spoke of the nebular hypothesis, the evolution hypothesis, whereas we now speak of the nebular theory, the evolution theory. Thus theory in the loose, popular use, like hypothesis, is applied to tentative, conjectural explanations of events and phenomena, while in its scientific use it is applied only to the true and verified explanations based in the nature of things, the laws of nature and of life.

Theory and Practice. — The terms tlieory and practice.^ like science and art^ are correlative terms, the one having reference to knowledge general, or universal, in its character ; the other having reference to skill in the doing of things. People often assume a contradiction between theory and practice. They say, "That may be good theory, but it will network in practice." Such a remark grows out of a misconception of terms. Nothing can be good theory which will not work out in practice. Theory is the truth which underlies practice, or art. We must prove a proposed theory to be false or untenable before we are entitled to say that it will not work in practice. Of course, a genuine failure to "work" under proper conditions would argue that the proposed theory was either false or not rightly understood by those attempting to apply it.

Scope of the Term Illustrated. — The full application of the term theory may be illustrated by reference to the construction of a great building or bridge. No amount of mere practical knowledge, or knowledge of facts, would suffice for such an undertaking. There must first be an architect or engineer with a large equipment of theoretical knowledge. This will comprise a knowledge of (1) The End, or Purpose, of the structure; (2) The Materials, including full understanding of their properties and consequent fitness; (3) The Mechanism, or the principles and forms of mechanical construction.

The intelligent practice of teaching, in like manner, involves a knowledge of the theory, or principles, of teaching in these three lines of End, Material, and Mechanism, or Method.

Why Study the Theory of Teaching? — We study the theory of teaching for the same reason that we study the theory of mechanics, namely, tliat our practice may he more intelligent^ safe., and economical. Theoretical knowledge in connection with and antecedent to any art tends to prevent waste of material and waste of effort, as well as to secure more perfect results. A famous English surgeon was complimented on his skill in operations on the eye. He replied sadly, "Yes, but it has cost a whole bushel of eyes." A complete scientific equipment at the outset would doubtless have saved many of that "bushel" of eyeSc

The teacher's art is so far-reaching in its effects, so remediless when misdirected, that theoretical foundations, wherever discoverable, are more essential and imperative than with any other art. "Forewarned is forearmed," and it behooves the teacher to have all possible light and guidance through knowledge of the general laws and principles which underlie his work,

Summary. — The word theory, in common speech, means a supposition or hypothesis; in stricter, scientific usage it means the body of fundamental truths, or principles, underlying a subject.

Truths are general, universal; facts are particular, individual.

When a hypothesis has become generally accepted, it is called a theory.

The terms theory and science are closely related, as are their correlatives, art and practice.

The theory underlying any art comprises knowledge of (1) The End, (2) Materials, and (3) Mechanism, or Metliod.

We study the theory of teaching, as we do that of any other art, to prevent mistakes and needless waste.

Chapter II Education: Its Nature And End

The Derivation of the Term. — The word education is derived, according to the traditional etymology, from the Latin educere^ to draw out, or bring forth. A mistaken application of this etymology has, however, often been made. Education is not drawing out in the mechanical sense of "pumping," or seeking to elicit ex2:)ression of knowledge. A helpful illustration of the true application may rather be drawn from the garden. When a seed or bulb is planted, under proper conditions, we may think of sun and rain as drawing out the plant from its germ, producing "first the blade, then the ear, then the full corn in the ear." In such a sense only is education a drawing-out process. It stimulates and, in a manner, directs the development of what is already in the germ potentially. The closest synonym for education is development.

What Development Means. — Development includes growth, but is something more than growth. While growth, physically speaking, may mean only increase of bulk or weight, development involves increase in complexity of structure and of function, with consequent increase of value or capacity. There is, however, really no such thing as mental growth without development of some sort.

Mental development implies increase of capacity in various directions. AVe may specify (1) Increase in capacity for worh^ efficiency, the ability to bring things to pass.

EDUCATION: ITS NATURE AND END 7

(2) For tinder standing^ comprehension of the true nature and reasons of things. (3) For enjoyment^ the power to derive satisfaction from the various elements of our environment. (4) For usefulness^ serviceable ness to those about us and to society.

These four factors of personal development more or less overlap. The efficient man commands his price in the world. His efficiency is itself a source of enjoyment and a chief means of usefulness. The man who understands derives great enjoyment from his understanding. The educated, or developed, man has more channels of enjoyment and deeper currents flowing in them. The serviceable, self-sacrificing man is such by reason of his understanding and efficiency, and derives the highest type of enjoyment from his service to mankind.

The Factors of Education. — Education includes certain factors, differing in form. The first of these is Instruction. The word is derived from instruere^ meaning to build within. Instruction is therefore the building up, within the mind of another, of a body of organized knowledge, not mere facts heaped up like a sand-pile, but truths fitted together and forming a mental structure.

A second factor is Training. This bears the same relation to instruction that art does to science. It develops the power to do things and to apply knowledge. The end of instruction is knowledge ; the end of training is skill. Skill is perfection in doing; it involves (a) accuracy in execution, (b) facility^ or ease of execution, and (c) rapidity of execution, which is, in fact, only a consequence or accompaniment of facility. We train children in the arts, for instance, of reading, penmanship, singing, and gymnastics. We instruct them in history and the sciences.

But education includes something more than instruction and training. This additional element, unfortunately, has not been clearly enough differentiated to receive a distinctive name. It is the remaining part of what produces character. Perhaps the term inspiration would serve as well as any. We may say,

( Instructs, then, that Education -\ Trains,

( Inspires.

In the case of savage or primitive peoples, education consists chiefly of training, that factor being magnified to meet the end of self-preservation and the demands of the tribe, or social unit, including the forms of religious ceremonial. This training is often rigorous and admirably suited to the conditions which it is designed to perpetuate, as in the case of the Zunis and other Pueblo Indians. European education, in the past, has laid its greatest stress on instruction, aiming to produce the scholar or learned man rather than the efficient member of society.

THE EI^D OF EDUCATION

As the architect must first know the end, or purpose, of the building which he is set to construct, before his professional knowledge and skill can be brought into successful play, so the educator must have a well defined conception of the end at which education aims, the result which it should strive to produce in those subjected to its processes. Otherwise, its course will be capricious and haphazard and constantly liable to wasteful misdirection. And it must be remembered that the child has but one chance at education; if that chance is missed or wasted, the loss and damage are eternal.

Statements of the End of Education. — The end of education has been stated in many ways, which differ more, perhaps, in their phraseology than in their real signification. Probably the most familiar is the one attributed to education: its nature and end 9

Rousseau and endorsed by Herbert Spencer, viz., The end of education is comjolete living. This is a very concise formula, and helpful if one understands what is really involved in living completely. In forming an idea of the contrast between a complete life and a narrow, fragmentary one, we may be helped by comparing the actual mental life and soul-experience of some uneducated, neglected, and spiritually stunted person of our acquaintance with our idea of his original, native possibilities, intellectual and moral, under a favorable regimen, or environment.

Another formula favored by many philosophers makes the end of education to be self-realization^ the fulfillment of one's destiny, the attainment of one's highest possibilities as a human being. Thus Plato held that education should "give to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable."

A more recent statement of the end, derived from the German philosopher Herbart and now widely popularized, is that of "character building," which becomes really significant only when we arrive at a satisfactory definition of what is meant by character.

Of these three formulge, so nearly equivalent in meaning, perhaps the most satisfactory and self-explanatory is that of self-realization. Under it, education is viewed as a process of gradual unfoldment, the opening out of all the soul's powers, as the perfect flower with all its organs is unfolded from the tiny bud, or even as the oak from the acorn.

Oilier Statements of the End. — Other statements of the aim or ideal have been proposed which lay less emphasis on the development of the individual as such and more on his preparation for life as a member of human society. Among the best of these, is that offered by Thomas Davidson, to wit: "The aim of education is the evolution of a social individual in intelligence, sympathy, and will." This involves the thought that man is not educated "to himself alone," but in order that he may play a fit and useful part among his fellow men.

A similar conception of education now commanding attention is that its function is that of "adjustment to environment," a phrase somewhat vague and perhaps too elastic and indefinite to afford, as yet, much practical guidance. Education aims at far more than adjustment to any environment, since man to so great a degree creates his own environment.

Mental Symmetry as a7i End. — Along with the conception of the educational aim as "complete living," it has been much the custom to couple the idea of symmetrical, balanced culture. As in physical education we strive to develop and strengthen the weak and undeveloped muscles and organs so that the system shall be normal and vigorous, so in the education of the soul we should strive to rescue it from one-sidedness and abnormality. The developing of all our mental powers into perfect balance, to the end of well-rounded character and the ability to participate in all right and wholesome human experiences, is, to say the least, an inspiring aim in education.*

We may add here for thoughtful consideration the declaration of John Milton, that a complete education should fit a man "to perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war."

The Objects of a ScJiool — The school is one of the means devised for accomplishing the ends of education — a means only. The objects of a school may be briefly stated as

(1) To promote the right development of the pupil.

(2) To impart useful knowledge.

EDUCATIOIT: ITS NATURE AND END 11

The acquisition of knowledge is an indispensable means in the process of education. There can be no mental development without the exercise of the knowing powers; knowledge has been called "the aliment of the mind." Yet knowledge is not a complete and sufficient end in itself. Contrary to the popular conception, we must place its acquisition as, at most, only the secondary object of school endeavor. The question may further arise as to what knowledge really is useful. And here we must not think only of the material interests of men. That knowledge is most useful, most practical, which helps best to secure the true ends of education, which tends to enlarge and enrich tlie soul-life of the individual, to multiply his interests, and to make him of worth to the community to which he belongs. The writer of this book is fond of stating the end of education, and consequently the object of the school, as increase in personal value. Education makes one truly man, and increases the significance of his life, both to himself and to the world.

Summary. — Education is a drawing-out process only in the same sense as is the growth of a plant. Its closest synonym is development.

Development implies increase of capacity for work, under- Standing, enjoyment, and service.

Education includes instruction, training, and an additional factor which may be called inspiration.

Training aims at skill, which involves accuracy, facility, and rapidity of execution.

The end of education has been variously stated as complete living, self-realization, character building, increase of personal value, and the evolution of a social individual. The conception of mental symmetry as an end in education lias also had much influence.

The objects of a school are primarily, the mental development of the pupil, and, secondarily, the impartation of useful knowledge.

Chapter III The Teacher's Material: Mind

The Teacher Must Knoiv his Material. — The engineer must be duly advised of the end, or purpose, of the structure which he is commissioned to construct; but he is no engineer if he has not already been made thoroughly conversant with the general properties and nature of all the materials from which he will have to make selection for his purpose. He must know scientifically, or theoretically, the forms of matter which are available. Any ignorance of which he may be guilty, any mistake which he may make here, will appear against him in due time in the form of disaster, ruin, or decay.

The teacher, as an architect of character, is no less under the necessity of knowing the material of his art, not empirically and superficially but scientifically, in order that his work may stand the tests of life and time. But his case differs from that of the engineer in that he has no choice of materials; the one material on which he must work is Mind, child mind. And this he must take as it comes to him; he has no choice of quarry and no control over the quarrying.

Peculiarity of the Teacher^s Material. — There is yet a further difference between the engineer and teacher in that the one works with dead material, unchangeable except by external attack; while the teacher's material is a living thing, immaterial, a spiritual organism, yet mysteriously connected with a material body, also a living

THE teacher's MATERIAL: MIND 13

organism. This twofold, plastic, living material is therefore marveloiisly more complex, delicate, and susceptible of irreparable damage than all the materials of the builder's art, and correspondingly more difficult of intelligent comprehension. Of all those who "rush in where angels fear to tread," the foremost in presnmption would seem to be those who cheerfully essay the work of teaching without any theoretical knowledge of this living material which they hope permanently to transform.

What the Teacher Needs to Know. — Every teacher must make a special study of the peculiarities and limitations of the individual minds entrusted to his care. But this study of individual traits, in order to be intelligent and trustworthy, >must be made in the light of an adequate acquaintance with the general truths, or laws, of mind. And this adequate acquaintance does not come by intuition nor by mere cursory observation of the actions of children. It is needful, therefore, that the prospective teacher make a somewhat careful, even though elementary, study of the laws of mind as formulated and arranged by the science of Psychology.

But as the teacher's material is not pure and unrelated mind, so it is not enough that he should know, as a preparation for his work, pure and unrelated psychology. To use a crude figure, Pedagogy walks on at least four feet, and psychology is only one of these. That "the proper study of mankind is man" is truer for the teacher than for anybody else; but "man" is a complex, the successful study of which demands the aid of Physiology, Logic, and Ethics, as well as Psychology. And the teacher's knowledge of these sciences of man must not be kept in so many separate compartments, or pigeon-holes. It is perhaps a defect of present-day instruction that we separate the sciences too strictly in our teaching. In the following chapters they will be drawn upon somewhat indiscriminately as occasion and mutual helpfulness require, without much regard to division lines. It will be the steady aim in Part II to set forth as clearly and simply as possible the nature of mind and its typical modes of action, assuming that the reader is not entirely ignorant of Physiology, and especially Neurology, the physiology of the nervous system. Part III will deal with the practical application of tlie knowledge presented in Part II to the work of teaching. As Part I deals with the End of Teaching, Parts II and III, respectively, will deal with the Material and the Mechanism of the teacher's art.