Preface
This book did not form one of the Epochs of History as I originally designed the series. Many of the subjects treated in it were intended to find a place in other volumes. But in the course of writing such other volumes room was not spared for them, and those who managed the series after my departure from England thought that this volume was needed to supply a gap. It is a continuation of my Epoch called ' The Age of Anne.'
In compiling this little book I have done my best to remember the cardinal principles of the series, to make the division of history horizontal rather than vertical, to omit superfluous names, and to make the treatment interesting. Though the name of the Epoch is taken from English history, some of the subjects — the Turkish Wars, the Polish Succession War, Anson's Voyage — are not usually treated in our school histories ; and of many minor matters the same can, I think, be said. Biography has always a charm for the young, and I have tried to make use of its vi Preface.
attraction in lives of Leibnitz, Newton, Walpole, Queen Caroline, Maria Theresa, Atterbury, Ogle thorpe, Berkeley, and the chief literary men of the time in France as well as in England. My account of the romantic attempt known as the Forty-five has been made very full.
Melbourne University: July I, 1885.
CHRONOLOGICAL
Chapter I. Europe After Utrecht
1713. Peace of Utrecht. A general peace Important as closing a period of wars Survey of Europe — France Spain Italy .
The Netherlands. Austrian.
Holland Germany — much divided
The Emperor. Austria
Saxony .
Prussia
The electors Poland
Russia and Sweden The Turks
PAGE
I
Chapter II. George The First
1 714. Aug. i, Death of Queen Anne ... .
George, the new king, not in haste to come to England ....
vi-ii Contents.
PAGE
His father, Ernest Augustus, duke of Hanover,
first elector of Brunswick- Liineburg . . n
His mother, the Electress Sophia . .12
Her mother, Elizabeth of Bohemia, daughter of
Her father, Frederick, Elector Palatine (Winter)
King of Bohemia . . . .12
1714. June 8. Death of Electress Sophia . . 13
The family — House of Brunswick or of Hanover . . . . . -14 Its origin . . . . 14
Description of the court of Hanover . . 15
King George I. once a suitor for hand of Queen
Table of the family . . . .18
Chapter III. The Electorate
The Electorate compared with England —
In area as one to nine . . 19
In population as one to twelve . . . 19
In army nearly equal . . . .21
In revenue as one to twenty . . . 21
Extreme unpopularity of union with Hanover 22
Proposed separation . . 24
Later history of Hanover . . -24
The two greatest men, Newton and Leibnitz . 25
Life of Leibnitz .... 25
Chapter IV. First Measures
Arrival of George I. at Greenwich . . . 26
Gracious to Whigs, rude to Tories . . 26
Bolingbroke's removal from office . . . 26
Cabinet entirely Whig . . . 27
Contents. ix
PAGE
King ignorant of English . 27
A constitutional king : interfering only in foreign
affairs . . . 28
Bremen and Verden acquired for Hanover . 28 Parliament votes liberal civil list and arrears of
pay for Hanoverian troops . . .29
General election : a large Whig majority . . 30 Revenge on Tory ministers . . .30
Oxford, Bolingbroke, and Ormond to be impeached . . . . 31 The two latter escape. Two years later Oxford's
impeachment dropped . . 31
Bolingbroke becomes Secretary of State to the
Pretender . . . . . - 32
Chapter V. The Fifteen
Attempts tc restore the Stuarts. 1715. That generally known as ' the Fifteen '
Bolingbroke urged Lewis XIV. to make war
Lewis died ....
John, Earl of Mar, leader of the Jacobites Sept. 6. The rising in Scotland. Standard raised Edinburgh Castle. ' Powdering the hair' . No serious rising in England. Arrests of Jaco
bites .....
Ormond lands in Devonshire, returns to France Earl of Derwentwater and Mr. Forster head a rising in the north Nov. 17. Battle of Preston, easy victory for royal troops Nov. 17. Battle of Sheriffmuir, doubtful victory in Scot land .....
After the battle the Jacobite army melted . Arrival of James too late Punishment of the rebels .
Roads made in the Highlands .
34 34 35
36 37
39 39 40
Chapter VI. Septennial Act And Peerage Bill
PAGE
Septennial Act to alter the period that a Parliament might continue from three years to seven . . . • . 42
Peerage Bill, attempt to limit royal prerogative in creation of peers. Its effect. . . 43
Passed by the Lords, rejected by the Commons . . . . 45 Pamphlet war. Addison and Steele . . 45 Addison as a minister . . 46
Chapter VII. France And Spain
17 1 5. Sept. i. Death of Lewis XIV. .
Lewis XV. , only five years old Distressed condition of France Regency of Philip, Duke of Orleans Strongly in favour of a peace policy and friend ship with England .
1717. Triple alliance — France, England, and Holland
Object to maintain the Treaty of Utrecht
1718. Quadruple alliance. Emperor Charles VI. join; Kingdom of Sardinia established .
Philip of Spain married Elizabeth Farnese of
Parma ....
Cardinal Aiberoni ....
Excellent minister for Spain .
In Europe, a disturber of the public peace His various schemes .
A little war ensued. Admiral Byng at Messina 1718. Dec. 11. Death of Charles XII. .
1719. Spanish attempt on behalf of Pretender — abof
The French took Fontarabia, the English Vigo Spain then yielded, and Aiberoni was dismissed . . . . 53
47 47 47
49 49 49
52 5 2 52
53 53
Contents. xi
Chapter VIII. Law And The South Sea Bubble
PAGE
1718. In France. Law's proposal to help the finance. 54
Mississippi scheme . . 54
1720. In England, the South Sea Bubble . 55
Many minor Bubbles . . 56
General crash. Walpole called to office . 56
Comparison between French and English
Low state of morality . . . • 57 1720. Plague at Marseilles. Heroic conduct of the
bishop . . . . 57
Chapter IX. Sir Robert Walpole
His parentage, education and earlier history
• 58
Character and policy — love of peace . .
Corruption
.
Very strong as financier
Treatment of national debt
.
Interest of the same
Sinking fund
.
Free trade .
Wood's Pence .
Triumph of Dean Swift
Chapter X. Atterbury And Bolingbroke
Bishop Atterbury, able man, strong Jacobite . 66 Proof found of his correspondence with Pretender , . . . -67 Deprived of bishopric and sent into exile . 67
Bolingbroke returned, ' two-thirds restored ' . 63
His writings . . . . 69 xii Contents.
CHAPTER XL
NEARLY A EUROPEAN WAR.
PAGE
Queen of Spain anxious to secure appanage for her son . . . . ■ . 70
New minister of Spain — Ripperda . . 70
Infanta sent back to Spain and another wife chosen for Lewis, daughter of Stanislaus Leczynski, former King of Poland . . 70
The Ostend Company of the Emperor irritates
English and Dutch . . . • 71
Proposed that Don Carlos should marry Maria Theresa . . . . . . 71
Fear of preponderating power of Spain and Austria leads to a general league (Treaty of Hanover) . . . . -71
Admiral Hosier sent against Porto Bello, but
war never broke out . . 72
1727. Siege of Gibraltar . . . , 72
Treaty of Seville . . . • • 73
Chapter XII
DEATH OF GEORGE I. AND OF SIR ISAAC NEWTON.
Wife of George I., Sophia Dorothea of Zell,
shut up for thirty-two years . . -73
Her summons to the king . 74
1727. June 11. Death of George I. on the road to Hanover,
near Osnabriick . . . -74
Death of Sir Isaac Newton . . . 74
Some account of his life . . -75
Chapter XIII
GEORGE II. AND QUEEN CAROLINE.
George II. succeeds, aged 44 . . . 76
His appearance and character . .76
Contents. xiii
PAGE
Proposed duel with Frederick William of
His avarice . . . . -78
He spoke English, but bad English . . 78
Queen Caroline. Her character . . 79 George II. founder of the University of Got-
tingfen . . . . 8r
Chapter XIV. The Porteous Riots
1736. The cause. Captain Porteous firing on Edinburgh mob . . . . 8r Found guilty of murder and reprieved . . 82 Rioters seized him and hanged him . . 83
CHAPTER XV. walpole's fall.
His love of power . . . . . 84
Opposition had four elements — Jacobites, Tories, friends of Prince of Wales, discontented WTiigs . . . .84 X 73Z- Opposition first won in Excise Bill . . 84 William Pitt. His appearance and eloquence . 85 Frederick, Prince of Wales . 86 1737. Death of Queen Caroline . . -87 1742. Jan. Resignation of Walpole . . . . 87 He became Earl of Orford . . -87 xiv Contents.
Section I. — The First War, PACE
Turks in Europe up to seventeenth century
advancing . . . 83
1633. Culminating point — siege of Vienna, when John
Sobieski drove them off . .83
In his army Prince Eugene was an officer . . 83 Eugene's war, ending with . . 89
1699. Jan. Peace of Carlowitz . . . 89
Venice and the Turks . . . .89
After Utrecht, war renewed against Turks . 90 17 1 6. Aug. 5. Battle of Peterwaradin . . . .90
1717. Siege of Belgrade. Complete victory of Eugene 91
1718. Treaty of Passarowitz . . . .92
Section II. — The Second War
1736. Death of Prince Eugene . . . . 93 After Eugene, Seckendorf commander-in-chief. 93 General failure in the campaign . . . 94
1737. Then Francis, Duke of Lorraine, commander-
Disgraceful loss of Belgrade . 94
Peace of Belgrade . . . -95
Chapter II. Polish Succession War
1733. The war broke out . . . • ■ 95
Poland an Elective Monarchy . . -95
Death of Augustus the Strong . . . 96
Contents.
xv
Two candidates ....
Stanislaus Leczynski, former king, supported by France ....
Augustus, son of the late king, supported b Russia and Austria .
Sides taken in the Avar Arrangements made at the end of it Incidents of the war Eugene's last campaign Peace of Vienna ....
Death of Augustus, King of Poland .
Death of Stanislaus, Duke of Lorraine
PAGE
96 96
97 97 98
99 99 99 99 99
Chapter III. Jenkins' Ear
War with Spain. Story of Jenkins' ear
Question whether the story is true .
Real cause of the war. Expansion of England
in the New World .
The Assiento ....
1739. Oct. 19. War declared amid general joy .
War became much larger, being merged
Austrian Succession War Events of year ....
Capture of Porto Bello Attack on Cartagena. Failure .
Rest of Spanish war. — Privateering
TOO
103 101
IOI
102 103 103
Chapter IV. Anson's Voyage
Its object — to co-operate with Vernon
His fleet scattered
Capture of Spanish galleons
At Tinian. At Macao
Return home. Anson made a peer xvi Contents.
chapter v. AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
PAGE
1740. Oct. 20. Death of Emperor Charles VI. . . no
The Pragmatic Sanction . . .111
Maria Theresa. Her appearance and character 112 Matches suggested for her — Frederick the Great 1 12 Don Carlos . . . . . 71
Electoral Prince of Bavaria . . .112
Her marriage with Francis, Duke of Lorraine,
afterwards Grand Duke of Tuscany . -113 Various claimants for whole or part of Austrian
dominions . . . . .113
Frederick of Prussia — Silesia . 113
Spain wanting appanage for Don Philip . 114
Elector of Saxony . . . 114
Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria . .114
Policy of France, shaped by Marshal Belleisle
to keep Germany divided . . 116
Alliance against Austria. Treaty of Nymphen-
burg — France, Bavaria, Spain, Saxony,
Russia ....
Treaty of Hanover. George II. promises
neutrality for one year .
Invasion of Austrian dominions by a French
army .....
Maria Theresa crowned at Presburg
Making appeal to her Hungarian subjects
rouses their enthusiasm Elector of Bavaria elected Emperor Charles VII Cause of Maria Theresa gains, that of Charles
VII. loses ground . . . 121
Retreat of French army from Prague . .121
Maria Theresa crowned at Prague . . 122
War in Italy ..... 122
118 119
Contents. xvii
Chapter VI. Battle Of Dettingex
England and France only allies of combatants Earl Stair commanding the English French under Marshal Noailles Situation that led to the battle . 1743. June 27. The battle itself .... Conduct of King George II. .
Results of battle ....
Chapter VII. Dettingen To Fontenoy
Maria Theresa prospering, but obstinate in continuing the war . . . .128 Results of this —
1. France becomes a principal .
2. Frederick again joins enemies of Austria Second Silesian war Union of Frankfort Invasion of Saxony Peace of Dresden
Lewis XV. His illness and popularity: the
' Well-beloved "...
Sea-fight near Toulon
Death of Charles VII. ' the bold Bavarian ' Election of Francis, Maria Theresa's husband
130 130
J 3 T mi
Chapter VIII. Campaign Of Fontexov
Marshal Saxe. Life and character Campaign in Flanders
Tournay ....
Cumberland marches to relief of it Battle of Fontenoy . . . . 133
Advance of English infantry . . . 135
D 1
Contents.
' Gentlemen, we never fire first '
How the advance of the column was met
Account by an eye-witness .
The Irish Brigade
PAGE
137 137 138
Chapter IX. The Forty-five
Walpole anxious for peace, lest war should lead
to rebellion . . . . 139
Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. His
pedigree, character and education . . 139
Contrast between Old and Young Pretenders . 142 Account of ancestor of Young Pretender, John
Sobieski . . . . 143
Army collected under Marshal Saxe . . 143
Transports scattered by a storm . . 144
Without help from France, Charles Edward
1745. July 25. Landing at Moidart .... 144
Poor prospects. Interview with Lochiel . . 145 Aug. T9. Raising of standard .... 145
Prospects improve . . . . . 146
Sir John Cope, instead of facing his enemy,
marches off to Inverness . . . 146
And Charles Edward marches into Edinburgh . 147
Cope returns to Dunbar . . . 148
Battle of Prestonpans . . . . 148
Reasons of English defeat —
. 1. They were badly led . . . 150
2. Strangeness of Highlanders . . . 150
Oct. 31. Scotland secured, Charles Edward starts for
By the Carlisle route . . . 152
Preparations in England —
1. Wade's army in Northumberland . 154
2. Cumberland's army at Lichfield . . 154
3. King George and the Guards at Finchley . 154 Dec. 6. Charles Edward begins retreat from Derby . 154
Contents. xix
PAGE
Feelings in England. Relief. Curiosity . 155
Skirmish at Clifton .... 156
No French force came .... 156
Command in Scotland given to General Hawley 157
Battle of Falkirk . . . . . 157
But after the battle the Highlanders began to
separate ..... 158 Further retreat northwards . . . 159 Command given to Cumberland . . 159 1746. April 16. Battle of Culloden . . . . 160 After the battle rebellion put down with severity 163 And measures taken to prevent future rebellion 164 Charles Edward after the battle. His adventures and escapes : flight to France . 166 1748. Expulsion from France . . . 167 His later history and that of his brother . 168
Chapter X. Remainder Of Continental War
Marshal Saxe prepares to invade Holland.
He takes Brussels, Antwerp, Namur .
Battle of Roucoux. Victory of Saxe
Invasion of Holland
Revival by Dutch of Stadtholdership
Battle of Lauffeld. Victory of Saxe over Cum
berland ....
Siege of Bergen op Zoom and Maestricht . Campaign in Netherlands and Italy Siege of Genoa ....
Chapter XI. Peace Of Aix-la-chapelle
State of things that led to the peace . . 174
Dutch saw their cities taken . . . 174
English were gaining nothing at heavy cost . 174
French also anxious for peace . . . 174
Spain lukewarm in the war „ . 175
169 170 171 171 171
171 172 *73
1/3 xx Contents.
PAGE
Congress at Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 175
Terms of the peace. Status quo ante helium . 175 Austria, discontented and the questions not
really settled . . . . . 176 State of England, according to Lord Chesterfield, very bad . . . . 177 She soon recovered from the exhaustion . . 178 Emigration of soldiers to Nova Scotia . . 178 Later history of Marshal Saxe . . . 178
1714-70. George Wnitefield . . . . 183 692-1752. Joseph Butler. Bishop of Bristol, afterwards
The 'Analogy' . . . 187
Chapter II. Berkeley And Oglethorpe
( Two eminent philanthropists. )
1684-1753. Bishop Berkeley. Bishop of Cloyne . . 187
His scheme for a Christian University in Bermuda . . . . . . 188
Contents. xxi
PAGE
1689-1785. James Oglethorpe. His history . . 191
The prisons . . . . . 192
The colony of Georgia . . . 192
His later life . . . . . 194
Chapter III. English Literature
Section I. — The Poets,
State of letters. Well rewarded . . 194
1700-48. James Thomson. ' The Seasons * . . 196
1684-1765. Dr. Young. ' Night Thoughts ' . . 198
Section II. — The Novelists.
A Time of Prose .... 199
Beginning of novels . . 199
Section III. — Dr. Johnson and his Circle
1728-74. Oliver Goldsmith .... 208
1723-92. Sir Joshua Reynolds . . . . 208
Chapter IV. French Literature
1694-1778. Voltaire, real name Francois Arouet . . 209
Early life ..... 209
Visit to England . . . . . 210
XX11
Contents.
rAGE
His plays . . . . . 212
Histories . . . .. .213
Earthquake at Lisbon . . .214
Intercourse with Frederick the Great . . 215 His influence ..... 216
Johnson's opinion of Voltaire and Rousseau. 217
1712-78. Jean Jacques Rousseau . . . 217
His early life . . . . 217
His prize essay . . ' . . 218
Three great books —
2. ' Social Contract ' .... 219
3. ' Emile on Education ' ... 220 Philosophical and religious views . .221 Later life. ' Confessions . . . . 221 English influence on French thinkers . . 222
' Les Lettres Persanes' . . . 222
' L' Esprit des Lois ' . . ... 223
MAPS.
Western Europe after Peace of Utrecht . To face Title
PAGE
The Electorate .
Turkish Wars and Treaties
Anson's Voyage
Upper Danube .
Dettingen .
Netherlands, 1745-8 .
Fontenoy
The Forty-five
•
-L V / lit C iiU
•
.
118'
•
.
•
Between pages
TABLES.
Descent of the Georges House of Austria The later Stuarts .
Chapter I. Europe After Utrecht
In the year 1713 the quaint Dutch city of Utrecht was .the scene of an important ceremony. It took place in a house which has been since pulled down to „
x Jreace ot
make room for a barrack, then the residence Utrecht, of the Bishop of Bristol, probably the last I?I3 ' English bishop ever employed upon such an errand. Yet the ceremony was one in which a bishop might well take an interest, for it was the ceremony of signing a treaty of peace, which put an end to a long, wearisome, and bloody war.
A great many treaties claim notice in history, each professing to be a general pacification of Europe ; but many seem really to be little more than truces. A „ euera i Very few years elapse from the date of their peace, signature, and the nations are found at Avar again. A treaty of peace settles boundaries until another war be ended with another peace. The attention, however, of the student must be claimed for the more important
M. H. B treaties, and such importance must mainly be decided by the permanence of the arrangements which they make. The peace of Utrecht closes a period of fighting which may nearly be described as coinciding with the TT , t • reign of Lewis XIV., King of France. Little
Utrecht mi- t> .
portant. alteration was made in the boundaries of Western Europe from the signing of the peace of Utrecht to the time when the French Revolution, filling the people of France with a new spirit, began to excite the neighbouring nations. In this period of eighty years there was only one great European war at all to be compared in scale or intensity with the wars of the preceding century — that, namely, which is called the Seven Years' War. During the first half of the period, the part which forms the subject of this little volume, of the two great rivals, France and England, neither was disposed to fight. France was exhausted by her efforts, crippled by debt, and badly governed ; England was under the rule of an enlightened minister who saw that peace was the best gift he could give his country — not exhausted, indeed, but somewhat dissatisfied with fighting other people's battles. During the second half of the period England was consolidating her dominion in India, and then became engaged in an unfortunate struggle with her colonies in America. France, which had suffered great losses both in India and in America, latterly helped the colonies of England to free themselves and to become the United States. Neither the Seven Years' War nor the smaller wars of these eighty years made much difference in the map of Europe.
The date of the treaty of Utrecht may then be taken Surve of as a stable point for a survey of the political Europe. geography of Europe in the eighteenth century.
Without doubt France was the most important country. It required coalitions of other nations with long
A.D. 1 7 13 Europe after Utrecht. 3
and united efforts to check her career of conquest ; and though she was now exhausted by the struggle, and was no longer what she had been before Marlborough's victories, yet she could still hold her own against any single nation. The treaty of Utrecht came most opportunely for France. The Grand Alliance had beaten her, and was preparing to follow up its series of victories by actual invasion of her territory. Had the movements of the allied armies been governed by a single mind, terms of peace might have been dictated to her under the walls of Paris ; but diversity of counsel is the weakness of an alliance, and France profited by the vacillation and discord amongst her enemies. On the south, west, and north-west there are distinct natural boundaries for France. Her eastern and north-eastern boundary line has frequently changed according as in her numerous wars this warrior nation has succeeded or failed. It is not now, and was not at the time of the treaty of Utrecht, marked throughout by natural features : but the following differences must be noted between the frontier of that time and the frontier marked in maps of our day. Alsace, the province between the Vosges Mountains and the Rhine, was then under French rule, though since the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1 it has belonged again to Germany ; and some parts of the duchy of Lorraine are now French, though then the whole duchy was independent, except that ' the three bishoprics,' Metz, Toul, and Verdun, in the duchy, yet not of it, formed outposts of France. Without Lorraine, Alsace seems to have no right to belong to France ; it juts into Germany like a long, narrow peninsula, with the narrowest isthmus of junction near B effort. Before Utrecht the French had held a few towns across the Rhine, but at the peace these were ceded. The Rhine was the French boundary from the town of Basle to the little town of Rastadt, where the treaty was signed between France and the Emperor in the year after Utrecht. Avignon was the territory of the Pope. Dotted about France there were still duchies with rights more or less independent of the French Crown. Although the greater French kings and their ministers had uniformly pursued a policy of consolidation, there remained in France a great deal of political independence arising out of feudalism and a great variety of provincial laws and customs with the force of law. These distinctions were not swept away until the Revolution.
In reckoning the power of France account must be taken of Spain, for on the throne of Spain there sat a French prince, and although the strongest pledges had been given that the crowns of the two countries should never be united, similar pledges had been disregarded, and princes of the same house might be expected to co-operate for its common advantage. But Spain had lost much of her power ; she had been shorn of almost all her outlying possessions. The Low Countries had fallen to Austria, together with Milan, Naples, and Sardinia ; Sicily to the Duke of Savoy. Later, an exchange was made between Sardinia and Sicily : the Duke of Savoy became King of Sardinia, whilst the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, i.e. Sicily and Naples, was made an appanage for a younger son of the House of Austria. The only European possession outside the peninsula remaining to Spain was the Balearic Islands; and even of these England held Minorca. On the mainland also England kept tight hold of Gibraltar, which she had won during the recent war. It must be remembered, however, that of late years the various provinces which Spain held in different parts of Europe had not proved a source of strength to her, but of weakness ; some have maintained that she was in a stronger position without them.
a.d. 17 13 Europe after Utrecht. 5
The neighbouring country Portugal, moreover, may be described as a perpetual blister in the side of Spain — always inclined to be in favour of England because of Spain's natural alliance with France.
Spain's position may be summed up in the remark that her ancient renown gave her still an importance in Europe which her present power hardly justified.
In Italy, Austria had succeeded to the position formerly held by Spain — the pre-eminence amongst the secular princes. The States of the Church occupied all the central part of the peninsula from the borders of the duchy of Naples as far as the mouth of the Po. Besides Austria, the Pope, and Savoy, there were four duchies — Tuscany, Parma, Piacenza, Modena — and three republics, sole representatives of the republican spirit which had distinguished the Italian cities in earlier history, Lucca, Genoa, Venice, not to mention the tiny commonwealth of San Marino. Tuscany, which had risen out of the mediaeval republic of Florence, took the lead among the duchies, and was called a grand duchy. Venice was far the strongest of the cities, having recently recovered from the Turks her dominion in the Morea (though she was soon again to lose it), and still holding some of the Ionian Isles and part of the mainland across the Adriatic. Italy, with ten governments, was ' a house divided against itself,' and helped to make Austria strong without being strong herself.
The most important item in the treaty of Utrecht was the transfer from Spain to Austria of the government of the Low Countries, or Netherlands, The Nether . henceforth known as the Austrian Netherlands, lands. The Dutch certainly engaged in the War of the Spanish Succession in order that they might themselves be secure against the attacks of France. Their country had within memory of the living suffered terribly from unjustifiable invasions of the French. The English also in that war were swayed by considerations for the Dutch, as well as by other motives. All Marlborough's campaigns, with the single exception of that of Blenheim, were directed to the clearing of the French out of the Low Countries prior to making an attack upon France itself. In all probability, if the cession of the Low Countries could have been made by Spain at once, the war would have been altogether avoided. The Dutch regarded it as essential to their safety that between their country and France there should be a tract of land belonging to a government not under the dominion of France. To obtain this barrier they had lavishly expended treasure and blood, and their finances were now heavily crippled by debt. Having obtained it they practically retired from the field of European politics, and took little part in future European wars.
Frederick the Great said that from the accession of
William III. Flolland was following the policy of England
— ' nothing more than a little boat sailing in
Holland. the wake of a powerful ship} it might fairly
be answered that the captain was seated in the little boat giving his commands how the ship should steer ; for until the Dutch cut themselves adrift after the treaty of Utrecht England may be said to have followed a Dutch quite as much as Holland an English policy. It is truer still to say that both pursued a European policy, and no praise can be too strong for the heroic stand made by this little country in the cause of freedom.
Outside the immediate circle of European politics Holland had an importance of her own in the possession of many colonies. Her colonial empire was not even then so large as that of England, but it was of considerable extent. Ceylon then belonged to Holland.
Germany was a most divided country. It contained a.d. 1 7 is Europe after Utrecht. 7
the enormous number of between five and six hundred independent or almost independent states, for they owed a nominal allegiance to the Emperor. This large number of course included not only electorates and duchies, but also prince-bishoprics and free cities. It is only in our own day that unity has come to Germany, and it has not come in any way through the action of Austria. The various German princes, keeping up each a little court, as far as possible in imitation of the French Court at Versailles, ground down their unfortunate subjects with heavy taxation. If now and then there was a kindly and good prince, he was the exception rather than the rule.
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