Letters on the study and use of ancient and modern history

Front matter

LETTERS

ON

HISTORY.

Preface

THE utility of historical information being universally acknowledged, an attempt to facilitate its acquisition cannot fail of meeting with the approbation of the public, and its appearance in the world will be exempted from the necessity of apology. It may not, however, be amiss to exhibit a sketch of the plan.

To comprise a history of the world, in a work of so limited an extent, would appear a ridiculous attempt ; and yet, perhaps, so much as is worth retaining in the memory might be brought within a narrow compass. The most uninteresting narratives of battles and sieges, of desolation and carnage a thousand times repeated and swelled with a long train of well-authenticated, and often merely ideal circumstances, may amuse vulgar mindsj but can afford little entertainment to an viii PREFACE.

intelligent reader, whose ideas are more enlarged, and who desires to form a comprehensive view of things. The inquisitive mind, desirous of drawing from history a true picture of human existence, contemplates the origin and progress of the arts and sciences, of systems and opinions, and civilizatioD and commerce ; in fine, of the whole mass of human improvements, and the progressive advancement of society. The details of those important affairs, are either totally wanting in the records of past ages, or obscure and uncertain. No more than general views can therefore be obtained. The reader who peruses history with a view to render it a source of general information, to acquire a facility of application and readiness of allusion to moral events, with their causes and consequences, and to the political, religious, and social society of mankind in the different periods of time, will endeavour to fix in his mind the leading facts, the outlines and decisive turns of human affairs, the important events which have in a particular manner changed the aspect of the world, determined the opinions, or fixed the destiny of a considerable part of mankind.

To facilitate the acquisition and remembrance of the most important, the most interesting, and indeed the only essential part of historical knowledge, is the design of the following essays. A summary of the leading facts of Ancient and

PREFACE. ix

Modern History is brought forward in chronological order, divided into ten distinct periods, of which the first inclmdeg the whole space of time from the earliest records to the subversion of the Babylonian monarchy ; the second contains the space between the establishment of the Persian empire, by Cyrus, and its overthrow by Alexander ; the third comprises the time which elapsed from the reign of Alexander to the coming of Christ; and the fourth begins at the Christian sera, and ends at the elevation of Constantine to the sovereignty of the Roman empire ; the reign of that prince, on account of its singular importance and conspicuous effects;, is distinctly considered as the fifth period ; from the death of Constantine to the final subversion of the empire constitutes the sixth period ; the seventh begins at the subversion of the Roman empire, and continues to the reign of Charlemagne ; the eighth begins at the death of Charlemagne, and continues till the fifteenth century, which was peculiarly characterized by the revival of letters, the invention of printing, the discovery of America, the extension of commerce, &c. ; the ninth comprehends that age of enterprise and adventure which begins at the middle of the fifteenth, and continues to near the end of the sixteenth century ; and the tenth period commences from that important £era, and exhibits a general view of modern times. The historical basis of the work is found-

X PREFACE.

ed on the authority of the most intelligent historians. Among the moderns^ Dr. Riissel, Dr. Robertson, L'Abbe Raynal, Mr. Gibbon, Mr. de Messance, Mr. Du Cange, and M. de Montesquieu, besides a great number of others, have been consulted ; and nothing of an unauthenticated nature is advanced. Reflections, rather than details of facts, constitute the historical summary, serving only as a necessary basis for observation. The intention of the author has been to render it conducive to the information of those who are but little acquainted with historical reading, and who have neither leisure nor inclination to peruse the numerous and prolix treatises which constitute the mass of historical information, as well as to make it an useful remembrancer to those who are conversant in history, and have perused more circumstantial details of those things which are here exhibited in a general representation. The whole design is to exliibit a concentrated view of the history of mankind, to delineate the state of the human mind, under all its various modifications arising from external and adventitious causes. To perform this well, is, however, no easy task. The narrations ought to be concise and expressive, the representations just and picturesque, the investigations accurate and clear, the observations applicable and striking, the reflections just and appropriate. How far the author has succeeded in his attempt,

PREFACE. xi

is left to the judgment of intelligent readers. The utility of the design will scarcely be called in question; the public must decide on the merits of the execution*

COHTEHTS

OF

LETTERS on the Study and use of Ancient and Modern History ; containing observations and reflections on the causes and consequences of those events which have produced conspicuous changes in the aspect of the world, and tht general state of human affairs.

BY JOHN BIGLAND,

Author of "reflections on the resurhectioi^ and ascension/

Her ample page

Rich with the spoils of Time.

Gray,

Letter I

\yURIOSITY natural to man : importance of giving it a proper direction.-* Reading and conversation necessary for acquiring a knowledge of mankind. — Difference between poetry, romance, and history ; preference due to the latter. — General observations on the nature and use of history. — Neglect of the ancient historians relative to the most important matters j the progress of arts, sciences, literature, commerce, &c. 25 — SO

Letter II

Whether the study of history leave a tendency to instil a love of war : the rcasoM why it may sometimes have that effect on youthful minda. 3(^-35

B xiv CONTENTS.

Letter III

The use of historical knowledge in eradicating narrow and illiberal prejudi* cee, by displaying the influence of systems, and establishing opinions on the }mman mind. 35 — 38

Letter IV

' innumerable advantages resulting from the study of history : difficulty of discnmlnating between truth and fiction : the means to be used for that purpose : remarks on the historical writings of the Greeks and Romans. — Remarks oa ; ecclesiastical history : circumstance which ought to be considered in estimating the probability of facts, and the general authenticity of historical informa- ^iion. 38—42

Letter V

.Necessity of strict attention to geography and chronology, in reading history : geographical errors more easily corrected than historical mistakes and misrepresentations. — An attention to geography and chronology extremely conducive to the easy retention as well as the perfect understanding, of historical information. 42—46

LETTER VL

The knowledge of history and geography essential to liberal education. — The minute details of history neither possible nor necessary to be kept in the memory : a general view of history necessary to be impressed on the mind : the great outlines, leading facts, and important events easy to be retained in the memory. 46—48

Letter VII

A general ^•iew of the history of mankind : on the primeval ages : the period fixed for the commencement of profane history. — General view of the scriptural history : philosophical conjectures on the creation : The Mosaical account of Ihe creation, perfectly consistent with the known principles of natural philosophy r Uie consistency of the eix days work of creation, according to the Mosaic

CONTENTS. xy representation with those principles, concisely examined and explained.— The books containing the scriptural history distinctly coniidered : occasional errors in the scriptural history, imply no impeacliment of their general authenticity, and aflford no solid argument against the Divine authority of the Christian religion. 43— 5'j

Letter Ix.^

The view of scriptural history continued ; and particular remarks on the relation of Nebuchadneszar's insanity . 55—78

Letter X

General view of mankind duj;ing the period of time included in the SLtcred history : the state of learning and commerce among the Jews, Egyptians, Tyrians, &c. : general remarks on the Egyptians and Babylonians : origin of Zabaism, or the worship of tlie celestial bodies in Babylon.— Origin of jaaicml astrology at Babylon : the groundless futility of that science ; its consistency with the ideas of the Babylonians: and its inconsistency with natural philosophy ; its extensive spread and long : .utinued influence on the human mind. — Degeneracy of Zabaism into idolatry, at Babylon. — Obscurity of the Assyrian and Babylonian history. — Some conjectures on the national genius of the Babylonians. — Description of the observatory and tower of Belus. — Description of Babylon. — Observations on the advantages resulting from th^ open and rural plan of Babylon. — Degeneracy of the Babylonians after the death of Nebuchadnesjsar. — Conquest of Babylon by Cyrus. — General aspect of the world in the time of the Babylonian empire. — Foundation of Home. — Primitive state of Rome. 78 — U^

LETTER XL

state of the Persian Monarchy: invasion of Greece by Darius Hjstaspes : by Xerxes ; retreat of Xerxes ; defeat of Mardonius at Platea. — Subsequent affiuis of Greece and Persia j elevation and character of Philip, king of Macedonia ; hie preparations for the Persian war ; his tragical death. — Observations on the

IXj instead of VIII, appears a mistake of ike Author^ or English printer.

xvi CONTENTS.

general aspect and importance of the wars between the Greeks and Persisins. — Alexander's political and military character j undertakes the war ; the foundation of Alexandria 5 his death at Babj'lon. — General observations on the progress of arts, fciences, literature, &c. among the Persians, Egyptians, Jews, and Greeks, during the period which elapsed between the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus and that of the Persian empire by Alexander ; with the state of Rome during the above period.^ — Savage state of Europe in those ages ; with general reflections on the vicissitudes of sublunary things, and the wonderful scheme of Diviae Providence. 82 — 100

Letter XII

The consequences which followed Alexander's death : dissentions and the tragical fate of the Macedonian generals : the effect of the conquest of Persia considered. — Establishment of the Greek kingdom of Egypt by Ptoloray Lagus : Alexandria made the capital : foundation of the Alexandrian library by Ptolomy Phi- ^adelphus ; and the Septuagint translation of the scriptures by his order. — Affairs of tlie Jews : establishment of the Asmonean kingdom of the Jew s : the subversion of that monarchy by tlie Romans ; and its reinstatement in the family of Herod the Great ; final reduction of Judea to a Roman province. — Gradual but slow advancement of the Roman power : small extent of the Roman territory : general manners of the first Romans : examination of Hannibal's conduct in not besieging Rome after the battle of Canna : rapid aggrandizement of Rome after the conquest of Carthage: Her intestine commotions, originating from the opposite factions of Patricians and Plebeians, which ended in the extinction of the republican system of governmeut. Establishment of the imperial government of Rome. — General aspect of the Roman empire ^ unhappy state of the Romans under the republican sj-stem ; and examination of what was falsely called Roman liberty. General state of society among the Romans : examination of the question whether Rome ever grew more wealthy than in the reign of Augustus : progress of science and literature among the Romans during the republican government. — Asiatic luxury introduced into Rome. — The powerful effects of ancient eloquence considered, and the causes of its force, in moving the passions, investigated. — View of the state of slavery among the ancients j especially the Romans j with the causes of its existence, and the gradual amelioration of that unhappy state ; with the causes of that amelioration. — Reflections on the inhumanity of the Romans to their prisoners of war. View of the state of the human mind in regard to its religious ideas, previous to the promulgation of Christianity: systems of the philosophers: popular opinions of the philosophers concerning the mediatorial and subordinate divinities, and a future state : origin ef Polvtheiym ; mythologies of the Greeks and Romans j

CONTENTS. xvii origin of idol worship: necessity of a divine revelation. — Promulgation of Christianity : reasons of its rejection by the Jews ; its progress among the Gentiles ; proofs of its divine authority, exhibited to the Gentiles of that and the succeeding ages, in the final destruction of the city and temple of Jerusalem, and the final dispersion of the Jews, 100 — 1 ! t

LETTER XIIL

View of the Roman empire : summary of the most remarkable occurrences undef the imperial government ; political system of the imperial more pacific than that of the republican government; advantages of an extensive monarchy; ii^ subjects more happy than those of petty states : monarchy preferable to republicanism ; the Romans more happy under the imperial than under the republican government. — Irruptions of the Quadi, Altemanni, Goths, &c. into the empire ; unprosperous reign of Gallienus ; the barbarians repulsed, and the empire restored to its former splendour by Claudius, Probus, Aurelianus, &c. — Division of the empire by Dioclesianus, Maximianus, &c. ; plan of that division : elcva-, tion of Constantine to the undivided sovereignty. — View of the Roman constitivtion under the 'iiperial government : military systems under the Emperors : pay and privileges of the legionary soldiers : establishment of the famous corps of Praetorian guards, their pay, &c^ their number, their final abolition. — lacrease of luxury and eiubeliishment of the city of Rome under the Emperor's : dress, amusements, &c. of the Romans ; decline of Roman literature during that period. — Amelioration of the condition of slaves under the imperial govcrnuieiit ; persecutions of the Christians under the imperial government : investigation of the real causes from Avhence those persecutions originated : exculpation of the Emperors : cessation of persecution at the elevation of Constantine.

Letter XIV

The reign of Constantine, an important and interesting period in tlie nificry of tlie world ; its influence in succeeding ages ; general view of the reinarkal>le, political, and military occurrences of this reign. — Investigation of the isiotives which induced Constantine to embrace and establish the christian religion : t!ie gTound of Mr. Gibbon's suppositions examined : critical enquiry concerning the authenticity of Constantine's celebrated vision; arguments adduced, whicn tend to invalidate the truth of the fact; other arguments equally weighfv, which corroborate it. 167— 1;3

B 2

^Tiii CONTENTS.

Letter XV

State of religion during the reign of Constantiae ; origin of the differences of opinion among Christians ; Council of Nice : persecution of the Arians. — Building of Constantinople., and removal of the seat of empire j the reasons of that transaction examined : situation of Constantinople, far preferable to that of Rome : some remarks on the situation of Constantinople, in regard to commercial advantages and disadvantages. — Consequences of the removal of the imperial residence examined : those consequences often misrepresented by historians. — Domestic infelicity of Constantine ; and reflections on the domestic unhappiness of many who have enjoyed the greatest degree of prosperity in their public concerns. 179 — 193

Letter XVI

Critical inqiiirj' info (hfi state of ancient Rome, in regard to extent, wealth and population : number of inhabitants in Rome in the reign of Theodosius ; remarks on a note in a popular Treatise of Geography : comparison of Babylon, Rome; and London, in regard to extent and population : London, a commercial dty, Rome not commercial ; dJRcrimjnating circumstance in their mode of suppliej? : remarks on the common esiimates of the population of Constantinople, Cairo, Pekin, Moscow, and-Pet ersburgh, as commonly given in our geographical books. 198—200

LETTER XVIL

Political state of the Roman empire, from the death of Constantine to its final subversion by tlve nortbein nations ; remaiks on the death of Julian ; admission of the Goths into the empire by Valens : consequences of that step : defeat and tragical death of Valens : reign of Theodosius : final division of the empire , J onseqpenres of that division : irruption of the nortliern nations : sack of Rome by x\+ - "ie : sanguinary reign of Attilla : total subversion of the western empire: investigation of the causes which brought about the subversion of the empire ; view of the state of the northern nations ; of the means whereby the vast population of civilized nations is supported ; these means shewn to be wanting in those which are uncivilized : conjectures on the general state of the empire, and on that of the imperial city, previous to its final overthrow.

CONTENTS. 1^

Letter XVIII

Slate of religion after the death of Constantine : Arianism triumphant at Constantinople, and in most parts of the east, until the reign of Theodosius : triumph of the orthodox party : general council of Constantinople : Gregory Na^ zianzen, John Crysostome : suppression of Arianism in the Roman empire : total abolition of Paganism by Theodosius : Arianism the religion of the Goths at that period : division of the Christian world into two great parties, the Orthodox and the Arians.— Origin of monastic institutions ; their advantages and disadvantages considered in a religious and political point of view ; probability of their approaching abolition in all countries ; good effects of them in th? gothic ages. 212 — 221

Letter XIX

State of Europe after the subversion of the empire : origin of the French monaychy : establishment of the Saxons in Britain j Gothic kingdom of Italy ; conquest of Italy by Bellisarius and Narses ; reign of Justinian ; his prosperity ; his character j comparison of his fortune with that of many others of the most prosperous princes j his superiority of good fortune above that of any other : characters of Bellisarius and Narses : state of the eastern empire in the reign of Justinian^— State of the eastern empire after the death of Justinian: destructive war between that empire and Persia ; remarkable events of that war ; general aspect of the world at that period. — Origin of Mahometanism : policy of Mahomet : plan and principles of Mahomet's systems ; extraordinary success of Alahomet and his successors, in consequence of the two empires of Constantinople and Persia being exhausted and debilitated by their mutual efforts against each other ; remarks on the destruction of the Alexandrian library : conquests of Mahometan Caliphs ; their military successes more wonderful than those df Alexander ; investigation of the causes to which those successes are to be ascribed. — Political system of the empire of the Caliphs : some conjectures on the settlements of the Arabs, in the peninsula of India aod the oriental islands,

221—24,©

Letter XX

§fcetchof the genius and manners of the Arabs or Saracens; progress of science and literature under the Caliphate ; striking difference between their literature and scientific pursuits and those of the Greeks and Romans : commerce of those ages. — General aspect of the world j of Europe ; of the eastern empire j of the Caliphate j wars between the two latter j invention of the Greek fire j

XX CONTENTS.

its effects. — State of the christian church : conversion of the Tyrian nations : introduction of images into churches : causes to which their introduction may be ascribed : fatal consequences resulting from that circumstance : rupture bebetween tlie Greek and Latin churches on that subject : second council of Constantinople : second council of Nice. — View of Europe during the above mentioned period : elevation of Pepin and Charlemagne : establishment of the western or German empire : efforts of Charlemagne for the restoration of learning. — Dismemberment of the empire of Charlemagne : rapid growth of the feudal system ; remarks on that system : origin of the Germanic constitution. — Dismemberment of the Caliphate : state of the eastern empire : origin and frequency of pilgrimages to Jerusalem : origin of the crusades : general view of those religious wars : conquest of Jerusalem : establishment and overthrow of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem : capture of Constantinople, and subversion of that empire by the French and Venetian crusaders ; immense booty : establishment of the Latin empire of Constantinople, and of the Greek empire of Nice : recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks, and subversion of the Latin empire. — Effects of the crusades : gradual abolition of the feudal system : general remarks. — Exorbitant elevation of the church ; of the Papal see : animosity between the Greek and Latin churches ; attempts for their reconciliation : causes of the animosity between the two churches investigated. — Great schism of the Latin church : enquiry into the causes of the extraordinary elevation of the church, and of the Papal power. — State of Europe after the crusades ; state of the eastern empire, and of Byzantine learning : first historical intelligence of the Russian empire : revival of learning, and of the arts in Europe : state of the city of Constantinople ; of London ; and other European capitals : imperial palace of Constantineple.— Conquests of the Tartars under Zengis Khan and his successors, and under Tamerlane : declining state of the empire of Constantinople : capture of that city by the Turks. — Effects of the capture of Constantinople on European literature : introduction of the study of the Greek language into Europe. 240 — 275

Letter XXI

Rapid progress of literature and the arts in Europe ; invention of printing ; incalculable benefits arising from that discovery : rapid improvement of commerce : voyages of discovery made by the Portuguese ; discovery of the passage to India by the Portuguese ; state of the India trade previous to that event : discovery of America : conquest of Mexico and Peru by the Spaniards : general remarks. — Origin of the negro slave trade ; salutary effects of the establishment of Christianity,— On the system of slavery among the Romans : gradual disappe^ance of slavery in Europe j gradual ameiioration of the condition of

CONTENTS. XXI

negro slavery ; probabiHty of its future abolition : remarks on the revolt of St. Domingo. 276^299

Letter XXII

Important consequences of the discovery of America: introduction of new aTtfcles of luxury.— Influx of gold and silver from America into Europe, and its effects on the commercial and social system ; low value of European property prior to the discovery of the new continent.— General observations on the circulation of gold and silver in different ages and countries ; investigation of some curious and interesting questions arising from that subject.— Effects of the discovery of America in regard to the extension of Christianity.— Settlements made by the Portuguese in the east, under the celebrated General D' Albuquerque ^ vast commercial empire of the Portuguese ; its rise and fall.— Reformation of religion ; its causes, progress, and effects : inconsistency of religious perseci>> tion with reason and Christian charity j happy prevalence of the spirit of religious liberty. 300-.3i.7

Letter XXIII

General view of the progress of human improvements in modern times : re-- marks on the consequences of the invention of gun-powder : cursorj^ view of the leading transactions of modern times : aggrandizement of the house of Austria : its depression : revolt of the Low countries : establishment of the Batavian republic : Spanish Armada : aggrandisement of France under Louis XIV ; civilization and aggrandisement of Russia.— Revolt of America : establishment of the American republic : remarks on the remote, but certain consequences of that event : changes which tliose consequences must produce on the commercial affairs of the old continent. — Observations on the rapid, extraordinary increase of the commerce and naval power of Great Britain : on the French revolution, and the war which ensued : extraordinary exertions of France and Great Britain : different opinions concerning the propriety of that war examined : view of the consequences which might probably have ensued, if Britain had preserved a neutrality : difficult situation of the British ministry at that period : inconsiderateness of those who presume to judge the conduct of their rulers, without knowing the motives of their conduct .—Remarks on the national debt, andoQ taxation ; taxation a subject little understood j the effects of it not such as they are generally supposed : examioation of the question, how far the national debt and high taxes tend to impoverish a nation : reciprocal effects of national wealth and high taxes, on each other, and on society : high taxes a Beces?ay3r xxir CONTENTS.

consequence of great national wealth : exemplification of the subject in a ct)ra-, parison between Great Britain and Russia : British subjects better able to pay their taxes than those of any other country : influence of taxes on manufactures. — Remarks on the consequences and tendency of war : advantages of the funding system : observations on the general diffusion of opulence and luxury in modern times : enquiry into the nature and consequences of what is called luxury. — Observations on the state of the nations of Asia and Africa : investigations of the causes why some nations have so far excelled others in scientific and literary improvements, and why many are still in a savage state : particular remarks on the Hindoos and Chinese, in regard to these important particulars : a general enquiry whether the difference we perceive in the state of the human mind in different parts of the world, proceeds from an essential differe nee in the species. 317—342 m

LETTERS ON HISTORY.

Letter I. Sir

J.N compliance with your request, I take the liberty of laying before you a few remarks on the use and importance of an acquaintance with history, accompanied with some reflections on the manner in which it ought to be read, so as to render it an instructive and entertaining fund of general information.

The bent of your genius seems to lead you to the study of history. You wish to acquire a general knowledge of mankind, and historical reading is the only effectual means of obtaining it. In order to render you such assistance as the mediocrity of my abilities enables me, I here present you with some reflections and observations on the causes and consequences of the most remarkable events in the history of the world ; with an attempt to delineate the general condition of mankind, in each remarkable period.

Curiosity is inherent in man ; and, in some measure, accompanies every degree of the human understanding, and every modification of the mind. From the philosopher to the peasant, scarcely anyone is found who is not desirous of information on one subject or another ; but this cuiiosity is directed to different objects, in different minds, in proportion to their degrees of elevation, or the extent of their previous improvements. That great Colossus of literature and moral philosophy. Dr. Johnson, says, "Curiosity is one of the most permanent and certain characteristics of a vigoi^-ds intellect." (Ramb. Vol. 2. p. 267 ;) and again, /vol. 3. p. 252) " Cmiosity is, in great and generous minds,

C

26 LETTERS Let. L

the first posilion and the last ; and, perhaps, always predominates in proportion to the strength of the mental faculties." These are the encomiums which that great observer of (he human mind bestows on this passion ; but with all deference to so respectable an authority, the praise is, perhaps, rather due to the direction it takes, than to the passion itself; for curiosity may be directed to the most insignificant as well as the most important objects. The uncultivated peasant confines his enquiries to the affaiis of his own parish, while the man of a more improved understanding, and more extensive views, directs his attention to the affairs of the world at large, and is desirous of information relative to subjects which interest mankind in general ; the schemes of politicians, the stratagems of war, the fluctuations of commerce, and the progress of arts, sciences, or literature. This active curiosify of man may be gratified in many different ways ; but no gratification can ever satisfy it. The traveller, who goes to view a strange country, on ascending every eminence, amuses his mind in the expectation of the prospect he shall enjoy from the summit ; but on gaining his point, his curiosity is so far from being extinguished by gratification, that it operates with redoubled force, and excites his desires to contemplate the prospects which lie beyond his view ; and which, he expects, will yet diversify the scene, and amuse him in his farther progress. In like manner, the man of a cultivated understanding, while lie investigates the wonders of art, or the phenomena of nature, finds his curiosity continually excited by new objects ; and the village gossip, who turns her thoughts to iioilring farther than the doiiiestic concerns of her neighbours, finds tier curiosity as strongly and incessantly excited by the whispers of scandal, and the trifling concerns of the neii.hbonrhood, as does the philosopher who directs his attention to the most important and interesting phenomena of the physical, moral, or intellectual world.

Since then curiosity is a passion inherent in the human mind, in every situations from the gilded palace to the mudwalled cottage, and operates with incessant activity upon every degree of the human understanding, it is an object of great utiHty and importance, in tiie right ordering of the mind, to direct the operation of so active a quality to such suljects of enquiry as may be conducive to real improve-