The war with Spain; a complete history of the war of 1898 between the United States and Spain

Preface

The true mission of the United States may be held to be peace, not war ; production, not destruction ; industry, not rapine. But even to the most peacefully inclined of nations occasions come which irresistibly demand that the sword shall be drawn and blows be struck, and through one of these periods of violence this country has just passed. It has had to deal with a nation not yet in the nineteenth century, a belated relic of the mediaeval age, and has found it necessary to employ forcible methods. War is an evil, but there are greater evils only to be met by war, national diseases which only the strongest remedies can cure. Spain's colonial system has been such a disease, one with which only heroic treatment would avail. It has been a system of despotism and enslavement, of the suppression of insurrection by massacre and starvation, and of obstinate adhere^^ to methods long since outlived by other civilized nations. The state of affairs had grown intolerable when the United States took up the sword for the relief of a starving and perishing people, and began a war based upon the highest of motives, that of humane sympathy and the succor of the oppressed.

This country has been accused of a selfish greed for the territory of Spain ; but it may be safely said that no purpose of territorial aggrandizement was among the motives that inspired the war. All wars yield unpre-

6 PREFACE.

meditated results, and the principal result of this has been to place under the control of the United States certain island possessions which obviously cannot be handed back to Spain, to be misgoverned as before, and whose people are incapable of self-government. The United States must retain them or hand them over to land-greedy nations which stand ready to seize every shred of unappropriated soil. Some of them she has decided to hold ; but it may be repeated that this result of the war was not included among its motives.

The war has been regarded with interest by foreign nations from another point of view. For years past the powers of instruments of destruction have been steadily on the increase, until it began to appear as if war would become wholesale butchery, and must cease as something too terrible to be contemplated. This war has, therefore, been looked upon as an object-lesson in the destructive powers of magazine rifles, rapid-fire guns, torpedo-tubes, and other death-dealing implements. The result has been to prove that in the rush, the turmoil, the nerve-strain of combat, modern weapons are apt to waste their projectiles upon the empty air, and that infantry may still charge earthworks and rifle-pits with no greater loss of life than in former wars. In naval cornet the value of coolness and training, as compared with the opposite qualities, has received a wonderful demonstration in the quick and complete destruction of the Spanish fleets and the remarkable immunity of American ships and men. The "man behind the gun" seems of more importance than the gun itself.

But a preface should not be an argument or an example of special pleading, and we may conclude by saying that in these less than four months of war the

PREFACE. 7

United States has taken a new position before the world, a higher and nobler attitude. Europe has suddenly discovered that we are more than a nation of shopkeepers ; that we are a people who can strike shrewdly for the right, and one that is destined to be a leader in the van of human progress, an example to the world of the value of free institutions, peaceful industries, high aspirations, and moral energies.

Chapter I. Spain And Her Colonies

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Cruelty of the early Spaniards— Annihilation of the natives — How Cuba was colonized— Later history of Cuba- Spain's methods of administration— Commerce forbidden —Character of office-holders— Insurrections begin— The cruelties of the Spanish army— The Captain-General of Cuba given despotic powers — Cuban hatred of Spain- Attempts at insurrection— The Lopez invasion— The Quitman project— Revolt in Spain— Condition of affairs in Cuba— Oppression of the islanders— Large salaries and perquisites of the Spanish officials— Frauds and fees— The share of Spain— Disregard of Cuban interests— The revolt of 1868— A guerilla war— The character of the country— The machete as a weapon— Bush fighting— The rainy season— Desultory warfare— Official bulletins— The trocha and reconcentration— Outrages in Havana— Massacre of the students— The treaty of El Zanjon— Promises of reform not kept 2I

Chapter II. Relations Of The United States To Cuba

Early difficulties with Spain— Threatened interference of the Holy Alliance between Spain and the revolting colonies—This leads to the Monroe doctrine— The United States gives warning to European powers— Mexico and Colombia warned to keep out of Cuba— The United States guarantees Spain's title to Cuba— Secretary Everett's ultimatum— Offer to purchase Cuba— The Black Warrior affair— The Ostend conference— Buchanan's io CONTENTS.

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views— The Virginius affair— Protest and indemnity- President Grant's attitude— Injuries to American commerce 47

Chapter III. Cuba In Insurrection

Cubans in exile — The work of the clubs— Marti's efforts — The outbreak of revolt — Maceo and Gomez reach the island— Death of Marti— Campos appointed governor-general— His methods— How the insurgents fought — Their horsemanship— Life in a Cuban camp— Gomez in command — His troubles and despondency — Camaguey invaded— Gomez's plan of campaign — A war of skirmishes—The battle of Bayamo — A Cuban constitution and government— Maceo' s activity — Progress of the war westward—Its destructive character — Pinar del Rio invaded — Campos replaced by General Weyler — Weyler's reputation for cruelty — His inefficient campaigning— Destruction of plantations — Maceo' s operations — His death — The province of Pinar del Rio pacified— Operations of Weyler in Santa Clara — Gomez's waiting game — General Garcia's capture of Victoria de las Tunas— Indignation at Weyler's cruelty — He is recalled and replaced by General Blanco — A reform administration — How the Cubans received it 58

Chapter IV. The Forts And The Trochas

The Spanish ill-success due to their method of warfare — This method of advantage to the insurgents— Guerilla warfare a Spanish habit — The trocha trusted to — Successive trochas built — Gomez and Maceo treat them with disdain— Weyler's trocha from Mariel to Majana described — The trocha from Jucaro to Moron — The multitude of forts— The Spanish held the towns and forts, the Cubans the country — Spain on the defensive ; no energetic offensive operations — Their system of returning to dinner — War bulletins — Falsehoods with a purpose . . 82

CONTENTS. ii

Chapter V. The Reconcentrados And The Military Prisons

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Weyler's barbarity — The reconcentrado order — Its disastrous effect — Pacification by starvation — The reconcentrados at Jaruco — McKinley's denunciation of the cruelty displayed — What Senator Proctor and others saw in Cuba — Incomunicado imprisonment — General Lee's protests — Murder of Dr. Ruiz — No more Americans imprisoned — The sufferings of Cuban exiles — The story of Evangelina Cisneros — Spanish compared with Turkish barbarity — A butcher of men feasted in Sagua — The endless conflagrations—An intolerable situation 92

Chapter VI. Events Leading To Intervention

Efforts to prevent expeditions to Cuba — The Competitor prisoners — President Cleveland's message — Spain's reply — General Lee sent to Havana — His report — President McKinley's action — Spain's reply to Minister Woodford — Intervention for charity — Spain's financial condition — The hopeless state of the war — Lee's opinion of the insurgents — Increase of irritation — The riot in Havana — The Key West squadron — The De Lome letter — The Maine in Havana harbor — The explosion and its result — Wide-spread indignation — The Court of Inquiry and its verdict — Active preparations for war — Emergency fund voted — New ships bought and ordered — Senator Proctor's speech — The feeling in Congress — McKinley's pacific action — Lee leaves Havana — The message to Congress — The consular reports— Warlike resolution of Congress — Its immediate results— Spanish methods — War inevitable — Concentration of the army — The attitude of the powers of Europe 103

Chapter VII. Cuba Under Blockade

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The waiting fleet at Key West— A night of signalling— The start for Cuba— The first prize— Establishment of the blockade— Peril of the Paris— Blanco and the Havanese —Prizes of the fleet— Lieutenant Rowan's daring journey — The question of privateers— Spain's declaration — Secretary Sherman retires— The Matanzas ports bombarded —The Cape Verde fleet— The flying squadron— Bombardment of forts at Cienfuegos and Cardenas— The journey of the Oregon— Complaints from Tampa— Attitude of the powers of Europe— Friendliness of Great Britain . 134

Chapter VIII. The Sea-fight At Manila

The Philippine Islands— The natives rebel against Spain — Admiral Dewey's squadron sent to Manila — First news of a victory— General Augustin's proclamation — The squadron in the bay — Passing Corregidor Island — Manila in view— The Spanish ships at Cavite— How they were stationed— The battle begins— Submarine mines — Fierce firing on both sides — Poor gunnery of the Spanish — Terrible results of the American fire — The Reina Cristina attacks the Olympia — Fatal result— Fate of the torpedo-boats — The Spanish ships in flames — Dewey withdraws for breakfast — Returns and completes the destruction of the Spanish ships — Wonderful result — No American killed — Heavy loss on the Spanish side— Great accuracy of American fire — Dewey asked not to bombard the city — Corregidor Island taken — Dewey's despatch — Work of the Petrel — The natives in Cavite — Dewey thanked and rewarded by the President and Congress— Ships and troops sent to his aid 150

Chapter IX. Under Fire At Cardenas And Cienfuegos

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Sailing of the Cape Verde fleet— Preparations along the coas t— The mosquito fleet— An affair at Matanzas— In the Bay of Cardenas— The Winslow disabled— Death of Ensign Bagley and his companions — Escape of the Winslow —Burial of the victims— Grappling for the cables at Cienfuegos— Sharp fire and return— The cables cut— The light-house demolished— Other efforts to cut cables 170

Chapter X. The Search For The Spanish Fleet

Admiral Sampson's squadron seeks San Juan— Defences of the town— The rounds of the ships— The bombardment —The Terror at work— Results of the engagement— The lessons learned— The hospital ship Solace— News of the Spanish fleet— In search of coal— Schley's squadron leaves Key West— Reaches Cienfuegos— No trace of the Spanish ships— The Hawk brings news— Evidence of Cervera's movements — The collier Restormel captured — Schley sails for Santiago— Location of this city— Admiral Cervera's ships— Bombardment of the batteries— Presence of the ships proved— Admiral Sampson arrives— The voyage of the Oregon— Accident of the Columbia — Failure of the Gussie expedition— The newspaper censorship—The Florida lands supplies for the Cubans .... 180

Chapter XI. The Heroes Of The Merrimac

The Merrimac— Hobson's scheme— Preparation— Hosts of volunteers— A premature start— The actual start— Powell and the launch— The collier goes in— The picket boat- Opening of the battery fire— The catamaran— Hobson's narrative— Saved by Cervera— News sent to the fleet- Prisoners in the Morro— Schley's opinion— Aid from British consul— The exchange— Enthusiastic reception of Hobson and his men I 99 i 4 CONTENTS.

Chapter XII. The First Fight On Cuban Soil

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Schley's scouts — Lieutenant Blue's exploit — A torpedo-boat attack — Torpedoes afloat — The forts bombarded — Marines landed in Guantanamo Bay — A Spanish attack — Fighting day and night — Death of Surgeon Gibbs — The Sunday attack — A picturesque scene — Cuban allies — The Spanish camp attacked — Tricks of the bush-fighters— Shelling of Caimanera— Work of the dynamite guns — The channel open — A conference on Cuban soil . . . . 215

Chapter XIII. The Army Of Invasion

Organizing an army — Commanding officers — Treatment of the soldiers criticised — General Alger's remarks — Character of the army — The Rough Riders — The invading force — The transports sail and are called back — The final start — Santiago reached — A landing place chosen — The Spanish retreat — Landing under difficulties — The army on shore — Its unready condition — An advance movement — Skirmishing — Garcia's army moved 227

Chapter XIV. The Raid Of The Rough Riders

Advance of the dismounted cavalry— Wheeler's reconnoissance — The country and the roads — Spaniards in ambush — Plan of attack — The climb of the Rough Riders — Fighting by both columns — A dangerous situation — Wood and Roosevelt charge — The block-house taken — Fight of the regulars — Incidents of the battle — Its results — A Spanish comment 238

Chapter XV. The Battle Of Santiago

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The Cuban roads— A reconnoissance —The American position and supplies — Condition of the troops — The lines of the enemy— Shafter orders battle— The lines on July 1— The balloon and its results— The Spanish positions at El Caney and San Juan— The wire-clipping advance-guard — Lack of artillery — Attack on the El Caney fort— The Spanish rifle-pits— Chaffee's charge— Fort and town taken —Exposure of the troops — Aguadores attacked— The fight at San Juan— Advance of the troops— Wading the San Juan — Grimes's battery at work— Exposure and loss of the Americans— An impetuous charge — The hill taken — Exhaustion of the men — The July 2 fight — The Spanish repulse — Dastardly work of guerillas— Positions on the 3d— Shafter an invalid — Gallantry of the American soldiers 247

Chapter XVI. The Fate Of Cervera's Fleet

The doings of the Terror— A larger blockade— The fight at Manzanillo — The journey of Camara's squadron— An eastern squadron formed— The guard on Santiago harbor —Bombardment of July 1 and 2 — Cervera's plan of escape —Positions of American ships July 3— The flight of the Spanish ships— Clearing for action— Rapid work of the fleet— The hot fire on the Brooklyn— Terrific return— All the fleet in action— The Maria Teresa on fire and beached —Fate of the Almirante Oquendo— The Vizcaya in flames —Chase of the Colon by the Brooklyn and Oregon— The Colon beached— The Gloucester sinks the torpedo-boats —Lessons from the battle— The effort to save the crews —Work of the Iowa and the Gloucester— Admiral Cervera on the Iowa— The Reina Mercedes sunk— Brave deed of American sailors 267

Chapter XVII. The Siege And Fall Of Santiago

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The surrender of Santiago demanded and declined— Non-combatants leave the city— Food supplied them — The wounded seek Siboney — The refugees follow — Preparations for bombardment— The American lines— General ToraPs offer to capitulate "with honor"— Declined and bombardment begins — Unconditional surrender refused — A tropical rain-fall— General Miles arrives— The burning of Siboney — Shafter's offer to send the Spanish soldiers back to Spain— Appeal of General Linares — Toral accepts the terms — Basis of capitulation signed — Correspondence — The territory surrendered — Entering the harbor — Slight results of bombardment — Ceremonies of the surrender — Toral's demeanor — Stars and Stripes float over Santiago 286

Chapter XVIII. Events After The Surrender

Return of the refugees — Good feeling between the victors and the vanquished — Castilian cunning — Cleansing the city — Contempt for the Cubans — Garcia takes offence — Shafter's explanation — Naval events — Capitulation of garrisons — A Spanish contract — The problem of the sunken ships — The Santiago prison record — Condition of the army — Treatment of the wounded — Their exposure to the weather — Rapid increase of sickness — Dr. Senn's statement — Testimony of Drs. McCook and Krauskopf — The War Department order — Roosevelt's letter — The Round Robin communication — The Porto Rico expedition — Comments of the press — Convalescent camp — Scandalous condition of the transports — State of affairs at Camp Alger — Who was responsible ? — Roosevelt and Secretary Alger 307

Chapter XIX. The Invasion Of Port Rico

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Dominating influences in the war— The expedition to Porto Rico— The Gloucester in the harbor of Guanica— The town occupied— The port of Ponce surrenders— Welcome to the American flag— The city of Ponce occupied — Enthusiastic greeting— General Miles' s proclamation— A skirmish at Yauco— Business revives at Ponce — Mayor Magia's proclamation— The military road mined— Change of plan— Guayama taken— General Stone's advance- Capture of Coama and its garrison— A fight near Mayaguez— Cape San Juan— The advance on Aibonito— An artillery duel— News of peace stops hostilities — An affair at Manzanillo— The daring of the Mangrove— A shell in the San Francisco 334

Chapter XX. The Siege Of Manila

The Philippine rebels— Investment of Manila— General Augustin in doubt — Aguinaldo's proclamations — A declaration of independence— Desperate situation of the Spaniards— Dewey's demeanor — A Ladrone island taken —Attitude of the Germans— The Irene incident— American expeditions arrive— Want in the city— General Merritt arrives— An attack by the Spaniards— Their repulse— The Monterey arrives— Notice sent General Jaudenes — Surrender demanded and refused— Clearing for action— The bombardment— Attack by the troops— A show of resistance— The American flag floats over Manila— Terms of surrender— Flight of Augustin— The final event of the

Chapter XXI. From War To Peace

Singular character of the war— Its effect on the countries concerned— Events in Spain— A revolution threatened— The financial status of the United States -The loan and i8 CONTENTS.

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tax — Great development of commerce — The Hawaiian annexation— Sailing of the Philadelphia — Admiral Miller raises the flag — Attitude of the powers — Thoughts of intervention — Great Britain's attitude— Spain's only hope — The request for peace — M. Cambon represents Spain — The terms accepted— A protocol prepared — Its text — The ceremony of signing — The news sent around the world . 361

Chapter XXII. Final Considerations

Hostile relations of natives and Spaniards — The future of Cuba — The commission and its work — The demands of the Philippine natives — Naval demonstration — Rewards to the heroes — Proposed increase of the navy — A larger army demanded — The treatment of the sick soldiers — Effect of her colonial dominion on Spain — Possible benefit from the loss of her colonies — The war but an incident in United States history — The new position of this country before the world — Its future mission 375

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

The Wreck of the Maine Frontispiece.

Map of the West Indies 25

Map of the Island of Cuba 40

Cuban Leaders 60

Spanish Commanders 80

United States Naval Commanders 120

Map of Atlantic Ocean 131

President McKinley and Secretaries Long and Alger . . . 142

Map of the Philippine Islands 150

Plan of the Battles at Manila 157

The Annihilation of the Spanish Fleet in the Harbor of

Manila 164

Panoramic View of the Harbor of Santiago 192

Map of Santiago and Vicinity 195

Lieutenant Hobson on the Merrimac 202

The Marine Bombardment of Santiago 210

Soldiers Going on Transports at Tampa 232

Massachusetts Volunteers Landing at Siboney 237

Infantry Camp at Las Guasimas 242

The Country near Santiago 252

Plan of the Battle of Santiago 262

How the American Soldiers Fought at Santiago 266

Cervera's Fleet Endeavoring to Escape. American Ships

Firing 274

20 ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Wreck of the Spanish Cruiser Almirante Oquendo, showing

Effect of American Fire 280

The Oregon, just after her Chase of the Cristobal Colon . . 284 Wounded at Siboney. After the Rough Riders' Charge . . 292

United States Army Commanders 297

Soldier Life : Washing Clothes in Stream 310

Map of the Island of Porto Rico 334

At the Front, near Arroyo, Porto Rico 342

Ox-Train Disabled in the Rough Mud Road to Adjuntas,

Porto Rico 344

Map of Manila and Vicinity 354

THE WAR WITH SPAIN.

Chapter I. Spain And Her Colonies

On Sunday, October 28, 1492, Christopher Columbus, sailing southward through the placid Western seas, gazed with eyes of delight upon the shores of a rich and charming island, "the most beautiful land," he said, 1 ' that the sun ever shone upon or that the eyes of man ever beheld." Cubanacan, the land "where gold is found," the natives called it. The Spanish were liberal with names, calling it successively Juana, Fernandina, Santiago, and Ave Maria. None of these titles, however, took hold. Cuba, half the native name, prevailed, — about the only relic of the natives that survived a half-century of Spanish rule. It has been poetically designated the "Pearl of the Antilles," though it is a pearl whose lustre has been sadly dimmed.

It is not without warrant that we begin our history four centuries back, for the causes of the nineteenth-century war of which we propose to treat began with the advent of the Spaniards to this continent, and have grown with the growth of their dominion in the New World. Cruelty and oppression marked their coming to America, and to cruelty and oppression was due their final departure from its shores. The whole record of Spain on this continent, in fact, has been one of inhumanity and tyranny, with the result that her colonies have, one after another, been driven into rebellion and won independence. At the opening of the nineteenth century much more than half the Western Hemisphere was held by the strong hand of Spain. At its close the final remnants of this splendid colonial dominion were falling from her enfeebled grasp, while hardly a throb of pity beat for her in the heart of the world, for her misfortunes were felt to be the inevitable consequences of her faults. We are constrained, therefore, to place Spain in witness against herself by a brief review of her policy in America, seeking to show that the war of 1898 was the culmination of a chain of related events due to her persistently oppressive colonial policy.

It was a brief respite from suffering for the natives of Cuba that the Spaniards made their first settlement in the neighboring island named by them Hispaniola, but now known as Hayti. This island was peopled by a race of innocent and happy natives, who welcomed the white strangers as deities, though they were soon to regard them as demons. Under the cruel rule of the new-comers their happy lot suddenly ended. Their liberty was quickly exchanged for slavery, and so ruthlessly were they driven to severe and unaccustomed toil that within a generation they had all disappeared. The entire population of the island was sacrificed to the cruelty and greed of its new lords.

In the year 1502, ten years after the discovery of America, Nicolas de Ovanda became governor of Hispaniola. He was a small, fair-haired man, mild of speech and courteous in demeanor ; yet the seven years of rule of this cultured Spaniard were so filled with horrors that one shudders at his very name. To invite independent chiefs to an entertainment, then seize, bind, and burn them to death, was a mild proceeding under the rule of the soft-voiced Ovanda. Such a crew of wretches surely never came together as those that desolated that fair island while under his control. The life of an Indian slave was of no value. The natives were plentiful and could easily be replaced. It was cheaper to work one to death and get another than to treat the first with humanity ; and the whip of the taskmaster rapidly did its work. At times the natives rose in rebellion, but their revolts were subdued with frightful savagery. Some were burned alive at the stake, others were torn to pieces by fierce bloodhounds. The murder of a Spaniard was revenged by chopping off the hands of fifty or sixty Indians. The masters of the isle made a sport of cruelty. On one occasion thirteen natives were hanged so that their toes just touched the ground, and then were slowly pricked to death by the sword-points of the Spaniards. Other tales of almost unmentionable cruelty might be given, but it must suffice to say that, fortunately for the natives, they soon disappeared under this rigorous discipline, and the Spaniards were obliged to replace them with negro slaves, who, as they had to be paid for, were treated with more humanity.

This, and much more of the kind, we may read in the pages of Las Casas, the gentlest and most humane of his race, whose pen fairly trembles with indignation as he writes. This apostle of humanity spent his life in vain attempts to alleviate the condition of the natives of New Spain, and died after a life of earnest but largely useless appeal. It was not the cruelties shown in Hispaniola alone of which he had to speak, for the progress of Spain in the New World was everywhere marked by a trail of blood. The courage of Cortes and Pizarro was sadly vitiated with treachery and cruelty, and two flourishing empires were overthrown, hosts of their people slain, and the remainder reduced to slavery, that a handful of adventurers might rise to power upon their misery. De Soto, in our own southern territory, with his bloodhounds and chains, was as faithless and cruel ; and the whole story of the conquest of New Spain is one that it is best not to dwell upon too minutely. In the history of Mexico we are told that the rapacious laws depopulated towns, and that it mattered little whether a tribe was an ally or an enemy, since the work of the scourge and the sword led to the same end. Revolt only intensified cruelty. Death in the mines or inhumanity worse than death in the fields, we are told, was the lot of the natives under the rule of Spain.

In 151 1, Don Diego Columbus, son of the discoverer, determined to take possession of Cuba, Hispaniola having become nearly exhausted of laborers within less than twenty years. No opposition was made to the invasion except by a chief named Hatuey, a fugitive who had lived under the amenities of Spanish rule in Hispaniola. His opposition was useless, and he was soon in the hands of the invaders, who, instead of treating him as an honorable captive, condemned him to be burned alive as a fugitive slave. While the fagots were being heaped around him, a Franciscan friar stood by the pile and, cross in hand, besought him to accept Christianity, in order that the flames which consumed his body might waft his soul to realms of endless bliss.

"Are there any Spaniards in those happy realms?" asked the chief.

' ' Yes, ' ' was the reply.

' ' Then I will have nothing to do with your religion. I will not go to a place where I may meet one of that accursed race."

No long period passed before all the native Cubans followed their intrepid chief. At the time of settlement they are said to have numbered more than three hundred thousand. Forty years afterwards it is doubtful if one of them survived. The wars they waged with the Spaniards ended in blood and torture. Their lot in peace was worse than in war. The sword and the lash soon did the work, and the natives vanished from the land. The methods by which a whole population can be exterminated in a generation need not be commented upon ; they may be left to the imagination of the reader.

The subsequent history of Cuba, up to the early years of the nineteenth century, may be epitomized in a few words. Negro slaves succeeded the natives as laborers, and grew numerous after 1580, at which time the cultivation of tobacco and sugar-cane began. For a century and a half after 1600 almost perpetual fear brooded over the island. The French, English, and Dutch, and the pirates who infested the waters of the West Indies, invaded it at will. Even before that date Havana had been twice taken and burned by the French. In 1762 it was besieged by the English, and taken after an obstinate resistance of more than two months. Cuba was restored to Spain .in the following year, and then first began to be prosperous. At its first census, in 1773, its population, black and white, numbered only 171,620. At its latest census it had a population of over 1,600,000.

The history of Cuba as a colony is at one with that of the Spanish colonies as a whole. Much as the inhabitants of the British colonies in America objected to the methods of the home country, they enjoyed a high state of freedom as compared with the people of New Spain. The latter were destitute of even the shadow of liberty, being deprived of all privileges, civil, political, and religious. While the British colonists made their own laws, and in several colonies chose their own governors, the Spanish colonists were under the absolute dominion of governors appointed by the crown, and were as destitute of actual liberty as the slaves in their fields. Spanish officials filled every place of power or profit, monopoly and restriction were the principles of administration, and the people were kept in submission by a powerful army and navy, which they were heavily taxed to maintain. The "taxation without representation" which led to the revolt of the British colonists was but a mild measure of oppression as compared with that under which the people of Spanish America groaned.

A more detailed account of the character of this tyranny may be given, in view of the fact that it continued in Cuba and the Philippine Islands until the year 1898. It was of the most crushing character. The viceroys and captain-generals who were appointed by the king of Spain to rule over his dominions in America were invested with despotic power, their word having the force of absolute law. How they governed may be deduced from the fact that each of them went back to Spain immensely rich.

Spain looked upon her colonies as sources of revenue only, and rivalled the rapacious policy of her captain-generals and other colonial officials. Heavy duties were laid alike on imports and exports, and trade with any other nation than Spain was forbidden under the severest penalties. Any merchant captain not hailing from a Spanish port, and even Spanish merchants who sought to trade without official permission, were punished with death if they dared to enter a colonial harbor of Spain. The sole right of trading with his colonies was sold, near the end of the eighteenth century, by the king to the Philippine Company, an association of merchants trading with the West and the East alike, and privileged to fix the rates at which all goods might be sold. To trade without license from these merchants was a crime whose penalty was death. The colonists were forced to sell and buy their goods at prices fixed for them by this company, whose net profits were usually three hundred per cent.