The student's France. A history of France from the earliest times to the establishment of the second empire in 1852.

Front matter

JAau,

The Students France.

A

Preface

The following Work has been written by an English scholar long resident in France, and intimately acquainted with its literature and history. It is intended, like the preceding works in the same series, to supply a long acknowledged want in our literature, namely, a History of France, incorporating the researches of recent historians, and suitable for the higher forms in Schools and for Students at the Universities. It is unnecessary to point out the importance of a knowledge of French history to every one who aspires to a liberal education ; but it may not be amiss to remind the reader that the true meaning and effect of the drama of the Eevolution, of which we have not yet seen the catastrophe, can be understood only by a far deeper study of the previous condition and history of France than most of our countrymen are disposed to undertake.

With^ respect to the execution of the work, it has been the aim of the Author to present a perspicuous view of the events of French history, from the very commencement of the nation down to the present time, avoiding as far as possible the dryness of an epitome, and presenting something more than a chronicle of mere facts and dates. An attempt has been made to draw the portraiture of every important historical character, and to include in a rapid and condensed narrative all the chief transactions, whether political, military, or ecclesiastical, which have marked the varying fortunes of the nation. Many of the most interesting questions connected with the history, government, and institutions of

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vi PREFACE.

the country are discussed at considerable length in the "Notes and Illustrations," which, it is believed, will be found of great service to the student. Copious references to the best authorities are likewise given, with the view of assisting him in prosecuting farther inquiries.

The literature of France is particularly rich in works upon French history ; but it would be impossible, in the limits of a Preface, to enumerate all the authorities that have been consulted in drawing up the present narrative. The writer on whom the chief reliance has been placed is Henri Martin, the most valuable of all the French historians, whether we regard his scrupulous fidelity and accuracy, or the breadth and liberality of his views. Constant use has also been made of the works of Yelly and.Yillaret, Sismondi, Anquetil, and Lavallee. In the earlier times the chief authorities followed have been Guizot, the two Thierrys, and Lehuerou, as well as the recent work of Bordier and Charton, which has been found extremely useful.

In conclusion it may be observed, that it has been the earnest endeavor of the Author to avoid the capital error of writing the History of France from an English point of view, a course which can not fail to convey an unjust conception of the institutions, government, habits, and character of the people. "What is needed is an impartial, genial, and even sympathetic account of French history. This has been the principle upon which the Work has been undertaken, but with what success it has been carried out is for coHipetent critics to decide.

January^ 1862.

Druidic Monument, named Pierre Branlante, in Brittany.

Book I. Ancient Gaul

B.C. CnAr. ' paob

50. L From the Earliest Ages to the Koman Conquest.. 1

A. Authorities r ]4

^p B. The Celtic Tribes of Gaul 14

30-407. II. Gaul under tl^ Romans to the great Barbarian

Invasion 16

BOOK 11.

407-511. III. From the great Barbarian Invasion to the Death

of Clovis 25

A. On the Origin of the Franks 35

B. The Consulship of Clovis 36

511-752. IV. The Merovingians. From the Death of Clovis to

the Accession of Pepin le Bref •. ,39

A. On the Mayors of the Palace 56

B. Merovingian History , 57

Yiii CONTENTS.

A.D. CiiAr. Tagb 7r)2-8'13. V. The Carlovitigians. From the Accession of Pepin Ic Brcf to tlie Treaty of Verdun 09

Notes and Illustrations : Charlemagne Emperor 84

8-1:3-987. . VI. The later Carlovingians, From the Treaty of

Verdun to the Accession of Hugh Capet 85

A. Authorities 100

* B. On the Decline and Fall of the Carlovin-

gian Empire .' 100

Book III

FRANCE UNDER THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.— FROM THE ACCES- SION OF HUGH CAPET TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES IV-

98 7- 11 37. VII. From the Accession of Hugh Capet to the Death

of Louis VI ; 103

1137-1226. VIII. From the Accession of Louis VII. to the Death

of Louis VIII 138

On the Formation of the French Language... IGl

1226-1328. IX. From the Accession of (Saint) Louis IX. to that

of the Line% Valois 1G3

Notes and Illustrations: Early French Historians 193

Book IV

FALL OF FEUDALISM.— FROM THE ACCESSION OF PHILIP VI. TO THE DEATH OF CHARLES VIII. (a.d. 1328-1498.)

1828-1380. X. First Period of the Wars with England.— Philip

VI., John, and Charles V 196

1380-1461. XI. Second Period of the Wars with England.—

Charles VL and Charles VII 223

1461-1498. XIL Louis XL and Charles VIII 257

Notes and Illustrations: The States-General 279

CONTENTS.

Book V

THE RENAISSANCE AND WARS OF RELIGION.— FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XII. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY III.

1559-1574. XVL Francis IL— Charles IX 329

Authorities 362

BOOK VL

THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.— FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY IV. TO THE REVOLUTION. •

1589-1610. XVIII. The House ofJBourbon.— Henry IV 364

Authorities for the Reign of Henry IV 384

The Parliaments 406

1643-1661. XX. Reign of Louis XIV. — I. From his Accession to

the Death of Cardinal Mazarin 410

1661-1697. XXI. Reign of Louis XIV. continued. — II. From the Death of Cardinal Mazarin to the Peace of Ryswick 426

1697-1715. XXIL Reign of Louis XIV. cowc^Md'e^^.— in. From the

Peace of Ryswick to the Death of Louis 452

Authorities for the Reign of Louis XIV. ...'... 472

1715-1748. XXIIL Reign of Louis XV.— I. From the Regency of the Duke of Orleans to the Peace of Aix-la- Chapelle 473

1748-1774. XXIV. Reign of Louis XV. mzcfotiec^. — IL From the

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle to the Death of Louis 495 Notes and Illustrations : Authorities'for the Reign of Louis XV 511

X CONTENTS.

• A.D. CuAP. Page

1774-1789. XXV. Keign of Louis XVI. —I. From his Accession

to the Meeting of the States-General 512

Notes and Illustrations : On the Public Revenue, Taxation, and Financial Administration * 524

Book VII. Revolutionary France. — From The Meeting Of The

STATES-GENERAL TO THE ACCESSION OF NAPOLEON III.

] 789-1 793. XXVI. From the Meeting of the States-General to the

Death of Louis XVL : 528

1793-1709. XXVII. The Republic 5G3

1804-1810. XXIX. The Empire. —I. From its Commencement to • the Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa

of Austria Gil

1810-1814. XXX. The 'Empire continued. — II. Fi-om the Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa to his Abdication G29

1814-1830. XXXI. The Restoration.— Reigns of Louis XVIII. and

Charles X 650

1830-1848. XXXII. Reign of Louis Philippe GSO

1848-1852. XXXIII. The second Republic and second Empire 698

Authorities for the Period of the Revolution down to the Present Time 706

Index 707

GENEALOGICAL TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

GENEALOGICAL TABLES.

Pagb

Of the Merovingian Dynasty 38

Of the Carlovingians 58

Of the Capetian Dynasty 102

Of the House of Valois of France 195

Of the second Ducal House of Burgundy 195

Of the House of Valois-Orleans 281

Of the Ducal Houses of Lorraine and Guise 318

Of tlie House of Bourbon 363

Of Claimants to the Spanish Succession 454

Of the Bonaparte Family 610

Of the Bombon-Orleans Family 679

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Druidic Monument, named Pierre

■ Branlante, in Brittany vii

Ruins of Temple of Janus, Autun xii Druidic Monument, called Maison des^e'es, near Saumur.... 1 Druidic Dolmen, named Pierre

Leve'e, near Poitiers 13

Temple of Pluto, Autun 16

Ruins of the Palace of Julian

(Palais des Thermes) at Paris 25 Chair or Throne of Dagobert .... 39

Sceptre of Dagobert 57

Presentation of a Bible to Charles

the Bald 59

Map of the Empire of Charlemagne 69

Chapel of St. John, Poitiers ; an

early Christian Church 85

Castle of Falaise, in Normandy ; birthplace of William the Conqueror.. 103

Chateau Gaillard, on the Seine.. 136

Castle of Angers 163

Arrest of Charles the Bad, of Navarre 196

Chateau de Chinon; place of meeting between Charles VII.

and the Maid of Orleans 223

Isabella of Bavaria, wife of

Charles VI 228

Philip the Good, Duke of Bur- .

• Pagb gundy, in the Robes of the

Golden Fleece Order 242

Jeanne Dare, the Maid of Orleans....* 250

Louis XI 257

Le Petit Chatelet at Paris 282

Francis 1 294

Battle of Marignano 296

Fort de la Tournelle, Paris 319

The three Brothers Coligny 328

Execution at the Castle of Am-

Medal of Pope Gregory XIII. commemorating the Massacre

of St. Bartholomew 343

Catharine de' Medici 345

Henry III 340

Chateau of Pan before 1830;

birthplace of Henry IV 364

Castle of Arques 366

Medal of the Duke of Sully 376

Medal of Henry VI. and of Mary

de' Medici '. 379

Cardinal Richelieu 385

Meeting of the States-General in the Salle Bourbon at Paris,

Sitting of Parhament, declaring the Regency of Anne of Austria, May 18, 1643 409

Barricades at the Porte St. Au-

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page toine, Aug. 27, 1648, the commencement of the Civil War of the Fronde 410

Isle of Pheasants, in the River Bidassoa, the boundary of France and Spain 426

Madame de Maintenon 440

St. Germains, residence of James IL of England 447

Louis XIV., the Great 4.52

The Bastile 473

Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy

before the Revolution 495

, Medal struck to commemorate the Alliance of France and the United States against England 512

Hotel de Ville and Place de Greve at Paris. Scene of Execution 527

Medal commemorative of the Night of Aug. 4, 1789........... 528

the Lantern at the Corner of the Place de Greve 533

Reverse of Medal commemora-

Pagb

tive of the Night of Aug. 4,

1789 534

Patriotic Gifts. Sept. 7, 1789.. 535

The Temple , 552

Massacres at the Abbaye, Sept.

2,1792 555

Execution of Louis XVI 56 1

Installation of the Directorv,

House in which Charlotte Cor-

day was born 566

Execution of the Duke of En-

ghien 594

Medal of the three Consuls 595

Medal of Napoleon, king of Italy 608 Medal of Napoleon, struck in anticipation of his Conquest of

England.. 611

Tomb of Napoleon at St. Helena 629

Medal of Louis XVIII ... 650

Reverse of Medal of Louis XVIII. 65 1 Interior of the Chamber of Deputies..- 680

Ruins of Temple of Janus, Autun,

HISTORY OF FRANCE.

Driiirlic Monument, called Maison des Fee.*', near Saumur.

Chapter I. From The Earliest Ages To The Roman Conquest, B.c. 'm

§ 1. Gaul colonized by the Celts ; their Settlements in the British Isles. § 2. The Iberi, Aqwitani, or Basques. § 3. The Kymri; theBelgse. § 4. The PhcBnicians ; the Greeks ; Greek Towns on the Mediterranean Coast. § 5. Emigrations of the Gauls into Italy and Spain ; they attack and capture Rome.; Conquest of Gallia Cisalpini by the Romans; Roman Interference in Gaul; the Province of Gallia Narbonensis. § 6. Gaul invaded by the Teutonic Tribes. J 7. CiBsar's Campaigns. in Gaul; Conquest of the Belga;, the Armoricans, the Aquitanians ; general Revolt under Vercingeic-. rix. §8. Siege of Alesia ; Reduction of the whole of Gaul. §9. Social State of Gaul; the Druids. § 10. Human Sacrifices; Druidical Monuments.

§ 1. Tradition, rather than history, informs us that the West "was originally peopled- from the East. The country now called France was colonized, at a period lost in the obscurity of ages, by the Gauls, or Galls, a race of fierce Avarriors of Celtic descent, de^ rived apparently from Central Asia. The various migrations of

A

2 GAUL COLONIZED BY THE CELTS. Chap. I.

the Celts have furnished food for much ingenious, but, for the most part, fruitless speculation. It is now, however, received as tolerabl}^ certain, that of this vast family there were two distinct branches, the Gaels or Gauls, and the Cimri or Kymri ; and that both Gauls and Kymri poured themselves forth at diffei-ent epochs and by diiferent routes upon Europe.* The Gauls were the first to emigrate. Journeying on steadily, in countless masses, toward the setting sun, they reached the extreme western limits of the European continent ; and the wide territory of which they took possession, extending from the Atlantic to the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the Pyrenees, acquired from them the name of Galltachd, or Gaul,

* With a tliirst of discoveiy still unsated, the Gauls passed over from Armorica, or Brittany, to the opposite shores, and planted numerous and flourishing colonies in England, Scotland, and Ireland. The identit}^ of race between the Celts of Gaul and the earliest inhabitants of Britain rests on many sufficient considerations, but especially on the conclusive testimony of language. Five dialects of their common tongue are still in existence, of which three belong to the Gaelic branch — the Gaelic or Scotch, the Erse or Irish, and the Manx of the Isle of Man; and two to the Kymric — the Breton, spoken in the remoter districts of Lower Brittany, and the Welsh.

§ 2. Although the Celts of Gaul were believed by early wrjters to be the aboriginal possessors of the soil,f it would appear that the country south of the Garonne was inhabited, before their arrival, by the Iberi, a group of tribes who had come probably by way of Africa and Spain. The Iberi are known to us under various names. They are doubtless identical with the Aquitani of Strabo andCsesar; a race differing very widely, we are told, from the Celts in person, language, and manners. We meet with them again under the denomination of Euskes or Auskes, which seems to have been that of their predominant' tribe ; and the Basques of the present day may reasonably be regarded as their true descendants — that singular and isolated people who inhabit the southwestern corner of France and a considerable tract in the north of Spain, speaking a language that bears little or no affinity to any other European tongue, and retaining in their character, manners, and temperament many curious traces of their ancient greatness. I

* See Ame'cle3 Thierry, Hist, des Gmilois ; Henri Martin, Hist, de France, vol. i., 3, 12. ' • ■

t AmmiaTius Marcellinus, xv., 9. The Druids, it seems, taught that they were avroxOoveg. »

% The Basques (Vascones in Latin), on settling noVth of the Pyrenees,

Chap. I, KYMRI— BELG^— PHCENICIANS. 3

§ 3. The Kymri, whom we have mentioned as the.second gi*feat section of the Celtic family, invaded Western Europe in their turn, toward the middle of the seventh centuiy before the Chris- • tian era.* Driven forth from their original settlements by an overwhelming irruption of the Scythians, the Kymri, led, according to tradition, by their renowned chieftain, Hu Cadarn, or Hugh the Powerful, crossed the Lower Rhine, and entei'ed Gaul on its northeastern border. After a fierce and prolonged contest with their brethren of the earlier migration, the invaders acquired permanent possession of a very extensive territory north of the Loire, including the peninsula of Armorica. Some of their tribes likewise made a successful expedition into Britain, and founded numerous settlements in the southej-n parts of the island, driving back the Gallic population into the hilly districts of the north and the west.

The Belgse, who are charactei'ized by Caesar as at once the most valiant .and the least civilized of the tribes settled in Gaul, were in all probability an offshoot of the Kymri, who, instead of joining their countrymen in their invasion of Gaul, remained on the farther side of the Ehine, and there, through familiar association Avith the Germans, contracted a resemblance to them in manners and character. Two centuries or more after the great Kymric immigration, the Belgee passed the Khine, and made themselves masters of northern Gaul, which received from them the name of Belgica. Being derived from the same stock, the Belgge easily assimilated in the course of years with the earlier settlers, while they preserved at the same time many indications of their long sojourn among the Germans. Thus becoming inseparably blended with the Kymri, and introducing among them a certain admixtui'e of Teutonic blood, the Belgae formed eventually a race superior in manly energy and warlike prowess to any other in Gaul.f

§ 4. The Phoenicians, those enterprising navigators of whom history speaks s(«s.scanti1y and indistinctly, established colonies along the southeastern shores at a very early pei'iod ; and penetrating into the interior, instructed the barbarian Celts in the arts of industry and commerce. The mines of the Pyrenees and the Cevennes are supposed to have been first opened and worked by the Phoenicians ; and there is a tradition that a city named Alesia, built by them among the mountains of the Cote d'Or, became the metropolis (?'. e., the mother or parent city) of all Gaul.| In progave their name to the country, which was called from them Vasconia, Gascogne, or Gascony.

* It seems probable that the C!mmerii mentioned by Herodotus are the same as the Kymri. Herodot., i., 15 ; iv., 11.

t See Notes and Illustrations (A). ■ J Diodor. Sic, iv., 19.

4 WARS WITH THE ROMANS. Chap. I,

cess of time, Jiowever, the Phoenicians were eclipsed and supplanted by the more refined and scientific Greeks; and their opulent

. settlements on the Mediterranean sea-board passed into the hands of -their rivals. * It was about the year 600 u.c that some Greek refugees from Phoca;a, in Asia Minor, laid the foundation of the city of Marseilles. In like manner, Antipolis (Antibes), Kicaa (Nice), Agatha (Agde), and 'other towns on the southern coast, owed either their origin . or their restoration to colonists from Greece. It does not appear, however, that the Greeks ever obtained or sought much influence in Gaul beyond the immediate neighborhood of their own cities.

§ 5. After the irruption of the Kymri, the teeming tribes of central Gaul, who were thus dispossessed of large territories, emigrated repeatedly into the neighboring countries. Twice they crossed the Alps, and overran the plains of Lombardy, extending their conquests as far as Verona and Padua eastward, and southward to the confines of Etruria. . On another occasion they swarmed across the Pyrenees into Spain, where, becoming intermixed with the indigenous population, they took the name of Celtiberi,* and signalized themselves by their stubborn resistance to the-arms of Rome. At length, about 390 e.g., a Gaulish tribe called the Senones burst forth from the pfisses of the Apennines, and pushed on boldly till within a few miles of Rome itself. They encountered the army of the gi-eat Republic on the Allia ; and the battle which ensued terminated in one of the most calamitous defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The city was captured,

■sacked, and burnt by the barbarian victors; and it was only upon payment of a costly ransom that they were at length induced to retire from the smoking ruins.

The Gauls proceeded to establish themselves permanently on the Italian side of the Alps, and occupied the greater part of modern Piedmont and Lombardy. The terror of their name became widespread throughout Italy; 'and it wj9s not till near a century had elapsed that the Rom&,ns, now rapidly extending their dominion nortlnvard, found an opportunity of washing away the disgrace of the Allia. The great victory of the Consul Deciiis, B.C. 295, followed by those of L. xt^milius and Atilius, B.C. 284. and that •o( Claudius Marcellus, is.c. 223, led at no distant date to the conquest by the Rojxians of the entire territory possessed by their Transalpine rivals. The struggle, however, was stern and protracted ; it cost them no less than eleven campaigns and eleven pitched battles to reduce these formidable tribes to subjection. At

B.C. 154-118. , ROMAN INTERFERENCE. 5

length, about 191 B.C., after a conflict in wliich the whole Gaulish population was either forcibly expelled or exterminated, the country was constituted a province of the Roman empire, under the title of Gallia Cisalpina ; and a notification was made to the inhabitants of Gaul beyond the Alps, that these mountains were henceforth to form a perpetual barrier between the barbarians and Italy.

About half a century after the expulsion of the Gauls from Italy, the Romans, pursuing their unscrupulous career of self-aggrandizement, found means to obtain for the first time a footing in Gaul properly so called. The Greek colony of Massilia, or Marseilles, then one of the most flourishing commercial marts of Europe, was constantly at war with the surrounding Gallic tribes; the, people of Marseilles striving to increase their territory and establish their power farther inland, the Gauls to confine them Gtrictly to their trading towns on the sea-coast. The Massilians, worsted in several bloody engagements, and beginning to fear for their maritime supremacy, appealed for assistance to the Romans. A powerful army was dispatched without delay under the Consul Opimius (B.C. 154); and the barbarian tribes, speedily yielding to the superior discipline and skill of the legions, became tributary subjects to Marseilles. A second expedition, some years later, resulted in the total defeat of the Salyes on the Lower Rhone, whose capital was Arelate, or Aries. On this occasion the conquerors, instead of retiring into Italy, took possession, in the name .of the Republic, of the entire district between the Rhone' and the Dufance, and founded there a city to which they gave the name of Aqua3 Sextia^, in honor of their Fi'oconsul Sextius (b.c. 123). This earliest of the Roman settlements in Gaul is now Aix, in Provence.

So rapid and decisive were the successes of the Romans within the next few years, that in B.C. 121 their possessions in Gaul were erected into a province, the limits of which coincided very nearly with those of modern Dauphine and Provence. ' As the tide of victory rolled farther Avestward, the famous colony of Narbo Martins, or Narbonne, was founded in 118 b.c, and became the metropolis of the Roman territories in Southern Gaul. Fro'ni this city the province acquired the name of Gallia Narbonensis. It embraced the greater part of Languedoc and Roussillon, in addition to the former conquests, and reached in fact from the Galonne and the Pyrenees to the Alps and the borders -of Italy. The new province was also known as Gallia Braccata — from the breeches or trews worn by the natives — in contradistinction to the Cisalpine Gaul, which was called Gallia Togata — its inhabitants having adopted the dress aiid usnges of Rome.

6 INVASION BY TEUTONIC TRIBES. Chap. I.

§ 6. Time went on, and the course of events at length presented to the Romans a fair and tempting prospect of enlarging the bounds of their Transalpine territories, and pushing their aggressions into the very heart of Gaul. The circumstances were as follows. Among the most powerful of the Gallic tribes was that of the ^dui, inhabiting the district afterward known as Burgundy, between the Loire and the Saone. The -ZEdui were on terms of strict alliance with the Romans of Gallia Narbonensis ; and on the strength of this advantage they assumed a tone of pre-eminence over the. neighboring states, whom they irritated by various acts of oppression, especially by levying excessive tolls on the navigation of the Saone. The Sequani, who occupied Upper Alsace, determined to resist- these exactions ; and in order to counterbalance the protection of the Romans, they in an evil hour applied for help to the Teutonic tribes beyond the Rhine. These Teutons now began to be distinguished by the name of Germans, from a word signifying waiTior or chieftain. They readily responded to the appeal of the Sequani ; and their leader Ariovistus forthwith conducted a vast host of his fierce countrymen to co-operate with them against the ^dui. A great battle was fought, and the ^Edui were completely overthrown ; but Ajiovistus now demanded of tlie Sequani, in peremptory terms, the immediate cession of the thii'd part of their territory to the Germans ; the Sequani refused, and coalesced with the ^dui to resist this alarming encroachment. Ariovistus marched against the combined tribes, completely surprised them, and. gained a decisive victory, which left the whole of their territories at his mercy. This took place in the year 60 B.C.

The Germans quickly overran the east of Gaul, and established their dominion from the Jura and the Saone up to the very frontier of the Roman province. They garrisoned all the fortified towns, and occupied the country with an imposing force of 200,000 warriors. It now became evident that Gaul must eventually cease to be independent ; and the great* issue remained to be decided, whether it should become the prey of the ferocious Teutons, or be merged in the all-absorbing sovereignty of Rome.

§ 7. Caius Julius Ctesar was at this time (b.c 58) proconsul of the provinces of Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Cisalpina. This celebrated man had carefully watched the recent march of events; he clearly foresaw the approaching crisis ; and was prepared, by a dexterous combination of generalship, valor, and political skill, to turn it to the fullest advantage. Having vanquished the Helvetii, a tribe who threatened an invasion of the Roman border, Cresar immediately afterward turned his arms against the insolent Germans, who continued their incursions throughout Eastern

B.C. 58-50. CiESAR'S CAMPAIGNS. 7

.Gaul. He sent a message to Ariovistus, signifying that, if he desired to live on terms of amity with Rome, he must confine himself strictly to the right bank of the Ehine. 1'he barbarian chief returned a haughty and menacing reply, insisting that the Germans held their province in Gaul by the same riglit by which Rome had acquired hers, and challenging Ca2sar to meet him in the field. After a difficult march through theVosges mountains, the Roman commander brought the Germans to a general action in the plains of Alsace, within two marches of the Rhine. For some time the fate of the day hung doubtfully in the balance ; but in the end 50,000 German corpses strewed the field, while the scanty remnant hurried in despairing confusion across the Rhine, and gained the shelter of the forests. Ariovistus survived the battle, but died shortly afterward, either of his wounds, or from shame and rage at liis misfortune.

This decisive overthrow of German bai'barism left the whole of Gaul open to the ambitious projects of the conqueror. Early in the following spring (b.c. 57) Caesar commenced that memorable series of campaigns of which he has left us so grapliic a narrative, and which terminated in the complete subjugation of the country. It is impossible, within the limits of the present work, to give a detailed account of the great Gallic War, which, however, will repay in many respects the careful attention of the student. A rapid summary of its principal events is all that can be •here attempted.

The campaign of 57 B.C. was fought in the north of Gaul, against a formidable confederacy headed by the Belgo3. The allied tribes, consisting of the Bcllovaci (Beauvais), Suessiones (Soissons), Atrebates (Arras), Ambiani (Amiens), Nervii (Hainault), and many others, numbered upward of 300,000 men. One of the most powerful clans, however, the Remi, refused to join the league, and offered their friendship and services to the Roman commander. This defection gave him- an immense advantage, and rendered the task of conquest comparatively easy. Cfesar now detached Divitiacus, at the head of the ^dui, to make a diversion toward the country of the Bellovaci, and marched in person against the main force of the confederates, who were besieging Bibrax, a town belonging to the Remi. On the approach of the Roman army the siege was raised; and a well-disputed engagement was fought on the banks of the River Aisne, in which the Gauls were repulsed with heavy loss. Ere long the news arrived that Divitiacus and the ^dui had invaded the Bellovaci, and were ravaging their country; whereupon that tribe immediately announced their resolution to quit the allied army and return to the defense of their homes. This was followed by a general retreat of the Bel-

8 CESAR'S CAMPAIGNS. Chap. 1

gae, which was, in fact, equivalent to a breaking up of the confederacy. The retrograde marc-h of such a prodigious host became confused and undisciplined; Cffisar launched his cavalry against them, and hewed down the fugitives in crowds during- the space of a whole day. The Suessiones submitted unconditionally, and were treated with clemency ; the ]5ellovaci, at the intercession of Divitiacus, and as -a special favor to the ^dui, were admitted to like terms of pacification. The Nervii, an important tribe farther to the north, on the River Sambre, made a desperate resistance to the invader. Supported by the Atreba'tes and Veromandui, they assaulted the Roman intrenchments, and the genius and enei"- gy of Cassar were taxed to the utmost in maintaining his ground. 'J he Nervii were at length overlapped and surrounded, but, refusing to yield, were literally slaughtered where they stood ; the whole nation rnav be said to have been exterminated on that one day. The campaign was brought to a close by the submission of various tribes in Brittany and Normandy, who laid down their arms on hearing of the discomfiture of the Belgic league, and threw themselves on the mercy of the victors. Gaul being thus pacified, to use the half-ironical expression of the triumphant general, tlie Romans took up winter-quarters among the Carnuteg, Andes, ;uid Turones — the modern districts of Chartres, Anjou, and Toiiraine.