Outlines of geonomy: a treatise on the physical laws of the earth and the creation of the continents. Founded upon recent discoveries

Preface

In submitting this outline of a novel system of geonomy, and asking that it may be admitted into the confederation of recognized sciences, to occupy, at once, the place of geology and physical geography, I am conscious that I render myself liable to be charged with egotism ; and if it shall be found, upon a proper investigation, that what I deem to be new and important discoveries are merely erroneous fancies, I shall abandon all defence, and throw myself upon the mercy of the public. If, on the contrary, it shall appear that I am not mistaken in regard to the essential principles of the new form of science which I propose to introduce, I shall hope and expect that the faults and eiTors that accompany the truths will be looked upon with a lenient eye, and attiibuted in a great measure to the numerous disadvantages under which the author has labored.

This little book is designed merely as the forerunner of a larger volume, which will be presented to the public hereafter. In the mean time, I would respectfully solicit from the friends of science the communication of any facts or suorgestiong which may be useful in bringing the geonomic system nearer to perfection. A wilderness of details is yet unexplored. Even 1* , (5)

6 PREFACE.

in preparing this meagre outline, I have been painfully sensible of the want of correct information ; but I am tempted to hide my own deficiencies behind the reflection that no one individual is at present capable of doing full justice to a theme so vast and comprehensive in its general outlines, and at the same time so rich and varied in its minor features. It is worthy of the united labors of all the scientific minds of all countries ; and to them I earnestly commend it.

The Hon. L. Chandler Ball is the only person whom I have consulted during this investigation ; and it is proper that I should publicly acknowledge the obligations Avhich I am under for his valuable assistance and his friendly criticisms. While travelling a short distance with him among the lower ridges of the northern part of the Alleghanies, he pointed out the necessity of modifying my views in such a way as to account for the peculiar and frequent, but gentle, rocky undulations that abound among the most ancient stratified formations. I was thus led to new researches, which resulted in the important conclusion, that when the first mountains were made, the earth's crust was much thinner and more flexible, and admitted of being more readily bent into small folds than when it became colder and thicker. This enables us to understand the reason of the fact that mountains have been raised progressively higher, and oceans depressed lower, from the earliest to the latest geologic ages.

I have purposely avoided all scientific questions which are connected with theological controversies, and confined myself strictly to the subject before me ; but it is proper in this place to remark, that geonomy furnishes additional evidence that the operations of nature are dependent upon universal

PREFACE. 7

laws which, " in the beginning " of time, were made by Him who " weighs the mountains in the scales and the hills in the balances."

We have every reason to conclude that, should another world precisely like this be now launched into its orbit, under the same astronomical circumstances as the earth was, the creative laws would reproduce or repeat all the forms of this earth, and in exactly the same order, upon the surface of the new planet ; but it by no means follows that the divine Being has not reserved to himself the power of modifying, or even reversing, his laws, to adapt them to special circumstances. It ill becomes short-lived and frail beings like us to set bounds to the discretionary power of the supreme Ruler of the universe. Let us rather manifest our gratitude for the faculties which he has bestowed upon us by using them to learn and to obey his laws.

J. STANLEY GEIMES.

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM MAP.

The map fs drawn on Mercator^s prtgection, which, though convenient when we wish to show the whole earth at one view, is not strictly correct, because it represents the diameter of the earth from east to west as if it were as great at the poles as it is at the equator 5 whereas, in reality, it grows continually smaller from the equator to the poles, as it is represoated on maps with the globular projection.

Arrows are drawn on the map, following each other along a dotted line, so as to represent the normal elliptical currents, circulating independently of each other, and covering the surface of the whole earth, except a few angular inter-elliptical spaces, the principal of which are South America, Africa, Australia, Greenland, Kamschatka, Alaska, Mexico, and India.

The ai-rows on the land are designed to represent the courses of the ancient currents of water which circulated over the land before it was elevated from the bottom of the sea to its present situation. The principal mountain- ranges of the earth are parallel to these ellipses, as any one can perceive by comparing a good atlas with the diagram.

The arrows on the water represent, though in a general manner only, the courses which the present ocean currents originally and normally pursued. I have not attempted, in this diagram, to give all the subordinate currents as they now circulate, in gulfs, and bays,

EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM MAP. 9

and among islands, nor in all places where the partial drainage of the continents has caused counter currents to overiBiow from inland seas, and disturb the normal directions of the main currents.

In the North Atlantic, I have represented the course of the Gulf Stream as if it were directly north-east from Florida to Spitzbergen ; and analogy, as well as the general forms of the land, indicates that this was the direction in which it did run before the upheaval of the more southern parts of the North American continent. That event forced the remaining inland seas to find an outlet to the east through ii Davis's Strait, elevated the Grand Banks, and deflected the Gulf ij Stream more to the east, across the ocean, to the European side. I There the main cmTent of the stream is divided into several abnormal branches.

The arrows in the North Atlantic and Baffin's Bay that are not in a range ^iih the dotted lines are intended to represent the irregular branches, and also the course, of the main current from Newfoundland to Europe.

The arrows represent all currents as nmning westerly in the tropical, and easterly in the polar, regions, and north and south between ; and any good atlas will show that the mountains curve in accordance with the curves of the cmTents.

The object of this diagram is to illustrate the principle of oceanic ellipses and their relations to mountain ranges, and not to instruct in the details ; this may be done, hereafter, in a larger' work, with proper illustrations.

If ellipses are to be introduced into geographical science, it will be convenient for reference to divide each ellipse into eight segments, commencing at the equator, and following the courses of the currents as indicated by the arrows. The eight segments would be named and numbered as follows : 1. The mid-Hne, or equatorial segment ; 2. The west raid-Hne segment, bemg that eighth which is between the mid-line segment and the western segment ; 3. The western segment; 4. The west polar segment, being that eighth which is between the

10 EXPLANATION OP THE DIAGRAM MAP.

western and the polar segments j 5. The polar segment ; 6. The east polar segment ; 7. The eastern segment ; 8. The east mid-line segment.

If the above arrangement were adopted, it would, in practice, only be necessary to refer to the number of the segment in order to be miderstood. This plan would be found ver^seful when comparing the fects and details of one ellipse with those of another. Thus, in comparing the Asiatic ellipse with the North American, we could say that the eighth segment of one is occupied by the Anglo-Americans, and of the other by the Chinese. It would also be convenient in describing or in referring to a place. Thus we could say that the Aral Sea is near the second segment of Asia.

Two of the ellipses on the map — one in each hemisphere — are numbered, to show the manner in which they may all be numbered in accordance with the above plan.

SECTION I. Smnmary of Principles of Geonomy. — Comparison of the two Series

of Continents in the Northern Hemisphere 15

SECTION n.

Primitive Melted Condition of the Earth. — No Mountains at first. —

Inequality of the two Hemispheres. — Precession of Equinoxes. . 41

Symmetry of Ocean Currents 47

SECTION m.

Effects of the Earth's Rotation 52

Equatorial Currents west, and Polar Currents east. . . . . . . 54-57

Gulf Stream 58

Maury's Current 63

Overflowing of the Indian Ocean and Baffin's Bay producing Abnormal Currents 65

Rising of the Land in the North Atlantic 69

Elliptic Area of Earthquakes 71

Relation of Mathematics to Geonomy 71

SECTION IV.

Lyell on the Elevation of Mountains during the Tertiary Period. . . 79

Relation of Elevation to Organic Progress 83

Relation of Mountains to Geological Formations 91

I£ CONTENTS.

SECTION V.

Parallelism of Currents, Strata, and Mountains . 92

Mitchell's and Humboldt's Views. — Beaumont on Mouiijains. — Rogers on "Waves 95

Professor Traill on Abrupt Slopes 97

Earthquake at Cutch, in India. — Steam and Explosive Theory. 100, 101

Fourier on Central Heat 104

Herschel on Causes of Volcanoes 105

Thickness of Crust 109

SECTION VI.

Lowlands and Plateaus . 109

Remarkable Earthquakes 115

SECTION vn.

Relation of Currents to Geography 121

Bottom of Atlantic 123

Asiatic Basin . 127

European Basin 129

Caspian and Aral Seas. — Their Surfaces below the Level of the Sea. — Analogies of different Lands. — Cape Cod and Gulf of Mexico. —

Peninsulas 137

Volcanic Band in the Indian Archipelago 138

Relative Elevation of the Continents according to Humboldt. — The

Thermal Equator. — Thermal Tropics 149

Magnetic Needle and its Variations related to Ocean Currents. . . 149

Dip of the Needle 151

SECTION VIII.

Constituents of the Globe. . , 152

Water in the Moon, Mars, and Venus. — Action of Metals on Water

and Atmosphere 158

Metallic Veins 160

SECTION IX.

Comparative Geonomy. — Analogy of the Earth's Oceans and Mountains to those of the Moon and Mars 161

Mountains in the Moon. — Causes of their Peculiarities. — Their Directions liorth and south 164

Conclusion

Facts independent of Theory 167

OUTLINES OF GE0?s^03IY.

Introduction

Geonomy is a science which relates to the physical laws of the earth, and includes all the essential facts of geology and physical geography.

In this treatise those facts are mostly accounted for upon the theory that the weight of the atmosphere, the ocean, and the stratified deposits, pressing unequally upon the granite crust of the earth, causes it to sink unequally, and by reaction produces upward movements of the lava and of the land, and gives birth to earthquakes, volcanoes, mountains, and continents.

The term geonoray is derived from two Greek words, — ge, the earth, and nomos. a law, — and is analogous to the term astronomy^ which is from astron, a star, and nomos.

Geography literally signifies a description of the earth j but it is commonly applied to the surface only. 2 (IS)

Geology signifies a discourse concerning the earth ; it is, however, limited by usage to an explanation of the structure and origin of rocks and fossils, and cannot conveniently be made to include physical geography.

I have adopted the term geonomy, because there is no other word, of equivalent meaning, now in use in this country, and because it appears to be perfectly appropriate. It implies that we are not only acquainted with many facts concerning the structure and natural history of the earth, but, also, that we have at length arrived at a knowledge of the great principles and laws of nature, which, under the same circumstances, must always produce similar terrestrial phenomena and forms. Nearly all the natural sciences may be regarded as subordinate to geonomy, and as each furnishing contributions to enable us to understand the complicated nature of the planet on the surface of which we live.

In order to render the subject more clear and intelligible, I have introduced a brief preliminary section, containing a summary view of the most essential points, expressed in concise terms, and arranged in a natural order.

SECTION I.

SUMMAEY OF THE PRINCIPLES OF GEONOMY.

The following is a summary of the distinct principles of geonomy, which, when properly applied, enable us to solve most of the difficult problems of physical geography and geology.

1. The effect of centrifugal force is to flatten the earth at the poles and enlarge it at the equator, so as to make the equatorial diameter about twenty-six miles greater than the polar diameter.

2. The combined effects of centrifugal force and of gravitation, are to continually maintain the spheroidal form of the earth, and to resist all forces that tend to disturb the equilibrium thus established.

3. As far as we know, the heaviest substances and strata are nearest to the centre of the earth, and the lightest occupy the circumference ; and all substances have a constant tendency to move towards or from the centre of the earth, until they reach the places assigned them by gravity. The result is, that all substances of equal specific gravity tend to occupy equal distances from the centre, and to each constitute a special spheroidal layer or shell around the earth.

4. If centrifugal force and gravity had been left to arrange the substances that compose the earth without the interference of an}' other agent, the surface of the earth would have presented a uniform appearance, and the atmosphere and ocean would have been of equal depth over the surface of all parts of the earth ; there would have been do winds, nor waves,- nor currents; no mountains nor valle\-s j no vegetable nor animal life ; nor any motion whatever, except that produced daily by the tidal influences of the sun and moon.

5. All the phenomena of geology and physical geograpliy, all the innumerable forms of earth, — mountains, valleys, rivers, oceans, — and all the varied manifestations of life, beauty, and intelligence upon our planet, are directly dependent upon the disturbance which the unequal distribution of the sun's rays produces in the equilibrium of the atmosphere and the ocean.

THE ATMOSPHERE.

6. The atmosphere is the outer layer of the earth's subsjances, and being the most volatile, has its balance most easily disturbed by heat, and consequently it reacts with proportionate facility to recover its balance.

The heaviest and densest layers of the atmosphere occupy the space nearest to the surface of the earth, and the lightest layers occupy the spaces which are highest, and are supposed to be about fifty miles above the earth.. Between the lowest and highest parts of the atmosphere there is a regular gradation of density and weight, the air becoming less and less dense from the bottom to the top.

7. Let us assume that the atmosphere is normally composed of fifty distinct layers of air, each of whicli is of a different degree of density from the other, and is one mile in depth. If the lowest layer becomes expanded by heat, so that its density is only equal to that of the tenth layer, the lowest layer will immediately rise and mingle with the air of the tenth, and allow the second layer to subside to the surface of the earth.

If the expansion of air by heat at the surface of the earth was the same in all places, from the equator to the poles, the equalizing movement would be merely upward and downward ; otherwise it would be horizontal, and constitute what is commonly called a wind.

8. The rays of the sun's heat penetrate through the atmosphere without expanding it much, but after striking the earth, are reflected again into the atmosphere, and cause an expansion of the lowest layers only : this expansion is greatest at the equator, and is gradually less as we proceed to the poles.

9. The reason why the direct rays of the sun expand the upper layers of the atmosphere less than they do the lower is that, from some unknown cause, the direct rays of the sun have more penetrating power and less heating power than the reflected rays do, and consequently the rays pass from the sun directly througli the atmosphere to the earth without being obstructed by the air ; but when the rays rebound from the earth, they have not penetrating power sufficient to expand any part of tlie atmosphere except the lower layers.

10. The celestial space through which the earth is moving is many degrees colder than the earth is even at

2* the poles ; consequently, however hot or expanded the lower layers of the atmosphere may become at the equator, they can perfectly recover their density without leaving the tropics, by merely rising to the upper regions.

11. On each side of the equator there is a column of hot and expanded air continually rising and swelling the atmosphere, so as to make it about four miles higher at the equator than at any other part of the earth. When the expanded air reaches a sufficient elevation, it becomes chilled and condensed, so that it is heaviei: than when it left the surface ; of course it immediately begins to fall. Being crowded by the rising and overflowing column of air near the equator, it slides down an inclined plane, poleward, and reaches the surface of the earth at about the thirtieth degree of latitude from the equator. Perhaps it would be more correct if we should say that near the thirtieth degree tlie condensing column from the upper regions of the equator is resisted by the dry cold air beyond the tropics, and prevented from moving farther poleward in the upper regions ; therefore it continues gradually to sink, and by its weight presses upon the lower strata, so as to cause a movement towards and from the poles at the surface of the earth ; just as the pressing of a heavy body into the middle of a trough of water causes a movement of the water towards both ends of the trough.

In accordance with this theory is the fact, that the wind is constantly blowing towards the equator from near the ' thirtieth degree of north and south latitude, and on the contrary it is almost continually blowing towards the poles beyond the thirtieth degree.

It is also in accordance with the fact, that the barometer indicates that the weight of the atmosphere is greater near the thirtieth degree than in any other part of the earth.

THE OCEAN. ,

12. There would be no movements of the ocean in a north and south direction, were it not for the unequal distribution of the sun's rays on the surface of the earth. The tides cause a daily movement of the waters east and west ; but with this exception all the currents of tlie ocean are caused,^ like the currents of the atmosphere, by the disturbance of the equilibrium produced by the sun's heat.

The heat of the sun, all else equal, being greatest at the equator, and becoming gradually less to the poles, the waters of the ocean are, of course, more expanded at the surface the nearer they are to the equator ; and on the contrary, they are more chilled and condensed at the surface the nearer they are to the poles. The consequence of this state of things is, that there is a continual movement going on, between the tropical and polar waters, to restore the equilibrium, which is thus continually being disturbed.

13. Supposing the depth of the water to be equal over the surface of the whole earth, and the bed of the ocean to be smooth, so that there should be no inequalities nor shores to interfere with the natural direction of the waters, what course would the currents pursue ? Would the condensed polar waters move in a mass towards the equator, and the expanded tropical waters move in a mass to meet them near the thirtieth degree of latitude, as the winds meet ? Is there any law which would separate the poleward currents from those which are moving towards the equator, and force each to turn aside, avoid an encounter, and choose a separate path for itself? It is a law of nature that opposing forces, under such circumstances, shall tend to compromise, and form a circuit which is generally of an elliptical or oval form. The planetary bodies, which were in motion long before the ocean waters were, had already set the example of obedience to the law of elliptical motion.

14. Assuming, then, that the current from the pole to the equator constituted half of a circuit, and the current from the equator to the pole the other half of it, what natural laws are there that would impose upon this circuit a definite length, breadth, and form, and restrict the number of distinct circuits? The poles of the earth are but two central points. Several currents, therefore, which go to and from one of the poles without crossing each other must necessarily form acute angles at the pole ; and furthermore, the currents which go from the pole must be continuations of those which go to it.

15. The currents that primitively moved towards the equator, instead of converging to a point, as at the pole, must have diverged and become widely separated from each other. The earth being twenty -four thousand miles in circumference, if there were but three equidistant currents that run to the equator, they must have been eight tliousand miles apart when they reached there ; and as the distance to the pole is but six thousand.

miles, the three primitive ellipses of each hemisphere had their longer diameters from east to west.

16. Let us suppose that the first ocean currents were thus arranged, and that each hemisphere was divided into three elliptical circuits ; what natural laws would govern and limit these circuits ? Before answering this, let us define an ellipse.

An ellipse, or ellipsis, differs from a circle in being longer than it is wide. The most distant extremities of an ellipse are called apsides. The terrestrial ellipses at the present time each have one apsis near the equator, and the other near the arctic or the antarctic circle. The waters of each distinct oceanic basin run in an ellipse from the equator along the western part of the ocean towards the pole, and from the polar region^ along the eastern part of the ocean to the equator. When the primitive currents of water moved from the pole towards the equator, the rotatory motion of the earth must have given them a westward tendency, so that they reached the equator at least two thousand miles farther to the west than if they had moved in a direct line.

When the water of the current arrived at the equator, if it was not yet sufficiently expanded by heat to overflow towards the pole, it moved westward along in the tropics, until it became sufficiently expanded. Let us suppose that it moved along the equator two thousand miles before it turned towards the pole ; it would afterwards naturally move at least two thousand miles farther before it would cease to tend towards the west in any degree, and by this time it would be nearly one third of its way from the equator to the pole. During the remaining two thirds of its journey, the rotation of the earth would curve it in an easterly direction.

17. The causes that move the water in a northern and southern direction are obvious enough, and so are those that bring the currents together at the poles ; but the causes that operate at the equator to send the current eight thousand miles in a western direction require to be fui-ther considered. First: the rotatory motion of the earth gives all currents which are moving towards the equator a western tendency, which is greater the nearer they approach to the equator. Second: a current which embraces one third of the waters of the earth must be very broad, and must require considerable room to turn in, and but a short segment of it would actually touch the equator before it would turn again towards the pole, gradually curving, until it moved in an easterly direction. Third : It must be evident that the larger the body of water which required warming, the longer must be the space which it would occupy parallel with the equator ; and it must be equally evident that when the water near the equator is warmed to a certain degree, it must turn towards the pole ; and this fact limits the size of ellipses, and prevents the equatorial waters from moving in a continuous stream around the earth. Fourth : the current from the pole must strike the equator at a certain point, and after moving a certain distance, leave the equator at another more western point, in order to return to the pole ; the distance between these two points will depend principally upon the distance to the pole, the depth of the water, and the difference of temperature between the tropic and the pole ; but one thing is demonstrable, and that is, that an ellipse of waters can move no farther westerly along the equator than is necessary to acquire a certain degree of warmth.

18. If the southern hemisphere was originally divided into only three ellipses, as appearances now indicate that it was, the reasons given above are sufficient to account for the fact ; and if the northern hemisphere contains evidences of having been divided into six ellipses, it will naturally be accounted for by supposing that its three original ellipses were each divided, as the continents gradually rose and limited the area in which the waters moved.

MOUNTAINS AND CONTINENTS.

19. It appears that the principal ranges of mountains were originally the boundaries and divisions between the great oceanic ellipses. In the southern hemisphere, from the north and south mountain ranges of Africa to the mountains which run north and south in South America, there was originally one ellipse, which was bounded east and west by those mountains ; and even now this may be geonomically considered as one basin. From the north and south mountain ranges of South America to the north and south mountains of eastern Australia there was another very similar ellipse. From the north and south ranges on the western coast of Australia to the north and south ranges of Africa was a third ellipse. These three great ellipses, or basins, now constitute the three great oceans of the southern hemisphere, namely, the South Atlantic, the South Pacific, and the Indian Ocean ; and they are separated from each other by three analogous elevations of land, namely, Africa, South America, and Australia. These three elevations originally divided the southern hemisphere into three nearly equal parts.

In the space between the southern shore of Australia and the antarctic continent, the forms of the land indicate that there is a small independent ellipse ; but we know nothing concerning the directions of the currents there, and this region must therefore be put down as doubtful. There are also some evidences of a distinct ellipse between New Zealand and Australia ; but as both of these last mentioned are doubtful in the present state of our knowledge, and as, if they do exist, they are the consequences of a derangement of the primitive ellipses, produced by the elevation of so much land above the sea, I will leave them out of the account in this place, and speak of the southern hemisphere as possessing only three great oceanic basins.

In the northern hemisphere the equivalent of the Indian Ocean is the continent of Asia ; the equivalent of the South Atlantic basin, including a large part of Africa, and of South America, is found in Europe, the North Atlantic, and North America ; the North and South Pacific Oceans balance each other. The northern hemisphere is in six ellipses, as follows : —

First. Asia extends from the Aldan Mountains to the Oural Mountains, and originally constituted a distinct submarine ellipse.

Second. Europe extends from the Ourals to the

Scandinavians, and though small, has the undoubted marks of a separate ellipse.

Third. The North Atlantic constitutes a model and well-known ellipse called " the Gulf Stream."

Fourth. North America was once overflowed by an ellipse of the ocean extending from the Appalachians to the Rocky Mountains*

Fifth. There is an imperfect ellipse now in the process of draining, and rising in the north-west part of North America, between the Rocky Mountains, the peninsula of Alaska, and the Sandwich Islands.

Sixth. An oceanic ellipse evidently exists between Alaska and China, which I will denominate the north-west Pacific ellipse.

20. A demonstrable parallelism exists between the normal currents of the ocean and the principal ranges of mountains, which renders it evident that there is a necessary connection between the two classes of phenomena that may rationally be accounted for as follows : —

21. When the earth was first formed, its surface was too hot to allow the waters to remain upon it ; but the ocean then existed in the form of vapor circulating in the atmosphere around the solid earth. Under these circumstances, there was nothing to prevent the earth from assuming a spheroidal form, without any irregularities upon its surface ; it had neither mountains nor valleys, and it would have remained in this regular and smooth condition, had not the gradual radiation of heat into the celestial spaces caused the formation around the earth of a shell or crust of cooled lava^- upon the surface of which the condensed vapors fell, to constitute the ocean.