An ecclesiastical history

Front matter

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PRESENTED EY

AN

Introduction

i. The Ecclesiastical History of the New Testament is a clear and faithful narration of the transactions, revolu tions, and events, that relate to that large community, which bears the name of Jesus Christ, and is commonly known under the denomination of the Church. It comprehends both the external and internal condition of this community, and so connects each event with the causes from which it proceeds, and the instruments which have been concerned in its production, that the attentive reader may be led to observe the displays of providential wisdom and goodness in the preservation of the church, and thus find his piety improved, as well as his knowledge.

II. The church, founded by the ministry and death of Christ, cannot be represented with greater perspicuity and propriety than under the notion of a society subjected to a lawful dominion, and governed by certain laws and institutions, mostly of a moral and spiritual tendency. To such a society many external events must happen, which will advance or oppose its interests, and accelerate or retard its progress toward perfection, in consequence of its una voidable connexion with the course and revolutions of human affairs. Moreover, as nothing is stable and uniform where the imperfections of humanity take place, this religious society, besides the vicissitudes to which it must bo exposed from the influence of external events, must be liable to various changes in its internal constitution. In this view of things, then, it appears, that the history of the church, like that of the state, may be divided with propriet} into two general branches, which we may call its External and Internal History.

III. The External History of the church comprehends all the changes, vicissitudes, and events, that have di versified the external state and condition of this sacred community. And as all public societies have their periods oj lustre and decay, and are exposed to revolutions both of a happy and calamitous nature, so tins first branch of Ecclesiastical History may be subdivided into two, comprehending, respectively, the prosperous and calamitous events that have happened to the church.

IV. The prosperous events that have contributed to extend the limits, or to augment the influence, of the Chrisian church, have proceeded either from its rulers and leaders, or from the subordinate members of this great commu nity. Under the former class, we rank its public rulers, such as princes, magistrates, and pontiffs, who, by their authority and laws, their liberality, and even their arms, have maintained its cause and extended its borders ; as also, its more private leaders, its learned and pious doctors, whose wise counsels, pious exploits, eminent examples, and distinguished abilities, have contributed most to promote its true prosperity and lustre. Under the latter class, we may comprehend the advantages which the cause of Christianity has derived from the active faith, the invincible constancy, the fervent piety, and extensive charity, of its genuine professors, who, by the attractive lustre of these amiable virtues, have led many into the way of truth, and engaged them to submit themselves to the empire of the Messiah.

INTRODUCTION. xi

V. Under the calamitous events that have happened to the church, may be comprehended the injuries it has received from the vices and passions of its friends, and the bitter opposition and insidious stratagems of its enemies. The professors of Christianity, and more especially the doctors and rulers of the church, have done unspeakable detriment to the cause of religion, by then ignorance and sloth, their luxury and ambition, their uncharitable zeal, animosities and contentions, of which many shocking examples will be exhibited in the course of this history. Christianity had public enemies to encounter, even princes and magistrates, who opposed its progress by penal laws, and blood-thirsty persecution ; it had also private and inveterate adversaries in a certain set of philosophers, or rather sophists, who, enslaved by superstition, or abandoned to atheism, endeavoured to blast the rising church by their perfidious accusations, and their virulent writings.

VI. Such then are the events that are exhibited to our view in the external history of the church. Its Internal History comprehends the changes and vicissitudes that have happened in its inward constitution, in that system of discipline and doctrine by which it stands distinguished from all other religious societies. This branch may be properly termed the History of the Christian Religion. The causes of these internal changes are to be sought principally in the conduct and measures of those who have presided and lx>rne rule in the church. It has been too frequently their practice to interpret the truths and precepts of religion in a manner accommodated to their particular systems, or even to their private interests ; and. while they have found, in some, implicit obedience, they have met with warm opposition from others. Hence have proceeded theological broils and civil commotions, in which the cause of religion has often been defended at the expense both of justice and humanity. All these things must be observed with the strictest attention by an ecclesiastical historian.

YII. The first thing, therefore, that should be naturally treated in the Internal History of the church, is the history of its ministers, rulers, and form of government. When we look back to the commencement of the Christian church, we find its government administered jointly by the pastors and the people. But, in process of time, the scene changes, and we see these pastors affecting an air of pre-eminence and superiority, trampling upon the rights and privileges of the community, and assuming to themselves a supreme authority, both in civil and religious matters. This invasion of the rights of the people was at length carried to such a height, that a single man administered, or at least claimed a right to administer, the affairs of the whole church with an unlimited sway. Among the doctors of these early times, there were some who acquired, by their learned labours, a shining reputation and a universal influence ; they were regarded as oracles ; their decisions were handed down to posterity as sacred rules of faith and practice ; and they thus deserve to be mentioned, with particular distinction, among the governors of the church, though no part of its public administration was actually in their hands.*

Yin. After giving an account of the rulers and doctors of the church, the ecclesiastical historian proceeds to exhibit a view of the laws that are peculiar to this sacred community, which form, as it were, its centre of union, and distinguish it from all other religious societies. These laws are of two kinds. The first are properly called divine, because they are immediately enacted by God himself, and are contained in those sacred books, which carry the most striking marks of a divine origin. They consist of those doctrines that are the objects of faith and reason, and those precepts which are addressed to the heart and the affections. To the second kind belong those laws which are merely of human institution, and derive their authority only from the injunctions of the rulers of the church.

IX. In that part of tne sacred history which relates to the doctrines of Christianity, it is necessary, above all things, to inquire particularly into the degree of authority that has been attributed to the sacred writings in the different

Cj= * By these our author means the Fathers, whose writings form still a rule of faith in the Romish church, while, in the Protestant churches, Jieir authority diminishes from day to day.

xii INTRODUCTION.

periods of the church, and also into the manner in which the divine doctrines they contain, have oeen explained and illustrated. For the true state of religion in every age can only be learned from the point of view in which these celestial oracles were considered, and from the manner in which they were expounded to the people. As long as they were the only rule of faith, religion preserved its native purity ; and, in proportion as their decisions were either neglected or postponed to the inventions of men, it degenerated from its primitive and divine simplicity. It is farther necessary to show, under this head, what was the fate of the pure laws and doctrines of Christianity — how they were interpreted and explained — how they were defended against the enemies of the Gospel — how they were corrupted nd adulterated by the ignorance and licentiousness of men. And, finally, it will be proper to inquire here, now far the lives and manners of Christians have been conformable to the dictates of these sacred laws, and to the influence that these sublime doctrines ought to have upon the hearts of men ; as also to examine the rules of discipline prescribed by the spiritual governors of the church, in order to correct and restrain the vices and irregularities of its members.

X. The Human Laws, that constitute a part of ecclesiastical government, consist in precepts concerning the external worship of the Deity, and in certain rites, either confirmed by custom, or introduced by positive and express authority. Rites and ceremonies regard religion either directly or indirectly ; by the former, we understand those which are used in the immediate worship of the Supreme Being, whether in public or in private ; by the latter, euch pious and decent institutions as, beside direct acts of worship, have prevailed in the church. This part of sacr»d history is of a vast extent, both on account of the great diversity of these ceremonies, and the frequent changes and modifications through which they have passed. This consideration will justify our treating them with brevity, in a work which is only intended for a compendious view of ecclesiastical history.

XI. As bodies politic are sometimes distracted with wars and seditions, so has the Christian church, though designed to be the mansion of charity and concord, been unhappily perplexed by intestine divisions, occasioned sometimes by points of doctrine, at others by a variety of sentiments about certain rites and ceremonies. The principal authors of these divisions have been stigmatized with the title of Heretics, and their peculiar opinions of consequence distinguished by the appellation of Heresies.* The nature therefore and progress of these intestine divisions or heresies are to be carefully unfolded ; and, if this be done with judgment and impartiality, it must prove useful and interesting in the highest degree, though at the same time it must be observed, that no branch of ecclesiastical history is so painful and difficult, on account of the sagacity, candour, and application that it requires, in order to its being treated in a satisfactory manner. The difficulty of arriving at the truth, in researches of this nature, is extreme, on account of the injurious treatment that has been shown to the heads of religious sects, and the unfair representations that have been made of their tenets and opinions ; and this difficulty has been considerably augmented by this particular circumstance, that the greatest part of the writings of those who were branded with the name of heretics have not reached our times. It is therefore the duty of a candid historian to avoid attaching to this term the invidious sense in which it is too often used, since it is the invective of all contending parties, and is employed against ,ruth as frequently as against error. The wisest method is to take the word Heretic in its general signification, as denoting a person, who, either directly or indirectly, has been the occasion of exciting divisions and dissentions among Christians.

XII. After thus considering what constitutes the matter of Ecclesiastical History, it will be more proper to bestow a few thoughts on the manner of treating it, as this is a point of too much importance not to deserve some attention. And here we may observe, that, in order to render both the External and Internal History of the Church truly inte-

f^T * A term innocent in its primitive signification, though become odious by the enormity of some errors to which it has been applied, and also by the use that has been made of it to give vent to the malignity of enthusiasts and bigots.

INTRODUCTION. sari

resting and useful, it is absolutely necessary to trace effects to their causes, and to connect events with the circumstances, views, principles, and instruments that have contributed to their existence. A bare recital or facts can at best but enrich the memory, and furnish a certain degree of amusement ; but the historian who enters into the secret springs that direct the course of outward events, and views things in their various relations, connexions, and tendencies, gives thus a proper exercise to the judgment of the reader, and administers, on many occasions, the most useful lessons of wisdom and prudence. It is true, a high degree of caution is to be observed here, lest, in discussing the secret springs of public events, we substitute imaginary causes in the place of real, and attribute the actions of men to principles they never professed.

XIII. In order to discover the secret causes of public events, some general succours are to be derived from the History op the Times in which they happened, and the Testimonies of the Authors by whom they are recorded. But, beside these, a considerable acquaintance with human nature, founded on long observation and experience, is extremely useful in researches of this kind. The historian, who has acquired a competent know ledge of the views that occupy the generality of men, who has studied a great variety of characters, and attentively observed the force and violence of human passions, together with the infirmities and contradictions they produce in the conduct of life, will find, in this knowledge, a key to the secret reasons and motives which gave rise to many of the most important events of ancient tunes. An acquaintance also with the manners and opinions of the persons concerned in the events that are related, will contribute much to lead us to the true origin of things.

XIV. There are, however, beside these general views, particular considerations, which will assist us still farther

in tracing up to their true causes the various events of sacred history. We must, for example, in the external history

of the church, attend carefully to two things ; first, to the political state of those kingdoms and nations in which

the Christian religion has been embraced or rejected ; and, secondly, to their religious state, i. e. the opinions they

* have entertained concerning the divine nature, and the worship that is to be addressed to God. For we shall then

perceive, with greater certainty and less difficulty, the reasons of the different reception Christianity has met with in different nations, when we are acquainted with the respective forms of civil government, the political maxims, and the public forms of religion that prevailed in those countries and at those periods in which the Gospel received encouragement, or met with opposition.

XV. With respect to the Internal History of the Church, nothing is more adapted to lay open to view the hidden springs of its various changes, than an acquaintance with the History of Learning and Philosophy in ancient times. For it is certain, that human learning and philosophy have, in all times, pretended to modify the doctrines of Christianity ; and that these pretensions have extended farther than belongs to the province of philosophy on the one hand, or is consistent with the purity and simplicity of the Gospel on the other. It may also be observed, that a knowledge of the forms of civil government, and of the superstitious rites and institutions of ancient times, is not only useful, as we remarked above, to illustrate several things in the external history of the church, but also to render a satisfactory account of its internal variations, both in point of doctrine and worship. For the genius of human laws, and the maxims of civil rulers, have undoubtedly had a great influence in forming the constitution of the church ; and even its spiritual leaders have, in too many instances, from an ill-judged prudence modelled its discipline and worship after the ancient superstitions.

XVI. We cannot be at any loss to know the sources from which this important knowledge is to be derived. The best writers of every age, who make mention of ecclesiastical affairs, and particularly those who were contemporary with the events they relate, are to be carefully consulted, since it is from credible testimonies and respect able authorities that history derives a solid and permanent foundation. Our esteem for those writers, who may be considered as the sources of historical knowledge, ought not however to lead us to treat with neglect the historians xiv INTRODUCTION.

and annalists, who have already made use of these original records, since it betrays a foolish sort of vanity to reject the advantages that may be derived from the succours and labours of those who have preceded us in their endeavours to cast light upon points that have been for many ages covered with obscurity. 1

XVII. Prom all this we shall easily discern the qualifications that are essential to a good writer of ecclesiastical nistory. His knowledge of human affairs must be considerable, and his learning extensive. He must be endowed with a spirit of observation and sagacity ; a habit of reasoning with evidence and facility ; a faithful memory ; and a judgment matured by experience, and strengthened by exercise. Such are the intellectual endowments that are required in the character of a good historian ; and the moral qualities necessary to complete it, are, a persevering and inflexible attachment to truth and virtue, a freedom from the servitude of prejudice and passion, and a laborious and patient turn of mind.

XVIII. Those who undertake to write the history of the Christian church are exposed to the reception of a bias from three different sources ; from times, persons, and opinions. The times, in which we live, have often so great an influence on our manner of judging, as to make us consider the events which happen in our days, as a rule by which we are to estimate the probability or evidence of those that are recorded in the history of past ages. The persons, on whose testimonies we think we have reason to depend, acquire an imperceptible authority over our sentiments, that too frequently seduces us to adopt their errors, especially if these persons have been distinguished by eminent degrees of sanctity and virtue. And an attachment to favourite opinions, leads authors sometimes to pervert, or, at least, to modify, facts in favour of those who have embraced these opinions, or to the disadvantage of such as have opposed them. These kinds of seduction are so much the more dangerous, as those whom they deceive are, in innumerable cases, insensible of their delusion, and of the false representations of things to which it leads them. It is not necessary to observe the solemn obligations that bind an historian to guard against these three sources of error with the most delicate circumspection, and the most scrupulous attention.

XIX. It is well known, nevertheless, how far ecclesiastical historians, in all ages, have departed from these rules, and from others of equal evidence and importance. For, not to mention those who lay claim to a high rank among the writers of history in consequence of a happy memory, loaded with an ample heap of materials, or those whose pens are rather guided by sordid views of interest than by a generous love of truth, it is too evident, how few in number the unprejudiced and impartial historians are, whom neither the influence of the sect to which they belong, nor the venerable and imposing names of antiquity, nor the spirit of the times and the torrent of prevailing opinion, can turn aside from the rigid pursuit of truth alone. In the present age, more especially, the spirit of the times, and the influence of predominant opinions, have gained with many an incredible ascendancy. Hence we find frequently in the writings, even of learned men, such wretched arguments as these : Such an opinion is true ; therefore it must of necessity have been adopted by the primitive Christians. — Christ has commanded us to live in such a manner ; therefore it is undoubtedly certain, that the Christians of ancient times lived so. — A certain custom does not take place now; therefore it did not prevail in former times.

XX. If those who apply themselves to the composition of Ecclesiastical History be careful to avoid the sources of error mentioned above, their labours will be eminently useful to mankind, and more especially to those who are called to the important office of instructing others in the sacred truths and duties of Christianity. The history of the church presents to our view a variety of objects that are every way adapted to confirm our faith. When we contemplate here the discouraging obstacles, united efforts of kingdoms and empires, and the dreadful calamities which Christianity, in its very infancy, was obliged to encounter, and over which it gained an immortal victory, this will be suf

■ The various writers of ecclesiastical history are enumerated by Sever. Walt. Sluterus, in his Fropylajum Historiae Christiana?, published at Lunenburg in 4to. in the jear 169G; by Casp. Sagittarius, in his Introductio ud Historian! Ecclesiastical!!, singulasque ejus partes.

INTRODUCTION. xv

ficient to fortify its true and zealous professors against all the threats, cavils, and stratagems, of profane and impious men. The great and shining examples also, which display their lustre, more or less, in every period of the Christian history, must have an admirahle tendency to inflame our piety, and to excite, even in the coldest and most insensible hearts, the love of God and virtue. Those amazing revolutions and events that distinguished every age of the church, and often seemed to arise from small beginnings, and causes of little consequence, proclaim, with a solemn and respectable voice, the empire of Providence, and also the inconstancy and vanity of human affairs. And, among the many advantages that arise from the study of Ecclesiastical History, it is none of the least, that we shall see therein the on<rin and occasions of those ridiculous rites, absurd opinions, foolish superstitions, and pernicious errors, with which Christianity is yet disfigured in too many parts of the world. This knowledge will naturally lead us to a view of the truth in its beautiful simplicity, will engage us to love it, and render us zealous in its defence ; not to mention the pleasure and satisfaction that we must feel in researches and discoveries of such an interesting kind.

XXI. They, more especially, who are appointed to instruct the youth in the public universities, and also such as are professionally devoted to the service of the church, will derive from this study the most useful lessons of wisdom and prudence, to direct them in the discharge of then respective offices. On the one hand, the inconsiderate zeal and temerity of others, and the pernicious consequences with which they have been attended, will teach circumspection ; and in the mistakes into which even men of eminent merit and abilities have fallen, they will often see the things they are obliged to avoid, and the sacrifices it will be prudent to make, in order to maintain peace and concord in the church. On the other hand, illustrious examples and salutary measures will hold forth to them a rule of conduct, a lamp to show them the paths they must pursue. It may be farther observed, that, if we except the arms which Scripture and reason furnish against superstition and error, there is nothing that will enable us to combat them with more efficacy than the view of their deplorable effects, as they are represented to us in the history of the church. It would be endless to enumerate all the advantages that result from the study of Ecclesiastical History ; experience alone can display these in all their extent ; nor shall we mention the benefits that may be derived from it by those who have turned their views to other sciences than that of theology, and its more peculiar utility to such as are engaged in the study of the civil law. All this would lead us too far from our present design.

XXII. As the history of the church is External or Internal, so the manner of treating it must be suited to that division. As to the first, when the narration is long, and the thread of the history runs through a great number of ages, it is proper to divide it into certain periods, which will give the reader time to breathe, assist memory, and also introduce a certain method and order into the work. In the following history the usual division into centuries is adopted in preference to all others, because most generally approved, though it may be attended with difficulties and inconveniences.

XXIII. A considerable part of these inconveniences will be however removed, if, beside this smaller division into centuries, we adopt a larger one, and divide the space of time that elapsed between the birth of Christ and our days into certain grand periods, which were distinguished by signal revolutions or remarkable events. It is on this account that we have judged it expedient to comprehend the following History in Four Books, which will embrace four remarkable periods. The First will be employed in exhibiting the state and vicissitudes of the Christian church, from its commencement to the time of Constantine the Great. The Second will comprehend the period that extends from the reign of Constantine to that of Charlemagne, which produced such a remarkable change in the face of Europe. The Third will contain the History of the Church, from the time of Charlemagne to the memorable period when Luther arose in Germany, to oppose the tyranny of Rome, and to deliver divine truth from the darkness that covered it. And the Fourth will carry down the same history, from the rise of Luther to the present times.

XXIV. We have seen above, that the sphere of Ecclesiastical History is extensive, that it comprehends a great xvi INTRODUCTION.

variety of objects, and embraces political as well as religious matters, so far as the former are related to the latter, either as causes or effects. But, however great the diversity of these objects may be, they are closely connected ; and it is the particular business of an ecclesiastical historian to observe a method that will show this connexion in the most conspicuous point of view, and form into one regular whole a variety of parts that seem heterogeneous and discordant. Different writers on this subject have followed different methods, according to the diversity of their views and their peculiar manner of thinking. The order I have observed will be seen above in that part of this Introduction, which treats of the subject-matter of Ecclesiastical History ; the mention of it is therefore omitted here, to avoid unnecessary repetition.

AN

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.

Book I

CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, FROM ITS ORIGIN, TO THE TIME OF

CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.

Chapter I

Concerning the Civil and Religious State of the World at the Birth of Christ.

I. A great part of the world was subject to the Roman empire, when Jesus Christ made his appearance upon earth. The remoter nations which had submitted to the yoke of this mighty empire, were ruled either by Roman governors invested with temporary commissions, or by their own princes and laws, in subordination to the republic, whose sovereignty was to be acknowledged, and from which the conquered kings, who were continued in their dominions, derived their borrowed majesty. At the same time, the Roman people and their venerable senate, though they had not lost all shadow of liberty, were in reality reduced to a state of servile submission to Augustus Caesar, who, by artifice, perfidy, and blood shed, had acquired an enormous degree of power, and united in his own person the pompous titles of emperor, sovereign pontiff, censor, tribune of the people, proconsul ; in a word, all the great offices of the state. 1

II. The Roman government, considered both with respect to its form and its laws, was certainly mild and equitable. b But the injustice and avarice of the praetors and proconsuls, and the ambitious lust of conquest and dominion, which was the predominant passion of the Roman people, together with the rapacious proceedings of the publicans, by whom the taxes of the empire were levied, were the occasions of perpetual tumults and insupportable grievances ; and among the many evils which thence arose we may justly reckon the formidable armies, that were necessary to support these extortions in the provinces, and the civil wars which frequently broke out between the oppressed nations and their haughty conquerors.

HI. It must, at the same time, be acknowledged, that eliis supreme dominion of one people, or rather of one man, over so many kingdoms, was attended with many consi-

1 See for this purpose the learned work of Augustin Campianus, entitled, De Officio et Potestate Magistratuum Romanorum et Jurisdictione, lib. i. cap. i. p. 3, 4, &c. Geneva;, 1725.

b See Moyle'* Essay on the Constitution of the Roman Government, in the posthumous works of that author, vol. i. as also Scip. Maffei Verona illustrata, lib. ii.

6 See, for an illustration of Oris point, Histoire des grands Chemins de

No. I. 1 derable advantages to mankind in general, and to the pro pagation and advancement of Christianity in particular ; for, by the means of this almost universal empire, many nations, different in their languages and their manners, were more intimately united in social intercourse. Hence a passage was opened to the remotest countries, by the communications which the Romans formed between the conquered provinces. Hence also the nations, whose manners were savage and barbarous, were civilized by the laws and commerce of the Romans. And by this, in short, the benign influence of letters and philosophy was spread abroad in countries which had lain before under the darkest ignorance. All this contributed, no doubt, in a singular manner, to facilitate the progress of the Gospel, and to crown the labours of its first ministers and heralds with success. d