A practical system of rhetoric

Front matter

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PRACTICAL

SYSTEM OF RHETORIC

Introduction

The advantages proposed to be attained by the study of Rhetoric*

1. Some acquaintance with the philosophy of rhetoric.

2. The cultivation of the taste, and in connexion, the exercise of the imagination.

3. Skill in the use of language.

4. Skill in literary criticism.

5. The formation of a good style.

By the philosophy of rhetoric, I here refer to mose principles in the science of the philosophy of mind, ana in the philosophy of language, on which are founded those conclusions and directions which are applicable to literary criticism, and to the formation of style. Obviously, then, it wil oe said, an acquaintance with the science of intellectual pnilosophy, and with the philosophy of language, should precede the study of rhetoric. Hence, no doubt, Milton and others assign to this branch of study the last place in a course of education.

But it is known to all, that the prevalent opinion and practice are different from those recommended by Milton ; so that our inquiry should be, what is the best practical method of acquainting the young with the philosophy of rhetoric — those whose minds are not accustomed to philosophical investigations, and who are ignorant of those sciences on which the art is founded ?

I answer, that, while the attention should be directed to but few principles, and those most essential in a practical view, instruction should be imparted principally by familiar,

* Extracted from a *ecture delivered in Boston before the American institute August, 1830

If INTRODUCTION.

talking lectures. A text-book, if one is used, should contain but a mere outline, — some general principles plainly statea and well illustrated.

Here I would more fully state, what I mean by familiar, talking lectures. Suppose I wish to make the student understand what I mean by taste, and in so doing, I have occasion to speak of the judgment, sensibility, imagination, emotions of beauty and sublimity. Now, should I attempt to effect my purpose by a definition, or an extended technical explanation of these terms, there would be little reason to hope for success. I would rather refer him directly to the operations of his own mind, point out to him instances where he forms a judgment, where his sensibility is excited his imagination called into exercise, and emotions of beauty and sublimity kindled up in his own soul. It is true he may not, after this, be able to give me an exact definition of these faculties and intellectual operations, but he has learned what is meant by the proposed terms ; and when I have occasion to use them afterwards, I have no fears of not being understood.

That instruction in this part of rhetoric is attended with difficulty, no one will deny. The subjects themselves are intricate ; hard to be understood, and still harder to explain, especially to those whose minds are immature and unaccustomed to philosophical reasonings. Here, then, is room foi much ingenuity in the instructor ; and without a skilful effort on his part, the efforts of the pupil will be of little avail. Above all tilings, let not the mockery of set questions and set. answers be practised, in teaching what pertains to the philosophy of rhetoric.

After all, it must be allowed, that with the most skilful instruction, and the best text-book, young students will obtain but imperfect ideas in what pertains to the philosophy of rhetoric. Still, what is thus imperfectly acquired, will be of importance to them as opening some interesting fields of thought, which, with strengthened powers, they may afterwards explore; and further, as aiding them in better under, standing the nature of the rules and directions founded on these important and somewhat intricate principles.

I have stated as a second object to be attained by the 8tudy of rhetoric, the cultivation of a literarv taste, and, in connexion, the exercise of the imagination.

INTRODUCTION.

The cultivation of a literary taste must evidently depend principally on a familiarity with those productions, which are esteemed models of excellence in literature. In this respect, there is a close analogy to the cultivation of taste in painting, or in any of the fine arts. We may also learn something on this subject, from the course pursued by painters in the improvement of their taste. They visit the most celebrated galleries, and seek for models of excellence in their art; and these they make the object of close, long-continued and patient study. They inquire what there is to excite admiration in these paintings, and dwell en their different prominent beauties, and in this way cultivate and improve their tastes. Now it is in the same way that a literary taste is to be cultivated. And that the student may skilfully use his models of excellence in literature, and unite with his observation of them the application of those principles on which they depend, he needs the assistance of an instructor.

In stating the details of the course here recommended, ] remark, that, by the aid of a text-book prepared with reference to the proposed method of instruction, the student may have brought to his view examples of those instances, where there is most frequent occasion for the exercise of literary taste. I here refer to what are termed the ornaments of style. In connexion with these examples, the nature of whatever in literary productions comes under the cognizance of literary taste, may be explained. The different ornaments of style may be pointed out to his notice, and he may be led fully to see why attempts of this kind are in some instances successful, and in other instances fail.

When the examples thus cited, and the comments upon them, have become familiar to the student, let his attention next be directed to finding examples in English writers, which may exhibit similar ornaments of style, and in the examination of which, there is opportunity for the application of the same principles. Here it is that important aid may fce rendered by the instructor, since, in conducting hese inquiries and forming his decisions, the student needs both guidance and confirmation.

To make myself fully understood, I will here illustrate my remarks. Suppose that a student finds in his text-book the following ^omparison from the writings of Locke: —

' The minds of the aged are like the tombs to whioft t?rf*y 1*

VI INTRODUCTION.

are approaching ; where, though the brass and the marble remain, yet the inscriptions are effaced by time, and the imagery has mouldered away.'

This comparison, he is told, is naturally suggested; and in connexion with the example, the meaning of this phrase is fully explained to him. And not only is he made to see what is meant by a comparison's being naturally suggested, but to feel, that in the absence of this trait, the pleasure to be derived from it, as exciting an emotion of taste, would be impaired. Let the student now be directed to bring forward from any author, instances of comparison, which are in the same manner naturally suggested ; and in this way let him become familiar \ r ith the principle stated, and with its application. In the same manner, by directing the attention in succession to the different traits in the various ornaments of styie, and illustrating, in connexion with examples, the various principles on which these attempts to excite emotions ot taste are founded, the pupil is led to a full acquaintance with this part of rhetoric. He is enabled at once, when reading the productions of any author, to perceive the beauties of style, and to classify and arrange them — in other words, he acquires a good literary taste.

But there is another point connected with this part of my subject, to which I will for a moment direct your attention. I refer to the exercise thus given to the imagination. In our courses of study, we have discipline for the memory, for the reasoning powers in their various forms, and for the invention. But no regard is paid to the exercise and improvement of the imagination. And this, not because this faculty of the mind is useless, or because it admits not 'of being strengthened and improved by exercise. The impression is, that there is no method which can be adopted for the attainment of this end. Now I would ask, if, by the course here recommended, the imagination will not be called into exercise, and strengthened? These attempts to excite emotions of taste are addressed to the imagination ; they are understood by the imagination, and it is a just inference, that the plan of study I have now recommended, will furnish a salutary discipline to the imagination.

Of the favorable tendency of the method of instruction, 1 can from my own experience as an instructor, speak with some confidence. I have ever found, that my pupils engage

INTRODUCTION. VI.'

in this part of their rhetorical course with interest. They get new views of the nature of style, are led to notice their susceptibilities of emotions, of which before they have been unmindful. They also become conscious of their own powers of imagination, and learn something of the nature and offices of this faculty ; and with these views and this consciousness, they find that a new source of pleasure is opened to them. Thus they both derive important aid in becoming writers themselves, and are prepared to read with increased interest the writings of others.

Before concluding my remarks on this head, let me say, that what is here recommended, is perfectly practicable. It is an employment, which any student with common powers of mind may pursue ; and it requires, on the part of the instructor, only that degree of literary taste, which every one professing to teach rhetoric should possess.

The third object proposed to be obtained by the study of rheto c, is skill in the use of language. Here I refer both to the choice of words, so far as purity and propriety are conce ned, and to the construction of sentences.

Instruction in this part of rhetoric should be conducted with reference to two points, — to acquaint the student with the nature and principles of verbal criticism, and further to lead him to beware of those faults in construction, to which he is most liable.

The former of these appertains to the philosophy of rhet oric, and is included under my first head : but I here offei an additional remark. It was stated, when speaking of giving instruction on the philosophy of rhetoric, that difficulties attend this part of the course. These difficulties exist but in a slight degree, when exhibiting what is connected with the philosophy of language. Here is such abundant opportunity for illustration, and examples are so easily adduced, that every principle may without difficulty be made perfectly intelligible. Neither is this part of the study uninteresting to students. Curiosity is fully awake to whatever pertains to the nature of language, and to the rules that govern its use. And here I may be permitted to mention a work, which, in what pertains to this part of rhetoric, I regard as of the highest authority. I refer to Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, — the ingenious, elaborate production of the Uuinctilian of English literature.

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

To lead the student to beware of those faults in construe* tion which are of most common occurrence, — the other object in view in this part of the course, must evidently be effected by adducing examples of these faults. From the nature of the case, the endless forms of correct construction cannot be stated. On the obvious principle, then, that where one has erred, another will be liable to leave the right way, we direct the attention to these wanderings, and connect with such instances the cautions they naturally suggest. The object here in view may be accomplished for the most part by the text-book. All that is incumbent on the in structor, is, to lead the pupil fully to see what in every example adduced the failure is, and how it is to be remedied. This part of a text-book does not require to be dwelt upon in the recitation-room. It is rather a part to be referred to by the student, when, hesitating as to the construction of sentences, he needs guidance and assistance.

I mention in the fourth place, as an object to be obtained by the study of rhetoric, skill in literary criticism.

Under this head, I include whatever pertains more particularly to style, its nature and diversities, as seen in the writings of different individuals, and in different classes of literary productions. Our inquiry is, What can be done by the instructor most efficiently, to aid the pupil in acquiring skill in literary criticism, as thus explained ?

Style has been happily defined by Buffon as ' the man himself.' If I wish to become acquainted with any individual, I seek an introduction to him ; I endeavor to learn from personal observation the peculiar traits in his character. I may, indeed, from the description of a third person receive some general and perhaps just impression respecting this individual ; but all this, though it might prepare the way for my better understanding his peculiarities when in his presence, would alone make me but imperfectly acquainted with him.

The same holds true, if I wish to become acquainted with the peculiarities of those of different nations. You might describe to me the national traits of the French and of the Spanish ; but a visit to those countries, and familiarity with heir inhabitants, would be of far more avail in learning their I itional traits of character.

This illustration suggests the best practical method of

INTRODUCTION. U giring instruction in what relates to literary criticism. A te*i-book or an instructor may describe, with accuracy and fulness, the peculiarities of style, as they are seen in the Writings of different individuals, or found in different classes of literary productions. But this is not enough. That the student may clearly discern these characteristic traits, and understand their nature, and the causes on which they depend, his attention must be directed to these writings. He must in some good degree become familiar with them, and thus learn wherein they differ, and what there is in each to approve or condemn.

It may be thought, that to bring to the view of the student in this manner the peculiarities of different styles, may require too much time and labor. But with the aid of the text-book, much of the work may be performed by the student himself. What is most necessary on the part of the instructor is, to direct the attention to specimens of different styles, and in some few instances to point out characteristic traits. The student, with this aid, will soon acquire sufficient knowledge and skill to apply the remarks found in the text-book himself.

This leads me to remark generally on the importance of reading good authors in connexion with rhetorical studies. This part of education is, I fear, in most of our schools and colleges, too much neglected. From his inability to judge of the merits of writers, the student needs guidance in selecting those which may be most useful to him, and this guidance the instructor should feel it is incumbent on him to supply. To read over occasionally with the pupil some choice specimens of style, may also be of essential advantage. To learn how to read, is no easy acquisition. Of course, I refer, not to the pronunciation of the words, or the inflections of the voice, but to the quick and true apprehension of the meaning, and a susceptibility to the beauties of style.

In this connexion, too, the student may be taught the true nature of literary criticism. It looks not for faults. It cherishes not a censorious, captious spirit. Its eye is directed after what is excellent and praiseworthy — after what may inform the mind, give grateful exercise to the imagination and refinement to the taste. And when it discerns extellences of a high order, as if dazzled with what is bright

INTRODUCTION and imposing, it sees not minute and unimportant defects. Tt is indeed nearly allied to that charity which is kind, and which, where she discovers what is truly worthy of her regard, throws her mantle of forgiveness over a multitude of sins.

I proceed now to notice the last mentioned advantage proposed to be obtained by the study of rhetoric. I refer to the formation of style.

This part of a rhetorical course of instruction is not par^ ticularly connected with the use of a text-book, further than that it furnishes opportunities for the application of principles and rules, which are there found. The aid furnished by an instructor, is principally in the correction of attempts in composition, with such general guidance and advice, as the intellectual habits and peculiarities of the individual may require. I offer, therefore, on this head, merely a few practical suggestions.

1. It is highly important, that the attention of the student, mi his first attempts, should be directed to the management of his subject. I would require of him to exhibit a plan, or skeleton, stating the precise object he has in view, the divisions he proposes to make with reference to this point, and the manner in which he designs to enlarge on each head. In this way, he will not only be aided in forming habits of methodically arranging his thoughts, but will be led to adopt the easiest and most direct method of proceeding, in writing on any subject.

2. I have ever found, that, so far as the construction of sentences is concerned, and here I refer both to the division of a paragraph into sentences and to the phrases and forms of expression, — I remark, that, in relation to this part of the work of composition, I have ever found, that students derive important aid from translating select passages fiom the writings of good authors in other languages. Every one knows, that in this way a command of languages is acquired And I would extend the meaning of the phrase, so as to include, not only that copia verborum, and that power of nice discrimination in the use of words, which are generally un derstood to be implied by it, but also the right arrangement of words, and the correct construction of sentences. Other things being equal, he who, during the first six months in which the attention is directed to composition, shoula devote half of his efforts to the writing of translation

INTRODUCTION XI would, I doubt not, be in advance of him, all whose exertions had been employed in the work of composition.

3. I would further recommend a familiar mode of correcting the first attempts of the student. If practicable, the instructor may with advantage read over with the pupil his productions, and alone with him freely comment upon its defects and excellences. While in this way needed encouragement is given, the attention of the student is directed to that point where there is most need of improvement Besides, it not unfrequently happens, that the efforts of the student have taken some wrong direction. He has some erroneous impressions as to the nature of style, or as to the manner in which a good style may be formed. It. may be that he is laboring too much on the choice and arrangement of his words, or the construction of his sentences ; or, assigning undue importance to the ornaments of style, he may be seeking principally after what is figurative, and the elegances of expression ; or, again, with false notions of what is original and forcible, he may be striving after what is sententious and striking. Sometimes, too, there exists a fastidiousness of taste, which is detrimental. The student is kept from doing any thing, because he is unable to do better than he can do. In other instances, there is an injurious propensity to imitation. The student has fixed upon some writer as his model, and, servilely copying his master, his own native powers are neglected. Now, in all these instances, the advice of the instructor may be of essential benefit.

One general remark is all that I have to offer further on this head. It should ever be impressed on the student, that, in forming a style, he is to acquire a manner of writing, to some extent, peculiarly his own, and which is to be the index of his modes of thinking — the development of his intellectual traits and feelings. It is the office of the instructor to facilitate the accomplishment of this important end, both by wisely directing the efforts of his pupil, and bv removing every obstacle in his way.

The following work having been republished in England, and introduced into the schools of that com try, and having come into extensive use in the United States, the publishers, grateful for the favor with which it has been received, are induced to present it to the public in an improved and more permanent form. It has been stereotyped, with the hope that its circulation may thus be extended and its usefulness increased.

Andover, September, 1838.

Chapter First Ok Thoi/ght As The Foundation Of Good Writing*

Plan of the work.

When we read the production of one who is justly accounted a good writer, we are conscious that our attention is engaged, — that we are pleased, and if the subject is one which can interest the feelings, that we are moved. If from being conscious of these effects we are led to search for their causes, we find, that our attention is engaged by the valuable thoughts and just reasonings that are exhibited ; we are pleased by what gives exercise to our imagination, — by happy turns of expression, — by well introduced and well supported illustrations. We are moved, because the writer, whose productions we are reading, is moved, and our feelings of sympathy cause us to be borne along on the same current, by which he is carried forward. But we now ask, what may be hence inferred in relation to the writer ? Do we not discover, that his mind has been stored with knowledge 1 that his reasoning powers have been strengthened and subjected to salutary discipline? — that his imagination is active and well regulated, and his heart alive to emotion 1 and is it not from his possessing these resources -'-these intellectual and moral habits, that he is able to 2 engage our attention, to please and to move us, and consequently has acquired the reputation of a good writer ?

If this view be just, we may infer, that the foundations oi good writing are laid in the acquisition of knowledge, — in the cultivation of the reasoning powers, — in the exercise and proper regulation of the imagination, and in the sensibilities of the heart.

But let us now suppose, that two writers, who possess those qualities, which I have called the foundations of good writing, in equal degrees, should write on the same subject There might still be important differences between them. One might use words with correctness and skill, selecting always the best term ; the writings of the other might show improprieties and want of skill. The sentences of the one might be smooth in their flow, perspicuous in their meaning, gratefully diversified in their length, and well suited to the thought that is conveyed ; those of the other might be rough, obscure, ambiguous, and tiresome from their uniformity ; and while we are engaged and pleased in reading the production of the former writer, we soon become wearied and disgusted with that of the latter. Here then we have a new cause in operation, anu tnis obviously is the different degrees of skill in the use of language, possessed by these two writers.

From this statement, we may learn the objects of attention to the critic, in examining a literary production. He would judge of the value of the thoughts, of the correctness of the reasoning, especially of the method observed in the discussion of the subject. He would next apply the principles of good taste, and notice what is addressed to the im. agination, and judge of its fitness to excite emotions of beauty, or of grandeur, or other emotions of the same class- He might then direct his attention more immediately to the style, and examine its correctness, perspicuity, smoothness adaptation to the subject, and the various qualities of a good style.

The course here marked out, &s that of the critic in the examination of a literary production, suggests the objects of attention and the method pursued in the following work. In the first part, a writer is regarded as addressing himself to the understanding of his readers, and the importance of being able to think well, as including the number and value of the thoughts and the proper arrangement of them, is considered. The writer is then regarded as addressing himself more immediately to the imagination, with the design of interesting or pleasing his readers. Here the nature of taste, which directs in what is addressed to the imagination, is explained, — the proper objects of its attention in a literary work pointed out, and some instructions given which may aid in its cultivation. Skill in the use of language is uext made the object of attention, so far as this is necessary for the accurate and perspicuous conveyance of the thoughts. In the remaining part of the work, the qualities of a good style are enumerated, and the different circumstances on which they depend, are mentioned. Through the whole work, the inductive method is observed as far as practicable. Examples are given, and rules and principles are inferred from these examples. At the close of the work also exercises are found, the analysis of which may call forth the skill of the learner, and make him familiar with the rule? which are stated.

It will at once occur, that in each of the particulars mentioned, Rhetoric is connected, in a greater or less degree, with other departments of instruction. The Grammarian gives us rules for the attainment of correctness in the use of language ; and Logic informs us of the different modes of conducting an argument. The intellectual philosopher a (so explains to us the phenomena of mind, particularly of those emotions with which taste is connected. This connexion has been borne in mind, and hence it is, that on some parts, comparatively little is said, and that of a general natuie Other parts, which are thought to belong more appropriately to Rhetoric, are more fully treated.

Extensive Knowledge essential to the good writer.

It is a received maxim, that to write well we must think well. To think well, implies extensive knowledge and well disciplined intellectual powers. To think well on any particular subject, implies that we have a full knowledge of that particular subject, and are able to understand its rela^ tions to other subjects, and to reason upon it.

In saying that extensive knowledge is essential to the good writer, the word knowledge is meant to include both an acquaintance with the events and the opinions of the day. and with what is taught in the schools. That this Knowledge is necessary to the good writer, may be inferred from the intimate connexion between the different objects of our thoughts. It is impossible for a writer to state and explain his opinions on one subject, without showing a knowledge of many others. And if, in the communication of his opinions, he endeavors to illustrate and recommend them by the ornaments of style, the extent of his knowledge will be shown by his illustrations and allusions. Were it necessary to establish this position, it might be done by analysing a passage of some able writer, and by showing, even from the words that he uses, the knowledge which its composition implies.

He, then, who would become a good writer, must possess a rich fund of thoughts. The store-house of the mind must be well filled ; and he must have that command over hia treasures, which will enable him to bring forward, whenever he occasion may require, what has here been accumulated

AS THE FOUNDATION OF GOOD WRITING IV

'or future use. To make these acquisitions, is not the work of a month, nor of a year. He who would gain much Knowledge, must possess habits of diligence and attention. He must be always and every where a learner. Especially must he seek after a knowledge of facts, and distinct views of received opinions on important subjects. He will be mindful, that the extent of his knowledge will depend more on his manner of reading, than on the amount read, and on h'3 attention to the facts which fall under his observation, than on the number of these facts.

Discipline of mind essential to the good writer.

In saying that the discipline of the mind is essentia' o the good writer, particular reference is had to the masoning powers. In other words, the good write" ,nust have sound sense. He must be able to examir subjects, and pursue a connected train of thought with power and cor rectness. That this is essential, may be inferred from the rank, which is held by the understanding among the different faculties of the mind. A man may have invention, memory and imagination, but if he cannot reason accurately and with power, he will not interest and inform his readers, and thus acquire the reputation of a good writer. It is also well known, that many of the faults of style arise from indistinctness in the thoughts, and an inability to discern their relations to each other. Both these causes of defects in. writing are removed by the discipline of the mind.