A new translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Canticles

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Introduction

That part of Hebrew literature which has come down to us under the name of the Proverbs of Solomon contains something more than the title indicates. It is not wholly composed of short, sententious maxims and enigmatical propositions, such as commonly receive the name of proverbs, but in part of several didactic discourses of considerable length, containing exhortations to prudence and virtue, warnings against vice and folly, and eulogies upon true wisdom. The first nine chapters belong to the latter species of composition. These discourses, as well as the proper proverbs, are expressed in the peculiar form and language of Hebrew poetry, and without doubt belong to the most flourishing period of Hebrew literature. On the nature and history of this kind of composition the following just remarks have been made by Holden, in his Preliminary Dissertation to the Proverbs.

'^ Short and pithy sentences have been employed from the most remote antiquity as the vehicle of ethical instruction, and particularly adapted to the simplicity of the early ages. When writings were but few, and the reasonings of systematic philosophy almost unknown, just observations on life and manners, and useful moral precepts, delivered in concise language, and often in verse, would form a body of the most valuable practical wisdom, which, by its influence on the conduct, must have contributed largely to the peace and w^ell-being of society. An acute remark, a moral adage, an admonition conveyed in a brief and compact sentence, would arrest the attention and operate upon the hearts of a rude people with a force of which there is no example in periods of greater cultivation. Yet, in every age, they viii THE PROVERBS.

are well fitted to impress the minds of the young and the uninformed ; and, as they are the most valuable guides in the affairs of life, when we are called upon, not to deliberate, but to act, not to unfold a circuitous argument, but to transact business, all must find it highly advantageous to retain in their memories the maxims of proverbial wisdom.

'* This method of instruction appears to be peculiarly suited to the genius and disposition of the Asiatics, among whom it has prevailed from the earliest ages. The Gymnosophists of India delivered their philosophy in brief enigmatical sentences ; * a practice adopted and carried to a great extent by the ancient Egyptians.f The mode of conveying instruction by compendious maxims obtained among the Hebrews, from the first dawn of their literature, to its final extinction in the East through the power of the Mohammedan arms ; and it was familiar to the inhabitants of Syria and Palestine, as we learn from the testimony of St. Jerome .J The eloquence of Arabia was mostly exhibited in detached and unconnected sentences, which, like so many loose gems, attracted attention by the fulness of the periods, the elegance of the phraseology, and the acuteness of proverbial sayings. § Nor do the Asiatics || at present differ in this respect from

INTRODUCTION. ix

their ancestors ; as numerous amthal, or moral sentences, are in circulation throughout the regions of the East, some of which have been published by Hottinger, Erpenius, the younger Schultens, and others who have distinguished themselves by the pursuit of Oriental learning. ' The moralists of the East,' says Sir William Jon€s, ' have in general chosen to deliver their precepts in short, sententious maxims, to illustrate them by sprightly comparisons, or to inculcate them in the very ancient forms of agreeable apologues. There are, indeed, both in Arabic and Persian, philosophical tracts on ethics, written with sound ratiocination and elegant perspicuity; but in every part of the Eastern world, from Pekin to Damascus, the popular teachers of moral wisdom have immemorially been poets, and there would be no end of enumerating their works, which are still extant in the five principal languages of Asia, ' *

** The ingenious, but ever-disputing and loquacious Greeks were indebted to the same means for their earliest instruction in wisdom. The sayings of the Seven Wise Men, the Golden Yerses of Pythagoras, the remains of Theognis and Phocylides, if genuine, and the Gnomai of the older poets, testify the prevalence of aphorisms in ancient Greece. Had no specimens remained of Hellenic proverbs, we might have concluded this to be the case ; for the Greeks borrowed the rudiments, if not the principal part, of their knowledge from those whom they arrogantly termed barbarians ; f and it is only through the medium of compendious maxims and brief sentences that traditionary knowledge can be preserved. J This mode of communicating moral and practical

multa sunt volumina, quae Amthal sive Sententias complectuntur." Sir William Jones, Poeseos Asiaticae Commentarii, p. 275, ed. Eichhorn, Lips,, 1777. See D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, in Amthal, and Les Maximes des Orientaux, at the end of Vol. IV. [See also Arabum Proverbia, edidit G. W. Freytag, Bonnae ad Rhenura, 1838. This work is in four volumes octavo.]

* Disc, on the Philos. of the Asiatics, Works, Vol. I., p. 167, 4to.

t Brucker, Hist. Philos., Lib. II., cap, 1. Burnet, ArchgeologiaB, Lib. I., cap. 9. Shuckford's Connections, Pref. to Vol. I.

X The greatest part of Greek aphorisms have, no doubt, perished ; h

X THE PROVERBS.

wisdom accorded with the sedate and deliherative character of the Romans ; * and, in truth, from its influence over the mind, and its fitness for popular instruction, proverbial expressions exist in all ages and in all languages." f

The whole collection seems, in the title of the book, to be ascribed to Solomon as the author ; and as in 1 Kings, iv. 32, that wise monarch is said to have uttered three thousand proverbs, such has been the received opinion of the Jewish and Christian churches.

In modern times, however, this opinion has been called in question. The learned and sagacious critic, Grotius, advanced the opinion, that the Book of Proverbs was not an original composition of Solomon, but a selection made by him from the proverbs of numerous writers who lived before his time. J This opinion

having fallen into neglect when the dialectic art and a systematic philosophy gained ground among this acute and disputatious people. Eusebius, in his treatise against Marcellus, Lib. I., cap. 3, makes mention of Greek proverbs, and collectors of them. Among the Deperdita are the Kvoiai Juqai of Epicurus. Diog. Laert., Lib. X., p. 724. Cicero, De Finibus, Lib. IL, § 7 ; De Nat. Deor., Lib. I., §30.

* Seneca, Ep. 59. Both Suetonius (Vita Caesaris, § 56) and Cicero (ad Divers., Lib. IX., Ep. 16) speak of the Dicta Collectanea of CsBsar ; namely, Apophthegms collected by him ; and some aphoristic sayings of the ancients are reported by Valerius Maximus, Lib. VII., cap. 2.

t Ray's Collection of English Proverbs is well known; and there is a book entitled, Adagia, sive Proverbiorum omnium quae apud Graecos, Latinos, Hebraeos, Arabes, &c., in Usu fuerunt Collectio, fol.. Erf, 1646. Sir William Jones mentions the precepts of Odin, written in the Runic tongue, and the work of a Persian poet, Sheikh Attdr, as instances of aphoristic composition. (Comment, de Poes. Asiat., p. 274, ed. Eichhorn, Lips., 1777.) Grotius, in his Proleg. to the Proverbs, speaks of the ^ExXuyai of the Byzantine emperors.

INTRODUCTION. xi

has been adopted, and maintained by a variety of arguments, by distinguished critics in modern times. The most important consideration, however, seems to be, that it is not probable, according to the analogy of the literature of other nations, that one man should be the author of so much proverbial v^dsdom. Such proverbs, it is said, have usually been the result of the general sense and experience of a community, and the product of a large number of minds. Solomon may have composed a considerable number of proverbial maxims, and other wise men of the nation, before and after him, may have done the same. Now it is not uncommon, when one has become distinguished for wisdom or wit in a nation, that many things should be ascribed to him of which he is not the author. Thus, the Greeks, it is said, ascribed most of their sententious maxims to Pythagoras ; the Arabs theirs to Lokman and a few others ; the Northern nations theirs to King Odin. In this way the Hebrews may have ascribed their proverbs to their wisest king, Solomon, because it was known of him that he had accomplished more than others in this kind of sententious poetry. Thus the opinion may have been formed, that Solomon was the author of the whole collection of the Hebrew proverbs. But that he was not in a strict sense the author of all the Proverbs has been thought probable, not only from the argument before mentioned, but also from the character of some of the maxims, which would come more naturally from persons in a situation in life different from that of a king. Chapter thirtieth is expressly ascribed to another author, namely, to Agur the son of Jakeh.*

These arguments, however, are not in the highest degree conclusive. It is very evident that the Book of Proverbs is not a mere collection of oral maxims, which were circulated among the people before they were committed to writing, like Frey tag's collection of Arabic, or Ray's of English proverbs. The uniformity in the structure and expression of the proverbs shows that they were the result of elaborate composition. They are all marked by the peculiar characteristic of Hebrew poetry, the par-

"* Some other considerations, of little weight, are adduced in De Wette's Introduction, Vol. II., p. 543, Amer. transl.

xii THE PROVERBS.

allelism. There is also such a general similarity in the diction and style of composition in these proverbs, that it is difficult to believe, that, in their present form, they could have been the production of a great many authors. Many of the thoughts may have been in circulation among the people, expressed in a diferent way. But the style and the poetical form in which they are expressed seem to indicate that very few authors could have had a hand in the composition. From these considerations, and from the historical tradition of the Jews, the more probable conclusion seems to be, that Solomon w^as the composer of the greater part, at least, of the proverbs ascribed to him. Of others he may have been only the collector.

The book of Proverbs bears evident marks of being composed of several smaller collections, which were made at different times. It may accordingly be divided into five distinct parts.

I. The first part consists of the first nine chapters, and contains, not what according to the common use of language are called proverbs, but connected moral discourses in praise of wisdom, and urging to the practice of virtue, especially the virtue of chastity. The discourse or discourses in these nine chapters probably came from the same author. There seems to be no sufficient reason for rejecting the Jewish tradition that Solomon was the author of this part of the book. De Wette^ objects that its didactic and admonitory tone, and its strict injunction of chastity, indicate a teacher of youth, a prophet, or a priest, as the author, rather than a king like Solomon. This objection seems to have some weight ; but whether it should be regarded as decisive against the Jewish tradition concerning the authorship of the book is very doubtful. Our knowledge of the intellectual habits and moral character of Solomon at different periods of his life is too imperfect to allow one to conclude with confidence that he could not have been the author of this portion of the book. Bertholdtf also suggests that a person whose harem was so crowded as that of Solomon would not be likely to speak so highly of the happiness of a man with one wife, in ch. v. 18. He suggests, also,

* Einleitung, &c., § 281. t Einleitung, &c., § 505.

INTRODUCTION. xiii

that the warnings against adultery, in ch. vi. 24, &c., and vii. 5-23, could hardly have come from one to whom it was known that his mother became his father's wife by the commission of that sin. Some few of the sentiments, also, in his opinion, indicate a private person as the author, rather than a king, such as in eh. vi. 26-31. The reader can judge how much force there is in these arguments. To me they seem to have but little weight. The experience of the effects of sin and folly may suggest wise precepts, as well as the enjoyment of the fruits of wisdom.

II. The second part begins with chapter x. and extends to chapter xxii. 17. It is of a very different character from the nine preceding chapters. It contains proverbs properly so called ; sententious maxims of morality or prudence, contained commonly in single verses, and having no connection with each other. This portion of the book has also a separate title, manifestly indicating that it once formed a collection by itself, independent of the first nine chapters.

III. At chapter xxii. 17, it seems probable that another collection begins. For it is introduced by an exhortation extending through several verses, similar to that in ch. i. 1 - 6, This third portion extends from chapter xxii. 17 to chapter xxv. It seems to be distinguished from the second part by a greater connection between the verses, and a more negligent use of the parallelism.

IV. The fourth part of the book begins with chapter xxv. It has a new title, or preface, setting forth that the proverbs contained in it were collected by men employed by King Hezekiah. It extends to chapter xxx.

V. The fifth portion of the book begins with chapter xxx. and extends to the end. It contains some proverbial maxims of a certain Agur, some advice addressed by his mother to a king called Lemuel, and an alphabetical poem, that is, a poem the lines of which begin with the different letters of the Hebrew alphabet in regular succession, the subject of which is the praises of a good wife.

The book of Proverbs is, in a moral and religious point of view, one of the most valuable portions of the Old Testament. It gives a view of the Jewish religion and morality, as pervading the comxiv THE PROVERBS.

mon life of the Jews, much more favorable than that which we receive from the accounts of the ceremonies and forms which are elsewhere enjoined.

It is true that the religion and morality of the book of Proverbs will not bear -a favorable comparison with those of Jesus Christ. Its morality is much less disinterested, being for the most part founded in prudence, rather than in love. Its motives generally are of a much less elevated kind than those which Christianity presents. The idea of the immortality of the soul does not appear to have dawned upon the mind of the author. Prudential motives, founded on a strict earthly retribution, are the principal encouragements to a life of virtue which he presents. This is well, it is true, as far as it goes ; for man should ever be reminded of the laws of the Creator, and of the consequences of violating them. But higher and more disinterested and affectionate motives are necessary for the formation of a perfect character, a character which shall command our highest esteem and love.

But the religion of the book of Proverbs, when compared with that of the heathen world, appears to the highest advantage. Jehovah is there represented as the one creator of the universe, the governor of the world, and the disposer of human destinies. He is set forth as the first cause of all things, and man's highest duty is declared to be that of acknowledging in sentiment and practice the power, wisdom, and goodness of Jehovah in the creation and government of mankind. He is represented as holy and just, as knowing every thing which takes place on the earth, as loving, commending, and rewarding piety and virtue, and as abhorring and punishing sin and transgression.

^' For the ways of man are before the eyes of Jehovah, And he weighs well all his paths." Ch. v. 21.

** The eyes of Jehovah are in every place ; They behold the evil and the good." Ch. xv. 3.

'* The under- world, yea, the region of death, is before Jehovah ; How much more the hearts of the sons of men." lb. 11.

** All the ways of a man are pure in his own eyes ; But Jehovah weighs the spirit." Ch. xvi. 2.

INTRODUCTION. XV

The incomprehensibility of God is also set forth in this book in striking language. No human powers are capable of comprehending his nature, or understanding his works.

** I have not learned wisdom, Nor have I the knowledge of the Most Holy.

Who has gone up into heaven and come down 1 Who has gathered the wind in his fists ?

Who has bound up the waters in a garment ?

Who has established all the ends of the earth 1 What is his name, and what his son's name, if thou knowest?" Ch. XXX. 2-4.

The providence of God is represented as ever active and universal. It is over all his works, and nothing takes place which is not in accordance with his will and ordination. It is accomplished by the almighty power of Jehovah, and no mention is made in this book of the instrumentality of angels. Not only the outward fortunes, but the minds of men, according to it, are under the complete control of Jehovah.

*' Trust in Jehovah with all thy heart.

And lean not on thine own understanding ; In all thy ways acknowledge him.

And he will make thy paths plain." Ch. iii. 5, 6.

'' To man belongs the preparation of the heart ; But the answer of the tongue is from Jehovah." Ch. xvi. 1.

" Commit thy doings to Jehovah, And thy purposes shall be established." lb. 3.

" As streams of water, So is the heart of the king in the hand of Jehovah ; He turns it whithersoever he will." Ch. xxi. 1.

** It is the blessing of Jehovah that makes rich, And he adds no sorrow with it." Ch. x. 22.

From this last quotation. Dr. Baur"^ takes occasion to remark, that, according to this book, *' blessings are granted to God's

* See Extracts from Baur's Theology of the Old Testament, London, 1838, p. 84.

xvi THE PROVERBS.

favorites, independent of any exertions on their part." A more superficial and unfounded remark, or more inconsistent with the whole tenor of the book, could not have been made. The obvious meaning of the verse is, that, while wealth may be gained by labor by the wicked as well as the righteous, that wealth only is free from sorrow which is gained by means which have the approbation and blessing of Jehovah.

In fact, the most prevalent idea in the whole book is that of an exact temporal retribution to men for their good and bad deeds. What inconceivable rashness, then, was it in Dr. Baur to assert the doctrine of the book to be, that blessings were granted to Jehovah's favorites, independent of any exertions on their part I

Another important religious doctrine taught in this book is, that the evils which afflict the righteous man are to be regarded by him as the chastenings of Jehovah, inflicted by God in order to promote the moral improvement of him whom he loves.

'^ My son, despise not the correction of Jehovah, Nor be impatient under his chastisement !

For whom Jehovah loves he chastens, Even as a father the son in whom he delights." Ch. iii. 11,12.

But the character of God, as a father seeking to reclaim the wicked by manifestations of love, is not prominent in this book. The doctrine of Christ on this subject is so far beyond what can be found in the book of Proverbs, or in any part of the Old Testament, as to deserve the appellation of a new doctrine.

Dr. Baur thinks that he finds in this book the doctrine, that Jehovah predestinated men to wickedness and to punishment. The passage on which he founds the remark is contained in ch. xvi. 4. In the common version it is translated : — ** The Lord hath made all things for himself ; yea, even the wicked for the day of evil."

Against the interpretation of this passage which makes it mean that Jehovah made man wicked on purpose to inflict evil upon him, the most obvious remark is, that common sense cannot reconcile it with the strict doctrine of retribution which pervades the book of Proverbs. The verse seems, also, not only to admit, but to require, a translation somewhat diflferent. Thus, —

INTRODUCTION. xvii

'' Jehovah has ordained every thing for its end ; Even the wicked for the day of evil."

It appears to me, that, if we take into view the connection in which the verse stands, and also the general tenor of the book in regard to a righteous retribution, the meaning of the passage will appear to be nothing more than this, — that God has ordained every thing to that which answers to it, or is fit for it, and the wicked he has ordained for the day of evil, i. e. of punishment. There is not only a wise arrangement and correspondence in good things, but also in evil things ; for the evil of punishment follows the evil of guilt ; the evil day is appointed for the evil-doer. The idea, that the Almighty makes men wdcked for the very purpose of inflicting evil on them, is too metaphysical for the writer, whose maxims are drawn from common sense and observation, and not from mystical or metaphysical musings.

The necessity of religion, which is spoken of under the name of the fear of Jehovah, is inculcated in this book in strong and emphatic language, as the beginning of wisdom and the fountain of happiness. Of sacrifices and oflferings very little is said. The author insists almost exclusively upon the substantial duties of morality and religion. He seems to rely upon obedience to God's laws, amendment of life, justice, purity, and mercy, as the means of securing the forgiveness and favor of Jehovah, rather than upon formal offerings for sin.

'' To do justice and equity Is more acceptable to Jehovah than sacrifice." Ch. xxi. 3.

Such are the views of morality and religion taught in the book of Proverbs ; views which may well command our admiration, when we consider when and w^here they were taught. Still, we must remember that our duty is now to be learned from Christ, rather than from Solomon. We must examine ourselves by the light of the Sermon on the Mount, rather than by that of the book of Proverbs. A greater than Solomon is here. He is come in his kingdom, and by his laws we are to be judged.

One interesting characteristic of the book of Proverbs is the frequent personification of wisdom, as an attribute of God, as well xviii THE PROVERBS.

as the guide of men, which occurs in it. She is represented as existing- prior to the Creation.

*' Jehovah formed me, the first of his creation, Before his works, of old ; I was anointed from everlasting, From the beginning, even before the earth was made. When as yet there were no deeps, I was brought forth ;

When there were no springs, abounding with water

Then was I by him, as a master-builder ; I was his delight day by day.

Exulting continually in his presence ; Exulting in the habitable part of his earth, And my delight was with the sons of men."

Wisdom is here represented as a female and a queen, the assistant, counsellor, and architect of the Almighty in the creation of the world out of chaos. This bold personification is perfectly agreeable to the genius of the Hebrew poets, who represent Zion as stretching out her hands, having none to comfort her ; and the inanimate ways which lead to the temple of Jerusalem as mourning, because none came to the solemn festivals ; and all the trees of the field as clapping their hands, in token of joy that the ransomed of Jehovah were returning to Zion.

That the representation of wisdom in the eighth chapter of this book is a personification, and not a real person, as the Church fathers and many in modern times have supposed is perfectly manifest from the connection in which it stands, and the previous personification of wisdom as an attribute of man. It is the same attribute by which kings reign and princes decree justice, that is found by all that love her, that loves them who love her, that cries aloud to the sons of men at the corners of the streets, which is immediately afterwards represented as the counsellor and architect of the Deity. If, when he speaks of wisdom as the guide and instructer of men, he does not refer to any thing personal, we have no reason to suppose, that, w^hen he speaks of wisdom as the counsellor and architect of the Deity, he meant any thing more, than that all the works of God were created by his wisdom, and manifest its excellence.

INTRODUCTION. xix

This personification of wisdom in the book of Proverbs is worthy of attention, as illustrating the natural origin of the doctrine of a personal Logos, or intermediate personal agent between the Deity and created things, in the creation and government of the world. For how easy would be the transition from such a personification of wisdom to the representation of it as a real person !

A list of the principal commentators on this book may be seen in Rosenmiiller's Scholia in Yetus Testamentum. The latest English works on the Proverbs, which I have seen, are, — An Attempt towards an Improved Translation of the Proverbs, with Notes Critical and Explanatory, and a Preliminary Dissertation, by the Rev. George Holden, London, 1819, 8vo., — A New Translation of the Proverbs, with Explanatory Notes, by William French, D. D., and Rev. George Skinner, M. A., London, 1831, — and the translation in Boothroyd's Version of the Bible, London, 1843. The best recent works on Proverbs, which I have examined, are the Scholia of Rosenmiiller, Leipsic, 1629, — the German version and commentary of Umbreit, Heidelberg, 1826, — and the excellent German version of De Wette, in the third edition of his Translation of the Scriptures, Heidelberg, 1839.

THE PROVERBS.

Introduction. Warning against evil company. — Ch. i. 1-19.

1 The proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of

Israel :

2 From which men may learn wisdom and instruction, And receive words of understanding ;

3 From which they may gain the instruction of prudence, Justice, equity, and uprightness ;

4 Which will give caution to the simple.

To the young man wisdom and discretion ;

5 The wise man may hear and increase his knowledge. And the man of understanding may gain wise directions ;

6 By which they may understand a proverb and a deep

maxim.

The words of the wise and their dark sayings.

7 The fear of Jehovah is the beginning of knowledge ; Fools despise wisdom and instruction.

8 Hear, O my son, the instruction of thy father. And neglect not the precepts of thy mother !

9 For they shall be a graceful wreath for thy head. And chains around thy neck.

2 THE PROVERBS. [Ch. i.

10 My son, if sinners entice thee, Consent thou not !

11 If they say, " Come with us.

Let us lie in wait for blood.

Let us lurk secretly for the innocent without cause ;

12 Let us swallow them up, as the under-world the living, Yea, whole, as those that go down into the pit ;

13 We shall find all kinds of precious substance. We shall fill our houses with spoil ;

14 Thou shalt cast thy lot among us ; We will all have one purse " ; —

15 My son, walk thou not in their way, Refrain thy foot from their path !

16 For their feet run to evil.

And make haste to shed blood.

17 For as the net is spread in vain Before the eyes of any bird,

18 So they lie in wait for their own blood ; They lurk secretly for their own lives.

19 Such are the ways of all who are greedy of unjust gain ; It takes away the life of its possessors.