The principles of agriculture; a text-book for schools and rural societies

Preface

The greatest difficulty in the teaching of agriculture is to tell what agriculture is. To the scientist, agriculture has been largely an application of the teachings of agricultural chemistry; to the stockman, it is chiefly the raising of animals ; to the horticulturist, it may be fruit-growing, flower-growing, or nursery business ; and everyone, since the establishment of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, is certain that it is a science. The fact is, however, that agriculture is pursued primarily for the gaining of a livelihood, not for the extension of knowledge : it is, therefore, a business, not a science. But at every point, a knowledge of science aids the business. It is on the science side that the experimenter is able to help the farmer. On the business side the farmer must rely upon himself ; for the person who is not a good business man cannot be a good farmer, however much he may know of science. These statements are no disparagement of science, for, in these days, facts of science and scientific habits of thought are essential to the best farming ; but they are intended to emphasize the

Vi PREFACE

fact that business method is the master, and that teachings of science are the helpmates.

But even if these facts are fully apprehended, the teacher and the farmer are apt to make no distinction between the fundamental and the incidental applications of science, or between principles and facts. Therefore, the mistake is often made of teaching" how to overcome mere obstacles before explaining why the obstacles are obstacles. How to kill weeds is a mere incident ; the great fact is that good farmers are not troubled with weeds. Rather than to know kinds of weeds, the farmer should know how to manage his land. How to know the weeds and how to kill them is what he calls practical knowledge, but, standing alone, it is really the most unpractical kind of knowledge, for it does not tell him how to prevent their recurrence year after year. The learner is apt to begin at the wrong end of his problem. This is well illustrated in the customary discussions of under -drainage. The pupil or the reader is first instructed in methods of laying drains. But drainage is not the unit. The real unit is texture and moisture of soils : plowing, draining, green -cropping are means of producing a given or desired result. The real subject-matter for first consideration, therefore, is amelioration of soil rather than laying of drains. When the farmer has

PREFACE Vll

learned how to prepare the land, and how to grow plants, and how to raise animals, then he may enquire about such incidental details as the kinds of weeds and insects, the brands of fertilizers, the varieties of apples, when he shall till, whether he shall raise wheat or sweet .corn. The tailor first learns how to lay out his garment ; but the farmer too often wants to sew on the buttons before he cuts his cloth.

Again, the purpose of education is often misunderstood by both teachers and farmers. Its purpose is to improve the farmer, not the farm. If the person is aroused, the farm is likely to be awakened. The happy farmer is a more successful farmer than the rich one. If the educated farmer raises no more wheat or cotton than the uneducated neighbor, his education is nevertheless worth the cost, for his mind is open to a thousand influences of which the other knows nothing. One's happiness depends less on bushels of corn than on entertaining thoughts.

Not only do we need to know what agriculture is, but we should know the relative importance of its parts. It is commonly assumed that fertilizing the land is the one most fundamental thing in agriculture, but this is not so ; for if but one thing about farming practices were to be explained, that thing should be the tilling of the land.

Vlll PREFACE

Agriculture, theu, stands upon business, but science is the staff. Business cannot be taught in a book like this ; but some of the laws of science as applied to farm -management can be taught, and it is convenient to speak of these laws as the principles of agriculture. These principles are arranged in a more or less logical order, so that the teacher may have the skeleton of the subject before him. The subject should not be taught until it is analyzed, for analysis supplies the thread upon which the facts and practices may be strung. The best part of the book, therefore, is the table of contents.

A book like this should be used only by persons who know how to observe. The starting-point in the teaching of agriculture is nature -study, — the training of the power to actually see things and then to draw proper conclusions from them. Into this primary field the author hopes to enter ; but the present need seems to be for a book of principles designed to aid those who know how to use their eyes.

L. H. BAILEY.

HORTICUTURAL DEPARTMENT,

Cornets University, Dec. 1, 1898.

ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION (pages 1-15)

Paragraphs

1. What is Agriculture? 1-9

2. The Personal Factors upon which its Success Depends —

2a. Upon business or executive ability 10-12

2b. Upon a knowledge of natural science 13-21

3. Its Field of Production 22

CHAPTER I The Contents op the Soil (pages 16-36)

1. What the Soil Is 23,24

2. Hoio Soil is Made —

2a. The inorganic elements 25-28

2b. The organic elements and agents 29-35

2c. Transportation of soils 36-40

3. The Resources of the Soil 41-48

CHAPTER II The Texture of the Soil (pages 37-46)

(By John W. Spencer, Deputy Chief Bureau of Nature-Study in the Cornell University)

What is Meant by Texture 49-51

Why Good Texture Is Important 52, 53

How Good Texture Is Obtained. . 54-59

Texture and Manures 60

(ix)

X ANALYSIS

CHAPTER III The Moisture in the Soil (pages 47-63)

(By L. A. Clinton, Assistant Agriculturist, Cornell University)

Paragraphs

1. Why Moisture Is Important 61-63

2. How Water is Held in the Soil 64-69

3. How the Moist ure -holding Capacity of the Soil May be

Increased —

3a. The capacity of the soil 70-72

3b. Capacity is increased by the addition of humus . 73, 74

3c. Capacity may be increased by under-drainage . 75-78

3d. The capacity is increased by proper tillage . . 79-81

4. The Conservation of Moisture 82,83

CHAPTER IV The Tillage of the Soil (pages 64-76)

1. What Tillage Is 84-86

2. What Tillage Hoes 87-89

3. How Tillage Is Performed —

3a. By deep-working tools 90-97

36. By surface -working tools 98-101

3c. By compacting tools 102-104

CHAPTER V Enriching the Soil — Farm Resources (pages 77-86)

1. Wliat Farm Resources Are 105-107

2. Cropping Resources —

2a. The kinds of green-manures 108-111

2b. The management of green-manures 112-117

3. Direct Applications —

3a. Stable manures 118-122

3b. Other dressings 123-126

ANALYSIS XI

CHAPTER VI Enriching the Soil — Commercial Resources (pages 87-105)

(By G. W. Cavanaugh, Assistant Chemist to the Cornell Experiment

Station) „

Paragraphs

The Elements in the Soil 127-133

Nitrogen ' 134-139

Phosphoric Acid 140-145

Amendments 149-153

Commercial Fertilizers —

6a. What they are 154-157

6b. Advice as to their use 158-166

CHAPTER VII The Offices of the Plant (pages 106-111)

The Plant and the Crop 167,168

The Plant in its Relation to Soil 169-171

TJie Plant in its Relation to Climate 172, 173

The Plant in its Relation to Animal Life 174, 175

The Plant has Intrinsic Value to Man —

5a. As articles of food or beverage 176, 177

5b. As articles used in the arts 178

5c. As articles or objects to gratify sesthetic tastes . 179-181

CHAPTER VIII How the Plant Lives (pages 112-131)

- (By B. M. Duggar, Instructor in Botany, Cornell University)

1. The Plant Activities 182, 183 xii ANALYSIS

2. Tiie Factors of Growth — Paragraphs

2a. Water in the plant 184-189

2b. Soluble salts from the soil 190-192

2d. Carbon dioxid and sunlight 197-199

2e. Heat, or a definite temperature 200-202

3. The Processes of Growth 203-207

4. Irritability 208-212

CHAPTER IX The Propagation of Plants (pages 132-144)

1. The Kinds of Propagation 213-215

2. Seedage, or Propagation by Seeds —

2a. Requisites of germination 216-221

2b. The raising of seedlings 222-226

3. Propagation by Buds —

3a. Why and how bud propagation is used .... 227, 228

'Sb. Undetached buds 229, 230

3c. Detached buds 231-241

CHAPTER X Preparation of Land for the Seed (pages 145-158)

(By I. P. Roberts, Director of the College of Agriculture, Cornell University)

1. Factors Which Determine the Preparation of the Seed-bed. 242, 243

2. The Demands of the Plant 244-249

3. The Preparing of the Seed-bed 250-255

4. Application of the Foregoing Principles —

4Z>. Maize, or Indian corn 260, 261

4c. Potatoes 262-264

CHAPTER XI Subsequent Care of the Plant (pages 159-178)

1. By Means of Tillage —

la. In general 265-270

lb. In fruit plantations 271-277

ANALYSIS Xlii

By Means of Pruning and Training — Paragraphs

2a. Pruning vs. training 278, 279

2b. The healing of wounds 280-284

2c. The principles of pruning 285-289

By Keeping Enemies in Check —

3a. The kinds of enemies 290-293

36. The preventives and remedies 294-303

CHAPTER XII Pastures, Meadows, and Forage (pages 179-200)

(By I. P. Roberts) Grass 304-306

Permanent Pastures —

2a. Preparation of the land 307-310

2b. Maintaining the pasture 311-317

Meadows —

3a. Temporary meadows 318-321

3b. Permanent meadows 322-325

3c. Kinds of grasses for meadows 326-329

Other Forage Plants 330-335

CHAPTER XIII The Offices of the Animal (pages 201-207)

TJie Animal and the Stock 336, 337

TJie Animal in Its RelationTto the Soil 338, 339

The Animal in Its Relation to the Crop 340, 341

TJie Animal has Intrinsic Value to Man —

4a. As articles of food 342-344

4&. As articles used in the arts 345, 346

4c. As companions 347

The Animal as a Beast of Burden 348-350

The Animal as a Pest-destroyer 351,352

TJie Animal Diversifies labor 353, 354

XIV ANALYSIS

CHAPTER XIV How the Animal Lives (pages 208-238)

(By James Law, Director of the New York State Veterinary College, Cornell University)

1. The Cell, and its Part in the Vital Processes — Paragraphs

la. The cell 355

lb. Single -celled animals 356-359

lc. Many-celled animals 360-366

2. The Food of Animals —

2a. Kind of food 367,368

2b. Food constituents 369-376

3. Digestion of Food —

3a. What digestion is 377, 378

3c. The gastric juice 386-393

3rt\ Intestinal digestion 394-401

4. Absorption of the Digested Matters —

4a. How absorption takes place 402-404

4b. Destination of the rich blood from the intestines. 405-409

5. Respiration, or Breathing —

5a. What breathing is 410-413

5b. Blood-changes in respiration 414-418

5c. Amount of air required 419-421

6. Work; Waste; Best —

6a. Waste of tissue 422,423

66. Applications to practice 424-426

CHAPTER XV The Feeding of the Animal (pages 239-257)

(By H. H. Wing, Assistant Professor of Animal Industry in the Cornell University)

1. Sources of Food of Animals 427,428

2. How the Animal Uses Food 429-435

ANALYSIS XV

Composition of Fodders— Paragraphs

3a. Classification 436

3d. Albuminoids 442-444

3e. Carbohyhrates 445-447

Feeding —

4a. Nutritive ratio 450-457

46. Quantity of food required 458-463

4c. Feeding standards 464, 465

4d. Bulk in the ration 466-468

4c. Palatableness 469, 470

4/. Cooking and preparing the food 471-473

Chapter XVI

The Management of Stock (page 258-278) (By I. P. Roberts)

The Breeding of Stock —

la. What is meant by breeding 474-477

16. The mental ideal 478-481

lc. How to attain the ideal 482-487

Where Stock-raising Is Advisable 488-491

How Much Stock May be Kept 492-500

The Care of Stock —

GLOSSARY (pages 281-288) INDEX (pages 289-300)