Notes, explanatory and practical, on the general Epistles of James, Peter, John and Jude

Front matter

NOTES

■HMBHCHMnaHNi

EXPLANATORY AND PRACTICAL,

Introduction

§ 1. The Question who was the Author of this Epistle.

There have been more difficult questions raised in regard to the Epistle oi James than perhaps any other portion of the New Testament. Those questions it is of importance to examine as fully as is consistent with the design of these Notes ; that is, so far as to enable a candid inquirer to see what is the real difficulty in the case, and what is, so far as can be ascertained, the truth.

The first question is, Who was the author 1 It has been attributed to one of three persons : — to James « the elder/ the son of Zebedee, and brother of John ; to James « the less,' son of Alpheus or Cleophas ; and to a James of whom nothing more is known. Some have supposed, also, that the James who is mentioned as the < Lord's brother' (Gal. i. 19), was a different person from James the son of Alpheus.

There are no methods of determining this point from the Epistle itself. All that can be established from the Epistle is, (1.) That the name of the author was JameSy ch. i. 1; (2.) That he professed to be a" servant of God," ch. i. 1 ; (3.) That he had been probably a Jew, and sustained such a relation to those to whom he wrote as to make it proper for him to address them with authority ; and, (4.) That he was a follower of the Lord Jesus Christ, ch. ii. 1 ; v. 8.

There are two persons, if not three, of the name of James, mentioned in the New Testament. The one is James, the son of Zebedee. Matt. iv. 21. Mark iii. 17. Luke vi. 14. Acts i. 13, et al. He was the brother of John, and is usually mentioned in connexion with him. Matt. iv. 21; xvii. 1. Mark v. 37; xiii. 3,et al. The name of their mother was Salome. Comp. Matt, xxvii. 56, with Mark xv. 40. He was put to death by Herod Agrippa, about A. C.41. Acts xii. 2. He was called the major, or the elder — to distinguish him from the other James, the younger, or the less, Mark xv. 40 ; called also, in ancient history, James the Just.

The other James was a son of Alpheus or Cleophas. Matt. x. 3. Mark iii. 18. Acts i. 13. Luke xxiv. 18. That Alpheus and Cleophas was the same person is evident from the fact that both the words are derived from the Hebrew *3Sn — hfralphi. The name of the mother of this James was Mary (Mark xv 40) ; and James, and Joses, and Fimon, and Judas, are mentioned as brethren. Matt xiii. 55. There is also a ranaes mentioned in Matt. xiii. 55. Mark vi. 3

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and Gal. i. 19 , as a "brother of our Lord." On the meaning of this expressions s*e Notes on Gal. i. 19.

It has been a question which has been agitated from the earliest times, whethei the James who is mentioned as the son of Alpheus, and the James who is mentioned as the « Lord's brother," were the same or different persons. It is not necessary for the purposes of these Notes to go into an examination of this question. Those who are disposed to see it pursued, may consult Hug's Intro., § 158, and the wcrks there referred to ; Neander's History of the Planting and Training of the Christian Church, vol. ii. p. 2, seq., Edin. Ed.; and Michaelis' Intro., vol iv. 271, seq. The question, says Neander, is one of the most difficult in the apostolic history. Hug supposes that James the son of Alpheus, and James the brother of the Lord, were the same. Neander supposes that the James mentioned by the title of the " Lord's brother" was a son of Joseph, either by a former marriage, or by Mary, and consequently a •'< brother" in the stricter sense.

It is remarked by Michaelis, that James may have been called « the Lord's brother," or mentioned as one of his brethren, in one of the following senses : (1.) That the persons accounted as the "brethren of the Lord" (Matt. xiiL 55, et al.) were the sons of Joseph, not by Mary the mother of Jesus, but by a former wife. This, says he, was the most ancient opinion, and there is in it nothing improbable. If so, they were older than Jesus. (2.) It may mean that they were the sons of Joseph by Mary, the mother of Jesus. Comp. Notes on Matt, xiii. 55. If so, James was an own brother of Jesus, but younger than he. There is nothing in this opinion inconsistent w T ith any statement in the Bible ; for the notion of the perpetual virginity of Mary is not founded on the authority of the Scriptures. If either of these suppositions were true, however, and James and Judas, the authors of the Epistles which bear their names, were literally the brothers of Christ, it would follow that they were not apostles ; for the elder apostle James was the son of Zebedee, and James the younger was the son of Alpheus. (3.) A third opinion in relation to James, and Joses, and Simon, and Judas, is, that they were the sons of Joseph by the widow of a brother who had died without children, and to whom, therefore, Joseph, by the Mosaic laws, was obliged to raise up issue. This opinion, however, is entirely unsupported, and is wholly improbable ; for (a) the law which obliged the Jews to take their brothers' widows applied only *o those who were single (Michaelis); and (6) if this had been an instance of that kind, all the requirement of the law in the case would have been satisfied when one heir was born. (4.) It might be maintained that, according to the preceding opinion, the brother of Joseph was Alpheus, and then they would be reckoned as his sons ; and in this case, the James and Judas who are called the brothers of Jesus, would have been the same as the apostles of that name. But, in that case, Alpheus would not have been the same as Cleopas, for Cleopas had a wife — the sister of Joseph's wife. (5.) A fifth opinion, and one which was advanced by Jerome, and which has been extensively maintained, is, that the persons referred to were called 'brethren' of the Lord Jesus only in a -somewhat lax sense, as denoting his near kinsmen. See Notes on Gal. i. 19. According to this, they would have been cousins of the Lord Jesus, and the relationship was of this kind : — James and Judas, sons of Alpheus, were the apostles, and consequently Alpheus was the father of Simon and Joses. Farther, Alpheus is the same as Cleopas, who married Mary, the sister of the mother of Jesus (John xix. 25), and eonsequently the sons of Cleopas were cousins of the Saviour.

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Which of these opinions is the correct one, it is impossible now -to determine. The latter is the common opinion, and perhaps, on the whole, best sustained ; and if so, then there were but two Jameses referred to, both apostles, and the one who wrote this Epistle was a cousin of the Lord Jesus. Neander, however, supposes that there were two Jameses besides James the brother of John, the son of Zebedee, and that the one who wrote this Epistle was not the apostle, the son of Alpheus, but was, in the stricter sense, the « brother' of our Lord, and was trained up with him. Hist, of the Planting of Christianity, ii*, i). 3, seq.

It is a circumstance of some importance, in showing that there was but one James besides James the brother of John, and that this was the apostle, the son of Alpheus, that after the death of the elder James (Acts xii. 1), no mention is made of more than one of that name. If there had been, it is hardly possible, says Hug, that there should not have been some allusion to him. This, however, is not conclusive ; for there is no mention of Simon, or Bartholomew, or Thomas after that time.

There is but one serious objection, perhaps, to this theory, which is, tfyat it is said (John vii. 5) that "his brethren did not believe on him." It is possible, however, that the word « brethren' in that place may not have included all his kinsmen, but may have had particular reference to the larger portion of them (ver. 3), who were not believers, though it might have been that some of them were believers.

On the whole, it seems probable that the James who was the author of this Epistle was one of the apostles of that name, the son of Alpheus, and that he was a cousin of our Lord. Entire certainty on that point, however, cannot be hoped for.

If the author of this Epistle was a different person from the one who resided at Jerusalem, and who is often mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, then nothing more is known of him. That James was evidently an apostle (Gal. i. 19), and perhaps, from his relationship to the Lord Jesus, would have a special influence and authority there.

Of this James, little more is certainly known than what is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. Hegesippus, as quoted by Neander, says, that from childhood he led the life of a Nazarene. He is described by Josephus (Archseol. xx. 9), as well as by Hegesippus and Eusebius, as a man eminent for his integrity of life, and as well meriting the appellation or surname which he bore among the Jews, of p v W dtx(uo$, the Just, He is mentioned as one who set himself against the corruptions of the age, and who was thence termed the bulwark of the people — DJ7 — rttpto^jy iov 7&ov> His manner of life is represented as strict and holy, and such as to command in an eminent degree the confidence of his countrymen, the Jews. Hegesippus says that he frequently prostrated himself on his knees in the Temple, calling on God to forgive the sins of his people, praying that the divine judgments on the unbelievers might be averted, and that they might be led to repentance and faith, and thus to a participation of the kingdom of the glorified Messiah. Neander, as above, p. 10.

In the New Testament, James appears as a prominent and leading man in the church at Jerusalem. In later times he is mentioned by the ecclesiastical writers as « Bishop of Jerusalem but this title is not given to him in the New Testament, nor is there any reason to suppose that he filled the office which is nov

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usually denoted by the wort, bishop. He appears, however, from some causa, to have had his home permanently in Jerusalem, and, for a considerable portion of his life, to have been the only apostle residing there. As such, as well as from his near relationship to the Lord Jesus, and his own personal worth, he was entitled to, and received, marked respect. His prominence, and the respect which was shown to him at Jerusalem, appear in the following circumstances: (1.) In the council that was held respecting the rules that were to be imposed on the converts from the Gentiles, and the manner in which they were to be regarded and treated (Acts xv.), after the other apostles had fully delivered their sentiments, the views of James were expressed, and his counsel was followed. Acts xv. 13 — 29. (2.) When Peter was released from prison, in answer to the prayers of the assembled church, he directed those whom he first saw to < go and show these things to James, and to the brethren.' Acts xii. 17. (3.) When Paul visited Jerusalem after his conversion, James is twice mentioned by him as occupying a prominent position there. First, Paul says that when he went there on the first occasion, he saw none of the apostles but Peter, and < James the Lord's brother/ Gal. i. 18, 19. He is here mentioned as one of the apostles, and as sustaining a near relation to the Lord Jesus. On the second occasion, when Paul went up there fourteen years after, he is mentioned, in enumerating those who gave to him the right hand of fellowship, as one of the < pillars' of the church ; and among those who recognised him as an apostle, he is mentioned first. "And when James, Cephas, and John, who seemed to be pillars, perceived the grace that was given unto me, they gave me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship," Gal. ii. 9. (4.) When Paul went up to Jerusalem after his visit to Asia Minor and to Greece, the whole matter pertaining to his visit was Said before James, and his counsel was followed by Paul. Acts xxi 18—24.

The leading points in the character of James seem to have been these : — (1.) Incorruptible integrity; integrity such as to secure the confidence of ali men, and to deserve the appellation of « the Just.' (2.) An exalted regard for the rites and ceremonies of the ancient religion, and a desire that they should be respected everywhere and honoured. He was more slow in coming to the conclusion that they were to be superseded by Christianity than Paul or Peter was (comp. Acts xxi. 18. Gal. ii. 12), though he admitted that they were not to be imposed on the Gentile converts as absolutely binding. Acts xv. 19 — 21, 24— 29. Repeated intimations of his great respect for the laws of Moses are found in the Epistle before us, thus furnishing an internal proof of its genuineness If he was educated as a Nazarene, and if he always resided with the Jews, in the very vicinity of the Temple, this is not difficult to be accounted for, and this might be expected to tinge his writings. (3.) The point from which he contemplated religion particularly was, conformity to the law. He looked at it as it was intended, to regulate the life, and to produce holiness of deportment, in opposition to all lax views of morals and low conceptions of holiness. He lived in a corrupt age, and among corrupt people ; among those who sought to be justified before God by the mere fact that they were Jews, that they had the true religion, and that they were the chosen people of God, and who, in consequence, were lax in their morals, and comparatively regardless of the obligations to personal holiness. He therefore contemplated religion, not so much in respect to the question how man may be justified, as to the question to what kind of lift U will lead us ; and his great object was to show that personal holiness is neces-

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xi gary to salvation. Paul, on the other hand, was led to contemplate it mainly with reference to another question — how man may be justified ; and it became necessary for him to show that men cannot be justified by their own works, but that it must be by faith in the Redeemer. The error which Paul particularly combats, is an error on the subject of justification ; the error which James particularly opposes, is a practical error on the influence of religion on the life. Il was because religion was contemplated by these two writers from these different points of view, and not from any real contradiction, that the apparent discrepancy arose between the Epistle of James and the writings of Paul. The peculiarity in the character and circumstances of James will account for the views which he took of religion ; and, keeping this in mind, it will be easy to show that there is no real contradiction between these writers. It was of great importance to guard against each of the errors referred to ; and the views expressed by both of the apostles are necessary to understand the nature and to see the full developement of religion.

How long James lived, and when and how he died, is not certainly known. It is agreed by all that he spent his last days in Jerusalem, and that he probably died there. On the subject of his death there is a remarkable passage in Josephus, which, though its genuineness has been disputed, is worth transcribing, as, if genuine, it show's the respect in which James was held, and contains an interesting account of his death. It is as follows : — « The emperor [Roman] being informed of the death of Festus, sent Albinus to be prefect of Judea. But the younger Ananus, who, as we said before, was made high priest, was Haughty in his behaviour, and was very ambitious. And, moreover, he was of the sect of the Sadducees, who, as we have also observed before, are, above all other Je^e severe in their judicial sentences. This, then, being the temper of Ananus, he, thinking he had a fit opportunity, because Festus was dead, and Albinus was yet on the road, calls a council. And, bringing before them James, the brother of him who is called Christ, and some others, he accused them as transgressors of the laws, and had them stoned to death. But the most moderate men of the city, who were also reckoned most skilful in the laws, were offended at this proceeding. They therefore sent privately to the king [Agrippa the younger], entreating him to send orders to Ananus no more to attempt any such things."- — Ant., B. xx. A long account of the manner of his death, by Hegesippus, is preserved in Eusebius, going much more into detail, and evidently introducing much that is fabulous. The amount of all that can now be known in regard to his decease would seem to be, that he was put to death by violence in Jerusalem, a short time before the destruction of the Temple. From the well-known character of the Jews, this account is by no means improbable. On the subject of his life and death, the reader may find all that is known in Lardner, Works, vol. vi. pp. 162 — 195; Bacon's Lives of the Apostles, pp. 411 — 433; and Neander, Hist, of the Planting of the Christian Church, ii., pp. 1 — 23, Edin. ed.

The belief that it was this James, the son of Alpheus, who resided so long at Jerusalem, who was the author of this Epistle, has been the common, though not the unanimous opinion of the Christian church, and seems to be supported by satisfactory arguments. It must evidently have been written either by him or by James the elder, the son of Zrbedee, or by some other James, the supposed literal brother of our Lord.

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In regard to these opinions, we may observe,

I. That the supposition that it was written by some third one of that name. « wholly unknown to fame/ is mere hypothesis. It has no evidence whatever in its support.

II. There are strong reasons for supposing that it was not written by Jamea the elder, the son of Zebedee, and brother of John. It has been indeed ascribed to him. In the old Syriac version, in the earlier editions, it is expressly attributed to him. But against this opinion the following objections may be urged, which seem to be conclusive. (1.) James the elder was beheaded about the vear 43, or 44, and if this epistle was written by him, it is the oldest of the v* ritings of the New Testament. It is possible, indeed, that the epistle may have been written at as early a period as that, but the considerations which remain to be stated, will show that this epistle has sufficient internal marks to prove that it was of later origin. (2.) Before the death of James the elder, the preaching of the gospel was chiefly confined within the limits of Palestine ; but this epistle was written to Christians < of the dispersion,' that is, to those who resided out of Palestine. It is hardly credible that in so short a time after the ascension of our Lord, there were so many Christians scattered abroad as to make it probable that a letter would be sent to them. (3.) This epistle is occupied very much with a consideration of a false and perverted view of the doctrine of justification by faith. It is evident that false views on that subject prevailed, and that a considerable corruption of morals was the consequence. But this supposes that the doctrine of justification by faith had been extensively preached ; consequently that considerable time had elapsed from the time when the doctrine had been first promulgated. The perversion of a doctrine, so as to produce injurious effects, seldom occurs until some time after the doctrine was first preached, and it can hardly be supposed that this would have occurred before the death of James, the son of Zebedee. See these reasons stated more at length in Benson.

III. There are strong probabilities, from the epistle itself, to show that it was written by James the Less. (1.) His position at Jerusalem, and his eminence among the apostles, as well as his established character, made it proper that he should address such an epistle to those who were scattered abroad. There was no one among the apostles who would command greater respect from those abroad who were of Jewish origin than James. If he had his residence at Jerusalem ; if he was in any manner regarded as the head of the church there ; if he sustained a near relation to the Lord Jesus; and if his character was such as has been commonly represented, there was no one among the apostles whose opinions would be treated with greater respect, or who would be considered as having a clearer right to address those who were scattered abroad. (2.) The character of the epistle accords with the well-known character of James the Less. His strong regard for the law ; his zeal for incorruptible integrity ; his opposition to lax notions of morals ; his opposition to all reliance on faith that was not productive of good works, all appear in this epistle. The necessity of conformity to the law of God, and of a holy life, is everywhere apparent, and the views expressed in the epistle agree with all that is stated of the early education and the established character of James. While there is no real contra diction between this epistle and the writings of Paul, yet it is much more easy to show that this is a production of James than it would be to prove that it wa* written by Paul. Comp* Hug, Intro., § 159.

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§ 2. To whom was the Epistle written ?

The epistle purports to have been written to « the twelve tribes scattered abroad* — or the « twelve tribes of the dispersion' — iv ?fj Sia67iopa- ch. i. 1. See Votes on 1 Pet. i. 1, and Notes on ch. i. 1 of this epistle. No mention of the y lace where they resided is made; nor can it be determined to what portion of the world it was first sent, or whether more than one copy was sent. All that can be conclusively determined in regard to the persons to whom it was addressed, is, (1.) That they were of Jewish descent — as is implied in the phrase « to the twelve tribes' (ch. i. 1), and as is manifest in all the reasonings of the epistle; and, (2.) That they were Christian converts, ch. ii. 1. But by whose labours they were converted, is wholly unknown. The Jewish people who were < scattered abroad' had two central ' points of union, the dispersion in the East, of which Babylon was the head, and the dispersion in the West, of which Alexandria was the head. Hug, § 156. Peter wrote his epistles to the latter (1 Pet. i. 1), though he was at Babylon when he wrote them (1 Pet. v. 13) 8 and it would seem probable that this epistle was addressed to the former. Beza supposed that this epistle was sent to the believing Jews, dispersed all over the world ; Grotius, that it was written to all the Jews living out of Judea ; Larduer, that it was written to all Jews, descendants of Jacob, of every denomination, in Judea, and out of it. It seems plain, however, from the epistle itself, ihat it was not addressed to the Jews as such, or without respect to their being already Christians, for (a) if it had been, it is hardly conceivable that there should have been no arguments to prove that Jesus was the Messiah, and no extended statements of the nature of the Christian system ; and (6) it bears on the face of it evidence of having been addressed to those who were regarded as Christians, ch. ii. 1 ; v. 7, 11, 14. It may be difficult to account for the fact, on any principles, that there are no more definite allusions to the nature of the Christian doctrines in the epistle, but it is morally certain that if it had been written to Jews as such, by a Christian apostle, there would have been a more formal defence and statement of the Christian religion. Compare the arguments of the apostles with the Jews in the Acts, passim. I regard the epistle, therefore, as having been sent to those who were of Jewish origin, but who had embraced the Christian faith, by one who had been himself a Jew, and who, though now a Christian apostle, retained much of his early habits of thinking and reasoning in addressing his own countrymen.

§ 3. Where and when was the Epistle written ?

There are no certain indications by which it can be determined where this epistle was written, but if the considerations above suggested are well founded, there can be little doubt that it was at Jerusalem. There are indeed certain in. ternal marks, as Hug has observed (Intro. § 155), pertaining to the country with which the writer was familiar, and to certain features of natural scenery incidentally alluded to in the epistle. Thus, his native land was situated not far from the sea (ch. i. 6 ; iii. 4) ; it was blessed with valuable productions, as figs, oil, and wine (ch. iii.- 12) ; there were springs of saline and fresh water with which he was familiar (ch. iii. 11) : the land was much exposed to di ought, and there were frequently reasons to apprehend famine from the want of rain (ch. v. 17, 28) ; there were sad devastations produced, and to be dreaded 2

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from a consuming, buining wind (ch. i. 11) ; and it was a land in which th* phenomena known as < early and latter rains' were familiarly understood, ch. v. 7. All these allusions apply well to Palestine, and were such as would be employed by one who resided in that country, and they may be regarded as an incidental proof that the epistle was written in that land.

There is no way of determining with certainty when the epistle was written. Hug supposes that it was after the epistle to the Hebrews, and not before the beginning of the tenth year of Nero, nor after the accession of Albinus ; i. c. the close of the same year. Mill and Fabricius suppose it was before the destruction of Jerusalem, and about a year and a half before the death of James. Lardner supposes that James was put to death about the year 62, and that this epistle was written about a year before. He supposes also that his death was hastened by the strong language of reprehension employed in the epistle. It is probable that the year in which it was written was not far from A. D. 58 or 60, some ten or twelve years before the destruction of Jerusalem.

§ 4. The canonical Authority of the Epistle.

On the question generally respecting the canonical authority of the disputed epistles, see the Intro, to the Catholic Epistles, § 2. The particular proof of the canonical authority of this epistle is contained in the evidence that it was written by one of the apostles. If it was written, as suggested above (§ 1), by James the Less, or if it be supposed that it was written by James the elder, both of whom were apostles, its canonical authority will be admitted. As there is no evidence that it was written by any other James, the point seems to be clear.

But there are additional considerations, derived from its reception in the church, which may furnish some degree of confirmation of its authority. These are, (a) It was included in the old Syriac version, the Peshita, made either in the first century or in the early part of the second, thus showing that it was recognised in the country to which it was probably sent; (b) Ephrem the Sy rian, in his Greek works, made use of it in many places, and attributed it to James, the brother of our Lord (Hug) ; (c) It is quoted as of authority by several of the Fathers; by Clement of Kome, who does not indeed mention the name of the writer, but quotes the words of the epistle (James iii. 13 ; iv. 6, 11 3 ii. 21, 23) ; by Hermas ; and by Jerome. See Lardner, vol. vi. pp. 195 — 199, and Hug, § 161.