The ruling principle of method applied to education

Front matter

f

THAT TEACHEST

ANOTHER 'EACHEST THOU NO'

Book I. On The Ruling Principle Of Method

Chap. I. — On the gradations which must be observed in the mental operations required of children .... c ... . 12

Chap. II. — The gradation of mental operations depends on the gradation of objects to which the attention of children is directed • 13

Chap. III. — On the natural order in which objects present themselves to the human mind, first discerned in classification . . 15

Chap. IV. — Continuation. — Method of teaching children the classification of things 16

Chap. V. — Continuation. — Order in which objects present themselves to the human mind in the local distribution of things . . 29

Chap. VI. — On the natural order in which objects are presented to the mind in abstract reasoning 34

Chap. VII. — Recapitulation 37

Chap. VIII. — Natural and necessary order of intellectual action 38

Chap. IX. — Ruling principle of method 39

xi

Xll CONTENTS.

Book II

ON THE APPLICATION TO LITTLE CHILDREN OF THE RULING PRINCIPLE OF METHOD.

PAGE

SECTION I. — On the Necessity of Classifying the Cognitions OF THE Human Mind according to their Order 41

SECTION 11. — On the Cognitions of the First Order and

THE Corresponding Stage of Education 45

Chap. I. — Which are the cognitions of the First Order .... 45

Art. I. — What is the stimulus which primarily excites the

intellectual attention of man ? 47

Art. II. — What is the object of the primary cognitions ? . . 47

Art. III. — What are perceptions 1 48

Art. IV. — Of what improvement the human perceptions are

capable • 51

Art. V. — To the First Order of cognitions besides perceptions belong also the memory of perceptions ; the imaginal ideas ; the associations of the three species enumerated, together with the whole action awakened by them in the mind 56

Chap. II. — On the activities which respond to the First Order of

cognitions 59

Art. I. — Distinction between the two first periods of childhood 59

Art. II. — Activities proper to the First Period 61

Art. III. — Activities proper to the Second Period .... 66

Chap. III. — On the education and instruction of the child through the two first periods of life 73

Art. I. — On Religion 73

Art. II. — The 9,cts of the will are stronger in childhood than in adult years 74

Art. III. — The tendency of education in early childhood should be rather to cultivate feeling and volition than intellect 76

Art. IV. — The actions produced by the animal feelings are - connected by the laws of nature : the earliest volitions, and the intellectual feelings consequent upon them, are in themselves disconnected 77

CONTENTS. Xlll

PAGE

Art. V. — Observations and experiments tlie child should be

led to make 79

Art. VI. — The educator should regulate the perceptions of

the child 80

Art. VII. — Patience and sagacity required by the educator

for this purpose 80

Art. VIII. — Order to be introduced in the perceptions of

the child 81

SECTION III. — On the Second Order of Cognitions and THE Corresponding Education 84

Chap. I. — Third period of childhood 84

Chap. II. — What are the cognitions of the Second Order ... 85

Art. I. — What are the cognitions of the Second Order in general 85

Art. II. — Two kinds of cognition beyond the reach of the mind at a certain period of life, — the one because it is of too high an order, the other because it does not attract the attention, which lacks the necessary stimulus 85

Art. III. — What is the motive which impels the child towards cognitions £)f the Second Order 89

Art. IV. — The two kinds of cognition to which language impels the child's intelligence 91

Art. V. — What are the cognitions gained by the child through language 91

Art. VI. — What are the cognitions of the Second Order

§ 1 . — Abstractions formed immediately from sensible things 96

§ 2. — First classification of sensible things 104

§ 3. — Integration . 106

Chap. IV. — Of the teaching corresponding to the Second Order of cognitions 112

Art. I. — Four errors to be avoided by teachers 112

Art. II. — The gain to the mind from the regularity with which perceptions and imaginal ideas have been imparted in the preceding period 113

XIV CONTENTS.

PAGE

Art. III. — Matter and instrument of instruction, — language 11-1

§ 1. — Tlie child should be taught to name the greatest

possible number of things 114

§2. — Limits of this instruction 114

§3. — Double practice in language, — natural and artificial 115

§4. — Continuation. — Artificial practice 117

Chap. V. — Education of the active faculties corresponding to cognitions of the Second Order ' 125

Art. I. — Difficulty of determining which should be the negative and which the positive part of education 125

Art. II. — Difficulty of determining how much the teacher should give the child and how much he should require from him 127

Art. III. — What is the moral rule of the child arrived at the Second Order of cognitions 133

Art. IV. — Can the morality of the child be injured while he is still in the second stage of cognitions 1 138

Art. V. — How to make use of the child's faculty of belief, to incline him to moral goodness 142

Art. VI. — Other means towards the same end 143

Art. VII. — On resistance, considered in relation to the Third Period in childhood 146

§ 1. — Exercise of patience which may be required of the

child 147

§ 2. — Correction of the child's conceptions 147

§ 3. — Rectification of bad feelings 149

§ 4. — Removal of the limits too easily set to the benevolent

affections 150

Art. VIII. — Acts of religious worship which the child should begin to perform at this age 160

SECTION IV. — On the Cognitions or the Third Order and THE Corresponding Education 166

Chap. I. — The Fourth Period of childhood, and the difference between the periods and the orders of cognitions 166

Chap. II. — On the mental progress made at that age with regard to the cognitions of the preceding orders and the concomitant development of the other faculties 168

CONTENTS. XV

PAGE

Chap. III. — On the cognitions of the Third Order 169

Art. I. — What are the cognitions of the Third Order in

general 1 169

Art. II. — Method we shall follow henceforth in the exposition of human development 171

Art. III. — Processes by which the mind arrives at cognitions

of the Third Order 173

§ 1. — Cognitions of the Third Order are always reached

through synthetic judgments 173

§ 2. — AVhat is contributed by analytic judgments to the

Third Order of cognitions ,176

§ 3. — Catathetical ratiocination at this period 178

Art. IV. — Objects of the cognitions of the Third Order . . 179

§1. — Reality and ideality 179

A. Collections, numbers 179

B. Definite principles 186

§ 2. — Morality — moral principles 189

Chap. IV. — Development of the active faculties in the Fourth

Period of childhood 192

Art. I. — Increase of spontaneous activity 192

Art. II. — Desultoriness of action 194

Art. III. — Play 195

Art. IV. — Moral activity 197

Chap. V. — The instruction corresponding to the cognitions of

the Third Order 202

Art. I. — What is meant more fully by instruction corresponding to a certain order of cognitions 202

Art. II. — The language and style to be used by the teacher 202

Art. III. — ^[atter of instruction 204

§ 2. — Oral exercises 204

§ 3. — Teaching by pictures . . . > 210

Chap. VI. — The moral education corresponding to the Third Period 211

Art. I. — On the objective principle and the subjective principle on which the child acts at this period 211

Art. II. — On resistance, considered in relation to the child

in the Fourth Period 215

XVI CONTENTS.

PAGE

Art. III. — Divine worship 216

Chap. I. — Cognitions of the Fourth Order 217

Art. I. — Classification of the cognitions of the Fourth Order 217 Art. II. — Mental processes in the formation of cognitions of

the Fourth Order 218

§ 1. — Analytic judgments 218

§ 2. — Synthetic judgments 220

§ 3. — Hypothetical ratiocination 221

Art. III. — Objects of the cognitions of the Fourth Order . 222

§1.— Reality and ideality 222

A. Differences . 222

B. Numbers 223

C. Collections 224

D. Means and end 224

E. Intellectual perception of one's self (of the I proper) 224

F. Time 232

G. First definite principles drawn from the ideas of

actions 234

§ 2. — Morality, moral principles, conscience ..... 245

§3. — Idea of God 250

Chap. II. — Development of the active faculties of the Fourth Order of cognitions 254

Art. I. — With the Fourth Order begin appreciative volitions 255

Art. II. — Freedom 256

Art. III. — How belief and docility naturally increase in the

child 258

Art. IV. — Desire to influence others 260

Chap. III. — Instruction adapted to the Fourth Order of cognitions 261

Art. I. — How language should be the fomidation of all instruction of the young . . . . ^ 261

Art. II. — Exercise of external activity, of imagination, memory, and the affections 263

Art. III. — Oral exercises in this period 265

Art. IV. — Instruction in reading and writing 266

Art. V. — Arithmetic 270

CONTENTS. XVll

PAGE

Art. VI. — Unification of ideas and thoughts 270

§ 1. — Association of ideas 272

§ 2. — Order of ideas 275

§ 3. — Moral order of ideas 278

Chap. IV. — Moral education corresponding to the Fourth Order

of cognitions 283

Art. I. — The child's credulity should not be abused . . . 283

Art. II. — Obedience not to be abused 286

Art. III. — On maintaining the rectitude of the child's conscience 287

§ 1. — How the will of the educator, which is the child's

supreme law, should be good 291

§ 2. — The will of the educator, being the child's supreme law, should be good with a goodness the child can

recognize 292

§ 3. — How the child should be led upwards'from the knowledge of the goodness proper to the human will, to

knowledge of the goodness proper to the Divine will . 295

Chap. I. — The development of intelligence which takes place in

the Fifth Order 300

Art. I. — Processes by which cognitions of the Fifth Order are

formed 301

§ 1. — Synthetic judgments of the third species .... 301

§ 2. — Analytic judgments of the Fifth Order 304

§ 3. — Disjunctive ratiocination ^if 305

Art. II. — Objects of the cognitions of the Fifth Order . . . 307

§1. — The real and the ideal 307

A. Numbers 307

B. Order of value between objects 307

a Time 308

D. Cognition of the I 309

§2. — Morality, moral principles 311

A. Beginnings of remorse and conscience 311

B. Moral principles in the fifth order. — Duty of moral

fortitude 310

XVm CONTENTS.

PAGE

C. Duty of honoring the will of the most worthy before

all others 318

2). Beginning of abstract moral principles, as distinguished from the concrete 323

E. Increased difficulty of right moral conduct, from the appearance in the mind of abstract moral standards 326

F. Difficulty of perfect truthfulness for the child . . 328

G. How the three categorical moral principles begin to manifest themselves clearly at this period . . . 332

§ 3. Notion of God 333

Chap. II. — Development of the active faculties and of the moral condition of the child in the Fifth Order of cognitions . . . 334 Art. I. — Development of the child's imagination ; mainly

caused by definite principles regarding the action of things 334 Art. II. — Moral advantage of the development of the imagination 340

Art. III. — Moral injury from the development of the imagination 345

Art. IV. — Self-consciousness of the child at that age, considered in relation to morality. — Moral injury. — Selfishness 353 Art. V. — Continuation. — Two degrees of selfishness . . . 355 Art. VI. — Continuation. — Judgment by two measures. —

Childish artifices 356

Art. VII. — Moral apathy and restiveness . 357

Art. VIII. — Moral advantages of self-consciousness . . . 359 Art. IX. — Continuation 360

SKETCH

OF THE

LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINL'

Antonio Rosmini Sp^ubati was born on the 25th of March, 1797, at Rovereto, in the Italian Tyrol. His father, Pier Modesto Rosmini Serbati, belonged to an old, wealthy, and noble family, originally called Aresmino or Eresmino. His mother was a Countess Giovanna dei Formenti, from Riva, on the Lake of Garda. Both, like many of their ancestors, were cultivated, generous, and pious people, zealously devoted to the service of tlie Church, but do not seem to have been in any other way remarkable. Antonio was a delicate and finely organized child, and very early showed signs of those virtues of head and heart for which he afterwards became remarkable, as well as of that religious and devotional tendency which gave aim to his whole life. Being fond of study, he entered, when still very young, the gymnasium of his native town, and there so distinguished himself that the rector was able to predict, in no indefinite terms, the boy's future greatness. After leaving the gymnasium he remained two years at home, studying mathematics and philosophy, for both of which he early displayed great tendency and capacity. It was in the course of these two years (1815-1810) that two of the most important events in Rosmini's life took place, — the discovery of his philosophical principle, and his determination to enter the priesthood. Firm in the latter resolution, and having overcome the strong opposition of his parents, he left

1 This sketch is a summary of that given by ]Mr. Thos. Davidson in his work, "The Philosopliical System of Antonio Eosmini Serbati" (London, Kegan Paul & Co., 1882 ; Boston, Gmn & Co.), whicli I recommend to tlie perusal of all who wish to make themselves acquainted with the nature and extent of the services rendered to philosophy by one of the greatest thinkers of modern times, so little known as yet out of his own country.

(xix)

XX SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINI.

^overeto in 1817, jmd began his theological course at the University of Padua. In 1820 lieTost his father* who left him heir to the bulk of his very considerable property. In 1821 he was ordained priest, and celebrated his first mass at St. Catherine's in Venice.

From 1820 to 1826 Eosmini spent the greater part of his time at his home in Eovereto. It was during this time that the two great purposes which shaped his whole subsequent life became clear to his mind, — the working out of a coherent system of truth, which should be a basis for revealed theology, and the founding of an institution which should train teachers, and especially priests for the Church, in holiness, charity, and wisdom. At first he meant that it should consist of laymen, but afterwards concluded that an association composed in part of priests would be more useful. In February, 1828, he left Milan, where he had mostly lived since 1826, and retired to Domodossola, a small but beautifully situated town in the Piedmontese Alps. Here he led the life of an anchorite, feeding on boiled herbs, frequently fasting, sleeping on a couch of leaves, and spending his time in prayer, meditation, study, and writing. His naturally delicate health broke down under the strain, and he never fully recovered. It was here that, kneeling before a crucifix, he wrote the Eule of his order, and here that he composed a large part of his first important work, " The New Essay on the Origin of Ideas" ^ (Nuovo Saggio sulV Origine delle Idee), which wasi^rinted during his subsequent stay in Rome from November, 1828, to March, 1830, and which at once established his reputation as the ablest Catholic philosopher of his time, and was almost immediately introduced as a text-book into many schools and seminaries, even, it should seem, into those under the control of the Jesuits. During this stay in Rome he received great encouragement from the Pope, Pius VIII., to pursue his philosophical studies, and took steps toward obtaining the approval of the Holy See for his new order.

From 1830 to 1834 Rosmini lived partly at Domodossola, partly in Trent, where he had been invited to found a house of his order. In these years he wrote his "Principles of Moral Science," part of his "Supernatural Anthropology," and in 1832 his now famous "Five Wounds of Holy Church." In 1834 he was called by the clergy and people of his native city, Rovereto, to take charge of the congregation

J Translated into English, and published by Kegan Paul &; Co., London, 1884,

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINI. XXI

of St. Mark's there; but, finding himself hampered in his efforts to improve the moral and spiritual welfare of his parishioners by the jealous opposition of the Austrian government, he resigned his charge in 1835, and at once returned to his previous mode of life. But the Austrian government, having once had its attention called to his work in Rovereto, began to look with suspicion on his efforts generally, and to endeavor to counteract them. With this purpose, it first forbade all connection between his house at Trent and any foreign house, meaning the one at Domodossola, and finally succeeded in breaking it up altogether. This hostility to Rosmini was sharpened by the influence of the Jesuits and their friends, who saw in his enterjDrises possible dangers to their order. From that time until now the persecution of Rosmini and his followers at the hand of the Jesuits has never ceased even for a moment. Freed from parochial duties, Rosmini during the years 1836 - 37 moved a good deal from place to place, trying to secure a footing and sympathy for his order, and to defend the groundwork of his philosophy, which was already vigorously attacked, not only by the Jesuits and their friends, but also by learned men of rationalistic and anti-Catholic tendencies. In these years he was able to found a mission in England, and also to establish, at the Sacra of St. Michele in Turin, a religious house, to which he transferred, for a time, the novitiate of his order.

In 1837 Rosmini, tired of Austrian surveillance, took up his abode at Stresa, on the western shore of the Lago Maggiore, which remained his home for the rest of his life. His institution, in sj)ite of bitter opposition, received in 1839 the formal approval of Pope Gregory XVI., his old and steadfast friend, and continued to increase in strength and numbers. He was able also to vindicate his philosophy from the formidable attacks of Count Mamiani, the able and zealous Italian patriot, who acknowledged his defeat in the most generous terms, and of Vincenzo Gioberti, the great priest-patriot and patriot-philosopher of Italy, who also lived to admit that he had misjudged him altogether. His reply to Gioberti appeared in 1848, that year of so many changes, when Italy was struggling to free herself from the bonds of the hated Austrian. Rosmini is usually spoken of as one of the initiators of the movement which ended in the emancipation and union of Italy ; and it is true that he sincerely longed to see Italy delivered from the Aus-

XXll SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINI.

trian ; but, like a good, consistent Catholic, lie hoped this deliverance would result in placing the country under the control of the Pope. It was this longing and this hope that stirred up the interest which he felt in the political movements of that troubled time, and induced him to take part in them.

In 1848 Rosmmi wrote his " Constitution according to Social Justice," and published his " Five Wounds of Holy Church," written as early as 1832, the ultimate aim of both being to procure for the Pope an inalienable preponderance in the government of Italy, and to make Catholicism a leading article in her constitution. Shortly after the publication of these works the Piedmontese government offered Rosmini, whose influence at Rome was supposed to be great, an appointment as special envoy to the Holy S.ee, in order to obtain the countenance and aid of the Pope, then Pius IX., in the prosecution of the war against the Austrians. Rosmini accepted the mission with readiness, but unfortunately, while the government which appointed him contemplated an armed alliance of princes, capable of offering immediate resistance to the Austrians, what Rosmini meant to labor for was a permanent confederation of states, with the Pope as ex officio president. The government, however, was induced by Gioberti to adopt for a moment Rosmini's plan, and, with a vague understanding to this effect, Rosmini started for Rome, where he was most graciously received by the Pope, appointed a Consultor of the Congregation of the Index, and promised a Cardinal's hat, and immediately began to carry out the object of his mission, as he was fain to understand it. But the Piedmontese government, fearing that his plan, which was approved by the Pope and the Duke of Tuscany, might prove successful, sent him instructions to abandon it and confine himself to the project of an armed alliance. This led to Rosmini's resignation, at the end of seven weeks, the effect of his influence upon the Pope having been to prevent his listening to the Piedmontese proposal, and to confirm him in his resolution to take no direct part in the war. This resolution brought about the crisis which began with the foul assassination of the minister Rossi, and ended with the Pope's flight to Gaeta. In the interval between these events Rosmini, who was supposed to represent the views of patriotic Piedmont, was suggested as a member of the liberal ministry forced upon the Pope, and was by him made president of it,

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINI. XXlll

with the portfolio of Public Instruction. But Rosmini's almost morbidly scrupulous conscience, his sense of incapacity, and, more than all, his fear that his appointment had been made under pressure, and would place him in a false position with the people, induced him to decline the nomination and keep himself out of the way. For whatever reason, his influence with the Pope ceased from that moment. Nevertheless, he followed him in his flight to Gaeta, but found his position there, exposed to the malign suspicions of Antonelli and the party in favor, so uncomfortable, that he betook himself to Naples, thus leaving the field open to his enemies. The latter, aided by the Neapolitan government, which, for reasons of its own, persecuted him during the whole time he remained within the limits of its jurisdiction, succeeded in calling at Naples an irregular meeting of the Congregation of the Index, which pronounced a decree prohibiting his recently published works, " The Constitution according to Social Justice " and " The Five Wounds of Holy Church." Rosmini, though a Consultor of the Congregation, was not informed of this meeting, nor was it till some months later, when he had withdrawn to Albano from the petty persecutions of the Neapolitan government, that he received the news of the prohibition. He submitted to it at once without protest, and offered to withdraw his books from circulation ; but this was not deemed necessary. His enemies had succeeded in surrounding his name with an odor of heresy, and they were satisfied. He shortly afterwards returned to his home and his former saintly life at Stresa. He lived but seven years more. During these he devoted himself exclusively to the care of his institute and' the composition of works forming part of his great system of truth. His enemies, who had been baffled for a time by his hearty submission to the decree prohibiting his two patriotic works, now began a systematic process of calumniation, in order by mere reiteration to convince the Pope that Rosmini was a heretic, and a man dangerous and hostile to the cause of the Holy See. To their dismay, however, they soon found that they had overshot their mark. The Pope knew him personally, and before that knowledge calumny fell dead. Besides, being now restored to his throne, and free to think for himself, Pius IX. saw that he had deeply wronged Rosmini, and resolved to make what reparation was in his power, by giving him a fair hearing. He first enjoined silence on Ros-

Xxiv SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINI.

mini's enemies, and then had the whole of his published works submitted to the most careful scrutiny. The result of this process, which lasted nearly four years (1851-54), was that at a meeting of the Congregation of the Index, the Pope presiding in person, it was declared that all the works of Antonio Rosmini Serbati, lately subjected to examination, were to be dismissed as free from censure, and that, on account of the said examination, no obloquy should attach either to their author or to the institution founded by him, " de vitse laudibus et singularibus in ecclesiam promeritis." The Pope then enjoined perpetual silence on Rosmini's enemies, whose fury in consequence knew no bounds, and from that day to this has not exhausted itself.

Rosmini did not live long to enjoy the satisfaction he must have felt. He died the death of a saint, at Stresa, on the 1st of July, 1855, not without suspicion of having been poisoned. His remains rest in the crypt of the Church of the Holy Crucifix, which he built. Over it is a handsome monument by Vela, representing Rosmini on his knees, in the attitude in which he wrote the Rule of his order. In the college attached to the church is the working part of his library, his manuscripts, and many interesting relics of him.

In regard to the institution which he founded, a few words must suffice. Its proper title is the Listitute of the Brethren of Charity (Istituto del FratelU delta Carita) ; but its members are better known by the shorter name of Rosminians. The fundamental principle of it is complete surrender of the will to the will of God, waiting in faith on the promptings of the Holy Spirit, and its aim the moral perfection of souls through obedience to every law human and Divine, natural and revealed. The principle of all action is to be charity, material, moral, intellectual, " the love of the good, of all the good." The Brethren of Charity undergo a two years' novitiate, take the three monastic vows of obedience, poverty, and chastity, wear no distinguishing habit, and conform to the laws of thfe country in which their lot may happen to be cast. Each retains a sort of title to his own property, but makes a continual sacrifice of it, by disposing of it as the general of the order enjoins. The order, as such, owns no property. In spite of unscrupulous opposition, it is in a fairly prosperous condition, and if its members are not numerous, those who have entered it are among the most human-hearted men and the truest Christians that the present

SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF ANTONIO ROSMINI. XXV

world has to show. They are almost exclusively Italians or Englishmen. The order has two novitiates, one at Domodossola in Piedmont, and one recently removed from Rugby to Wadhurst in Sussex (England). It has also several colleges and religious houses in various parts of Italy and England.

" When we say," writes Mr. Davidson, " that Rosmini was a saint and a thinker of the very first order, we have given in brief the main features of his character A man who, without courting publicity or fame, labored for forty years to do the good as he understood it. The good which he sought to do met with many obstacles in his lifetime, and many more since that came to a close; but his order still keeps alive his spirit of piety, hope, and charity, and his works, in spite of all wilful misrepresentations, calumny, and denunciation, are slowly, but surely, extending their influence in every direction where influence is desirable Wq may differ with him in

many, even fundamental, views and beliefs ; but we need not, and certainly shall not, thereby be prevented from admiring his purity of heart, his unselfishness and tenderness, his singleness and indivertibility of aim, the vastness of his knowledge, and the penetrating force of his intellect. Neither need we be deterred by theologic prejudice from examining his works, and respectfully accepting the truths they contain. By such acceptance we shall be hastening the justice which time is certain, sooner or later, to accord to him and them."i

1 The Philosophical System of Antonio Rosmini Serbati, by Thos. Davidson, pp. xlviii., xlix.

ON THE RULING PRINCIPLE OP METHOD.

Introduction

1. Method is a part of logic, and, if taken in all its bearings, may be said to be itself logic, since the aim of the latter is throvighout to establish the method of conducting our reasoning processes. But the present work does not consider method under this wide extension of its meaning. We must begin, therefore, by laying down the limits within which we shall confine our essay.

2. The human mind has truth for its object, and, in relation to this most noble object, it exercises various functions. Some of these functions relate to truth already known ; others, to truth which is still unknown, and the knowledge of which is sought for.

3. The functions of the mind, in relation to truths already known, may be reduced to three, namely, 1. The communication of it to others; 2. The defence of it; and, 3. The disentanglement of it from error.

4. The functions of the mind, in relation to truth as yet unknown, and which it seeks to know, may also be reduced to three, namely, 1. To find the demonstration of the truths known ; 2. To find the consequences to be derived from fchem through their development and application ; and, 3 and lastly, to attain through the senses, by observation and experience, new data on which to base entirely new arguments.